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Resilient and Safe Road Infrastructure IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 356 (2018) 012014 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/356/1/012014
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Fatigue cracking in road pavement

P Mackiewicz
Wroclaw University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland

[email protected]

Abstract. The article presents the problem of modelling fatigue phenomena occurring in the
road pavement. The example of two selected pavements shows the changes occurring under the
influence of the load in different places of the pavement layers. Attention is paid to various
values of longitudinal and transverse strains generated at the moment of passing the wheel on
the pavement. It was found that the key element in the crack propagation analysis is the method
of transferring the load to the pavement by the tire and the strain distribution in the pavement.
During the passage of the wheel in the lower layers of the pavement, a complex stress state
arises. Then vertical, horizontal and tangent stresses with various values appear. The numerical
analyses carried out with the use of finite element methods allowed to assess the strain and
stress changes occurring in the process of cracking road pavement. It has been shown that low-
thickness pavements are susceptible to fatigue cracks arising "bottom to top", while pavements
thicker are susceptible to "top to bottom" cracks. The analysis of the type of stress allowed to
determine the cracking mechanism.

1. Introduction
The issue of fatigue and cracking of asphalt concrete (AC) is a broad topic because it involves both
material technology and fracture mechanics.
Depending on the thickness of the pavement, its upper layers undergo varying degrees of fatigue
and bending [1], [2]. The asphalt base is more prone to fatigue damage than permanent deformations.
The binder course is already exposed to permanent deformation, but it can also be subjected to low-
temperature damage, while the initiation of fatigue cracks in this layer is likely when there is no
adequate interlayer bonding of asphalt layers [3], [4], [5], [6] with base or propagation of the crack
occurs in the base. The surface course is exposed to damage from the bottom in the case of loss of
adhesion or initiation of propagation from the lower layers. It is also obviously vulnerable to "top to
bottom" cracks due to its upper position.
Fig. 1 shows the scheme of cracks formation in asphalt layers. A crack can occur anywhere where a
tensile strain is present. Three such areas can be distinguished: in the lower part of the asphalt layers
under the load, on the surface on the edges of the load zone and on the surface in the contact area of
the tire tread. The key area is also the edge of the tire and the surface in where shear occurs.
"Bottom-up" cracks are termed as classical fatigue cracks. These cracks start easily on the
underside of thin asphalt layers and propagate upwards. Their direct cause is the concentration of
repetitive tensile stresses at the bottom of the layers and low tensile strength at the bottom of the layers
[7]. Another type of cracking occurs on the surface, mainly on the edges of the load zone. Field tests
show that the range of cracks "from top to bottom" covers a small area deep into the surface. They
usually reach a limited depth of 50-75 mm. This type of cracks was "discovered" only at the end of the

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 356 (2018) 012014 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/356/1/012014
1234567890‘’“”

twentieth century [8], [9], [10], [11]. Despite many studies and analyses [12], [13], [14] the problem
still raises many discrepancies in their direct cause. It was also found that the aging and hardening of
asphalt intensify these cracks. Low-temperature cracks can also be initiated, which will create
"convenient" stress centres for their creation and subsequent development.

Figure 1. Scheme of crack formation in asphalt layers.

The problem of fatigue cracks in the pavement is complex. The calculation of deformations in the
lower part of asphalt layers does not cause any problems, as they can be calculated unequivocally
using multilayer systems. However, the designation of crack initiation sites in the upper part is not
unambiguous. It is important to analyse the distribution of forces depending on the type of tire and
tread. Therefore, it is not surprising that most researchers using pavement models still focus on
deformations in the lower asphalt layers. This article attempts to analyse the problem of fatigue cracks,
including "top-down" cracks.

2. Mechanism of formation of a complex deformation state in pavement

When the vehicle wheel passes on the pavement, the distribution of stresses in the ground changes
[15], [16]. Then, a complex state of stress and strain arises. There are vertical, horizontal and
tangential stresses causing mainly compression and stretching in varying degrees.
In order to accurately describe the impact of the wheel on the pavement, two cases should be
analysed in two cross-sections of the pavement. The first cross-section refers to the case when the
pavement is observed in the longitudinal direction of movement, in the second section, it is viewed in
the transverse direction. When the wheel passes in the longitudinal direction and is in front of or
behind the analysed point, i.e. it approaches a given section or passed it (Fig. 2), there are slight
compressive phenomena in the lower points of the asphalt layers, while on the surface course,
stretching occurs. In the transverse view, the initiation of stress and tensile strain at the bottom of the
layers is observed. On the surface, however, an inhomogeneous distribution of stress and strain begins
to appear, which depends on the type of tire and tread. At the moment when the wheel is over the point
under consideration (Fig. 3), in the longitudinal view in the lower places of the surface layers, the
direction of the interaction changes and the stretching appears at the bottom and the compression at the
surface. In the cross-section view, the horizontal values of tensile stresses in the lower point of the
asphalt layers increase, while stretching in the surface and shearing at the edges of the tire tracks
intensify.
Based on the review of many test results and also numerical simulations [17], [18], [19], [20], [21]
it was found that there is no agreement among researchers regarding the value of longitudinal
deformations in relation to transverse strains. It is obvious that their relative values depend on the
speed, axle load, temperature of the asphalt layers, asphalt mix type and thickness of layers.
Differences in deformation depending on the type of tires and axles are also indicated. The steered
axle causes greater transverse deformation and the remaining axes cause longitudinal deformations
slightly exceeding the transverse values [22]. Based on the literature review, it can be concluded that
the ratio of longitudinal to transverse strains can vary from 0.5 to 2.0. In practice, there is a mixed
nature of initiation and subsequent development of fatigue cracks. Cracks in the lower layers can first

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 356 (2018) 012014 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/356/1/012014
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be initiated from deformations observed longitudinally to the direction of movement and will be laid
transversely in the lane. On the pavement, single, short cracks are visible. In contrast, cracks "from top
to bottom" that also lay transversally, will be initiated by stretching deformations on the surface
course.

horizontal strain horizontal strain

+ in the transverse direction + in the transverse direction
– –
horizontal strain horizontal strain
+ in the longitudinal + in the longitudinal direction
– –

Figure 2. A typical distribution of deformations Figure 3. A typical distribution of deformations

in the pavement when the vehicle approaches the in the pavement when the vehicle is in the
analysed area. analysed area.

Extensive analyses of the normal and tangential stress distributions were carried out by de Beer
[23]. He pointed out that in the case of heavy loads (0.9 MPa, 100 kN), the concentration of normal
stresses on the edges of the radial tire footprint reaches 2 MPa, which is over twice as high as the tire
air pressure. Contact stresses also concentrate on the edges of the tire. On the other hand, stretching
strains alternately with squeezing arise under successive ribs. This was confirmed at work [24].
It is found that different types of tires cause different stress distributions. Therefore, the subject of
contact stresses between the tire and the road pavement is still being investigated. At present, no
effective analytical methods and models have been developed to predict the initiation of cracks caused
by the impact of the tire on the pavement. The tire type is not used in design procedures of crack
modelling, either.

3. Characteristics of the road pavement model

In the light of phenomena occurring during loading, the pavement model was developed that also
allows for multi-axial conditions in the vicinity of contact between the tire and the pavement. For this
purpose, the pavement model was developed in the Cartesian three-dimensional system xyz using the
SOLIDWORKS Simulation, COSMOS/M application [25], [26], [27]. The pavement FEM model with
basic geometric parameters is presented in Fig. 4.
The choice of the discretization size for SOLID volume elements was selected based on the
analysis of the convergence of vertical displacements and deformation values at the characteristic
points of the model. On the side surfaces, a fastening enabling only lateral displacement was used,
while on the bottom surface a fastening preventing displacement and rotation was applied. In the lower
part of the binding layer and on the edge of the load, geometric discontinuities were used in the form
of fracturing slots. GAP contact elements were used in the cracks [28], [29], [30], [31]. They allowed
to take into account the appropriate behaviour of the crack when it was closing.
A detailed mapping of the contact effect of the tire on the pavement was also carried out. The
model adopted the wheel load with the value of 57.5 kN generating the vertical pressure of 0.705 MPa.
Preliminary calculations were made for a radial tire often used in heavy goods vehicles, taking into

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 356 (2018) 012014 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/356/1/012014
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account the proper pavement and tread effect. The tire trace of 26 cm × 30 cm was adopted, while the
length of the tread ribs was: 5 cm, 4 cm, 4 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm with 1 cm distance between them.

longitudinal section
detail of the crack "top-down" and "bottom-up"

y
z x

3.0 m

3.14 – 3.30 m

5.0 m 5.00 m cross-section

Figure 4. Pavement model.

vertical load

horizontal load x
5cm 4cm 4cm 4cm 5cm z

26 cm

x
z
30 cm

x
z

Figure 5. Load diagram and distributions of normal and tangential stresses [Pa] for a radial tire.

Based on research [23], [24], [32], [33], [34], [35], the horizontal load value 0.175 MPa was
assumed in the transverse direction, while in the longitudinal direction the load was 0.035 MPa, which
corresponded to the rolling wheel with the speed of 72 km/h.

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Figure 5 shows the load scheme and distributions of normal and tangential stresses that have been
obtained for a radial tire. High values of tangential stresses were found. These observations are
consistent with the observations of other researchers who carried out field measurements. To describe
the characteristics of the asphalt concrete AC layers, elastic material parameters for temperature
+10°C were adopted based on the identification for different mixtures in the fatigue four bending test.
This topic will be the subject of a separate publication. Two pavements significantly differing in their
layer thicknesses were analysed. The characteristics of the materials in the pavement model and the
pavement variants are presented in Table 1. The analyses assumed full interlayer bonding.
Table 1. Characteristics of materials in the pavement model and pavement variants.
Pavement I Pavement II
Layer Parameters
Thickness [m]
Surface course AC 11 S 50/70 E = 12 129 MPa, ν = 0,30 0.04 0.04
Binder course AC 16 W 35/50 E = 13 764 MPa, ν = 0.30 0.08 0.08
Base course AC 22 P 35/50 E = 14 603 MPa, ν = 0.30 – 0.16
Sub-Base course (aggregate) E = 400 MPa, ν = 0.,30 0.22 0.22
Subgrade E = 100 MPa, ν = 0.25 2.80 2.80

4. Results of numerical calculations

4.1. Effect of load direction

On the basis of calculations for the pavement model, the distribution of deformations in asphalt layers
in the longitudinal and transversal direction was analysed during the vehicle wheel passing, assuming
a basic load impulse of 0.015 s. Fig. 6 and 7 show an example distribution of tensile strains in the
lower part of the asphalt layers of pavement I in the longitudinal (εz) and transversal (εx) directions.
The analysis of the strain distribution in both directions showed that in the transverse direction,
there are 11% more deformations in relation to longitudinal strains.

1.2E-04 1.2E-04
9.0E-05 1.0E-04
strain εx [-]
strain εz [-]

6.0E-05 8.0E-05
3.0E-05 6.0E-05
0.0E+00 4.0E-05
-3.0E-05 2.0E-05
-6.0E-05 0.0E+00
y
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03
time [s] time [s]

Figure 6. Distribution of strain in the longitudinal Figure 7. Distribution of deformations in the

direction in pavement I. transverse direction in pavement I.

There was also found a key concentration of tensile stresses reaching 20×10–6 for the transverse
direction in the tread area of the tire.
Analogous analyses of strain and stress distribution were performed for the thicker pavement of
variant II (Figures 8 and 9). In the case of pavement II with the thickness of asphalt layers of 28 cm,
there are definitely less deformations and stresses at the bottom of the layers. For the transversal and
longitudinal direction, there is a similar deformation with the difference of only 2%. For this pavement
in cross-section, a greater concentration of horizontal deformations is observed at the edge of the tire
load than for the thinner pavement I. This can have a significant impact on the initiation of cracks
"from top to bottom" and is related to the direct influence of the tire tread ribs on the pavement. For
the transversal direction, the deformations are 87×10-6, while in the longitudinal direction only 9×10-6.

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4.0E-05 4.0E-05
3.0E-05
3.0E-05

strain εx [-]
2.0E-05
strain εz [-]

1.0E-05 2.0E-05
0.0E+00
-1.0E-05 1.0E-05
-2.0E-05
-3.0E-05 0.0E+00
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03
0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03
time [s] time [s]

Figure 8. Distribution of strain in the Figure 9. Distribution of deformations in the

longitudinal direction in pavement II. transverse direction in pavement II.

4.2. Influence of cracks

In the following, the analysis of the impact of crack length in the model of cracks propagating " from
bottom-up" in the binding layer and "top-down" in the wear layer was carried out. For pavements I and
II, the results of tensile stress calculations σx at the apex of the propagating crack "from bottom to top"
is shown in Fig. 10.
4.0E+07
pavement I
stress σx [Pa]

3.0E+07

2.0E+07 pavement II

1.0E+07

0.0E+00
0 20 40 60 80 100
length of the crack [mm]

Figure 10. Influence of the "bottom-up" crack length on stress values σx .

For a thicker pavement, there are almost ten times less stresses than for a thinner one. In the case of
the thinner pavement, above the crack with the length of 20 mm, a significant increase in stress is
observed. A similar analysis was carried out on the crack located on the edge of the wheel track,
propagating "from top to bottom". In this case, the value of tensile σx and shearing τxy stresses was
analysed at the tip of the crack.

1.8E+06 1.8E+06 1.8E+06 1.8E+06

1.5E+06 1.5E+06 1.5E+06 1.5E+06
stress σx [Pa]
stress τxy [Pa]

stress τxy [Pa]

stress σx [Pa]

σx
1.2E+06 1.2E+06 1.2E+06 1.2E+06
9.0E+05 9.0E+05 9.0E+05 9.0E+05
6.0E+05 τxy 6.0E+05 6.0E+05 6.0E+05
τxy
3.0E+05 σx 3.0E+05 3.0E+05 3.0E+05
0.0E+00 0.0E+00 0.0E+00 0.0E+00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
length of the crack [mm] length of the crack [mm]

Figure 11. The influence of the crack length Figure 12. The influence of the crack length
"from top to bottom" on the stresses σx and τxy "from top to bottom" on the stresses σx and τxy
for the layers in pavement I. for the in pavement II.

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Fig. 11 shows the influence of the crack length on the stress for the pavement I, whereas Fig. 12 for
the pavement II. Stresses σx and τxy have similar values in the thinner pavement on the surface course.
In a situation, where no crack was yet formed on the surface of the wear layer, tensile stresses σx of the
value 5.0×105 Pa appear. They are crucial in the initiation of this type of cracks. The tensile stresses σx
decrease with the length of the crack. The fact of further propagation can be explained by shear
stresses τxy, which increase to the maximum of 7.5×105 Pa for the 6 mm crack. Then, along with the
crack development, these stresses decrease. The thicker pavement is initially dominated by stresses σx
(1.2×106 Pa), which decreases with the length of the crack only from 15 mm. Stresses τxy reach their
flat extreme 6.0×105 Pa for the crack with the length of approximately 25 mm. It is worth noting that
the stresses reach their maximum value at a relatively short length of the crack from 6 mm to 25 mm
and then their fastest propagation is possible. Then they can propagate more slowly to the length from
50 mm to 75 mm. It should be emphasized that the "top-down" crack will propagate mainly through a
transverse shear. This is the second case of cracking determined in fracture mechanics, for which the
crack surfaces slip in the direction perpendicular to the front of the crack (Fig. 13). For the "bottom-
up" crack, shear stress is also present, but it is negligible, and the higher stress σx determines the
vertical direction of the propagation.
y
z x

τx
σx σx τx

Figure 13. Considered cracking methods depending on the load.

Figures 14-17 show example distributions of stresses σx and τxy for pavement I and II with 30 mm
lower and 15 mm upper crack. In both variants of pavements, a considerable concentration of stresses
is observed at the apexes of the cracks. As previously noted, in the case of the upper cracks, the shear
stress prevails in the thinner pavement, while for the pavement thicker with the upper crack, tensile
stresses still prevail.

y
z x

Figure 14. Distribution of stresses σx [Pa] for pavement I with cracks.

In the top of the bottom crack for a pavement with a thinner bundle of asphalt layers (12 cm),
higher stresses σx were obtained relative to pavement II (28 cm). For the thinner pavement, the shear
stresses are also slightly greater at the top of the upper crack. However, it should be noted that for the
longer cracks (over 50 mm) the situation is reversed.

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y
z x

Figure 15. Distribution of stresses σx [Pa] for pavement II with cracks.

y
z x

Figure 16. Distribution of stresses τxy [Pa] for pavement I with cracks.

y
z x

Figure 17. Distribution of stresses τxy [Pa] for pavement II with cracks.

5. Summary
The developed pavement model is suitable for the analysis of both micro- and macro-crack
propagation. The examples of the two pavements show the changes occurring under the influence of
load in different places of the pavement layers. In the example of the radial tire load for temperature
10°C, it was found that deformations in the transverse direction are 11% more than in the longitudinal
one. Taking into account the different length and location of the crack sin the pavement allowed to

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analyse the critical stresses at the apex of the crack affecting the speed of crack propagation. It was
shown that there is a separate way of propagation for cracks coming from "bottom to top" and "from
top to bottom", which is associated with shear stresses in the further phase of propagation. In the
situation where the crack has not yet been formed, tensile stresses σx have been identified on the
surface of the wear layer. The stresses decrease as the crack length increases. Further propagation is
developed by shear stresses τxy, which increase to the maximum for the 6 mm crack in the thinner
pavement. In the thicker pavement, the initial strains σx also dominate. However, they decrease as the
length of the crack increases only from 15 mm. Stresses τxy reach their extreme for a crack of about 25
mm. The stress concentration in the apex of the crack is reflected in the cracking mechanism and
values of cracking parameters defined as the stress intensity factor and the Rice’s integral. Analysis of
these parameters taking into account different temperatures will be the subject of further research.
The model presented here, includes an exact load of the vehicle wheel and geometric
discontinuities in the form of cracks. This model is useful for assessing the way of cracking in the
pavement, and together with the equations describing the cracking kinetics, over which further
research is underway, is suitable for fatigue analysis in a wider range of conditions. Knowledge of the
mechanism and size of cracking in thin and thicker asphalt layers allows to determine future methods
of repair and reinforcement of the pavement.

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