PT 365 UPDATED PART 1

Table of Contents
1.18.16. DOCTRINE of Merger _______________ 31
1. POLITY AND GOVERNANCE _____________8 1.18.17. Henderson Doctrine ________________ 32
1.1. ‘Socialist’, ‘Secular’ in the Preamble _____ 8 1.18.18. Pay Commission ___________________ 32
1.1.1. 75th Constitution Day of India ____________ 9 1.19. Important Constitutional/ Statutory/
1.2. Property Rights in India _______________ 9 Executive Bodies in News ________________ 32
1.2.1. Illegal demolition of private property ____ 10 1.19.1. Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) _ 32
1.3. Minority Educational Institution _______ 11 1.19.2. State Finance Commission (SFC) _______ 33
1.4. Essential Religious Practice ____________ 12 1.19.3. State Public Service Commission (SPSC) _ 33
1.5. Atrocities against Scheduled Castes _____ 12 1.19.4. National Consumer Disputes Redressal
1.6. Comparison of Constitutional Features __ 13 Commission (NCDRC) ______________________ 33
1.6.1. USA Presidential Election ______________ 13 1.20. Errata ___________________________ 34
1.6.1.1. Clemency Powers of President of India
and USA _______________________________ 14 2. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS __________ 35
1.7. 51st Chief Justice of India (CJI) _________ 14 2.1. Multilateral Organizations ____________ 35
1.7.1 Impeachment of Judges ________________ 15 2.1.1. The Group of Twenty (G20) Summit _____ 35
1.7.2 Ad Hoc Judge ________________________ 16 2.1.2. New Development Bank (NDB) _________ 36
1.8. Prison Reform ______________________ 16 2.1.3. Asian Development Bank (ADB) _________ 37
2.1.4. Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement
1.9. Inter-operable Criminal Justice System (ICJS)
for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) _________ 37
2.0 ___________________________________ 17 2.1.5. Other Important Organizations In News __ 38
1.9.1. e-Courts Mission Mode Project Phase III __ 18 2.1.5.1. International Cooperative Alliance (ICA)
1.10. Election Commission of India (ECI) _____ 18 ______________________________________ 38
1.11. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) 2.1.5.2. U.N. Peacebuilding Commission _____ 39
_____________________________________ 20 2.1.5.3. UN Disengagement Observer Force
1.12. Governance and AI _________________ 21 (UNDOF) ______________________________ 39
1.12.1. Sovereign Artificial Intelligence (AI) _____ 21 2.1.5.4. United Nations Relief and Works Agency
1.13. Cooperatives ______________________ 22 for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)
1.14. Municipal Corporations In India _______ 24 ______________________________________ 40
1.15. Telecommunications (Procedures and 2.1.5.5. United Nation Internal Justice Council
Safeguards for Lawful Interception of Messages) (IJC) __________________________________ 40
2.1.5.6. UN-Habitat ______________________ 41
Rules, 2024 ____________________________ 25
2.2. Places in News _____________________ 41
1.16. Net Neutrality _____________________ 25
2.2.1. Conflict Afflicted Areas ________________ 41
1.17. Bharatiya Vayuyan Vidheyak, 2024 ____ 26 2.2.2. Places Featuring International Developments
1.18. Other Important News ______________ 28 ________________________________________ 42
1.18.1. E-Daakhil Portal _____________________ 28 2.3. Bilateral Relations __________________ 47
1.18.2. Amrit Gyaan Kosh Portal ______________ 28 2.3.1. India-Afghanistan Relations ____________ 47
1.18.3. Edelman Trust Barometer _____________ 28 2.3.2. India-Sri Lanka ______________________ 48
1.18.4. Entity Locker _______________________ 28 2.3.3. India-Indonesia ______________________ 48
1.18.5. Inter-State Council (ISC) ______________ 29 2.3.4. India-Kuwait Relations ________________ 49
1.18.6. Subordinate Legislation ______________ 29 2.3.5. India-European Union (EU) ____________ 50
1.18.7. Parliamentary Secretaries in State ______ 29 2.3.6. India-Germany Relations ______________ 51
1.18.8. Panchayat Se Parliament 2.0 __________ 30 2.3.7. India-Italy Relations _________________ 52
1.18.9. Adjournment Sine Die ________________ 30
2.4. Other Important News _______________ 53
1.18.10. Privilege Motion ___________________ 30
2.4.1. DiGi Framework _____________________ 53
1.18.11. Supplementary Grant _______________ 30
2.4.2. The Riyadh Design Law Treaty (DLT) _____ 53
1.18.12. Private Members’ Bill _______________ 30
2.4.3. Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) ___________ 54
1.18.13. Rule 267 __________________________ 31
2.4.4. “Crossroads of Peace” Initiative _________ 54
1.18.14. Process for removal of Rajya Sabha
2.4.5. First Trilateral Power Transaction _______ 54
Chairperson ______________________________ 31
2.4.6. Cascais Declaration ___________________ 55
1.18.15. Commercial Courts _________________ 31
2.4.7. Phewa Dialogue _____________________ 55

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 2.4.8. CARICOM ___________________________ 55 3.4.5. Most-favoured-nation (MFN) ___________ 76
2.5. Issues Related to Security _____________ 55 3.4.6. Amendment in the Foreign Trade Policy (FTP),
2.5.1. Interpol ____________________________ 55 2023____________________________________ 76
2.5.2. The UN General Assembly Adopts the 3.5. Growth and Development ____________ 77
Convention against Cybercrime ______________ 57 3.5.1. GDP Base Year Revision _______________ 77
2.5.3. Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 3.5.1.1. Purchasing Power Parities __________ 78
2002 ____________________________________ 57 3.5.2. India's Digital Economy _______________ 79
2.5.4. Other Important Developments _________ 57 3.5.2.1. Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) _______ 80
2.5.4.1. UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs 3.5.3. Household Consumption Expenditure Survey
(UNCND) ______________________________ 57 (HCES), 2023-24 __________________________ 80
2.5.4.2. National Investigation Agency (NIA) __ 58 3.5.4. Other Key Developments ______________ 81
2.5.4.3. Indian Chemical Council (ICC) Wins 2024 3.5.4.1. Consumer Confidence Survey (CCS) __ 81
OPCW The Hague Award__________________ 58 3.5.4.2. World Bank Released Annual
2.5.4.4. Digital Arrest ____________________ 59 International Debt Report (IDR) 2024 _______ 81
2.5.4.5. Russia’s President has approved a revised 3.6. Agriculture and Allied Sector __________ 82
Nuclear Doctrine (ND) ____________________ 59 3.6.1. Anna Chakra Tool ____________________ 82
2.5.5. List of Violent Groups _________________ 59 3.6.2. Rubber Board unveiled iSNR and INR Konnect
2.5.6. Exercises in News ____________________ 60 ________________________________________ 82
3.6.3. National Turmeric Board ______________ 83
3. ECONOMY _________________________62 3.6.4. India’s Coffee Exports _________________ 83
3.1. Banking and Monetary Policy __________ 62 3.6.5. Other Key Developments ______________ 84
3.1.1. BASEL III ENDGAME ___________________ 62 3.6.5.1. India’s first Organic Fisheries Cluster _ 84
3.1.2. Domestic Systemically Important Banks (D- 3.6.5.2. Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics (BAHS)
SIBs) ____________________________________ 63 2024 _________________________________ 85
3.1.3. WPI Base Year Revision ________________ 63 3.6.5.3. World Organisation For Animal Health
3.1.4. Other Key Developments ______________ 65 (WOAH) _______________________________ 85
3.1.4.1. Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) ________ 65 3.6.5.4. Digitization of Land Records ________ 85
3.1.4.2. India Post Payment Bank (IPPB) _____ 65 3.6.5.5. Banana Cultivation _______________ 86
3.1.4.3. Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Governor _ 65 3.6.5.6. Tobacco Board ___________________ 86
3.1.4.4. Foreign Currency Non-Resident (Bank) 3.6.5.7. Project VISTAAR __________________ 86
Accounts ______________________________ 66 3.6.5.8. Nano Fertilizers __________________ 87
3.2. Finance and Taxation ________________ 66 3.6.5.9. Kisan Kavach ____________________ 87
3.2.1. Fiscal Health Index Report 2025 _________ 66 3.6.5.10. Milkweed Fiber _________________ 87
3.2.1.1. State Finances: A Study of Budgets of 3.6.5.11. Tomato Grand Challenge (TGC) ____ 87
2024-25 Report _________________________ 67 3.7. Infrastructure ______________________ 88
3.2.2. Government Securities (G-Sec)__________ 67 3.7.1. Logistics Ease Across Different States (LEADS)
3.2.2.1. Sovereign Bonds __________________ 68 2024’ Report _____________________________ 88
3.2.3. Other Key Developments ______________ 69 3.7.2. Other Key Developments ______________ 88
3.2.3.1. Cess and Surcharge _______________ 69 3.7.2.1. GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated
3.2.3.2. Principal Purpose Test _____________ 69 Habitat Assessment) _____________________ 88
3.2.3.3. UN Report Lauds India Gender 3.7.2.2. SMILE Program __________________ 88
Responsive Budgeting (GRB) _______________ 70 3.7.2.3. Kandla Port _____________________ 89
3.3. Payment Systems and Financial Market _ 70 3.8. Services ___________________________ 89
3.3.1. Central Bank Digital Currency ___________ 70 3.8.1. Tourism Sector in India ________________ 89
3.3.2. mBridge Project ______________________ 71 3.9. Mining, Energy and Industry __________ 90
3.3.3. Other Key Developments ______________ 72
3.9.1. Manufacturing Sector _________________ 90
3.3.3.1. PAN (Permanent Account Number) 2.0 72 3.9.2. MSMEs ____________________________ 91
3.3.3.2. Payment Aggregator ______________ 72 3.9.2.1. Receivables securitization gaining
3.3.3.3. Prepaid Payment Instruments (PPI) __ 72
popularity among MSMEs for accessing liquidity
3.4. External Sector _____________________ 73 ______________________________________ 92
3.4.1. Rupee Depreciation __________________ 73 3.9.2.2. TReDS __________________________ 92
3.4.2. Framework For Reclassification of FPI to FDI 3.9.3. Annual Survey of Unincorporated Sector
________________________________________ 74 Enterprises (ASUSE) for 2023-24 released ______ 92
3.4.3. De-Dollarisation _____________________ 75 3.10. Organisations in News ______________ 93
3.4.4. Remittances _________________________ 75

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 3.10.1. World Economic Forum ______________ 93 4.3.5. Environment Protection (Manner of Holding
3.10.2. International Labour Organisation (ILO) _ 93 Inquiry and Imposition of Penalty) Rules, 2024 _ 116
3.10.3. National Federation of State Co-operative 4.3.6. WEF Global Plastic Action Partnership (GPAP)
Banks Limited (NAFSCOB) ___________________ 93 _______________________________________ 116
3.10.4. Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation 4.3.7. Pollutants in News __________________ 116
(EPFO) __________________________________ 94 4.3.7.1. Manganese ____________________ 116
3.10.5. National Financial Reporting Authority 4.3.7.2. Trichloroethylene & Perchloroethylene
(NFRA) __________________________________ 94 _____________________________________ 117
3.10.6. Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) 95 4.3.7.3. Silicon dioxide __________________ 117
3.10.7. NCDRC ____________________________ 95 4.3.8. Miscellaneous ______________________ 117
3.11. Miscellaneous _____________________ 95 4.3.8.1. Consent to Establish _____________ 117
3.11.1. World Food and Agriculture 2024 Statistical 4.3.8.2. AroTrack _______________________ 118
Yearbook ________________________________ 95 4.3.8.3. River Cities Alliance ______________ 118
3.11.2. Reports in News ____________________ 96 4.4. Sustainable Development ___________ 118
3.11.3. Employees' State Insurance Corporation 4.4.1. Green GDP ________________________ 118
(ESIC) ___________________________________ 96 4.4.2. Sustainable Agriculture ______________ 119
3.11.4. Quick Update _______________________ 97 4.4.2.1. National Programme for Organic
3.11.5. Errata _____________________________ 99 Production (NPOP) _____________________ 119
4.4.3. Other Related News _________________ 119
4. ENVIRONMENT ____________________100 4.4.3.1. Kodo millet _____________________ 119
4.1. Biodiversity _______________________ 100 4.4.3.2. Regenerative Agriculture _________ 120
4.1.1. Wildlife ___________________________ 100 4.4.3.3. Agrivoltaic Farming ______________ 120
4.1.1.1. CoP-16 to the UNCBD ____________ 100 4.4.4. Alternative Fuels/Energy and Energy Efficiency
4.1.1.2. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action _______________________________________ 120
Plan (NBSAP) __________________________ 101 4.4.4.1. Indigenous Hydrogen Train Engine __ 120
4.1.1.3. Biodiversity Rules, 2024 ___________ 102 4.4.4.2. End-of-Life Vehicles Rules, 2025 ____ 121
4.1.1.4. Other Related News ______________ 103 4.4.4.3. Other Related News _____________ 122
4.1.2. Forests ____________________________ 103 4.4.5. Miscellaneous ______________________ 122
4.1.2.1. CoP16 of the UNCCD _____________ 103 4.4.5.1. River Linking Project _____________ 122
4.1.2.2. Forest Ecosystem Restoration ______ 104 4.4.6. Other Important News _______________ 125
4.1.2.3. India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023 4.4.6.1. Indigenous Herbal Knowledge _____ 125
_____________________________________ 105 4.4.6.2. SVASTIK Initiative________________ 125
4.1.2.4. Sacred Groves __________________ 107 4.4.6.3. GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated
4.1.2.5. Forest Rights Act, 2006 ___________ 108 Habitat Assessment) ____________________ 125
4.1.2.6. Other Related News ______________ 108 4.4.6.4. Cairo Call to Action ______________ 125
4.1.3. Wetlands, Coastland and Oceans _______ 109 4.4.6.5. Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) 126
4.1.3.1. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) ____ 109 4.4.6.6. Net-Zero Banking Alliance (NZBA) __ 126
4.1.3.2. Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMPs) 4.4.6.7. Bharat Cleantech Manufacturing
_____________________________________ 109 Platform _____________________________ 126
4.1.3.3. Wetland Accredited Cities _________ 110 4.4.6.8. India Launched the World’s First Green
4.1.4. Organizations in News _______________ 111 Steel Taxonomy _______________________ 126
4.1.4.1. Intergovernmental Platform on 4.4.6.9. Champions of Earth Award, 2024 ___ 127
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) _ 111 4.5. Disaster Management ______________ 127
4.2. Climate Change ____________________ 111 4.5.1. 150 years of India Meteorological Department
4.2.1. International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation (IMD) __________________________________ 127
_______________________________________ 111 4.5.2. The Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill,
4.2.2. Terms in News ______________________ 111 2024___________________________________ 128
4.2.2.1. Geoengineering _________________ 111 4.5.3. MoEF&CC Notified Environment Relief Fund
4.3. Pollution _________________________ 112 (Amendment) Scheme, 2024 _______________ 129
4.3.1. Ozone_____________________________ 112 4.5.4. Dam Safety Act of 2021 ______________ 129
4.3.2. Urban Air Pollution __________________ 113 4.5.5. Rat Hole Mining ____________________ 130
4.3.3. Annual Ground Water Quality Report 2024 4.5.6. Disasters __________________________ 130
_______________________________________ 113 4.5.6.1. Earthquake_____________________ 130
4.3.4. Draft Solid Waste Management Rules, 2024 4.5.6.2. Tsunami Ready’ Villages (Disaster
_______________________________________ 115 Management) _________________________ 131

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 4.5.6.3. Stampede ______________________ 132 5.3.8.2. Strengthening Teaching-Learning and
4.5.6.4. Wildfires _______________________ 133 Results for States (STARS) Program ________ 166
4.5.6.5. Chemical Disaster ________________ 133 5.3.8.3. Kendriya Vidyalayas and Jawahar
4.5.7. Other Disaster Related News __________ 134 Navodaya Vidyalayas ___________________ 166
4.5.7.1. Sponge City _____________________ 134 5.3.8.4. Patient Safety Rights Charter ______ 167
4.5.7.2. KaWaCHaM ____________________ 134 5.3.8.5. CHARAK (Community Health: A
4.6. Geography ________________________ 135 Responsive Action for Koylanchal) Initiative _ 167
4.6.1. Equatorial ElectroJet (EEJ) ____________ 135 5.4. Organizations In News ______________ 168
4.6.2. Terms/Concepts in News _____________ 135 5.4.1. World Urban Forum (WUF) ___________ 168
4.6.2.1. Depresión Aislada en Niveles Altos 5.4.2. United Nations Alliance of Civilizations
(DANA) _______________________________ 135 (UNAOC) _______________________________ 168
4.6.2.2. Bomb Cyclone __________________ 136 5.5. Miscellaneous _____________________ 168
4.6.2.3. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) _________ 136 5.5.1. ‘Right to Disconnect’ in India __________ 168
4.6.2.4. India's Coastline Recalculated ______ 136 5.5.2. Conjugal Rights _____________________ 169
4.6.2.5. Polar Vortex ____________________ 136 5.5.3. Other Important News _______________ 169
4.6.2.6. Artesian Condition _______________ 137 5.5.3.1. Domestic Migration in India _______ 169
4.6.2.7. Australopithecus ________________ 137 5.5.3.2. International Migration ___________ 170
4.6.3. Updates from PT 365 (April to October) _ 137 5.5.3.3. WFP Global Outlook for 2025 ______ 171
4.6.3.1. Natural Mission on Natural Farming
(NMNF) ______________________________ 137 6. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY __________ 172
4.6.3.2. World’s First CO₂ to Methanol Plant _ 137 6.1. Biotechnology _____________________ 172
4.6.4. Reports/Indices in the News ___________ 138 6.1.1. Genome India Project ________________ 172
4.6.5. Countries in News ___________________ 141 6.1.2. Key Concepts/Terms in News __________ 173
4.6.6. Places in News ______________________ 142 6.1.2.1. Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA) ___ 173
4.6.6.1. India __________________________ 142 6.1.2.2. Selective Silencing _______________ 173
4.6.6.2. World _________________________ 143 6.1.2.3. Cis-Regulatory Elements __________ 173
4.6.7. Protected Areas in News______________ 145 6.1.2.4. Biofilm ________________________ 173
4.6.8. Species in News _____________________ 149 6.1.3. Other Important News/Developments __ 174
4.6.8.1. Terrestrial Species _______________ 149 6.1.3.1. Qartemi _______________________ 174
6.1.3.2. Archaea _______________________ 174
5. SOCIAL ISSUES _____________________156 6.2. IT and Computer ___________________ 175
5.1. Issues and Developments related to Women 6.2.1. Quantum Technology ________________ 175
and Children __________________________ 156 6.2.1.1. Majorana 1 ____________________ 176
5.1.1. Global One-Stop Centres (OSC) ________ 156 6.2.2. Big Data ___________________________ 177
5.1.2. ‘Nayi Chetna – Pahal Badlaav Ki’ Campaign 6.2.3. Key Concept/Terms in News __________ 178
_______________________________________ 156 6.2.3.1. Neuromorphic Device ____________ 178
5.1.3. Protection of Children from Sexual Offences 6.2.3.2. Bluetooth Low Energy Gateway ____ 178
(POCSO) Act, 2012 ________________________ 156 6.2.3.3. Global Positioning System (GPS) Spoofing
5.1.4. Social Media Addiction in Children ______ 158 _____________________________________ 178
5.2. Other Vulnerable Sections ___________ 159 6.2.4. Other Important News/Developments __ 178
5.2.1. Senior Care Reforms in India __________ 159 6.2.4.1. DHARANI ______________________ 178
5.2.2. Manual Scavenging __________________ 160 6.2.4.2. SSI Mantra _____________________ 179
5.2.3. Pradhan Mantri Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana 6.2.4.3. The Bhashini Project _____________ 179
(PMVKY) ________________________________ 162 6.2.4.4. GenCast AI _____________________ 179
5.3. Education & Health _________________ 162 6.2.4.5. MuleHunter.AI __________________ 179
5.3.1. One Nation One Subscription Scheme ___ 162 6.2.4.6. Secure IoT _____________________ 179
5.3.2. National Testing Agency (NTA) _________ 163 6.2.4.7. Moiré Superconductors __________ 180
5.3.3. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory 6.3. Space Technology __________________ 181
Education (RTE) Act, 2009 __________________ 164 6.3.1. Cryogenic Engine ___________________ 181
5.3.7. PM-Vidyalaxmi Scheme ______________ 165 6.3.1.1. CE20 Cryogenic Engine ___________ 182
5.3.8. Other Important News _______________ 165 6.3.2. Black Hole _________________________ 183
5.3.8.1. UGC Draft (Minimum Standards of 6.3.2.1. V404 Cygni System ______________ 183
Instruction for the Grant of UG and PG) 6.3.3. Third Launch Pad ___________________ 184
Regulations, 2024 ______________________ 165 6.3.4. Analog Space Mission ________________ 185

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 6.3.5. Direct-to-Device (D2D) Satellite Connectivity 6.5.3.10. e-Tarang System _______________ 203
_______________________________________ 186 6.5.3.11. Kaveri Engine __________________ 203
6.3.6. Satellite Constellation Firefly __________ 186 6.5.3.12. Eurodrone ____________________ 204
6.3.7. Key Space Missions in News ___________ 188 6.5.3.13. Satan 2 _______________________ 204
6.3.8. Other Space Programme/Satellites/ Mission in 6.5.3.14. Sabal 20 Logistics Drone _________ 204
News __________________________________ 189 6.5.3.15. Unified Complex Radio Antenna
6.3.9. Key Concepts/Terms in News __________ 189 (UNICORN) ___________________________ 204
6.3.9.1. Dark Comet ____________________ 189 6.5.3.16. Sonobouys ____________________ 204
6.3.9.2. Gravitational Lensing _____________ 190 6.6. Miscellaneous _____________________ 205
6.3.9.3. Tidal Tail _______________________ 190 6.6.1. Hyperloop _________________________ 205
6.3.10. Other important News/Development in 6.6.2. Satyendra Nath Bose (S. N. Bose) ______ 205
News __________________________________ 190 6.6.3. Geospatial Technology _______________ 207
6.3.10.1. Kodaikanal Solar Observatory _____ 190 6.6.3.1. Operation Dronagiri _____________ 207
6.3.10.2. Mission SCOT __________________ 190 6.6.3.2. LiDAR _________________________ 208
6.3.10.3. KM3NeT ______________________ 191 6.6.4. Nanotechnology Related News/Developments
6.3.10.4. MeerKAT telescope _____________ 191 _______________________________________ 209
6.3.10.5. CROPS Experiment ______________ 191 6.6.4.1. Nanopore Technology ____________ 209
6.4. Health ___________________________ 191 6.6.4.2. Nano-transporters _______________ 209
6.4.1. Diseases and Related Developments ____ 191 6.6.4.3. Nano Bubble Technology _________ 209
6.4.1.1. Rare Diseases ___________________ 191 6.6.5. Alternative Energy Related Developments 210
6.4.1.2. Diabetes _______________________ 192 6.6.5.1. Gravity Energy Storage (GES) ______ 210
6.4.1.3. Polio __________________________ 193 6.6.5.2. Surface Hydrokinetic Turbine Technology
6.4.1.4. Other Disease in News ____________ 194 (SHKT) _______________________________ 210
6.4.2. Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) _______ 195 6.6.5.3. Solar- micro-hydropower _________ 210
6.4.3. Ministry of Ayush ___________________ 195 6.6.5.4. Diamond Battery ________________ 210
6.4.4. Key Concepts/Terms in News __________ 196 6.6.5.5. ANEEL (Advanced Nuclear Energy for
6.4.4.1. Brain Rot _______________________ 196 Enriched Life) _________________________ 211
6.4.4.2. Antibiotics _____________________ 197 6.6.5.6. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) 211
6.4.4.3. Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra______________ 197 6.6.6. Other Important News/Developments __ 211
6.4.4.4. Methylcobalamin ________________ 197 6.6.6.1. Atomic Clock ___________________ 211
6.4.5. Other important News/Developments __ 197 6.6.6.2. Dark Oxygen ___________________ 211
6.4.5.1. International Pathogen Surveillance 6.6.6.3. Tungsten ______________________ 212
Network (IPSN) ________________________ 197 6.6.6.4. Organophosphate _______________ 212
6.4.5.2. Pandemic Fund Project ___________ 198 6.6.6.5. Electrokinetic Mining (EKM) _______ 212
6.4.5.3. Global Antibiotic Research and 6.6.6.6. Pink Fire Retardant (Phos-Chek) ____ 212
Development Partnership (GARDP) ________ 198
6.4.5.4. Global Health Emergency Corps (GHEC) 7. CULTURE _________________________ 213
_____________________________________ 198 7.1. Temples And Other Architecture ______ 213
6.4.5.5. Bharat Health Initiative for Sahyog Hita 7.1.1. Ramappa Temple ___________________ 213
and Maitri (BHISHM) ____________________ 198 7.2. Other Important Architecture ________ 214
6.4.5.6. High Risk Food __________________ 198 7.2.1. Sun Temple, Konark _________________ 214
6.5. Defence __________________________ 199 7.2.2. Abathsahayeswarar Temple ___________ 214
6.5.1. Scramjet Engine_____________________ 199 7.2.3. Raigad Fort ________________________ 215
6.5.2. Missiles in News ____________________ 201 7.3. Sculptures, Paintings and Other Forms of Art
6.5.3. Other Important News/Developments __ 201 ____________________________________ 215
6.5.3.1. Pantsir Air Defense system (PADS) __ 201 7.3.1. Etikoppaka Dolls ____________________ 215
6.5.3.2. Dark Eagle Anti-Missile System _____ 202 7.3.2. Kokborok Language _________________ 215
6.5.3.3. Pinaka Weapon System ___________ 202 7.4. Important Sites in the News _________ 216
6.5.3.4. Iron Beam ______________________ 202 7.4.1. Harappan Water Management Techniques
6.5.3.5. MH-60R helicopters ______________ 202 _______________________________________ 216
6.5.3.6. Dhruv Advanced Light Helicopters 7.4.2. Buddhist Sites of Kanaganahalli and
(DALHs) ______________________________ 202 Sannati ________________________________ 217
6.5.3.7. INS Vaghsheer __________________ 202 7.5. Other Important Sites in News _______ 217
6.5.3.8. SANJAY System __________________ 203 7.5.1. Buddha’s Relics _____________________ 217
6.5.3.9. Bhargavastra ___________________ 203 7.5.2. Megalithic Culture __________________ 217

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 7.6. Personalities In News _______________ 218 7.11.3. Yuga Yugeen Bharat National Museum _ 230
7.6.1. Guru Nanak Dev ____________________ 218 7.12. Historical Events in News ___________ 231
7.6.2. Birsa Munda _______________________ 219 7.12.1. Communist Party of India____________ 231
7.7. Other Personalities in News __________ 220 7.12.2. Haridasa Movement ________________ 232
7.7.1. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti ____________ 220 7.12.3. 1924 Belgaum Congress Session ______ 232
7.7.2. Saint Narahari Tirtha _________________ 220 7.12.4. Kuka Revolt _______________________ 232
7.7.3. St. Francis Xavier ____________________ 221 7.13. Festivals in News _________________ 233
7.7.4. Rani Velu Nachiyar __________________ 221 7.13.1. Maha Kumbh Mela 2025 ____________ 233
7.7.5. Savitribai Phule _____________________ 221 7.13.2. Gangasagar Mela __________________ 233
7.7.6. Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das _________ 222 7.14. Other Important News _____________ 234
7.7.7. C. Rajagopalachari ___________________ 222 7.14.1. Bharat Ranbhoomi Darshan __________ 234
7.7.8. Subramania Bharati __________________ 222 7.14.2. Kailash Mansarovar _______________ 234
7.7.9. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad ____________ 223 7.14.3. Veer Baal Diwas ___________________ 234
7.7.10. Dr. Harekrushna Mahtab ____________ 223 7.14.4. Vice-President Addressed 27th International
7.7.11. Tulsi Gowda _______________________ 224 Congress of Vedanta in Delhi _______________ 234
7.8. Awards ___________________________ 224 7.14.5. World Meditation Day ______________ 235
7.8.1. Indira Gandhi Prize __________________ 224 7.14.6. Australopithecus ___________________ 235
7.8.2. National Sports Awards ______________ 224 7.14.7. Baalbek, Tyre & Anjar _______________ 235
7.9. Tribes in News _____________________ 225 7.15. Errata __________________________ 236
7.10. Miscellaneous ____________________ 228
7.10.1. Iron Age in India ___________________ 228
8. APPENDIX 1: MOVEMENT LEAD BY TRIBAL
7.10.2. First Asian Buddhist Summit __________ 229 LEADERS ___________________________ 237
7.11. Government Initiatives in News ______ 230 9. APPENDIX 2: MAJOR REVOLTS SUPPORTED
7.11.1. New Geographical Indication (GI) Tags _ 230
7.11.2. Project Veer Gatha _________________ 230
BY CPI _____________________________ 238

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 1. POLITY AND GOVERNANCE
1.1. ‘SOCIALIST’, ‘SECULAR’ IN THE PREAMBLE
Why in the News?
Recently, Supreme Court in Dr Balram Singh Vs Union of India (2024) dismissed petitions challenging the
inclusion of the words "socialist" and "secular" in Preamble through 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.
Key Observations made by SC
• Constitution is a living document: Addition of ‘Socialist’ & ‘Secular’ could not be invalidated merely on
the ground that Preamble retained its original adoption date of November 26, 1949.
• Dismissed retrospectivity: Date of Preamble adoption does not curtail amending power of Parliament
under Article 368.
o Article 368: Permits amendment of Constitution and power to amend unquestionably rests with
Parliament whose amending power extends to Preamble.
> Amendment to constitution can be challenged on various grounds, including violation of basic
structure.
• Defined Socialism and Secularism: Court defined two terms as:
o Secularism: State neither supports any religion nor penalizes the profession and practice of any
faith, also the State maintains no religion of its own.
> It is enshrined in Articles 14, 15, and 16 along with Article 25, 26, 29 & 30.
o Socialism: Reflects goal of economic and social upliftment and does not restrict private
entrepreneurship and right to business and trade, a fundamental right under Article 19(1)(g).

About Preamble
• Originally declared India a Sovereign, Democratic and Republic.
• Does not grant substantive rights; not enforceable in courts; Signifies power vested to people.
42nd Amendment Act, 1976
• About: Referred to as “mini-Constitution” as it amended Preamble, 40 articles, 7th Schedule and
added 14 New Articles and two new parts to Constitution.
• Major changes made were:
o Preamble: Inserted words ‘Socialist’, ‘Secular’ and ‘Integrity’.
> Changed ‘unity of nation’ to ‘unity and integrity of the nation’.
o Changes in 7th Schedule: Following categories were transferred from State list to Concurrent list:
> Education, forests, protection of wild animals and birds, weights and measures, administration
of justice, constitution, and organisation of all courts-with the exception of the Supreme Court
and the High Courts.

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 o Emergency: Amended Article 352 to authorize President to declare Emergency not only throughout
country and but also in any part.
o Addition of New DPSPs:
> Article 39- To secure opportunities for healthy development of children.
> Article 39A-Equal justice and free legal aid.
> Article 43A-Participation of workers in management of industries.
> Article 48A-Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wildlife
and
> Addition of new parts- Part IV-A (Fundamental duties), Part XIV-A (Establishment of
administrative tribunals).

1.1.1. 75 TH CONSTITUTION DAY OF INDIA

Constitution Day (Samvidhan Divas) is being celebrated on the day of adoption of Indian Constitution i.e. 26th
November 1949. It came into effect on 26th January 1950.
About Samvidhan Divas
• It was instituted in 2015, the 125th birth anniversary year of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
o Dr. Ambedkar, known as ‘Father of the Indian Constitution’ was the Chairman of the Drafting
Committee of the Constitution.
About India’s Constitution
• Longest written Constitution.
• Not printed or typed as it is handwritten by Prem Behari Narain Raizada (English) & by Vasant Krishan
Vaidya (Hindi).
• Pages, artistically decorated by artists from Shantiniketan under Nandalal Bose.

1.2. PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INDIA

Why in the News?
A nine-judge Constitution Bench of Supreme Court delivered a landmark ruling in Property Owners Association
v State of Maharashtra, restricting state’s powers to acquire private property.
More on the News
• Recent judgment has overruled the earlier rulings in State of Karnataka v. Ranganatha Reddy (1978) and
Sanjeev Coke Manufacturing Company vs. Bharat Coking Coal Ltd. and Anr. (1983).
• Both cases had declared private properties could be considered community resources.

Key highlights of judgement (Property Owners Association v State of Maharashtra)

• Scope of Article 39(b): Private property cannot automatically be classified as a "material resource of
community" under Article 39(b).
o Article 39B provides that ownership and control of material resources of community are so distributed
as best to sub-serve the common good.

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 • Authority for Property Acquisition: Article 39(b) does not grant legislative power to state to acquire private
property. It comes from sovereign power of eminent domain and Entry 42 of List III in Seventh Schedule.
• Criteria for Classification: Inclusion of private property as a "material resource" depends on its nature,
scarcity, impact on community welfare, and concentration in private hands.
• Validity of Article 31C: Court ruled that Article 31C, upheld in Kesavananda Bharati case, is still valid.
o Article 31C protected laws designed to fulfil DPSP (Articles 39(b) and 39(c)) from being challenged for
violating FRs under Articles 14 and 19.
• Balancing Public Welfare with Private Property Rights: Ensuring government actions align with
constitutional principles like equality (Article 14) and right to property (Article 300A).
o It also applied Public Trust Doctrine, mandating responsible resource management for public good.
• Limits of Eminent Domain: Court questioned broad application of Doctrine of Eminent Domain in land
acquisition. Court clarified that not all privately owned resources qualify as material resources of
community that can be appropriated for public good.
Doctrine of Eminent Domain
It provides that governments can acquire private property for public use, balancing societal welfare with
property rights. This power is exercised by all levels of government, but fair compensation must be provided
to owner.
• Elements of Doctrine of Eminent domain:
o Public Use: Government can acquire private property for public purposes like infrastructure, but only
if there's a legitimate need and no alternatives.
o Just Compensation: When property is acquired, government must provide fair compensation to
owner, based on market value at acquisition time.
o Requires Due Process: Property owners must be notified in advance and given a chance to contest
acquisition or negotiate compensation.
o Government Authority: It can only be exercised by government or authorized public agencies with
legal authority to take property for public use.
• Important Case laws: In Sudharsan Charitable Trust v. Government of Tamil Nadu (2018), SC clarified
that eminent domain is tied to state's sovereignty.
o State can acquire private property for public interest, provided fair compensation is given. This power
does not violate a person's right to livelihood or dignity.
Public Trust Doctrine
It helps protect environment by ensuring responsible management of natural resources. It was recognized as
part of Article 21 in Th. Majra Singh v. Indian Oil Corporation and M.I. Builders v. Radley Shyam Sahu
case.
• State as Trustee: Under Public Trust Doctrine, State acts as a trustee, managing natural resources for
public's benefit. It ensures that resources are used responsibly and not depleted or damaged.
o In T.N. Godavarman v. Union of India, SC affirmed that State, as a trustee, must ensure natural
resources are used sustainably for public good.
• Citizens as Beneficiaries: Citizens are beneficiaries of trust, using resources sustainably for their benefit
and for future generations.

1.2.1. ILLEGAL DEMOLITION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY

Why in the news?
Underlining principle of Separation of Power, SC used extraordinary powers under Article 142 to issue pan-India
guidelines to halt illegal demolition of private property.
Supreme Court Guidelines
These guidelines do not extend to encroachments into public land or unauthorized structures.
• Prior Notice: Demolition should be served to house owner by registered post with details of the nature of
unauthorized construction, details of specific violations, etc.

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 o In case of unauthorized construction, 15 days’ notice must be given to residents to remove
unauthorized construction or to find another place to live in.
• Videography and Due Report: Demolitions must be recorded on video and be produced as evidence in case
of challenge to its legality. A report on actual demolition must also be placed before Municipal
Commissioner.
• Opportunity of Personal Hearing must be given to the accused by designated authority.
• Personal Liability of Officials for violation of the Court’s order.
Concerns regarding illegal demolition of private property
• Against Principle of Natural justice, Due process of law and Rule of Law: In case of demolition of house
by state based on mere accusation.
• Violation of Fundamental Right: E.g. ‘Right to Shelter’ under Article 21.

1.3. MINORITY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

Why in the news?
Recently, Supreme Court overruled its S. Azeez Basha vs. UOI (1967) judgment which held that AMU cannot
claim minority status under Article 30 (1) as it was established by a statute.
More on news
• SC in S. Azeez Basha vs. UOI had held that AMU was neither established nor administered by Muslim
minority, and it is a central university established through AMU Act, 1920.
• Later on, Parliament through AMU (Amendment) Act, 1981 restored AMU’s minority status.
o However, Allahabad High Court struck down minority status of AMU in 2006 which has been
subsequently challenged in SC in 2019.
Key Highlights of Judgment
• No need for minority control over administration to prove that it is a Minority Educational Institution.
• Minority Status is not surrendered because an institution was created by a statute or upon incorporation
of university.
• Communities that weren't a minority before Constitution are entitled to Article 30 (1) protection for
institutions established before independence.
About Minority Educational Institutions (MEIs)
• Article 30(1): Deals with right of linguistic and religious minorities to establish and administer educational
institutions of their choice.
• National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions Act (NCMEIA), 2004: Enacted to safeguard
educational rights of the minorities enshrined in Article 30(1).
o Commission, a quasi-judicial body with powers of a Civil Court, decide questions relating to the
status of any institution as a MEI.
• Central Government has notified six religious minority communities viz. Muslim, Christian, Sikh,
Buddhist, Parsi and Jain. However, minorities communities is not defined in the Constitution.

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 1.4. ESSENTIAL RELIGIOUS PRACTICE
Why in the news?
Bombay HC reiterated its judgement in Mahesh Vijay Case (2016) where it held that use of loudspeakers is not
an essential part of any religion.
More in the news
• Bombay HC referred to Supreme Court judgement in Church of God Case (2000) which held that there is
no fundamental right to use loudspeakers under Article 19(1)(a) and Article 25 of constitution.
About Essential Religious Practices (ERP) test
• ERP is employed by Indian Judiciary for the adjudication of matters of freedom of religion and determining
whether essentiality of that religious practice.
• ERP test was introduced by Supreme Court in Shri Shirur Mutt Case (1954) which extended freedom of
religion by including religious practices within meaning of religion under its ambit.
o It held that what constitutes the essential part of a religion is primarily to be ascertained with
reference to the doctrines of that religion itself.

1.5. ATROCITIES AGAINST SCHEDULED CASTES

Why in the News?
Standing Committee on Social Justice and Empowerment has raised concerns over failure of several States to
establish necessary mechanisms to effectively address cases of atrocities against Scheduled Castes.
What are Scheduled castes and their background?
• Article 366 defines the term ‘Scheduled Caste (SC)’. Under Article 341, President may notify SC for a state
or UT after consulting State governor (of respective State). Parliament can amend this list by law.
o Term, “Scheduled Castes” was first incorporated into Government of India Act, 1935.
Mechanism to tackle Caste based atrocities
• Constitutional
o Fundamental Rights: Article 14, 15, 16, 17.
o DPSP: Article 46 (promotes educational and economic interests of SCs) and Article 338 (National
Commission for SCs).
• Legal
o Untouchability (Offences) Act in 1955: To punish practice of untouchability. Later on, this was
amended to Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1976.
> Under this Act, ‘untouchability’ as a result of religious and social disabilities was made punishable.
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 o Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Deals with offences
specifically committed against members of SC/ST community in India – defined as “atrocities”.
> Provision of Special Courts for speedy trial.
o Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013: To eliminate
practice of manual scavenging and rehabilitate those engaged in it.
o Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Amendment Act, 2015: It added
new crimes of sexual offences against women of SC/ST under the ambit of atrocities.

1.6. COMPARISON OF CONSTITUTIONAL FEATURES

1.6.1. USA PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION
Why in the News?
Recently, U.S. Presidential election was conducted through the Electoral College system.
US Presidential Elections vs. Indian Presidential Elections
Parameters USA India
Composition • Electoral College consists of 538 Members of an Electoral College consisting
of electoral electors (Senate 100 plus 3 for District of of
members Columbia and 435 members of House of • Elected members of both Houses of
Representatives). Parliament, and
o Electoral College is an intermediary • Elected members of Legislative
body or process that chooses U.S. Assemblies of States [including
President. In this system, voters of National Capital Territory of Delhi and
each State cast their ballots to Union Territory of Puducherry vide
choose members (or electors) of Constitution (Seventieth Amendment)
Electoral College who then vote to Act, 1992 (Article 54)].
select President. Note: Nominated members of either House
o States have varying numbers of of Parliament or Legislative Assemblies of
electors based on their State are not eligible to be included in
representation in Congress. Electoral College.
• A majority of 270 electoral votes is
required to elect USA President.
Governing Each state establishes its own election rules, Presidential and Vice-Presidential
Act/Rules reflecting U.S.'s decentralized system, where Elections Act, 1952.
individual states oversee and manage their
electoral processes.
Nomination Candidates secure party nominations Prospective Presidential candidate should
Process through primaries and caucuses. get his/her nomination paper subscribed by
at least fifty electors as proposers and at
least fifty electors as seconders.
Election Most states follow winner-take-all System of Proportional Representation by
Methods approach, where candidate with majority in means of single transferable vote and
a state wins all its electoral votes, except in voting at such election shall be by secret
Maine and Nebraska. ballot.
• Candidates can win presidency without • Candidate needs to secure 50% of the
winning the popular vote. total votes cast + 1 to win.
• Like Donald Trump win in 2016.
Vote- Significantly prolonged largely due to Use of EVMs (Electronic Voting Machines).
Counting reliance on paper ballots and the handling
Process of mail-in votes (like our postal ballots).

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 Frequency of Every 4 years on a fixed schedule. Every 5 years (except in exceptional cases).
election
Running Mate Presidential candidate chooses a Running Separate election takes place for Vice
Mate (Vice Presidential Candidate). President of India.

1.6.1.1. CLEMENCY POWERS OF PRESIDENT OF INDIA AND USA

Why in the news?
U.S. President Joe Biden granted an unconditional pardon to his son facing sentencing for federal tax violation
and gun convictions.
Comparison between Clemency Powers of President of India and USA

Attributes Indian President USA President

Source of Power Article 72 of Constitution Article II, Section 2 of Constitution

Scope Power extends to not only Federal/Union but Power extends to Federal Crimes only
also state crimes. and not state crimes.

Death Penalty President can pardon death sentences President can pardon only federal
including those by states. death sentences and not for state
crimes.

Role of Executive Supreme Court in Maru Ram v. Union of President can act on his own
Branch India held that President acts on advice of discretion.
Council of Ministers and cannot act on his
own discretion.

Judicial Review Scope of Limited judicial review, courts can Courts can review pardons in cases of
examine the process but generally not the suspected corruption or abuse of
decision itself. power.

Limitations President cannot pardon someone President cannot pardon someone

impeached by Parliament. impeached and convicted by
Congress.

1.7. 51ST CHIEF JUSTICE OF INDIA (CJI)

Why in the news?
Recently, Justice Sanjiv Khanna took oath as 51st Chief Justice of India (CJI) which was administered by the
President of India during a ceremony at the Rashtrapati Bhavan.
About Appointment of CJI
• Senior-most Supreme Court judge, considered fit for the role, is usually appointed as CJI on the
recommendation of the outgoing CJI.
o This convention was breached in 1964, 1973, and 1977.
• Union Minister of Law, Justice and Company Affairs seeks this recommendation, which is then sent to
Prime Minister, who advises President on appointment.
o Under Article 124 (2), every Judge of SC be appointed by the President and shall hold office until he/she
attains the age of 65 year.

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 Key Role of CJI
• First amongst the equals: SC in State of Rajasthan vs Prakash Chand (1997) ruled that CJI is the head of
judiciary and holds a leadership position, they do not hold any superior judicial authority over other SC
judges.
• Master of the Roster: It is the exclusive power of CJI to constitute Benches (including Constitution
benches), to hear cases.
• Head of Collegium: CJI heads Collegium for judicial appointments and transfers in the higher judiciary.
• Appointment of officers and servants of SC: It shall be made by CJI or such other Judge or officer of the
Court as he may direct (Article 146).
About Collegium System
• Judicial Appointments: Collegium is a system through which judges of SC and HC are appointed by
President under Article 124 and 217 of Constitution respectively.
o It has evolved through judgments of SC, referred to as 3 Judges Cases and pronounced in 1981,
1993, and 1998.
• Appointment in SC: Collegium consists of CJI and four other senior-most judges of SC.
• Appointment in HC: Involve recommendations by HC Collegium (consists of Chief Justice and two
senior-most judges of concerned HC) and SC Collegium (CJI and two senior-most judges of SC).

1.7.1 IMPEACHMENT OF JUDGES

Why in the news?
Recently, a motion to impeach a Judge of Allahabad High Court was submitted in Rajya Sabha.
Background
• Impeachment process is aimed at ensuring accountability and preserving judicial integrity.
• None of six attempts at impeaching a judge since Independence have been successful.
Constitutional Provisions Related to Impeachment of Judges
• While constitution does not use word ‘impeachment’, it is colloquially used to refer to proceedings under
Article 124 (removal of a SC judge) and Article 218 (removal of a HC judge).
• Grounds: Proven misbehaviour and incapacity (Not defined in the Constitution).
• Procedure is regulated by Judges Enquiry Act (1968).
Steps in Impeachment Process
• Initiation: A motion must be signed by at least 100 Lok Sabha members or 50 Rajya Sabha members, and
submitted to presiding officer of respective House.

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 • Investigation: If motion is admitted by presiding officer, then it is referred to a three-member committee
comprising CJI or judge of SC, HC Chief Justice, and distinguished jurist.
o Committee investigates charges and submits report to Speaker/ Chairman with its findings and
observations. Speaker/ Chairman will then place report before Lok Sabha/ Rajya Sabha.
> If committee finds judge guilty, its report is adopted by House where it was introduced.
• Parliamentary Approval: Debate and voting in both Houses of Parliament requires special majority (Two-
thirds majority of members present and voting and a majority of total membership).
• Presidential Action: If passed by both houses, motion is sent to President for final approval.

1.7.2 AD HOC JUDGE

Supreme Court (SC) proposed temporarily appointing retired judges on an ad hoc basis to clear backlog of
criminal cases in High Courts (HC).
About Ad Hoc Judge
• Constitution: Article 224A states that the Chief Justice of a HC may, with the previous consent of the
President, request any person who has held the office of a Judge of a HC to act as a Judge of the HC.
• Procedure for appointment: Outlined in 1998 Memorandum of Procedure (MOP)
NOTE: Article 127 deals with the appointment of appointment of ad hoc Judges in SC if the quorum is not met.

1.8. PRISON REFORM

Why in the news?
Recently, Ministry of Home Affairs has amended Model Prison Manual, 2016 rules and Model Prisons and
Correctional Services Act, 2023 to address caste-based discrimination within prisons across country.
More on news
• These amendments have been made in compliance with Supreme Court order on caste-based
discrimination of prisoners in Sukanya Santha vs. Uol & Others Case.
• SC also directed that reference to habitual offenders in prison manuals should be in accordance with
legislative definitions of respective State Laws.
o Habitual offenders are individuals convicted and sentenced multiple times within five years for separate
offenses, with sentences not reversed on appeal or review.
• Key Changes Introduced
o Prison authorities must strictly ensure that prisoners are not discriminated against, classified, or
segregated based on their caste, including in allocation of duties or work within prison.
> Discrimination based on caste is prohibited under Article 14 (equality before law), Article 15
(prohibition of discrimination), Article 17 (abolition of untouchability), etc.
o Provisions of ‘Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013’
shall have a binding effect in Prisons and Correctional Institutions.
About Prisons in India
• Constitutional Provision: Prisons/ ‘Persons detained therein’ is a 'State' subject (Entry 4). Administration
and management of prisons is responsibility of respective State Governments.
• Governance: It is governed by Prison Act 1894 and prison manuals of respective state governments.
o Prison Act 1894 was first legislation that governed management and administration of prisons in India.
o Ministry of Home Affairs has prepared ‘Model Prisons Act 2023’ which may serve as a guiding
document for States to reform British-era laws.
o Relevant provisions of 'The Prisons Act, 1894’, ‘The Prisoners Act, 1900’ and ‘The Transfer of
Prisoners Act, 1950’ have been reviewed and assimilated in ‘Model Prisons Act, 2023
• Committee on Prison Reforms: Krishna Iyer Committee, Amitava Roy Committee, Sir Alexender Cardew
Committee (1919-20); Mulla Committee (1980-83).

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 Salient Features of Model Prisons Act 2023
• Provisions for grant of parole, furlough, and remission to prisoners to encourage good conduct.
o Parole is a system of conditional release of a prisoner with suspension of the sentence for a specific
period.
 It is not a matter of right.
 Prisoners convicted of multiple murders or under anti-terror UAPA are not eligible for parole.
o Furlough is given in cases of long-term imprisonment. Period of furlough granted to a prisoner is
treated as remission (reduction) of his sentence.
• Separate accommodation for women and transgender inmates for better safety and security.
• Provision for video conferencing with courts, scientific and technological interventions in prisons.
Prisoners’ Rights
Right to Contest Election of Prisoners Right to Vote of Prisoners
• A convicted person, sentenced to • A person confined in a prison cannot vote (Section 62(5)
imprisonment for 2 years, cannot of RPA, 1951).
contest election (Section 8 (3) of o It is applicable to persons under a sentence of
RPA, 1951). imprisonment or transportation or is in lawful
• Even if such convicted person is on custody of police.
bail, they cannot contest election. • A person under preventive detention is entitled to vote
in an election (Section 62(5) of RPA, 1951 and Rule 18 of
Conduct of Elections Rules 1961.

1.9. INTER-OPERABLE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM (ICJS) 2.0

Why in the news?
Recently, Ministry of Home Affairs asked National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) to facilitate complete
implementation of three new criminal laws in the ICJS 2.0.
About Inter-operable Criminal Justice System
• It was conceptualised by e-Committee of Supreme Court of India and is being implemented as a project
under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
• Objective: Enable seamless transfer of data and information among different pillars of the criminal
justice system like Crime and Criminal Tracking Network & Systems (CCTNS) for police etc.
• Focus: Integration of CCTNS with e-Courts and e-Prisons database, and with other pillars of judiciary like
Forensic Labs, Fingerprints and Prosecution.
o It aims to achieve “one data once entry” across all the pillars.
o CCTNS was launched in 2009 as a 100 % Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
• Implementation: By NCRB in association with National Informatics Centre (NIC).
• Timeline: Phase-I (2018-2022), Phase-II (2022-23 to 2025-26).

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 1.9.1. E-COURTS MISSION MODE PROJECT PHASE III
Why in the news?
Union Cabinet approved Phase III of the e-Courts Mission Mode Project.
About e-Courts Project
• It is under implementation since 2007 for ICT enablement of Indian Judiciary as part of National e-
Governance Plan.
• Its phase I & II were implemented during 2011-15 and 2015-23 respectively.
About e-Courts Phase III
• Central Sector Scheme: For 4 years (2023 to 2027) with
a financial outlay of Rs.7,210 crore.
• Aim: Usher in a regime of maximum ease of justice by
moving towards digital, online and paperless courts
through digitization of the entire court records
• Objective: To create a unified technology platform for
judiciary, thus providing a seamless & paperless
interface between courts, litigants & other stakeholders.
• Implementation: High Courts (HCs).
o Funds are released to HCs by Department of
Justice (Ministry of Law) on recommendation of e-
Committee (Supreme Court of India).
o e-Committee is responsible for policy planning,
strategic direction and guidance for
implementation of e-Courts project.

1.10. ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA (ECI)

Why in the news?
Election Commission of India (ECI) celebrated 75th Years of its establishment and also observed 25th January
as National Voters Day.
About ECI
• Genesis: ECI is a permanent Constitutional Body established in on 25th January 1950.
• Constitutional Provision: Part XV of Constitution entailing Articles 324 to 329.
• Statutory provisions: Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Appointment,
Conditions of Service and Term of Office) Act, 2023 regulates their appointment, service conditions, tenure,
etc.

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 • Key role: ECI Administers elections to
o Lok Sabha
o Rajya Sabha
o State Legislative Assemblies
o Offices of the President and Vice President
• Composition: Consists of Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and two Election Commissioners (EC).
o Initially, the commission had only a CEC. In 1989, two Election Commissioners were appointed who
served until 1st January 1990.
o Since 1993, commission has permanently included two Election Commissioners.
• Functions:
o Disqualifies candidates failing to lodge timely account of election expenses.
o Ensures inner party democracy and grants status of National and State Parties.
o Advisory jurisdiction on matters of post- election disqualifications.
Key Provisions of CEC and Other Election Commissioners Act, 2023
2023 Act replaces 1991 Act and facilitates more autonomy to ECI by specifying qualification, reforming
appointment process, providing security of tenure, etc.
Specification Details
Qualifications For CEC or EC the person must
• be holding or have held a post equivalent to Secretary to the Government of
India.
• possess integrity and experience in managing and conducting elections.
Search Committee • Composition
o Headed by the Minister of Law and Justice.
o Includes two members (rank of Secretary or higher).
• Functions: Prepares a panel of 5 candidates for selection.
Select Committee • Composition
o Prime Minister (Chairperson).
o Leader of Opposition in the House of the People (Member).
o Union Cabinet Minister to be nominated by the Prime Minister (Member)
• Functions: Recommends the eligible candidates to the President for the
appointment of CEC and EC.
Term of Office of • Tenure: 6 years or until 65 years of age, whichever is earlier
CEC and EC o If an EC becomes the CEC, combined tenure cannot exceed 6 years.
• Reappointment: Re-appointment is not allowed.
Salary and Benefits • Salary is equivalent to that of a Supreme Court Judge.
of CEC and EC
Resignation and • Resignation: CEC or EC can resign by writing to the President.
Removal • Removal
o CEC: Can be removed like a Supreme Court Judge.
o ECs: Require the recommendation of the CEC for removal.
Legal Protection to Protected from civil or criminal proceedings for acts or words spoken in official
ECE and EC capacity.

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 1.11. NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOS)
Why in the News?
Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has instructed all NGOs registered under Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act
(FCRA), 2010 to report any changes in their key office bearers and members.
More on the news
• This requirement still applies even if an NGO’s previous FCRA license application is still pending.
o NGOs may submit a new application, which will automatically replace the previous one.
What are NGOs and how are they regulated in India?
• NGO is a non-profit organization, group or institution that operates independently from a government
and has humanitarian or development objectives.
• NGOs in India are formed under-
o Societies: Registered under Societies Registration Act 1860.
o Trusts:
> Private trusts are registered under central government’s Indian Trusts Act, 1882.
> Public trusts are registered under state legislation concerned.
o Charitable companies: Registered as non-profit companies under Section 8 of Companies Act, 2013.

• NGOs receiving foreign contribution/ donation need to mandatorily obtain prior permission for an FCRA
registration license from Ministry of Home Affairs under FCRA, 2010.
• Regulation of NGOs under FCRA, 2010
o It regulates influx of foreign contributions or funds given to individuals, associations or companies,
including NGOs.
o Act restricts use of foreign funding for purposes that may affect- nation’s sovereignty and integrity;
security, strategic, scientific or economic interest; public interest etc. or lead to incitement of an
offence or endangers the life of any person.

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 Steps taken by Government to promote NGOs
• Provision of Funds: Central Government provides funds to State Governments/UT Administrations for
implementation of welfare schemes for Women and Children like Swadhar, Ujjawala, etc., through NGO’s.
• Schemes of Ministry of Culture: Like Cultural Function & Production Grant, Financial Assistance to
Cultural organizations with National Presence etc. maximizes participation in field of promotion and
conservation of art and culture.
• NGO Darpan: Provides a unique ID to an NGO registered in NGO Darpan portal.

1.12. GOVERNANCE AND AI

Why in the News?
India's first AI Data Bank to boost innovation by offering researchers, startups, and developers access to
diverse datasets for scalable AI solutions was launched recently.
More on the News
• Data Bank will strengthen national security by enabling real-time analysis of satellite, drone, and IoT data
for AI-driven disaster management and cybersecurity.
Potential of AI to transform governance in India
• Efficient Service Delivery:
o Education: NCERT has listed a set of 31 metadata elements to be tagged to each resource available in
its NROER (National Repository of Open Educational Resources) repository.
o Agriculture: National Pest Surveillance System utilizes AI and Machine Learning to detect crop issues,
enabling timely intervention for healthier crops.
• Inclusivity and Accessibility: Bhashini platform uses AI to provide government services in regional
languages.
• Data-Driven Policymaking: India Urban Data Exchange uses AI to optimize urban services like traffic
management and waste disposal.
• Judicial Efficiency: SUVAS (Supreme Court Vidhik Anuvaad Software) is an AI-based translation tool that
bridges language gaps in legal proceedings.
• Disaster Management: RAHAT (Rapid Action for Humanitarian Assistance) app predict natural disasters
like floods, by providing early warnings and supporting evacuation, search, and rescue operations during
emergencies.
Initiatives to Promote AI in India
• National Strategy for AI (NSAI): NITI Aayog’s #AIforAll strategy focuses on AI in sectors like healthcare,
agriculture, and education.
• India AI Program: MeitY's initiative promotes AI innovation, skill development, and ethical practices.
• Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Strengthens data privacy, addressing AI-related concerns.
• Global Partnership on AI (GPAI): India collaborates globally to align AI strategies with international
standards.
• Skill Development: Programs like Responsible AI for Youth and Future Skills expand AI education,
especially Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities across.

1.12.1. SOVEREIGN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

India is aiming to develop its own sovereign AI.
About Sovereign AI
• It embodies a nation's ability to independently develop, deploy, and govern AI technologies.
• It aims at bolstering a nation's ability to protect and advance its interests through strategic use of AI.
• It is based on digital sovereignty framework.
o Digital sovereignty refers to ability to have control over own digital technologies.
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 • Six strategic pillars guiding development of sovereign AI include digital infrastructure, workforce
development, research, development and innovation, regulatory and ethical framework, stimulating AI
industry and international cooperation.

1.13. COOPERATIVES
Why in the news?
Union Home Minister and Minister of Cooperation and Prime Minister of India inaugurated UN International Year
of Cooperatives 2025 (IYC 2025).
About IYC 2025
• Proclaimed by: United Nations General Assembly in June
2024
• Theme: "Cooperatives Build a Better World"
• Objectives
o Raise Awareness: Showcase cooperatives' role in
sustainable development.
o Promote Growth: Strengthen cooperative ecosystem.
o Advocate for Policies: Support legal and policy reforms
for cooperatives.
o Inspire Leadership: Engage youth and foster cooperative
leadership.
• Host: Committee for the Promotion and Advancement of
Cooperatives (COPAC)
What are Cooperatives?
• Definition: A cooperative is a voluntary group of individuals with common needs who unite to achieve
shared economic goals.
• Aim: Supports members, with focus on interest of poorer sections of society, through self-help and
mutual aid.
• Resource Sharing: Members pool resources and use them effectively for mutual benefit.
• Cooperative Movement: Global rise of cooperatives is partially due to work of International Co-operative
Alliance (ICA).
o Founded in 1895 by E.V. Neale and Edward Owen Greening, ICA is a global NGO promoting worker
cooperation.
o In 2024, India hosted ICA's Global Cooperative Conference for the first time.
 Theme was "Cooperatives Build Prosperity For All", aligning with India's "Sahkar Se
Samriddhi" vision.
Cooperatives in India
• Genesis: Started with Cooperative Credit Societies Act, 1904.
• Current Status: India holds 27% of world’s cooperatives. 20% of Indians are part of cooperatives (global
average: 12%).
• Leading States (57% of total cooperatives): Maharashtra (constitutes 25% of India’s cooperatives),
Gujarat, Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka.
• Constitutional Status: 97th Amendment, 2011 granted constitutional status to Cooperative Societies with
following provisions-
o Fundamental Right: Added "cooperative societies" in Article 19(1)(c).
o Directive Principle: Inserted Article 43B to promote cooperatives.
o New Part IXB: Added Articles 243ZH to 243ZT for cooperative governance.
• Governance Structure
o Multi-State Cooperatives: Falls under Entry 44 of Union List of Constitution. Governed by Multi-State
Cooperative Societies Act, 2002.

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 o State Cooperatives: Falls under Entry 32 of State List of Constitution. Governed by respective State
Cooperative Societies Acts.
Key Initiatives to Strengthen Cooperatives in India
Institutional • National Cooperative Development Corporation (1963): Statutory body under
Support Ministry of Cooperation.
• Ministry of Cooperation (2021): Established to boost cooperative development and
rural prosperity.
• National Cooperative Policy: National Level Committee constituted to draft policy
under ‘SAHKAR-SE-SAMRIDDHI’ vision to promote cooperative growth.
Legal & • Multi-State Co-operative Societies (Amendment) Act, 2023: Strengthens
Governance governance, transparency, and electoral processes in cooperatives.
Reforms • Model Byelaws for Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS): Ensures better
management, transparency, and accountability in PACS.
Economic & • ‘World’s Largest Grain Storage Plan’ (Pilot Project): Integrates PACS godowns into
Infrastructure food supply chain for food security and economic growth.
Growth • Margdarshika Plan: Aims to establish 2 lakhs new PACS, Dairy, and Fishery
Cooperatives.
• Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for ‘White Revolution 2.0’: Focuses on
women empowerment in dairy sector, aiming to increase milk procurement to 1,000
lakh kg per day by 2029.
Technology & • National Cooperative Database: Provides data on co-operatives across states and
Financial sectors.
Inclusion • NUCFDC (Umbrella Organization for Urban Cooperative Banks): Will act as a Self-
Regulatory Organization.
• SOPs for ‘Cooperation among Cooperatives’: Enhances financial inclusion by
facilitating bank accounts for cooperative society members.

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 1.14. MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS IN INDIA
Why in the News?
The report titled "Own Sources of Revenue Generation in Municipal Corporations: Opportunities and
Challenges" was released by the RBI.
Municipal Institutions in India
India’s cities cover just 3% of the land area and contribute more than 60% to the country's GDP.
• 74th Constitutional Amendment of 1992 formalized local governance in India, providing a constitutional
basis for local governments.

• Functions of Local Governments: 74th Amendment, read with 12th Schedule, outlines 18 functions that
state governments can delegate to municipalities, including urban planning, land-use regulation,
construction etc.
• Revenue and Fiscal Powers:
o Article 243X: Grants State governments the authority to authorize ULBs to impose taxes, duties, and
fees and to assign certain revenue sources to ULBs.
o Article 243Y: Assigns the responsibility of reviewing and recommending the devolution of taxes and
grants to State Finance Commissions.
Revenue Sources of Urban Local Bodies
Own sources • Tax Revenue-Property tax, water benefit tax etc.
• Non-tax Revenue-User charges, developmental charges etc.
• Other receipts-lease rent, sale of rubbish etc.
Assigned (Shared) Entertainment tax (subsumed under GST, except when levied by the local bodies),
Revenue professional tax etc.
Grants-in-aid Central and State Finance Commission devolution, Grants under programmes like
SBM, AMRUT.
Borrowings Loans from state and central governments, banks etc.
Related news
Viksit Panchayat Karmayogi Initiative
Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances & Pensions launched 'Viksit Panchayat Karmayogi' Initiative on
Good Governance Day (celebrated on 25th December to commemorate birth anniversary of Shree Atal Bihari
Vajpayee).
• Aim: To enhance capacity and competence of PRIs) by equipping elected representatives and officials
with tools and knowledge required for effective governance and participatory planning.
• It is part of broader ‘Prashasan Gaon Ki Aur’ campaign.
• Program promotes decentralized governance and grassroots-level decision-making.

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 1.15. TELECOMMUNICATIONS (PROCEDURES AND SAFEGUARDS FOR
LAWFUL INTERCEPTION OF MESSAGES) RULES, 2024
Why in the news?
Centre has notified Telecommunication Rules 2024 under Telecommunications Act, 2023, replacing Rules
419 and 419A of the Indian Telegraph Rules, 1951.
Key Highlights of Rules
• Power to issue order:
o Competent Authority: Union Home Secretary (or Home Secretary at state government level) or an
officer, not below the rank Joint Secretary with proper authorization.
o Authorised Agency: Any other agency as authorised by Central Government.
o For remote areas or operational needs: Orders could be issued by the Head or second senior most
officer of the authorised agency (at Central or State level)
• Interception Duration: Orders are valid for 60 days and extendable up to 180 days.
• Obligations relating to Interception: Authorized agencies must appoint two nodal officers to communicate
interception orders to the DoT nodal officer or the telecom entity’s nodal officer.
• Safeguard Mechanisms:
o Review committee: A Central Review Committee (led by the Cabinet Secretary) and State Review
Committees ensure bi-monthly reviews of interception orders to ensure compliance.
o Destruction of records: Interception records must be destroyed every six months, unless required for
functional requirements or court directions.

1.16. NET NEUTRALITY

Why in the news?
Recently, U.S. appeals court ruled that the Federal Communications Commission i.e. FCC (US’s Telecom
Regulator) did not have legal authority to reinstate landmark net neutrality rules.
About Net Neutrality (NN)

• It is defined as the principle that Internet Service Providers (ISPs) should treat all data on internet
equally, without discriminating based on user, content, platform, or application.
o It prohibits blocking, throttling, and paid prioritization and ensures that users have unrestricted
access to information and services without interference or bias.
• Term ‘Net Neutrality’ was coined in 2003 by Tim Wu (Columbia University law professor) who warned that
broadband ISPs could become gatekeepers of internet access and block or charge for access to certain
content.
o EU regulation on open internet access gives end users the right to access and distribute lawful content
and services of their choosing via their internet access service.
o Countries like Brazil, Chile have also enacted laws or regulations to ensure net neutrality.
• Telecom and Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) is an independent regulator in telecom sector, which
mainly regulates Telecom Service Providers (TSPs) or ISPs and their licensing conditions, etc.

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 1.17. BHARATIYA VAYUYAN VIDHEYAK, 2024
Why in the News?
Recently, President granted assent to Bharatiya Vayuyan Vidheyak (BVV), 2024 aimed at replacing Aircraft
Act, 1934 and modernise India’s aviation sector, enhance safety measures, and align with global standards.
Key features of BVV, 2024
Parameters Retained from Aircraft Act, 1934 Addition / Changes in Bharatiya
Vayuyan Vidheyak, 2024
Regulatory Act sets up 3 authorities: Power to issue Radio Telephone
Structure • Directorate General of Civil Aviation Operator (Restricted) Certificate and
(DGCA) licence transferred from Department
• Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS) of Telecommunication to DGCA.
• Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau • It simplifies licencing process by
(AAIB) consolidation under one authority,
o Central government exercises overall DGCA.
superintendence over these bodies.
Regulation of Act regulates activities related to aircrafts It adds powers to regulate design of
aircraft-related including manufacturing, use, operation, and aircrafts.
activities trade.
Power to make Act empowers central government to make It adds that central government may
Rules Rules on matters including: make Rules on radio telephone
• regulation of specified activities related to operator certificate and licenses
aircrafts and matters on licencing, under International
certification, and inspection, Telecommunication Convention.
• regulation of air transport services, and
• implementation of Convention on
International Civil Aviation, 1944.
Offences and Offences punishable with imprisonment up to Discretionary Penalties: The Central
Penalties 2 years, a fine up to ₹1 crore, or both: Government has the discretion to

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 • Violating rules on carriage of certain specify civil or criminal penalties for
prohibited goods. violation of certain Rules. E.g.,
• Flying aircraft in a manner to cause danger implementation of international
to a person or property, and convention, protection of public
• Failure to comply with directions of DGCA health etc.
and BCAS.
Adjudication of Adjudication of penalties: Central Second Appeal: Second Appellate
penalties government-appointed Adjudicating Officer Officer, must be an officer of a higher
of the rank of Deputy Secretary or above. rank than the First Appellate Officer.
First Appeal: Appellate Officer, who must be
of a higher rank than the Adjudicating Officer.
Aviation Governance in India
• Aviation industry in India is governed by Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA).
o Its primary responsibility is formulation of policy, rules, and regulations related to civil aviation
operations in the country or related to international civil aviation operations from the country.

• Key legislations:
o Aircraft Act 1934 (and Aircraft Rules, 1937): Regulates various activities related to civil aviation, and
licensing of airports.
o Airports Economic Regulatory Authority of India (AERA) Act, 2008: Set up an independent authority
(AERA) to regulate tariffs for aeronautical services delivered at airports and monitor performance
standards of airports.
o FDI Policy: 100% FDI is permitted in scheduled Air Transport Service/Domestic Scheduled
Passenger Airline (Automatic upto 49% and Government route beyond 49%).
> However, for NRIs 100% FDI is permitted under automatic route.
> 100% FDI in Greenfield and Brownfield airport projects.
Key Initiatives for India’s Aviation Sector
• Policies:
o National Civil Aviation Policy, 2016: Aimed at making regional air connectivity affordable and
convenient, establish an integrated eco-system promoting growth of civil aviation sector and tourism
etc.
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 o Vision 2040 for the Civil Aviation Industry in India: A strategic roadmap by Invest India outlining the
long-term goals and strategies for development of civil aviation sector.
• Schemes/ Initiatives:
o Maintenance, Repair and Operations (MRO): Union Budget 2024-25 incentivises MRO activities in
aviation.
o Privatization of Airports: Privatization of 25 airports via PPP under National Monetization Pipeline.
o Technological interventions: NABH Nirman (for airport capacity augmentation), Digi Yatra (for
paperless travel) and AirSewa (for online grievance redressal), GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation
(GAGAN) (developed by AAI and ISRO for Air Traffic Management).
• International Cooperation:
o Delhi Declaration on Civil Aviation (2024): Adopted at 2nd Asia Pacific Ministerial Conference on
Civil Aviation (APMC), it sets a framework for enhancing regional cooperation in civil aviation.

1.18. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

1.18.1. E-DAAKHIL PORTAL
Department of Consumer Affairs announces the nationwide implementation of the E-Daakhil portal.
About E-Daakhil portal
• It was first launched by National Consumer Dispute Redressal Commission (NCDRC) in 2020.
• It is an online platform that simplifies the consumer grievance process, allowing consumers to file
complaints and track cases without the need to be physically present.
• Portal has been a key tool in promoting consumer rights and delivering timely justice.

1.18.2. AMRIT GYAAN KOSH PORTAL

Amrit Gyaan Kosh Portal on iGOT platform jointly developed by Capacity Building Commission and
Karmayogi Bharat launched.
About Amrit gyan kosh Portal:
• Purpose: Capacity Building Commission aims to empower educators and enhance the quality of public
administration training across India.
• This comprehensive repository curates’ best practices from across India, aligning with 15 of the 17 SDGs.
• It encompasses diverse policy themes such as health, education, agriculture, and digital governance.

1.18.3. EDELMAN TRUST BAROMETER

Recently, annual Edelman Trust Barometer was released before the start of the World Economic Forum Annual
Meeting.
• Released by Edelman Trust, it is a survey of 28 countries that studies influence of trust across society —
government, media, business, and NGOs.
Key Findings
• India slipped to 3rd position, after China & Indonesia in terms of people's trust in the government,
businesses, media etc. (in low-income population group).
o Within high income group, India was ranked 4th.
• India ranked 13th when it comes to trust of people in other countries, in companies with Indian
headquarters.

1.18.4. ENTITY LOCKER

National eGovernance Division, under Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, has developed
Entity Locker.

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 About Entity Locker
• It is a secure, cloud-based solution that simplifies storage, sharing, and verification of documents for
large organisations, corporations, micro, small, and medium Enterprises, etc.
o It is a critical component of India’s Digital Public Infrastructure.
• Entity Locker offer:
o Real-time access and verification of documents through integration with government databases.
o Consent-based mechanisms for secure sharing of sensitive information.
o Aadhaar-authenticated role-based access management to ensure accountability.
o 10 GB of encrypted cloud storage and Legally valid digital signatures for authenticating documents.

1.18.5. INTER-STATE COUNCIL (ISC)

Inter-State Council has been reconstituted.
Inter-State Council (ISC)
• About: It is a forum through which Centre and the state co-ordinate and co-operate with each other.
• Genesis: Established under Article 263 of Constitution through a Presidential Order in 1990 on
recommendation of Sarkaria Commission.
• Composition: It consists of:
o Chairman: Prime Minister
o Members:
> CM of all States.
> CM of Union Territories having a Legislative Assembly and Administrators of UTs not having a
Legislative Assembly.
> 6 Ministers of Cabinet rank in Union Council of Ministers to be nominated by Prime Minister.

1.18.6. SUBORDINATE LEGISLATION

Recently Subordinate legislations notified under the Post Office Act, 2023 i.e. the Post Office Rules, 2024 and
Post Office Regulations, 2024.
About Subordinate Legislation
• It is the legislation made by an authority subordinate to the legislature.
• Such legislation is to be made within the framework of the powers so delegated by the legislature and is,
therefore, known as delegated or subordinate legislation.
• ‘Committee on Subordinate Legislation (15 members)’ constituted in both houses ensure that executive
powers are exercised within constitutional and legislative boundaries.

1.18.7. PARLIAMENTARY SECRETARIES IN STATE

Supreme Court stayed Himachal Pradesh High Court’s direction which declared power to appoint chief
parliamentary secretaries and parliamentary secretaries in the state as unconstitutional.
About Parliamentary Secretaries in State
• They are appointed to assist ministers with parliamentary work.
• They often hold the rank of Minister of State and have same entitlements and are assigned to a government
department.
• Various high courts have deemed appointment of Parliamentary Secretaries as unconstitutional.
• Issues in Appointment: Appointment of Parliamentary Secretaries goes against 91st Amendment of the
Indian Constitution, which introduced Article 164(1A).
o Article 164(1A) limits total number of ministers, including Chief Minister, to 15% of state’s legislative
assembly members.

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 1.18.8. PANCHAYAT SE PARLIAMENT 2.0
Lok Sabha Speaker has inaugurated Panchayat Se Parliament 2.0.
About Panchayat Se Parliament 2.0
• Organised by National Commission for Women and Lok Sabha Secretariat in collaboration with Ministry
of Tribal Affairs.
• Aims to empower elected women representatives from Scheduled Tribes from Panchayati Raj
institutions and enhance their knowledge of constitutional provisions, parliamentary procedures, and
governance to foster effective leadership.

1.18.9. ADJOURNMENT SINE DIE

The winter session, 2024 of Parliament (both Houses) was adjourned sine die recently.
About Adjournment sine die
• It means terminating a sitting of Parliament for an indefinite period. Here, the House is adjourned
without naming a day for reassembly.
• Power of adjournment sine die lies with the Presiding Officer of the House.
• Presiding Officer can also call a sitting of the House any time after the House has been adjourned sine
die.

1.18.10. PRIVILEGE MOTION

Recently, a Privilege Motion was moved in the Parliament by the opposition members.
About Privilege Motion
• It is a formal request made by member(s) to presiding officer of the House to address an alleged breach of
Parliamentary Privileges.
o Parliamentary privileges are the sum of the peculiar rights enjoyed by -
> each House collectively as a constituent part of Parliament and
> by members of each House individually, without which they could not discharge their functions,
efficiently and effectively, and which exceed those possessed by other bodies or individuals
• They are not codified and are derived from various provisions such as Article 105, Code of Civil Procedure,
1908, Parliamentary Conventions, etc.

1.18.11. SUPPLEMENTARY GRANT

Recently, the Centre sought Parliament’s approval for net additional expenditure as part of supplementary
demand for grants.
About Supplementary Grants
• Under Article 115, it is raised when the money previously authorized by Parliament for a particular service
for that financial year is found to be insufficient.
• Other Grants under Article 115
o Additional Grant: It is requested if additional expenditure is needed upon some new services not
contemplated in the budget for that year.
o Excess Grant: It is given when the money has already been spent in excess of the amount allotted
for a service in the budget for that year.

1.18.12. PRIVATE MEMBERS’ BILL

17th Lok Sabha spent only 9.08 hours on Private Members’ Bills.

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 About Private Members’ Bill
• It is a legislative proposal initiated by an individual Member of the Parliament, who is not a Minister.
• Allotment of time: Last two and a half hours of a sitting on Friday in Lok Sabha is allotted for Private
Members Bills.
o In Rajya Sabha last two & a half hours of a sitting on alternate Friday is allotted.
• Period of notice to introduce a Bill is 1 month.
• Till date, only 14 Private Members’ Bills have been passed & received assent.
o No Private Members’ Bill has been passed by Parliament since 1970.

1.18.13. RULE 267

Rajya Sabha Chairman expressed concerns about frequent use of Rule 267.
About Rule 267
• Rule 267, part of Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Council of States (Rajya Sabha) allows
for the suspension of rules on the day's agenda to debate an urgent matter with the Chairman's approval.
• Under the rule, Rajya Sabha MPs can give a written notice to suspend all listed business and discuss an
issue of importance the country is facing.

1.18.14. PROCESS FOR REMOVAL OF RAJYA SABHA CHAIRPERSON

Opposition has moved a motion of No-confidence against Rajya Sabha (RS) Chairperson.
• As per Article 64, Vice President (VP) shall be ex officio Chairperson of RS.
About Constitutional Removal Procedure
• Notice Period: 14-day notice is to be given prior to moving a Resolution, outlining clear intentions.
• Passing of a Resolution: As per Article 67(b), VP can be removed from office by a resolution passed by RS
with a majority of all its members and agreed to by Lok Sabha with a simple majority.
• Unlike provisions for removal of President, the Constitution does not specify grounds for removal of VP.

1.18.15. COMMERCIAL COURTS

The government invited comments on the draft Commercial Courts (Amendment) Bill, 2024 which aims to
provide quicker and specialized adjudication of commercial disputes.
Commercial Courts
• It deals with commercial disputes arising out of ordinary transactions of merchants, bankers, export or
import of merchandise or services, intellectual property rights etc.
• Commercial Courts Act, 2015 provided for constitution of Commercial Courts, Commercial Appellate
Court, Commercial Appellate Division in High Courts, etc.
• Constitution: It is done by the State Government, after consultation with the concerned High Court.
• Constitution of Commercial Division of High Courts is done by Chief Justice of High Court.

1.18.16. DOCTRINE OF MERGER

Recently, Supreme Court (SC) highlighted the Doctrine of Merger.
About Doctrine of Merger
• It was explained in Kunhayammed v. State of Kerala, (2000).
• As per this doctrine, that there cannot be more than one decree or operative order governing the same
subject matter at a given point in time.
• Hence, once the superior court disposes of a case whether by setting aside, modifying, or confirming the
lower court's decree, the superior court's order becomes the final, binding, and operative, merging the
lower court's decision into it.
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 1.18.17. HENDERSON DOCTRINE
In a recent case, the Supreme Court explained the Henderson doctrine.
Henderson Doctrine
• Origin: Propounded in English case of Henderson vs Henderson, 1843.
• About: It suggests that all issues arising in the litigation out of the same subject matter must be addressed
in a single suit. It is not a rigid rule but a flexible principle.
• Significance: Conducts judicial litigation in good faith; prevent parties from engaging in tactics that
fragment or undermine litigations.

1.18.18. PAY COMMISSION

Union government approved the establishment of the Eighth Pay Commission.
About Pay Commission
• Constitution: by central government
• Since 1947, seven Pay Commissions have been constituted
o The 7th pay commission was implemented in 2016 and is set to complete its term in 2026.
o Chairman of 7th Pay Commission was: Justice Ashok Kumar Mathur.
• Importance: It plays a vital role in determining salary structures, allowances, and other benefits for
government employees.

1.19. IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL/ STATUTORY/ EXECUTIVE

BODIES IN NEWS
1.19.1. COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR GENERAL (CAG)

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 1.19.2. STATE FINANCE COMMISSION (SFC)

1.19.3. STATE PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION (SPSC)

1.19.4. NATIONAL CONSUMER DISPUTES REDRESSAL COMMISSION (NCDRC)

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 1.20. ERRATA
PT 365 Polity (April 2024 to October 2024)
1. Article 2.4. Parliamentary Committees: Under Cabinet Committees in table ‘Details of Committees
Recently in the News’, it was incorrectly mentioned that Parliamentary Affairs Committee chaired by Home
Minister.
Correct Information:
Parliamentary Affairs Committee chaired by Defence Minister.
2. Article 8.1. Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005: Under Key provisions table, it was incorrectly mentioned
that writ jurisdiction of Supreme Court and High Courts under Articles 32 and 225 of remains unaffected.
Correct Information:
Writ jurisdiction of Supreme Court and High Courts under Articles 32 and 226 of remains unaffected.

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 2. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
2.1. MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS
2.1.1. THE GROUP OF TWENTY (G20) SUMMIT
Why in the News?
The 18th G20 Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, under the theme Building a Just World and a
Sustainable Planet.
About G20 Rio de Janeiro
• The Rio summit marked the first time the
African Union (AU) participated as a full
member.
• Hosted by Brazil, it is the third Global South
host after Indonesia (2022) and India (2023).
o The next G20 Summit will be held in South
Africa.
o Brazil, India, and South Africa form the
troika of G20. These countries are also
part of the IBSA (India, Brazil & South
Africa) and BRICS groupings.

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 Key Takeaways from the Summit
• Social Inclusion and the Fight Against Hunger and Poverty:
o Global Alliance against Hunger and Poverty: Launched to eradicate poverty and hunger (refer image).
o Global Coalition for Local and Regional Production, Innovation, and Equitable Access: Launched to
promote access to vaccines, diagnostics, and other health technologies for neglected diseases and
vulnerable persons.

Note:
• India is also engaged with two other groups of Africa i.e. AfCFTA and SACU.
o The African Continental Free Trade Area Agreement (AfCFTA): It was signed in 2018 between 55
African nations, to create the largest free trade area in the world.
o Southern African Customs Union (SACU): It’s a customs union among five countries of Southern
Africa: Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa.
> Founded in 1910, SACU is the world's oldest customs union.

2.1.2. NEW DEVELOPMENT BANK (NDB)

Why in the News?
India has contributed nearly $2 billion to the BRICS New Development Bank (NDB), as per the Ministry of
Finance.

Other key facts on NDB

• New Members: In 2021, Bangladesh, UAE, Egypt and Uruguay were included as New NDB members.

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 • Voting power: the voting power of the founding members will not fall below 55 (fifty-five) per cent of the
total voting power
• In 2022: NDB’s India Regional Office in Gujarat International Finance Tec-City was established.
Update on BRICS
• ⁠Brazil (acting as the Chair of the group) announced that Indonesia has been admitted as a full member of
the BRICS bloc.
• ⁠Also, Nigeria has been admitted as the 9th BRICS partner country, joining Belarus, Bolivia, Cuba,
Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Thailand, Uganda, and Uzbekistan in the grouping.
To know more about BRICS, kindly refer to Article 1.6. BRICS in the PT 365 International Relations 2025.

2.1.3. ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK (ADB)

Why in the News?
India and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) signed a $500 million loan to aid sustainable infrastructure
projects.

Other key facts on ADB

• ADB’s top shareholders (As of 2023): Japan and the US (15.6% each), China (6.4%), India (6.3%), and
Australia (5.8%).
• Secretariat:
o ADB serves as a Secretariat for the SASEC.
o Acting as TAPI secretariat since 2003, ADB has been instrumental in the progress of the TAPI pipeline.

2.1.4. COMPREHENSIVE AND PROGRESSIVE AGREEMENT FOR TRANS -PACIFIC

PARTNERSHIP (CPTPP)
Why in the News?
The UK has recently become the first European country to join the Indo-Pacific trade bloc, the
Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP).
More on the News
• Also, NITI Aayog CEO pitched for India’s membership in the Regional Comprehensive Economic
Partnership (RCEP) and CPTPP.
• India is among the few countries not part of large trade agreements like RCEP and CPTPP.

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 Quick Overview of CPTPP

Quick Overview of RCEP

2.1.5. OTHER IMPORTANT ORGANIZATIONS IN NEWS

2.1.5.1. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIVE ALLIANCE (ICA)
The International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) Global Cooperative Conference is being organized in India for the
first time in the 130-year-long history of ICA.

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 2.1.5.2. U.N. PEACEBUILDING COMMISSION
India has been re-elected to the U.N. Peacebuilding Commission for the term 2025–2026.

2.1.5.3. UN DISENGAGEMENT OBSERVER FORCE (UNDOF)

Why in News?
The UN Secretary-General recently paid tribute to Brigadier Amitabh Jha, who was serving with the United
Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) at Golan Heights.

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 2.1.5.4. UNITED NATIONS RELIEF AND WORKS AGENCY FOR PALESTINE REFUGEES IN THE
NEAR EAST (UNRWA)
India recently released the second tranche of USD 2.5 million to the UNRWA, fulfilling its annual contribution
of USD 5 million for 2024-25.

2.1.5.5. UNITED NATION INTERNAL JUSTICE COUNCIL (IJC)

Retired Supreme Court judge Madan B. Lokur has been appointed as the chairperson of the UN Internal
Justice Council (IJC).

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 2.1.5.6. UN-HABITAT
UN-Habitat released the “World Cities Report 2024: Cities and Climate Action”, highlighting the critical role of
cities in addressing climate change and promoting sustainable urban development.

2.2. PLACES IN NEWS

2.2.1. CONFLICT AFFLICTED AREAS
Golan Heights
• Context: Israel plans to expand settlements in Golan
Heights.
• Israel captured Golan Heights from Syria in the 1967 Six-
Day War & annexed it in 1981 (not recognized
internationally).
• About Golan Heights
o Location: Located in southwestern Syria, Golan
Heights is rocky plateau bordering Israel, Lebanon and
Jordan.
> It is bounded by Jordan River & Sea of Galilee (west),
Mount Hermon (north), seasonal Wadi Al-Ruqqād
(east), Yarmūk River (south).
o Strategic Importance:
> Monitoring Syrian movements: Syria’s capital Damascus is only 60 km (visible from Heights)
from Golan Heights.
> Provides a natural buffer against any military advancement from Syria.
Philadelphi Corridor
• Context: Recent ceasefire terms between Israel and Hamas
also stipulate Israel’s withdrawal from the Philadelphi Corridor.
• About Philadelphi Corridor
o Corridor was originally established under the 1979 Israel-
Egypt Peace Treaty.
o It is a narrow strip of land along the Gaza-Egypt border, ~14
km long and 100 meters wide.
o It serves as a critical border area between the southern Gaza
Strip and Egypt's Sinai Peninsula.

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 Latakia Port
• Context: Recently, Israel’s military struck several key
Syrian military sites, including naval vessels at the
Latakia Port.
• About Latakia Port
o Location: It is located on the East Mediterranean
coast on a good harbour, with an extensive
agricultural hinterland in west of Syria.
o Other Mediterranean ports of Syria: Tartous and
Banias.

Syria (Capital: Damascus)

• Context: Recently, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), a rebel
militia, seized Aleppo, the 2nd largest city of Syria.
• It is located on east coast of Mediterranean Sea in
southwestern Asia.
• Boundaries: Turkey (North), Iraq (East & southeast), Jordan
(South), Israel and Lebanon (South West).
• Important cities: Damascus (along River Barada), Homs,
Palmyra.

2.2.2. PLACES FEATURING INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS

Nicaragua (Capital: Managua)
• Context: India and Nicaragua signed an umbrella
agreement to implement Quick Impact Projects
(QIPs).
• Location: Situated in Central America and largest of
the Central American republics.
• Borders: Nicaragua is bounded by Honduras to the
north, the Caribbean Sea to the east, Costa Rica to
the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

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 Guyana (Capital: Georgetown)
• Context: The Indian Prime Minister paid a visit to
Guyana and signed various agreements to
strengthen bilateral ties. Guyana is a member of
CARICOM (Caribbean Community) and the
Commonwealth of Nations.
• Territorial Boundaries: East: Suriname, South and
Southwest: Brazil, West: Venezuela.
• Maritime Boundaries: Opens into the Atlantic
Ocean (North).

Dominica (Capital: Roseau)

• Context: Commonwealth of Dominica Honored
Prime Minister of India with ‘the Dominica Award of
Honour’.
• Member of Commonwealth since 1978.
• The island country of the Lesser Antilles in the
eastern Caribbean Sea.
• Only island with a relatively large and distinctive
group of Carib Indians.

Greenland (Capital: Nuuk)

• Context: The US President had expressed
interest in buying Greenland from Denmark.
• Location: It is the world’s largest
island, lying in the North Atlantic Ocean.
Greenland is part of Denmark.
o Two-thirds of the island lies within the
Arctic Circle.
• Surrounding Countries: It is separated from
Canada’s Ellesmere Island to the north by only
16 miles.
o The nearest European country
is Iceland.
• It has world's 2nd largest ice sheet after that
of Antarctica.
• Northeast Greenland National Park is the
world's largest national park.
• Greenlanders experience 24 hours of sunlight
in the summer.

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 Liberia (Capital: Monrovia)
• Context: India and Liberia hold first foreign office
consultations to deepen and diversify bilateral ties.
• Africa’s oldest republic and never subjected to colonial
rule.
• Land boundaries: Sierra Leone (Northwest), Guinea
(North) & Côte d’Ivoire (East)
• Maritime Boundary: Atlantic Ocean (South and West)
• Other: Dusty and dry harmattan (desert winds) blows
from Sahara bringing relief from high relative humidity.

Norway (Capital: Oslo)

• Context: India, Norway discuss investments under
European Free Trade Association (EFTA) pact
• About two-thirds of Norway is mountainous, and
much off its indented coastline lie, carved by deep
glacial fjords.
• Fjords: Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water
and making up shorelines (in high latitudes). E.g. Sogn
(Sogne) Fjord etc.

Slovenia (Capital: Ljubljana)

• Context: India and Slovenia announced a five-year
plan to strengthen their scientific and technological
collaboration in various areas.
• Located in central Europe.
• Land boundaries: Austria (North), Hungary (far
Northeast), Croatia (East, Southeast, and South),
and Italy (West and Southwest).
o It has a coastline along the Gulf of Venice.

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 Nigeria (Capital: Abuja)
• Context: Indian Prime Minister conferred the Nigerian
national award - "Grand Commander of the Order of Niger”
• Boundaries: Niger (North), Chad (North-east), Cameroon
(East), Benin (West).
o Maritime Boundaries: Opens into the Gulf of Guinea
(South).
• Major Lakes: Lake Chad (freshwater lake bordering Nigeria,
Chad and Niger)
• Significance: It is the largest oil and gas producer in Africa
and It is the most populous country in Africa.

Lesotho (Capital: Maseru)

• Context: India sent 1,000 metric tonnes of rice to Lesotho as
humanitarian aid to support food security and nutrition.
• A landlocked country located entirely within South Africa. It’s
also known by the name The Mountain Kingdom.

Triton Island
• Context: Recent satellite imagery reveals a significant
military buildup by China on Triton Island.
• About Triton Island
• Located in the Paracels (South China Sea) is also
known as Xisha Islands in China.
• It is effectively controlled by China but is also
claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan.
• China took control of the Paracels from South
Vietnam following a 1974 naval clash.

South Korea (Capital: Seoul)

• Context: Parliament in an unanimous vote and impeached
Yoon, accusing him of rebellion.
• Location: Located in East Asia, on the southern half of the
Korean Peninsula.
• Borders: North Korea (along the 38th parallel, separated by the
Demilitarized Zone or DMZ).
• Water Bodies: Bounded by the Yellow Sea (west), East Sea/Sea
of Japan (east), and Korea Strait (south).
• With Strengthened military cooperation, US deployed THAAD
(Terminal High Altitude Area Defense) systems.
• REAIM (Responsible AI in the Military Domain) Summit 2024
held in Seoul (South Korea) announced a legally non-binding "Blueprint for Action" to govern responsible
use of AI in the military.

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 Kerch Strait
Recently, Russian tanker splits in storm spilling oil in
Kerch Strait waterway.
• A strait is a narrow waterway between two pieces of
land that connects two large bodies of water.
About Kerch Strait
• Location: It is located in the eastern part of the
Crimean Peninsula connecting Black Sea and the
Sea of Azov.
• Significance: Key route for exports of Russian grain
and for exports of crude oil, fuel oil, LNG, etc.

Chabahar port
Ministry of External Affairs delegation offers
Afghanistan access to Chabahar Port during
meeting with Defense Minister.
About chabahar port
• Location: It sits at the mouth of the Gulf of
Oman.
• There are two distinct ports in the Chabahar
project, Shahid Beheshti and Shahid Kalantari.
• Significance:
o Gives India an alternative route that
bypasses Pakistan, which does not allow
India land access for trade with
Afghanistan and Central Asia.
o Iran and India both recognise the Chabahar
port's pivotal role in the International
North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC)
project.
Panama Canal
U.S. President-elect Donald Trump threatened to reimpose
U.S. control over the Panama Canal.
About Panama Canal
• It is an 82-km (51-mile) artificial waterway that connects
Pacific & Atlantic Oceans through Panama.
• The canal transports ships through Gatun Lake.
• Significance:
o It is one of the two most strategic artificial
waterways in the world, the other being the Suez
Canal.
o It shortens the journey of ships between east and
west coasts of U.S. by 8,000 miles (around 22 days).

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 Gulf of Mexico
Recently, there has been a proposal to change name of Gulf of
Mexico to “Gulf of America”.
About Gulf of Mexico
• Boundaries: United States (North), Mexico (West and
South), Cuba (South-east).
• It connects to the Atlantic Ocean through the Straits of
Florida and to the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatán
Channel.
• Draining Rivers: Mississippi River, Rio Grande
• Control and Ownership: Shared by U.S., Mexico, and
Cuba
• Significance: Large continental shelf, oil and natural gas
extraction, fisheries etc.
• Vulnerability: Prone to hurricanes and twisters due to warm waters and atmospheric conditions.

2.3. BILATERAL RELATIONS

2.3.1. INDIA-AFGHANISTAN RELATIONS
Why in the news?
Recently, 1st bilateral meeting between India’s foreign
secretary and Afghanistan’s acting foreign minister took
place in Dubai.
India-Afghanistan relationship: Key facts
• Background: India and Afghanistan shared close ties with
the 1950 "Friendship Treaty."
• Strategic Connectivity: Afghanistan’s location as the
"Heart of Asia" is vital for India’s access to Central Asia via
historic routes like Khyber and Bolan.

Afghanistan (Capital: Kabul)

Important Features:
• Borders: Shares borders with Pakistan, Iran,
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and China.
• Landforms: Predominantly mountainous, with the
Hindu Kush Mountain range dominating the landscape.
Features include high plateaus, deserts, and fertile
valleys.
• Key Rivers:
o Amu Darya (forms part of the border with Central
Asian states), Helmand River, Hari River etc.
• Other Key Facts:
o Landlocked country.
o The Wakhan Corridor, a narrow strip of territory,
extends to the border with China.

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 2.3.2. INDIA-SRI LANKA
Why in the News?
Sri Lankan President visited India on his first foreign tour.
Key Announcements
• Economic & Technological Cooperation Agreement (ETCA): Builds on the 2000 FTA to enhance trade and
investment.
• Kankesanthurai Port: Joint rehabilitation with Indian grant assistance.
• Digital Identity: Expedited implementation of India-funded Sri Lanka Unique Digital Identity project.
• Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTA): Amended to align with international standards to prevent
tax treaty abuse.
• Other Initiatives: Development of Trincomalee as industrial hub and railway signaling in Maho-
Anuradhapura.
India-Sri Lanka Relations: Key Facts
• Energy cooperation: Inter-grid connectivity, LNG supply, Sampur Power Project.
• Debt Restructuring: India’s role in Sri Lanka’s debt restructuring (USD 4 billion aid).
• Economic Importance: India is Sri Lanka’s largest trade partner, top FDI contributor, and tourist source.
o International Monetary Fund (IMF) bailout: India was among the first countries to provide financing
assurances to IMF, a prerequisite for the IMF's $2.9 billion bailout package approved in 2023.
o Co-chair of Official Creditors' Committee (OCC): OCC was formed in 2023 by 17 countries, co-
chaired by India, Japan, France, to discuss Sri Lankan debt treatment.
> Includes Paris Club creditors and official bilateral creditors.
• Cultural Support: Restoration of Thiruketheeswaram Temple.
• Chinese Influence: Growing presence through BRI projects like Hambantota Port and data collection
activities.
• 13th Amendment: Delayed implementation of power devolution to Tamil provinces.
Sri Lanka (Capital: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte)
Important features
• Maritime Borders: Bay of Bengal (northeast), Indian
Ocean (south and southwest), Palk Strait with India
(northwest) and Gulf of Mannar (west), separating Sri
Lanka from the Indian subcontinent.
• Important Peaks: Adam's Peak (Sri Pada), Pidurutalagala
(the highest peak).

2.3.3. INDIA-INDONESIA
Why in the News?
Indonesian President visited India during the 75th Anniversary of India-Indonesia Diplomatic Relations and
attended India’s 76th Republic Day celebrations as the chief guest.
India-Indonesia Relations: Key Facts
• Economic Engagement: Enhanced through the India-Indonesia Economic and Financial Dialogue (EFD
Dialogue, 2023).

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 • Regional Partnerships: Both are members of BRICS, IORA, IPOI, and PIF.
• Infrastructure & Connectivity: India’s Development Partnership with the Indonesia-Malaysia-Thailand
Growth Triangle (IMT-GT).
• Trade: Indonesia is India’s 2nd largest trading partner in ASEAN.
• Geostrategic Significance: Development of Sabang port aligns with India’s SAGAR initiative.
• Climate Resilience: Collaboration under the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).

Indonesia (Capital: Jakarta)

• Important features: Land Borders: Papua New
Guinea to the east, East Timor to the southeast
and Malaysia to the north (on Borneo Island).
• Maritime Borders: Strait of Malacca west,
Celebes Sea to the north, Arafura Sea and
Timor Sea to the south, Pacific Ocean to the
east and Java Sea and Bali Sea with surrounding
smaller islands.
• Landforms: An archipelago made up of over
17,000 islands.

2.3.4. INDIA-KUWAIT RELATIONS

Why in the News?
The Prime Minister of India visited Kuwait, marking the first trip by an Indian PM in 43 years, to strengthen bilateral
ties and elevate relations to a strategic partnership.
Key Outcomes

• Award Conferment: PM received Kuwait’s highest honor, ‘The Order of Mubarak Al Kabeer.’
• Strategic Partnership: India-Kuwait relations elevated to a strategic partnership.
• International Solar Alliance (ISA): Kuwait joined ISA for sustainable energy cooperation.
• Asian Cooperation Dialogue (ACD): Highlighted regional cooperation among 35 Asian countries.
• Other Developments: Renewed Cultural Exchange Program (2025–2029) and India praised Kuwait for
hosting the 4th Dushanbe Process on counterterrorism.
• Energy Security: Kuwait meets 3.5% of India’s energy needs and shows interest in India’s Strategic
Petroleum Reserve Programme.
• Investment: Kuwait Investment Authority (KIA) manages a $1 billion sovereign wealth fund, with India
as a key investment destination.

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 Kuwait (Capital: Kuwait City)
Important features:
• Land Borders: Iraq to the north and west, Saudi Arabia to
the south.
• Maritime Borders: Persian Gulf to the east.
• Landforms: Mostly flat and arid desert terrain.
• Key islands: Failaka Island, Bubiyan Island (largest), and
Warbah Island.

India and Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

• GCC Established: 1981
• GCC Members: Comprises six member states. Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE.
India and GCC Relations
• Economic and Trade Relations: The GCC is also one of the largest trading blocs of India’s foreign trade.
o E.g., in 2023-24, the bilateral trade between India and GCC comprised ~14% of India’s total foreign
trade.
• Energy Security: The GCC supplies over 50% of India’s crude oil and 70% of its natural gas. E.g., Qatar
is India’s largest supplier of liquefied natural gas (LNG).
• Indian Diaspora and Remittances: The GCC hosts over 8 million Indian expatriates, making it the largest
expatriate community in the region. GCC countries are the second largest source of remittances to India,
after the US.
• Labour Migration and Social Issues: India has raised concerns over the Kafala system migrant worker’s
employment and immigration status control) in GCC countries.
• Discriminatory "Asian Premium" on Crude Oil Pricing: The "Asian Premium" imposed by OPEC.

2.3.5. INDIA-EUROPEAN UNION (EU)

Why in the News?
Recently, a Meeting was held between the EU Trade Commissioner, the Indian Commerce and Industry
Minister.
India-EU Relations: Key Facts
• Trade: EU is India’s largest trading partner; India is EU’s 9th-largest partner with a trade surplus (2023).
• Strategic Alignment: Joint commitment to WTO reform and clean energy (India-EU Clean Energy and
Climate Partnership, 2016).
• Connectivity: India-EU Connectivity Partnership (2021).
• Defence: EU companies support India’s defence modernisation (e.g., Airbus C-295 manufacturing).
• Technology: India-EU Trade and Technology Council (2022) fosters collaboration in AI and digital
transformation.
• Market Access: The Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) was signed with the European Free
Trade Association (EFTA) states in 2024.
Key Developments in Europe
• The Digital Services Act (DSA), the EU’s landmark rulebook that aims to make the online environment safer,
has come into effect for all online intermediaries in the European Union.
• The European Union launched a naval mission, Operation Aspides, to protect shipping in the Red Sea from
Yemen’s Houthi rebels.

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 • The NB8 visit to India: Eight Nordic-Baltic countries participated together at the Raisina Dialogue in New
Delhi. About NB8:
o Establishment: Formed in 1992 as a regional cooperation initiative.
o Objective: To engage in informal discussions on key regional and international issues.
o Member Countries
> Nordic Countries: Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland & Denmark
> Baltic Countries: Estonia, Latvia & Lithuania
European Union (EU) (De facto
Capital: Brussels)
Important Features:
• Member States: A political and
economic union of 27 member
states (as of current date).
• Borders: Shares land borders
with Russia, Belarus, Ukraine,
Moldova, Switzerland,
Norway, United Kingdom, and
several Balkan Countries.
• Maritime borders span the
Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean
Sea, Baltic Sea, and North Sea.
• Mountain ranges (Alps,
Pyrenees, Carpathians) Mont
Blanc (highest peak in the Alps)
• Key Rivers and Cities:
o Danube: Flows through or
near Ulm, Regensburg,
Vienna, Bratislava,
Budapest, Belgrade, and
ending in the Black Sea.
o Rhine: Flows through or
near Basel, Strasbourg, Mainz, Cologne, Rotterdam, ending in the North Sea.
o Seine: Flows through Paris, ending in the English Channel.

2.3.6. INDIA-GERMANY RELATIONS

Why in the News?
The German Chancellor visited India to strengthen bilateral ties, marking the 25th anniversary of the India-
Germany Strategic Partnership and the 50th anniversary of their scientific cooperation agreement.
Key Highlight
• 7th Inter-Governmental Consultations (IGC): Launched the ‘India-Germany Innovation and Technology
Partnership Roadmap’ for renewable energy, AI, quantum tech, and space exploration.
India-Germany Partnership: Key facts
• Trade and Investment: Germany is India’s largest European trade partner.
• Climate and Sustainability: Germany committed €10 billion under the Green and Sustainable
Development Partnership (2022) for solar and agro-ecology projects.
• Technology and Innovation: Indo-German Science and Technology Centre (IGSTC) supports 49 projects,
including Women in Science and Engineering Research (WISER).

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 Germany (Capital: Berlin)
Important features
• Land Borders: Denmark to the north, Poland to the east,
Czech Republic to the southeast, Austria to the south,
Switzerland to the southwest, France, Luxembourg and
Belgium to the west and Netherlands to the northwest.
• Maritime Borders: North Sea to the northwest and Baltic
Sea to the northeast.
• Key Rivers: The Rhine River, Elbe River, Danube River, and
Oder River.
Other Key Facts:
• Germany is the largest economy in Europe and the fourth
largest in the world.

2.3.7. INDIA-ITALY RELATIONS

Why in the News?
The Prime Ministers of India and Italy announced a Joint Strategic Action Plan (2025-2029) during a bilateral
meeting on the sidelines of the G20 Summit in Rio de Janeiro.
Key Highlights of the Plan
• Economic Cooperation: Partnerships in automotive, semiconductors, infrastructure, and advanced
manufacturing.
• Connectivity: Collaboration under the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC).
• Science and Technology: Expanded cooperation in AI, digitalization, and space (Earth observation,
heliophysics, and lunar science) and launch of the Indo-Italian Innovation and Incubation Exchange
Program.
• Energy Transition: Organizing "Tech Summits" and strengthening alliances like the Global Biofuels Alliance
and International Solar Alliance.
India-Italy Relations: Key facts
• Historical Connect: Italy’s port cities were key trading posts on the ancient spice route; Marco Polo visited
India in the 13th century.
• Strategic Partnership: Became Strategic Partners in 2023, with Italy joining India-led initiatives like IPOI and
IMEC.
o Italy’s exit from China’s BRI in 2023 aligns with India’s efforts to counter Chinese influence.
• Economic Ties: Italy is India’s 4th largest EU trading partner.
• Defence and Security: Defence Cooperation Agreement (2023) enhances research, industrial cooperation,
and maritime domain awareness.
• Climate and Environment: Italy supports India-led initiatives like ISA, CDRI, and GBA.
• People-to-People Ties: Migration and Mobility Agreement (2023) facilitates temporary residence for Indian
students.

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 Italy (Capital: Rome)
Important features
• Land Borders: France to the west, Switzerland to the
north, Austria to the north and Slovenia to the east.
• Maritime Borders: Mediterranean Sea to the south,
with access to the Tyrrhenian Sea, Ionian Sea, and
Adriatic Sea and Ligurian Sea to the northwest.
• Landforms: The country has several islands, including
Sicily and Sardinia.
• Key Rivers: The Po River (the longest river), Arno River,
Tiber River, and Adige River.
• Important Peaks: Mont Blanc (the highest peak in the
Alps, on the border with France), Mount Etna (an active
volcano in Sicily).
Other Key Facts:
• The Vatican City (the smallest independent state in the world) located within Rome.

2.4. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

2.4.1. DIGI FRAMEWORK
Why in the News?
The U.S., Japan, and South Korea signed the Digital
Infrastructure Growth Initiative for India Framework (DiGi
Framework) to advance cooperation in digital infrastructure
development in partnership with India.
About DiGi Framework
• Objective: To enhance collaboration with the Indian
private sector and support the development of digital
infrastructure in India.
• Implementation: The framework will support projects in
the information and communications technology (ICT)
sector, including: 5G and Open RAN; Submarine cables and optical fiber networks; Data centres and smart,
etc.

2.4.2. THE RIYADH DESIGN LAW TREATY (DLT)

Why in the News?
India has signed the Final Act of the Riyadh Design Law Treaty (DLT), reaffirming its commitment to fostering
inclusive growth and strengthening its intellectual property (IP) ecosystem.
More on the News
• After nearly two decades of negotiations, member states of the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO) adopted the landmark DLT.
• Design is a category of IP consisting of a product’s ornamental aspect.
About WIPO (HQ: Geneva, Switzerland)
• A specialized United Nations agency established in 1967 to promote IP rights globally.
• Members: 193 countries, including India.

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 2.4.3. BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE (BRI)
Why in the News?
Brazil has decided against joining China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), becoming the second BRICS member
after India not to endorse the initiative.
More on the News
• Previously, countries like Italy and the Philippines have also announced their withdrawal from the BRI.
About Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
• Genesis: Launched in 2013 as 'One Belt One Road,' the BRI aims to connect Asia with Africa and Europe
through land and maritime networks.
• Components:
o Silk Road Economic Belt: A trans-continental passage linking China to Europe and the Middle East.
o Maritime Silk Road: A sea route connecting China to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Related News
BRI Cooperation Framework
• Nepal and China Signed BRI Cooperation Framework
• Framework is expected to pave the way implementing Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) projects in Nepal,
which joined BRI in 2017.
o Also, both countries have committed to developing the Trans-Himalayan Connectivity Network
(THMDCN) and improving infrastructure in roads, railways, aviation, and power grids.
o Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka are also part of the BRI.

2.4.4. “CROSSROADS OF PEACE” INITIATIVE

Why in the news?
During a recent trilateral consultation between India-Iran-Armenia, the Armenian side briefed on its
connectivity initiative, "Crossroads of Peace."
About Crossroad of Peace Initiative
• It is an ambitious regional transport proposal aimed at connecting Armenia with its neighboring countries—
Turkey, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Georgia.
• Objectives: Seeks to revitalize and develop crucial infrastructure—roads, railways, pipelines, cables, and
electricity lines—to facilitate the flow of goods, energy, and people across these nations.
• It aims to connect the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf to the Black Sea
through easier and more efficient transportation links.

2.4.5. FIRST TRILATERAL POWER TRANSACTION

Why in the news?
Inauguration of first trilateral power transaction from Nepal to Bangladesh through the Indian Grid took
place.
About the Agreement
• The tripartite power sales agreement is between: NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam, Nepal Electricity Authority
(NEA) and Bangladesh Power Development Board.
• Aim: To facilitate power transaction from Nepal to Bangladesh, through Indian grid with an export of upto
40 MW of power.

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 2.4.6. CASCAIS DECLARATION
Why in the news?
The 10th Global Forum of the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations (UNAOC) adopted the Cascais
Declaration in Portugal.
About UNAOC:
• Established in 2005 to serve as a soft-power political tool of the UN Secretary-General for conflict
prevention and conflict resolution.
Key Highlights of Cascais Declaration
• Objective: To promote principles of tolerance and peaceful existence and build bridges between
cultures.
• Recognized the potential of artificial intelligence as a tool to promote intercultural and interreligious
dialogue.
o E.g., combat misinformation, hate speech, etc.
• Acknowledged the central role of inclusive, quality, and transformative education in promoting dialogue,
peace, and human rights.

2.4.7. PHEWA DIALOGUE

Why in the news?
Recently, Nepal and China launched the “Phewa Dialogue” series.
About Phewa Dialogue
• It derives its name from the famous Phewa Lake situated in Pokhara Valley of Nepal.
• This will be Nepal’s first official think tank forum dedicated to South Asia Regional Economic
Integration.

2.4.8. CARICOM
Why in the news?
2nd India-CARICOM Summit concluded in Guyana where India proposed seven key pillars to strengthen ties
between India and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).
About CARICOM
• It is a regional organization to promote economic integration and cooperation in the Caribbean Region.
• Established: 1973.
• Secretariat: Georgetown, Guyana.
• Enjoys observer status in UNGA since 1991.
• Members: CARICOM consists of 20 countries, of which 15 are Member States and 5 Associated States.
• The first-ever India-CARICOM Summit was held in 2019.

2.5. ISSUES RELATED TO SECURITY

2.5.1. INTERPOL
Why in the News?
• INTERPOL introduced the Silver Notice as part of a pilot phase involving 52 countries, including India, to
combat transnational organized crime by targeting criminal assets.

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 About the Silver Notice
• Purpose: Facilitates locating, identifying, and obtaining information about laundered assets like
properties, vehicles, financial accounts, and businesses.
• Scope: Targets assets linked to crimes such as fraud, corruption, drug trafficking, and environmental
crime.

Other Key Facts

• India joined
Interpol in 1949,
CBI is
designated as
National
Central Bureau
of India for
ICPO-
INTERPOL.
• Important
Operations:
Operation
Thunderstorm,
Operation
Blackfin,
Operation Pangea, Operation Lionfish, Operation Prey, etc.
Related News
BHARATPOL portal
• BHARATPOL portal, developed by the CBI, has been launched.
• Key Features of BHARATPOL
o Connect: Links all Indian law enforcement agencies to INTERPOL’s NCB-New Delhi.
o References: Simplifies seeking and providing international investigative assistance.
o Broadcast: Ensures immediate access to assistance requests from 195 countries.

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 2.5.2. THE UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY ADOPTS THE CONVENTION AGAINST
CYBERCRIME
Why in the News?
193 UN Member States adopted the first legally binding UN Convention against Cybercrime, aimed at
strengthening international cooperation to combat digital threats.
Key Provisions
• Domestic Legislation: Mandates states to criminalize unauthorized breaches of information and
communication systems.
• International Cooperation: Encourages cooperation in investigations, evidence sharing, and prosecution
while respecting sovereignty and non-intervention.
• Child Protection: Criminalizes the production, distribution, and broadcasting of child sexual exploitation
material.
• Human Rights: Ensures implementation aligns with international human rights law.
• Next Steps: The Convention will enter into force 90 days after ratification by 40 signatories.

2.5.3. PREVENTION OF MONEY LAUNDERING ACT (PMLA), 2002

Why in the News?
The Supreme Court ruled that prior sanction is mandatory to prosecute public servants in money laundering
cases.
More on the News
• The ruling establishes a key procedural safeguard under the stringent Prevention of Money Laundering Act
(PMLA) and adds a layer of accountability to PMLA prosecutions.
About Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002
• Enactment: The PMLA was enacted to address and combat money laundering in India.
• Definition of Money Laundering (Section 3): Anyone who directly or indirectly attempts to engage in or
knowingly assists in any process or activity related to the proceeds of crime, projecting it as legitimate or
untainted property, shall be guilty of money laundering.
• Powers of the Enforcement Directorate (ED): The ED is authorized to investigate money laundering cases
and attach properties involved in such crimes.

2.5.4. OTHER IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS

2.5.4.1. UN COMMISSION ON NARCOTIC DRUGS (UNCND)
India to Chair UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs (UNCND)
• India has been chosen to chair the 68th Session of the UNCND for the first time, marking a significant
milestone in global drug control efforts.

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 About UNCND
• Origin: Established in 1946 by the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) to supervise international
drug control treaties.
• Members: 53 member states elected by ECOSOC.
• Functions:
o Serves as the governing body of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).
o Reviews and analyzes the global drug situation, focusing on supply and demand reduction.

2.5.4.2. NATIONAL INVESTIGATION AGENCY (NIA)

The Supreme Court, in Ankush Vipan Kapoor vs. NIA, ruled that the National Investigation Agency (NIA) can
investigate non-scheduled offences linked to scheduled offences under the NIA Act.

2.5.4.3. INDIAN CHEMICAL COUNCIL (ICC) WINS 2024 OPCW THE HAGUE AWARD
The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) conferred the 2024 Hague Award on the
Indian Chemical Council (ICC) for its contributions to chemical safety and compliance with the Chemical
Weapons Convention (CWC).
About the Hague Award
• Established in 2014 to honor contributions to CWC goals.
• First time awarded to a chemical industry body (ICC).

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 2.5.4.4. DIGITAL ARREST
Digital arrests are the newest form of cyber fraud that have affected many in 2024.
About Digital Arrest
• A digital arrest scam is an online scam that defrauds victims of their money. The scammers intimidate
the victims and falsely accuse them of illegal activities.
• They later demand money and puts them under pressure for making the payment.

2.5.4.5. RUSSIA’S PRESIDENT HAS APPROVED A REVISED NUCLEAR DOCTRINE (ND)

Russia has updated its 2020 Nuclear Doctrine, reaffirming the role of nuclear weapons in deterring enemies and
expanding scenarios for their potential use.
Key Changes in Russia’s ND
• Expanded Definition of Nuclear Attack: Any aggression by a non-nuclear state supported by a nuclear
state is treated as a joint attack, justifying nuclear retaliation.
o Targets countries allowing their territories to be used against Russia.
• Lowered Nuclear Response Threshold: Expanded from defending state existence to protecting sovereignty
and territorial integrity.
o Belarus formally placed under Russia’s nuclear umbrella.
• New Triggers for Nuclear Response: Expansion of military coalitions, large-scale exercises near Russian
borders, and positioning of enemy military infrastructure closer to Russia.

2.5.5. LIST OF VIOLENT GROUPS

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 2.5.6. EXERCISES IN NEWS

S.N. Bilateral Description

1 Garud Shakti Indian Army participates in India-Indonesia Joint Special Forces Exercise GARUD
SHAKTI 24.
2 VINBAX 2024 Vietnam-India Bilateral Army Exercise (VINBAX) at Ambala (Haryana).
3 AUSTRAHIND Annual joint military Exercise AUSTRAHIND held at Pune between India and
Australia.
4 SLINEX Bilateral naval exercise ‘SLINEX’ between Sri Lanka and India held.
5 Harimau India- Malaysia Annual Joint Military Exercise ‘Harimau Shakti’ conducted in
Shakti Malaysia.
6 Exercise A joint military exercise between India and France.
Shakti
7 Agni Warrior Bilateral exercise between Indian Army and Singapore Armed Forces.
8 CINBAX 1st edition of Joint Tabletop Exercise, CINBAX between Indian and Cambodian
conducted in Pune.
9 Exercise Indian Army contingent left for Nepal to take part in the 18th Battalion Level Joint
Surya Kiran Military Exercise, SURYA KIRAN. It is an annual Joint military exercise between
India and Nepal conducted alternatively in two countries.

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 Description
Exercises Multilateral
Desert Knight India, France, and UAE concluded the “Desert Knight” exercise over the
Arabian Sea.
La Perouse: Navies of nine Indo-Pacific countries, including India, participated in the
Multilateral Exercise multilateral exercise La Perouse, hosted by France in strategic straits between the
Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Participating countries: Australia, Canada, USA, France, India, Indonesia,
Malaysia, United Kingdom, Singapore.
Humanitarian
SAREX-24 The Indian Coast Guard conducted the 11th edition of the National Maritime
Search and Rescue Exercise (SAREX-24) in Kochi under the National Maritime
Search and Rescue Board.
Sanyukt Vimochan The Indian Army conducted the multilateral annual joint Humanitarian
2024 Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) Exercise, 'Sanyukt Vimochan 2024', in
Gujarat, with participation from nine friendly foreign countries.
Internal Defence Exercises
SEA VIGIL 24 Sea Vigil 24, a Pan-India coastal defense exercise, was conducted by the Indian
Navy to strengthen coastal security.
Operation Sagar- The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), in coordination with the Indian Navy and
Manthan Coast Guard, seized 700 kg of Methamphetamine as part of Operation Sagar-
Manthan.
Operation Sankalp Launched by the Indian Navy to protect the maritime community from non-
traditional threats in the Gulf of Aden, Arabian Sea, and off the East Coast of
Somalia.
Exercise Antariksha India’s first Space Defense Exercise, conducted by the Defense Space Agency
Abhyas 2024 (DSA), aimed at securing national strategic objectives in space

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 3. ECONOMY
3.1. BANKING AND MONETARY POLICY
3.1.1. BASEL III ENDGAME
Why in the news?
Consumer Bankers Association (CBA) released a White Paper, ‘The Impact of the Basel III Endgame Proposal’.
Basel Norms
• Overview: These are a set of measures developed by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision to
strengthen the regulation, supervision, and risk management of banks.
• Basel I (1987): Introduced credit risk and asset risk-weighting.
• Basel II (2004): Focused on the credit risk and risk-weighting of assets. These norms set minimum level
of capital requirements that banks should have.
• Basel III (2010): Released to build robust capital base for banks and ensure sound liquidity & leverage
ratios.
About Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS)
• Established in 1974, BCBS is the primary global standard setter for the prudential regulation of banks
and provides a forum for regular cooperation on banking supervisory matters.
• Its 45 members comprise central banks and bank supervisors from 28 jurisdictions.
• Its decisions do not have legal force.
About Basel III Endgame Implementation of Basel Norms in
• The final set of rules of Basel III norms has been called India
“Basel III Endgame.” • Basel I Adoption: RBI adopted Basel
• Potential impact of Endgame includes Globally I in 1998-99 to raise CRAR.
Systemically Important Banks (G-SIBs) experiencing an • Basel II Guidelines: RBI announced
increase of 21% in capital requirements. final guidelines for Basel II in 2007.
• Basel III was fully adopted by
New Banking Capital Requirement Parameters Introduced by
October 2021.
Basel III
• Stricter RBI Norms: RBI's norms are
• Capital Conservation Buffers to RWAs: Banks have to stricter and more prudent than
maintain a capital conservation buffer of 2.5 %. Basel norms.
• Leverage Ratio: Banks have to maintain a leverage ratio of
3%.
• Counter Cyclical Buffer: A buffer ranging from 0 % to 2.5%.
• Minimum Liquidity Coverage Ratio: It should be ≥100%.
• Minimum Net Stable Funding Ratio: NSFR should be ≥100%.
Important Terminologies related to Basel Norms
• Tier I capital (Core Capital): It include paid up share capital, stocks and disclosed reserve.
• Tier II capital (Supplementary Capital): It includes all other capital e.g. Undisclosed/revaluation/loss
reserves; general provisions etc.
• Risk weighed Assets (RWA): RWA is linked to minimum amount of capital that banks must have relative
to bank’s risk from its lending activities. The more the risk, the more the capital needed to protect
depositors.
• Leverage ratio: It shows how much of a company's capital comes from debt, or how well it can meet
its financial obligations.
• LCR: LCR requires banks to maintain a buffer of easily liquefiable assets to cover potential withdrawal
demands over 30 days. It helps the bank stay afloat during a financial crisis.
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 • Net Stable Funding Ratio (NSFR): It promotes resilience by Important Ratios Related with
creating incentives for banks to fund their activities with more Basel Norms:
stable sources. 𝐋𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨
• Countercyclical Buffer: It is a mechanism that allows banks Tier 1 capital
=
to build up capital during periods of excessive credit Exposure Measure
growth to help the absorb losses during downturns.
𝐋𝐂𝐑 =
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 liquid assets
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 30 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

𝐍𝐒𝐅𝐑
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
=
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥 (𝐓𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐈 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐓𝐢𝐞𝐫 𝐈𝐈)

CAR =
𝐑𝐢𝐬𝐤 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐞𝐝 𝐀𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐭𝐬

3.1.2. DOMESTIC SYSTEMICALLY IMPORTANT BANKS (D -SIBS)

Why in the news?
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) released 2024 list of Domestic Systemically Important Banks (D-SIBs).
About D-SIBs
• D-SIBs are systemically important due to their size, cross-jurisdictional activities, complexity and lack
of substitute and interconnection.
o It also means that the bank is too big to fail. If DSBs fail, essential banking services and the economy
would face major disruptions.
• State Bank of India, HDFC Bank and ICICI Bank continue to be identified as D-SIBs in the RBI’s 2024 list.
Declaration of D-SIBs
• Based on the D-SIBs Framework of RBI (2014).
o Framework is based on Basel Committee on Banking Supervision’s (BCBS’s) framework.
o Banks having size as a percentage of GDP equal to or more than 2% are considered for D-SIB list.
• Banks are placed in 5 buckets on the basis of Additional Common Equity Tier 1 (CET1) requirement as a
percentage of Risk Weighted Assets (RWAs).
o Bucket 1 banks have to maintain lowest CET1 and Bucket 5 banks have to maintain highest.
• In case a foreign bank having branch presence in India is a Global Systemically Important Bank (G-SIB),
it has to maintain additional CET1 capital surcharge.
o Financial Stability Board (FSB) releases the list of G-SIBs.

3.1.3. WPI BASE YEAR REVISION

Why in the News?
The Government has constituted a Working Group for base revision of the current series of Wholesale Price
Index (WPI) from base 2011-12 to 2022-23.
About the Working Group
• Working Group will be chaired by Prof. Ramesh Chand, Member, NITI Aayog.
• It will also suggest improvement in compilation and presentation and recommend roadmap for switch
over from WPI to Producer Price Index (PPI).
What is WPI?
• It is a measure of the average change of prices of a fixed set of goods at the first point of bulk sale in a
commercial transaction in the domestic market over a given period of time.
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 • Released by: Office of the Economic Adviser, Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade,
Union Ministry of Commerce & Industry.
• Measurement: Measured as weighted average of a basket of commodities.

Need for revision in WPI Base Year

• Structural Changes: Fundamental changes in the production and consumption patterns.
• Updating Commodities basket: To allow for inclusion of emerging products and the removal of obsolete
ones.
• Goods and Services Tax: To ensure compatibility of WPI series with GST.
About Producer Price Index (PPI)
• It measures the average change in the price a producer receives for his goods/services sold in the
domestic market/ exports.
• Two types:
o Output PPI: Measures the average price change of all covered goods and services resulting from an
activity and sold on the domestic/ export markets.
o Input PPI: Measure the change in the prices of all intermediate inputs used in production by a specified
sector of the economy.
Need to replace WPI by PPI
• Multiple Counting Bias: WPI has inbuilt bias due to double/ multiple counting of same product.
• Exclusion of Services: WPI also excludes the service sector (about 55% of GDP).
• Exclusion of taxes: News WPI (2011-12) series considers only basic prices and does not include taxes,
rebate/trade discounts, transport and other charges.
• Advantages of PPI: Cover services; exclude indirect taxes among some, International Prominence of PPI
being used by advanced economies like U.S.A. etc.
Consumer Price Index
• Definition: Measures price changes at the consumer level (retail prices paid by consumers).
• Published by: National Statistics Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.
• Scope: Covers goods and services consumed by households.
• Base Year: 2012.
• Composition: Includes goods and services like food, healthcare, education, and housing.
• Measurement: The weights of the CPI basket are based on the average household expenditure taken from
the Consumer expenditure survey.

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 3.1.4. OTHER KEY DEVELOPMENTS
3.1.4.1. REGIONAL RURAL BANKS (RRBS)
The finance ministry proposes 4th phase of consolidation of Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) as per reports.
About Regional Rural Banks (RRBs)
• Genesis: Established in 1975 on the recommendations of the Narsimhan Working Group (1975), after
promulgation of an ordinance, which was later replaced by the Regional Rural Banks Act, 1976. .
• Objectives: To develop the rural economy by providing credit and other facilities particularly to small and
marginal farmers, agricultural labourers, small entrepreneurs etc.
• Shareholding: Government of India (50%), State Government (15%), and Sponsor Bank (35%).
• They are Scheduled Commercial Banks (Government Banks) regulated by RBI and supervised by National
Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD).
• Created primarily for rural areas, however, may also set up branches in urban areas.
• RRBs have been consolidated in a phased manner based on recommendations of Dr. Vyas Committee
(2001).
• The RBI has set a Priority Sector Lending (PSL) target of 75% of total outstanding advances for RRBs as
against 40% for Scheduled Commercial Banks.
• The area of operation of the RRBs is limited to few notified districts in a State.

3.1.4.2. INDIA POST PAYMENT BANK (IPPB)

Recently, India Post Payment Bank (IPPB) marked its 7th Foundation Day.
About IPPB
• Established in 2018 under the Department of Posts, Ministry of Communication with 100% equity owned
by the Government of India.
• Aim: To provide every household in India an access to efficient banking services and enable them to
become financially secure and empowered by leveraging postal network.
• Services offered: Saving/Current account, Direct Benefits Transfers, Bill and Utility Payments, access to 3rd
Party products such as loans, insurance, etc.
About Payment Banks
• Payments banks are differentiated banks, conceptualized by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) on the
recommendations of the Nachiket Mor committee.
• Objective: To widen the spread of payment and financial services to small businesses, low-income
households, and migrant labor workforce in a secure technology-driven environment.
• They can accept demand deposits in the form of saving and current accounts. However, they cannot
accept time and NRI deposits.
• These banks cannot issue loans and credit cards. However, they can issue ATM cards or debit cards and
provide online or mobile banking services.

3.1.4.3. RESERVE BANK OF INDIA (RBI) GOVERNOR

Recently, Union government named the 26th RBI Governor.
About RBI Governor
• Appointment: By the Central Government as per the Reserve Bank of India (1934) Act.
o Sir Osborne Smith (1937) was the first Governor of the Reserve Bank.
o Chintaman Dwarkanath Deshmukh (1943-49) was the first Indian Governor of the Bank.
• Process: Financial Sector Regulatory Appointment Search Committee, (consisting Cabinet Secretary,
current RBI Governor, Financial Services Secretary and two independent members) shortlists candidates.
o Final appointment is made by the Cabinet Committee on Appointments, headed by the Prime Minister.

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 • Tenure: Holds office for term not exceeding 5 years or as the Central Government may fix while appointing.
o Eligible for reappointment.
Related News
• The Reserve bank of India set up a committee to develop a Framework for Responsible and Ethical
Enablement of Artificial Intelligence (FREE-AI) in Financial Sector
• The 8-member committee is a headed by Dr. Pushpak Bhattacharyya.
• It will recommend a framework assessing the current level of adoption of AI in financial services,
identifying potential risks associated with AI etc.

3.1.4.4. FOREIGN CURRENCY NON-RESIDENT (BANK) ACCOUNTS

Recently, RBI hiked the rate ceilings on Foreign Currency Non-Resident (Bank) [FCNR (B)] accounts to support
foreign flows.
About FCNR (B)
• Term deposit account that can be opened by Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and Persons of Indian Origin
(PIOs) in any permitted foreign currency which is freely convertible.
• Other types of NRI Bank Accounts:
o Non-Resident (External) Rupee Account (NRE): Savings, Current, Recurring, Fixed Deposit account
that can be opened by NRIs or PIOs in Indian Rupees.
o Non-Resident Ordinary Rupee Account (NRO): Savings, Current, Recurring, Fixed Deposit account
that can be opened by any resident outside India for their bonafide transaction in rupees.

3.2. FINANCE AND TAXATION

3.2.1. FISCAL HEALTH INDEX REPORT 2025
Why in the News?
Recently, NITI Aayog released Fiscal Health Index (FHI) Report 2025 to throw light on fiscal status at the sub-
national level and guide policy reforms for sustainable and resilient economic growth.
Fiscal Health Index 2025
• About: Index ranks States on the basis of composite
fiscal index, which is based on five major sub-indices
and nine minor sub-indices (See the infographic).
• States have been classified on the basis of the FHI
score:
o Achiever: Greater than 50
o Front Runner: Greater than 40 & less than equal
to 50.
o Performer: Greater than 25 & less than equal to 40
o Aspirational: Less than equal to 25
• Report analyses 18 major states using CAG data,
excluding special category and Himalayan states.
• Period of the analysis: Financial Year 2022-23.
• Competitive Governance Initiative: Government
aims to boost state participation through fiscal
incentives and performance indexes to achieve
growth targets through improved governance.
Key Findings of FHI 2025
• Top Performing States: Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Goa.

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 • Non-tax revenue: Odisha, Jharkhand, Goa, and Chhattisgarh demonstrated strong non-tax revenue
generation, accounting for 21% of their total revenue.
• Capital expenditure: Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Goa, Karnataka, and UP demonstrated stronger capital
investment by allocating 27% of their development funds to capital expenditure.
• Debt Sustainability: West Bengal and Punjab showed concerning fiscal trends with increasing debt-to-
GSDP ratios, raising serious questions about their long-term debt sustainability.

3.2.1.1. STATE FINANCES: A STUDY OF BUDGETS OF 2024-25 REPORT

Why in the News? Gross Fiscal Deficit (GFD) & Revenue deficit (RD)
The RBI released State Finances: A Study of Budgets • Gross fiscal deficit: It is a measure of how
of 2024-25 Report with theme ‘Fiscal Reforms by much the government needs to borrow.
States’. o Formula: Gross fiscal deficit = Total
expenditure – (Revenue receipts + Non-
Fiscal Position of the State Governments as per
debt creating capital receipts)
Report
• Revenue deficit: Represents the shortage of
• Gross Fiscal Deficit: State governments contained Government's funds to maintain daily affairs.
their gross fiscal deficit within 3% of Gross o Formula: Revenue deficit = Total Revenue
Domestic Product (GDP) during 2021-22 to 2023- expenditure – Total Revenue receipts
24.
o GFD of the Indian States fell from an average of 4.3% of GDP during 1998-99 to 2003-04 to 2.7% of GDP
during 2004-05 to 2023-24.
• Revenue Deficit: States maintained the revenue deficit at 0.2% of GDP during 2021-22 to 2023-24.
• Expenditure quality improved: Capital outlay, expenditure that leads to creation of physical/financial
assets.
• Debt of States: Declined from 31.8% of GDP at end-March 2004 to 28.5% of GDP at end-March 2024
o However, it remains well above the level of 20% recommended by the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget
Management (FRBM) Review Committee (2017) and FRBM Act.
About FRBM Act, 2003
• It was enforced in July 2004 with an objective of ensuring inter-generational equity in fiscal
management and ensuring long-term macroeconomic stability.
• It prescribes limits for Fiscal Deficit (FD) in order as burden of present-day borrowings would have to
be borne by the future generations.
• It has been amended four times in 2004, 2012, 2015 and 2018.
• Targets under the Act
o Fiscal deficit to be 3% of the GDP.
o Containing General Government debt to 60% of GDP (Central Government Debt to 40% of GDP
and State Government Debt to 20% of GDP) by 2024-25.

3.2.2. GOVERNMENT SECURITIES (G-SEC)

Why in the news?
Recently, RBI notified the calendar for issuance of T-Bills, one of the types of Government Securities (G-Sec).
Government Securities Market in India
• About: It is a tradeable instrument issued by the Central or State Governments acknowledging the
Government’s debt obligation.
o Issued by: RBI through an auction on its electronic, E-Kuber platform.
> RBI’s Public Debt Office (PDO) acts as its registry / depository.
o Major Participants: Commercial banks, Primary Dealers, Insurance companies, co-operative banks,
regional rural banks, mutual funds, retail investors (non-competitive bidding section), etc.

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 Types of G-Sec
• Short term with original maturities less than a year. E.g., T-Bills
o Treasury Bills (T-bills)
> Money market and short term debt instruments issued by the Government of India (GOI)
> Zero coupon securities and pay no interest.
✓ Issued at a discount and redeemed at the face value at maturity.
> Issued in 3 tenors, namely, 91 day, 182 day and 364 day.
o Cash Management Bills (CMBs): Short-term (maturities less than 91 days) instrument introduced by
the GOI in 2010 to meet the temporary mismatches in its cash flows.
• Long Term, with original maturity of one or more year. E.g., Government Bonds or Dated Securities.
o Dated G-Sec: They carry a fixed or floating interest rate paid on the face value, on half-yearly basis,
with maturities ranging from 5 to 40 years.
o State Development Loans (SDLs): Dated securities issued by State Governments with half-yearly
interest payments.
• NOTE: In India, the Central Government issues both T-Bills and bonds or dated securities while the State
Governments issue only bonds or dated securities, called the State Development Loans (SDLs).

Initiatives taken for Government -Securities (G-Secs)

• G-sec Acquisition Programme (G-SAP): Under it, RBI conducts open market operations to purchase G-
Secs from the market.
o It helps the central bank in controlling excessive volatility faced by market participants in G-Secs
market.
• RBI Retail Direct Scheme: Under this, retail investors will have the facility to open and maintain ‘Retail
Direct Gilt Account’ with RBI to access its G-Sec platform.
• Scheme for Non-competitive Bidding Facility in Auctions of G-Secs: Introduced by RBI to encourage
retail participation in primary market for G-Secs and SDLs.

3.2.2.1. SOVEREIGN BONDS

Why in the news?
The 10-Year Sovereign Bond Yield Falls to Near 1-Year Low
Sovereign Bond
• It is a specific debt instrument
issued by the government. It can
be denominated in both foreign
and domestic currency.
• It promises to pay the buyer a
certain amount of interest for a
stipulated number of years and
repay the face value on maturity.

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 Why Government Prefers Sovereign Bonds?
• To meet their expenditure, governments have 2 options: either to raise taxes or to issue bonds.
• Raising taxes is an unpopular move. So, Sovereign bonds are preferred as they are similar to taking loans
from the market.
Bond Yield
• It is the interest rate that the Issuer/government pays on issuing bonds. It is a return realized by a bond
investor.
• It is dependent on primarily 3 factors -
o Creditworthiness: Country’s ability to repay debts.
o Country Risk: E.g., unrest, wars etc.
o Exchange Rates: Countries with volatile economies and high inflation rates have to issue higher
interest returns on their bonds compared to more stable ones.
Bond Price - Yield relation
• Price and yield are inversely related.
• As the price of a bond goes up, its yield goes down. Conversely, as the yield goes up, the price of the bond
goes down.

3.2.3. OTHER KEY DEVELOPMENTS

3.2.3.1. CESS AND SURCHARGE
Recently, the Chairman of the 16th Finance Commission highlighted concerns related to cess and surcharge.
• Articles 270 and 271 of the Indian constitution deal with the Cess and Surcharges.
About Cess and Surcharge
• Cess: It is a form of tax levied by government on tax with specific purposes till the time the government gets
enough money for that purpose. Ex - Education cess, Health cess etc.
o They are typically imposed in addition to existing taxes and may be fixed or calculated ad valorem
(percentage-based).
o Funds are credited to the Consolidated Fund of India and withdrawn only with parliamentary approval.
o It is usually not shared with states.
• Surcharge: It is an additional tax imposed on existing duties and taxes, essentially a tax on tax.
o Unlike a cess, a surcharge does not require a specific purpose at the time of levy. The Union has
discretion over the use of proceeds.
• Both Funds are credited to the Consolidated Fund of India.
• They are generally kept out from net proceeds, unlike other taxes under the divisible pool for sharing with
States.

3.2.3.2. PRINCIPAL PURPOSE TEST

Recently, Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT) has issued updated guidance for application of the Principal
Purpose Test (PPT) under India’s Double Taxation Avoidance Agreements (DTAAs) to curb revenue leakages.
• New guidance exempts certain provisions under India-Cyprus DTAA, India-Mauritius DTAA, & India-
Singapore DTAA.
• Guidance also recognizes and nudges tax authorities to refer to Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS)
Action Plan 6 as well as the UN Model Tax Convention (subject to India’s reservation on specific matters)
for a supplementary source of guidance.
o BEPS Action Plan 6 addresses treaty shopping (use of tax treaties to reduce tax liability by routing
investments through countries with favorable tax agreements) through treaty provisions.

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 What is PPT?
• It is a part of international tax rules aimed at preventing misuse of tax treaties.
• It is a key provision under the Multilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty related provisions to
prevent BEPS, which entered into force for India on October 01, 2019.
o This Convention also modified some India’s DTAAs.
• Under BEPS framework, PPT checks whether a business arrangement is genuinely commercial or
created mainly to avoid taxes.

3.2.3.3. UN REPORT LAUDS INDIA GENDER RESPONSIVE BUDGETING (GRB)

Report titled ‘Charting New Paths for Gender Equality and Empowerment: Asia-Pacific Regional Report on
Beijing + 30 Review’ published by UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
and UN Women.
What is GRB or Gender Budgeting?
• A tool for gender mainstreaming which uses the Budget as an entry point to apply a gender lens to the entire
policy process.
o It is not a separate Budget and also not about spending the same on women and men.
• GRB in India
o Genesis: Institutionalized by Ministry of Finance in 2005–2006.
o Gender Budget Statement is presented by the Government in budget session.
o Nodal Agency: Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD)
o Consists of two parts:
> Part A: Encompasses schemes that allocate funds exclusively for women.
> Part B: Represents the dominant share in the budget – comprises schemes that allocate a minimum
of 30% of funds towards women.
o It also comes under the Samarthya, sub-scheme of Mission Shakti.

3.3. PAYMENT SYSTEMS AND FINANCIAL MARKET

3.3.1. CENTRAL BANK DIGITAL CURRENCY
Why in the News?
Recently, US President issued an executive order for banning the establishment of USA’s Central Bank Digital
Currency (CBDC), i.e., 'Digital Dollar'.
What is Digital Currency?
• It is money that is exclusively available only in digital or electronic form.
• They are generally handled, preserved and exchanged using digital computer systems, connected to
Internet.
• A digital currency can be distributed with a condition programmed into it such as a time-fame for spending
it.
• It is possible to make payments in a digital currency without using US dollar or SWIFT system.
3 Types of Digital Currencies
Cryptocurrency CBDCs Stablecoins
• Regulates the generation • Digital version of fiat • Typically backed by underlying asset’s
of new units and secures currencies issued by reserves or by algorithms that modify
transactions using Central Banks. the supply based on market demand.
cryptographic methods. • Maintains the reliability • Designed to have a constant value in
• Blockchain ledger is used and security of comparison to a traditional currency
to verify transactions. traditional currencies. or other asset.
• Control: Decentralized • Control: Centralized • Control: Centralized or hybrid
• E.g., Bitcoin. • E.g., Digital Rupee (e₹) • E.g., Tether (USDT)
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 About CBDC
• It is a legal tender and a central bank liability in digital form denominated in sovereign currency and
appearing on central bank balance sheet. (RBI)
o Legal tender is money issued by monetary authority and cannot be refused by any citizen of the country
for settlement of any kind of transaction.
• Types of CBDCs
o Wholesale CBDCs: Used among banks and other licensed financial institutions for interbank payments
and securities transactions.
o Retail CBDC: It is available to general public via digital wallets, smartphone apps, etc.
 Two models of retail CBDC:
✓ Token-based CBDCs: Enables anonymous transactions through private and public key
authentication.
✓ Account-based CBDCs: Requires user digital identification for account access. e.g., DCash of
Eastern Caribbean.
• Sand Dollar: Bahamas became the first country to launch CBDC in 2020.
• DCash: Eastern Caribbean Currency Union launched its digital currency and became the first currency
union to embrace blockchain-based CBDC.
About India's Digital Rupee (e₹)
• It is a digital form of fiat currency, issued and regulated by the RBI.
• It is a sovereign currency issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in alignment with its monetary policy.
• It is currently in pilot mode (ongoing with 15 Banks), since December 2022, to test and explore the
uses/ features/ technology and applications of Digital Rupee.
• It is available in the same denominations as physical currency.
• It is legal tender and is liability of Reserve Bank of India (Section 26 of the Reserve Bank of India Act,
1934).
• It is freely convertible against commercial bank money and cash.

3.3.2. MBRIDGE PROJECT

Why in the News?
As per Bank for International Settlements (BIS), Project mBridge reached minimum viable product (MVP) stage
in mid-2024.
About Project mBridge
• Launched in 2021, mBridge is a cross-border, decentralised, multiple central bank digital currency
(mCBDC) platform.
• A platform based on a new blockchain ‘the mBridge Ledger’ was also built to support real-time, peer-to-
peer, cross-border payments and foreign exchange transactions.
o It is built on distributed ledger technology (DLT) - a decentralized ledger network that uses the
resources of many nodes to ensure data security and transparency.
• Participants: Initially led by the BIS Innovation Hub, in collaboration with the other four central banks of
China, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Hong Kong.
o Saudi Central Bank joined in 2024.
o There are more than 31 observing members including Reserve Bank of India.
Similar Global Initiatives
• BRICS Bridge: Proposed payment system by BRICS nations.
• Project Nexus: Bank for International Settlements (BIS) initiative that aims to connect multiple domestic
instant payment systems (IPS) globally.

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 3.3.3. OTHER KEY DEVELOPMENTS
3.3.3.1. PAN (PERMANENT ACCOUNT NUMBER) 2.0
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) approved PAN 2.0 Project of the Income Tax (IT)
Department.
About PAN 2.0 Project
• An e-Governance initiative for re-engineering the business processes of taxpayer registration services
through technology driven transformation.
• It will be an upgrade of the current PAN/TAN 1.0 eco-system
o PAN is a ten-digit unique alphanumeric number issued by the IT Department to identify/ link
transactions (tax payments, etc.) of the holder with the department.
o Issuing Agencies: Protean (formerly known as NSDL e-governance) and UTI Infrastructure Technology
and Services Ltd (UTIITSL).
• Benefits: Serve as common Identifier for all digital systems of specified government agencies, Data
consistency, Single Source of Truth, etc.

3.3.3.2. PAYMENT AGGREGATOR

RBI approved JP-Morgan-backed fintech company In-Solutions Global (ISG) to operate as a payment
aggregator.
About Payment Aggregator (PA):
• Third-party service provider that enables online payment by customers and acceptance of payments by
businesses and e-commerce.
• PA is a company incorporated in India under the Companies Act, 1956 / 2013.
• They enable payments through debit cards, credit cards, NetBanking, UPI, e-wallets etc.
• Unlike Bank PAs, non-bank PAs require authorisation from RBI under Payment & Settlement Systems
Act, 2007.

3.3.3.3. PREPAID PAYMENT INSTRUMENTS (PPI)

RBI has allowed Prepaid Payment Instruments (PPIs) holders to make and receive Unified Payments
Interface (UPI) payments through third-party mobile applications.
About PPI
• PPIs are instruments that facilitate the purchase of goods and services, conduct of financial services,
enable remittance facilities, etc., against the value stored therein. E.g. Mobile wallets, digital wallets, gift
cards
• PPIs can be issued by banks and non-banks.

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 o Classified under two types: small PPIs (issued after obtaining minimum details of the PPI holder) and
Full KYC PPIs.

3.4. EXTERNAL SECTOR

3.4.1. RUPEE DEPRECIATION
Why in the News?
Recently, the
Indian rupee’s
exchange rate
against the US
dollar has
breached the 86
mark. The Rupee
faced its
sharpest
depreciation in
last two years.
What is Rupee Depreciation?
• It refers to the decline in the value of the Indian Rupee (INR) relative to a foreign currency, typically the
US Dollar (USD) or other major global currencies.
• Exchange Rate: It is the price of one currency in terms of other.
• Note: Currently, India follows Floating
NEER and REER
Exchange Rate with occasional RBI
• Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER): It is the
interventions, when necessary.
weighted average of bilateral nominal exchange
Key Factors Responsible for Rupee’s rates of the home currency in terms of foreign
Depreciation currencies.
o An increase in NEER indicates an appreciation
• Confidence in Central Bank: Modern
of the local currency against the weighted basket
generations of currency crises seem to be
of currencies of its trading partners.
triggered by markets that conduct value at
• Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER): It is defined
risk assessments of the central bank’s
as a weighted average of nominal exchange rates
balance sheet. This affects the investor
adjusted for relative price differential between the
confidence.
domestic and foreign countries.
• Illiquidity: It arises out of short term foreign
o An increase in REER implies that exports
currency debt becoming larger than liquid
become more expensive and imports become
foreign currency assets.
cheaper. An increase indicates a loss in trade
• Inflation: Higher inflation in India compared
competitiveness.
to trading partners erodes purchasing
• REER = NEER × (Domestic Price Index / Foreign
power of Indian Rupee and adversely affects
Price Index)
the exchange rate.
• Monetary policy: RBI’s interest rate decisions and foreign exchange interventions impact the rupee’s
strength.
o RBI’s market operations to buy USD to maintain sufficient Forex reserve also affects exchange rate of
the INR.
• Capital Outflows: Foreign investors pulling out funds from Indian markets reduce Forex reserves,
leading to depreciation.
• Trade Deficit: When imports exceed exports, demand for foreign currency rises, weakening the rupee.
o India’s traditional demand for high-value imports such as crude oil and gold boosts demand for the
dollar and weakens the rupee.

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 • Global economic factors: High crude oil prices, US Federal Reserve interest rate hikes, or global
recessions can also weaken the rupee.
Impact of Rupee’s Depreciation
Positive Impact Negative Impact
• Boost to Exports: Goods and services become • Higher Import Costs: A weaker rupee makes
more competitive in international markets due imports more expensive, particularly for crude oil.
to lower prices in dollar terms. It further leads to the widening of Trade Deficit.
o Export-oriented sectors, such as IT and • Higher Inflation: As some industries is import
pharmaceuticals, are expected to benefit. dependent, these results in high production costs.
• Higher Remittance Value: NRIs benefit from • Effect on Capital and Investment: A weakening
higher rupee value sending money back home. rupee may also trigger capital flight and a decline in
• Effect on Capital and Investment: A foreign direct investment (FDI) inflow.
weakening rupee may also result in domestic • Others: Increased cost of foreign debt, reduced
investments due to rise in exports. purchasing power and higher import costs erode
consumer sentiment, etc.
Measures can be taken to stabilize the Rupee
• Direct Dollar Sales: To increase the supply of USD in the market, thereby supporting the rupee's value.
• Foreign Exchange Swaps: RBI can use buy-sell swaps to inject or absorb dollar liquidity without
depleting forex reserves significantly.
• Attract Foreign Investments: Policy incentives, such as tax benefits, can encourage FDI and portfolio
inflows.
• Promoting International Use of the Rupee: India is working to increase the international use of its currency,
especially for trade. Enhancing the rupee’s global presence can further stabilize its value.

3.4.2. FRAMEWORK FOR RECLASSIFICATION OF FPI TO FDI

Why in the News?
Recently, RBI Issued Framework for Reclassification of foreign portfolio investment (FPI) to Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI).

More on the News

Under current regulations, (FPIs) can hold a maximum of 10% of an Indian company’s total paid-up equity
capital (amount of money that a company receives from shareholders in exchange for shares).
• Exceeding this 10% cap (prescribed limit of FPI) had previously left FPIs with two choices: Divesting
(selling off) the surplus shares or reclassifying them as FDI.
• In case the FPI intends to reclassify its FPI into FDI, the FPI shall follow the operational framework as given
below.
RBI’S New Operational Framework on reclassification of FPI to FDI
• The facility of reclassification shall not be permitted in sectors prohibited for FDI. E.g., Chit funds,
gambling, etc.

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 • FPI investments require government approvals, especially from land-bordering countries, and need
Indian investee company's concurrence.
o Also, investment should be in adherence to entry route, sectoral caps, investment limits, pricing
guidelines, and other attendant conditions for FDI under the rules.
• FPI reclassification will be guided by Foreign Exchange Management (Mode of Payment and Reporting of
Non-Debt Instruments) Regulations, 2019.
To know more about FDI refer to Article 4.2 in PT365 Economy 2025

3.4.3. DE-DOLLARISATION
Why in the news?
Recently, RBI Governor clarified that India has not taken steps toward de-dollarisation and is rather focused
on de-risking its domestic trade from geopolitical upheavals.
What is De-dollarization?
• About: It aims to reverse dollarization (historical domination of US dollar in global market) causing a
significant reduction of its use in world trade and financial transactions.
• Recent Trends: India has allowed trade invoicing in Indian Rupees (INR) with various countries, including
Russia.
o The recent BRICS Summit (Kazan, 2024) also discussed the potential for a common BRICS currency.
Why are countries moving towards De-dollarization?
• Reduction of Exchange Rate Risk: It allows countries to trade in their local currencies, minimizing the risks
associated with fluctuations in the US dollar's value.
• Enhanced Monetary Policy Control: Countries can implement strategies suitable to their economic
conditions without being influenced by US Dollar.
• Geo-political Benefits: Challenging US dominance & its weaponisation of dollar through sanctions.

3.4.4. REMITTANCES
Why in the news?
According to the World Bank, India secured 14.3% of Global Remittances in 2024, highest share ever.
About Remittances
• Definition: Remittances are financial transfers made by individuals working abroad to support their
families in their home country.
• Top five recipients in 2024: India at $129 billion (Compared to $125 billion in 2023), Mexico, China,
Philippines, and Pakistan, driven by recovery in job markets in high-income countries of OECD.
• China's share of global remittances dropped to 5.3% in 2024, its lowest share in two decades, due to
reduced low-skilled emigration stemming from its rising economic prosperity and aging population.
Factors responsible for High Remittances in India
• Scale of Migration: India has one of the largest diaspora populations in world, with over 18 million Indians
living abroad as of 2023 (UN World Migration Report 2024).
• Shift in Destination Trends: Increasingly, Indian migrants are moving to high-income economies like US,
UK, and Australia.
• Skilled and Unskilled Labor: Indian migrants range from highly skilled professionals (IT, healthcare) to
semi-skilled and unskilled labourers.
Significance of High Remittances
• For Recipient Households: used for essential expenses like food, healthcare, and education, directly
improving living standards.

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 • For Macro-economy: Major source of foreign exchange, reduced reliance on foreign aid, funding current
account deficits and fiscal shortfalls etc.
About Liberalised Remittances Scheme
• Genesis: Introduced in 2004.
• Benefit: All resident individuals, including minors, are allowed to freely remit up to USD 2,50,000 per
financial year for any permissible current or capital account transaction or a combination of both.
• There are no restrictions on the frequency of remittances under it.
• The Scheme is not available to corporates, partnership firms, Hindu Undivided Family (HUF), Trusts
etc.

3.4.5. MOST-FAVOURED-NATION (MFN)

Why in the news?
World Trade Organisation (WTO) has highlighted that Over 80 per cent of global merchandise trade is on Most-
favoured-nation (MFN) basis.
About MFN
• This principle underlines that countries cannot normally discriminate between their trading partners.
o In simple words, if any country grants someone a special favour (such as a lower customs duty rate for
one of their products) then it has to do the same for all other WTO members.
• The principle is embedded mainly in Article I of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 1994.
o MFN is also a priority in General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and Agreement on Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).
• Mechanism for Implementation: Member countries shall extend MFN status to each other automatically,
unless otherwise specified in the agreement or schedule notified to the WTO by the member country.
o India has extended MFN status to many countries.
Exceptions to the MFN
• Trade Pacts: It includes Regional Trade Agreements (RTA) and Preferential Trade Arrangements (PTAs).
o E.g. Comprehensive and Progressive Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP)
• Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) scheme: Under it, developed countries may grant a preferential
tariff treatment to imports from developing countries and LDCs.
• Other: Anti-dumping duties, countervailing duties, etc.
o Countervailing duties are additional tariffs levied on imported goods a WTO Member may impose once
the presence of subsidized imports has demonstrated to injure a domestic industry.

3.4.6. AMENDMENT IN THE FOREIGN TRADE POLICY (FTP), 2023

Why in the news?
Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) notified amendment in the Foreign Trade Policy (FTP), 2023.
About the Amendment
• The Amendment has provided legal backing in the FTP to make it necessary to do consultation with
stakeholders including importers/exporters/industry experts concerning the formulation or amendment of
the FTP.
• The amendments made in the exercise of powers conferred under the Foreign Trade (Development &
Regulation) Act, 1992.
FTP 2023 and its Key Features
• Objective: Aims at process re-engineering and automation to facilitate ease of doing business for exporters.
• Target: To take India's exports to 2 trillion dollars by 2030
• Key Approach to the policy is based on these 4 pillars:
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 o Incentive to Remission,
o Export promotion through collaboration - Exporters, States, Districts, Indian Missions,
o Ease of doing business, reduction in transaction cost and e-initiatives and
o Emerging Areas – E-Commerce Developing Districts as Export Hubs and streamlining SCOMET policy.
• Key Initiatives
o Districts as Export Hubs Initiative: It focuses on the development of logistics, testing facilities,
connectivity for exports, etc.
o Expanded Export Promotion of Capital Goods (EPCG) Scheme: E.g. Prime Minister Mega Integrated
Textile Region and Apparel Parks (PM MITRA) was brought under it.
o Promoting Cross Border Trade in Digital Economy: Provided for establishing E-Commerce Export
Hubs (ECEHs), etc.
o Recognition of Exporters: Exporter firms recognized with 'status' based on export performance will now
be partners in capacity-building initiatives.
o Streamlining SCOMET (Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment and Technologies)
Policy: To provide access of dual-use High end goods and technologies to Indian exporters while
facilitating exports of controlled items/technologies under SCOMET.
o Advance authorisation Scheme accessed by DTA units provides duty-free import of raw materials for
manufacturing export items and is placed at a similar footing to EOU and SEZ Scheme.

3.5. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

3.5.1. GDP BASE YEAR REVISION
Why in the News?
Government has formed 26-member Advisory Committee on National Accounts Statistics (NAS) to update
the GDP base year from existing 2011-12 to 2022-23.
More on the News
• Advisory Committee, under chairmanship of Biswanath Goldar, has been formed to identify new data
sources & refine methodology for compiling NAS and align GDP with inflation and industrial indices.
o Central Statistics Office (CSO) brings out NAS annually which includes GDP estimates from multiple
approaches.
• Previously, in 2015, the base year was
changed from 2004-05 to 2011-12.
o In the new series, CSO did away with
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at
factor cost, and adopted the
international practice of valuing industry-
wise estimates as Gross Value Added
(GVA) at basic prices.
What is Base Year?
• A base year is the reference year whose
prices are used to calculate the real
growth (minus inflation) in national income.
• Thus, Base year is a benchmark used for
GDP calculation.
o For example: If 2011-12 is the base year,
GDP for other years is adjusted to match
2011-12 prices.

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 Need to Update the GDP Base Year
• Removing Inflation Effects: Outdated base years can overestimate GDP by ignoring rising prices.
• Enhances Data Quality: Includes new data from digitization, enhances more reliable data use, etc.
• Global Comparison: Aids in comparing GDP with other countries.
• Other Reasons: Adapts to post-pandemic dynamics, supports policymaking, etc.
About GDP
• Measurements of GDP: Theoretically, GDP can be measured in three different way, each of which should
give the same answer (refer to the infographic).
o Nominal GDP: Measured at current market prices, ignores inflation.
o Real GDP: Adjusted for inflation using base year prices, showing true economic growth.

3.5.1.1. PURCHASING POWER PARITIES

Why in the news?
Global Purchasing Power Parities (PPP) Data for 2021 has been released by the International Comparison
Program (ICP) for 176 economies.
Key Findings
• China was the largest economy in 2021, followed by US on the basis of PPP.
• India’s economy ($11.0 trillion) was the third largest, accounting for 7.2% of Global GDP.
o On the basis of GDP ranking, India is 5th largest economy at present.
• High-income economies with just 16.4% of world’s population accounted for 46% of the global GDP. On
the other hand, low-income economies (8.4% of world’s population) accounted for just 1% of global GDP.
About PPP
• PPP is the exchange rate at which one nation's currency would be converted into another to purchase the
same amounts of a large group of products.
• Used to determine the relative value of different currencies.
• Significance:
o Provides more accurate measure of living standards across countries than Market exchange rate
(MER)-based estimates.
> MER often inflates the buying power of high-income countries (where prices are high) and
underestimates that of low-income ones (where prices are lower).
o PPP exchange rates are relatively stable over time than MER.

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 About ICP
• A worldwide statistical initiative to collect comparative price data and detailed GDP expenditures to
produce PPPs for the world’s economies.
• Initiated in 1968, it is coordinated by the World Bank under the auspices of the United Nations
Statistical Commission.
• Also measures Price Level Index (PLI), which is the ratio of a PPP to its corresponding exchange rate.

3.5.2. INDIA'S DIGITAL ECONOMY

Why in the News?
The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has released a comprehensive study titled
Estimation and Measurement of India’s Digital Economy.

Benefits/Significance of Digital Economy

• Enhances Exports: India is the 2nd highest ICT services exporter in the world, behind Ireland (2023).
• Enhanced Service Delivery: E.g., e-Hospital and e-Sanjeevani (National Telemedicine Service) have made
healthcare facilities more accessible.
• Increases Global Competitiveness/Promotes Ease of doing Business.
• Boost to Startups and Innovation: India has the third-largest number of homegrown unicorns in the world
(2024) and also hosts about 55% of the world’s Global Capability Centers (GCCs).
o GCCs are offshore centres established by multinational corporations to provide a variety of services to
their parent organisations, including R&D, IT support, and business process management.

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 3.5.2.1. DIRECT BENEFIT TRANSFER (DBT)
Why in the news?
As per a recent report by the State Bank of India, the
Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) amount to women
through various schemes has crossed ₹ 2 trillion
mark across multiple states.
About Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT)
• Launched: 2013.
• Objective: Reform the mechanism of transferring
cash subsidies and benefits to ensure reduction
in leakages, faster delivery and elimination of
delays in fund flow.
• Scope of Support:
o Cash Transfers: Examples include PM-KISAN (farmer income support), pensions (old-aged, widows),
and scholarships.
o In-Kind Support: Fertilizer subsidies, food grain distribution (PDS), and school meals (PM Poshan).
• Mechanism (built on India Stack)
o Public Financial Management System (PFMS): It performs functions such as beneficiary list
preparation, digital signing, and payment processing via the Aadhaar Payment Bridge (APB) of NPCI.
o JAM (Jan Dhan-Aadhaar-Mobile) Trinity: Integrates Aadhaar-seeded Jan Dhan accounts with mobile
numbers to enable seamless and direct credit to beneficiaries.
o Banking Infrastructure: Utilizes Business Correspondents, Payment Banks, and Aadhaar-enabled
Payment Systems (AePS) for financial inclusion and delivery of funds.
o UPI Integration: Expands interoperability, allowing both public and private sector participation in
delivering subsidies and benefits.

3.5.3. HOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE SURVEY (HCES), 2023 -24

Why in the news?
National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) released the results of the HCES 2023-24.
Important Findings of HCES: 2023-24
• Average Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE):
o Rural: ₹4,122 (₹4,247 with imputed benefits), increased by 9% from 2022-23.
o Urban: ₹6,996 (₹7,078 with imputed benefits), increased by 8% from 2022-23.
• Urban-Rural Gap: Reduced from 84% (2011-12) to 70% (2023-24), indicating rural consumption growth.
• Increased Spending on Non-Food Items:
Non-food items dominate expenditure (53%
rural, 60% urban), with the major contribution
from conveyance, clothing, etc.
o Percentage share of food in average
monthly expenditure had fallen.
• Consumption Inequality: Gini coefficient
declined to 0.237 (rural) and 0.284 (urban),
reflecting reduced income disparity.
o Gini Coefficient measures the extent of
income inequality among households. It
ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1
(perfect inequality).

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 • Inequality among States: MPCE is highest in Sikkim and lowest in Chhattisgarh.
About Household Consumption Survey Expenditure (HCES)
• Conducted by: National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) at regular intervals,
o Initially, it was conducted at one-year duration (starting 1950-51).
> However, since its 26th round, the survey has been conducted roughly every 5 years. (The 2017-18
Survey was discarded by the government citing ‘Data Quality’ issues.)

3.5.4. OTHER KEY DEVELOPMENTS

3.5.4.1. CONSUMER CONFIDENCE SURVEY (CCS)
Latest RBI’s bi-monthly Consumer Confidence Survey (CCS), conducted across 19 major cities, shows
weakened consumer confidence in India’s economy, employment, and spending.
About Consumer Confidence and Consumer Confidence Survey (CCS)
• Consumer Confidence is an economic indicator that measures the degree of optimism or pessimism that
consumers feel about overall state of the economy and personal financial situation.
o It serves as an indicator of the health of the economy from the perspective of the consumer.
o High consumer confidence in the economy is usually related to higher spending by Consumers.
• CCS responses are measured through two indexes:
o Current Situation Index (CSI) - Consumer sentiment about current economic, employment, and price
conditions as compared to a year ago.
o Future Expectation Index (FEI) - Expectations about economic, employment, and price conditions a
year ahead.

3.5.4.2. WORLD BANK RELEASED ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL DEBT REPORT (IDR) 2024
The IDR features external debt statistics and analysis for Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) that report
to the World Bank’s Debtor Reporting System (DRS).
Key highlights
• Rising External Debt: Total external debt of LMICs rose by 2.4% in 2023, reaching $8.8 trillion.
• Factors Driving Indebtedness

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 o High Interest Rates: Tight monetary policies in high-income countries pushed interest rates to a 20-
year high.
> Bangladesh and India experienced over 90% increases in interest payments in 2023.
o Other Factors: Inflation, depreciating currencies, and global economic uncertainty due to armed
conflicts and trade fragmentation.

3.6. AGRICULTURE AND ALLIED SECTOR

3.6.1. ANNA CHAKRA TOOL
Why in the news?
The Union Minister of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution launched the ‘Anna Chakra’ PDS
Supply Chain optimization tool and SCAN Portal to modernize the PDS system.
About Anna Chakra
• It is a Public Distribution System (PDS) Supply Chain optimization tool that leverages advanced
algorithms to identify optimal routes and ensure seamless movement of food grains.
• It is an initiative of the Department of Food Public Distribution developed in collaboration with the World
Food Programme (WFP) and IIT-Delhi.
• It is Integrated with the PM Gati Shakti platform and FOIS (Freight Operations Information System)
portal of the Railways through the Unified Logistics Interface Platform (ULIP).
About SCAN (Subsidy Claim Application for NFSA) portal
• Aims to provide a single window submission of subsidy claims by states, claim scrutiny and approval
by DFPD facilitating expeditious settlement process through end-to-end workflow automation.
About Public Distribution System (PDS)
• By coverage, it is the world’s largest food distribution program.
• Operated under joint responsibility of Centre and States:
o Centre (through FCI): Procurement, storage, transportation and bulk allocation of food grains.
o States: Operational responsibility including allocation within State, identification of eligible families,
issuing of Ration Cards and supervision of FPSs.
• Evolution of PDS: Revamped PDS (1992), Targeted PDS (TPDS) (1997), Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) (2000),
National Food Security Act (2013), Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY) (2020).

3.6.2. RUBBER BOARD UNVEILED ISNR AND INR KONNECT

Why in the news?
The initiatives iSNR (Indian Sustainable Natural Rubber) and INR Konnect were unveiled on the occasion of
the platinum jubilee celebrations of the Rubber Act, 1947.
• The Act of 1947 provided for the About Rubber Crop
establishment of the Rubber Board • Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber Tree) native of the Amazon river
(works under the Ministry of basin.
Commerce & Industry) to ensure o Introduced to tropical Asia and Africa by the British.
overall development of the rubber o Rubber is obtained in the form of latex from tree.
industry in the country. • Conditions required for Plantation
About Initiatives o Climate: Tropical climate with annual rainfall of 200 –
300 cm is suited for cultivation.
• iSNR: Aims at aligning Indian rubber > Temperature should be ranged from 25 to 34°C with
production with the stringent 80 % relative humidity.
European Union Deforestation o Soil: It requires deep and lateritic fertile soil, deficient in
Regulation (EUDR) standards. phosphorus.

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 o A key feature of iSNR is its traceability certification (guarantees the rubber’s origin and certifies its
compliance).
• INR Konnect (web-based platform): Designed to connect growers of untapped rubber holdings with
interested adopters to maximise plantation productivity.

3.6.3. NATIONAL TURMERIC BOARD

Why in the news?
Union Minister for Commerce and Industry launches National Turmeric Board.
About National Turmeric Board (NTB)
About Turmeric (Curcuma longa); also called ‘Golden Spice’
• Headquarters: Nizamabad, Telangana
• Type: Perennial, rhizomatous herbaceous plant native to the
(a major turmeric-producing region).
Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.
• Ministry: Ministry of Commerce and• Significance of Turmeric: It has anti-inflammatory,
Industry. antioxidant, and detoxifying properties. It helps protect the
• Prominent Members: liver from damage, supports detoxification, etc.
o Key Department & Ministries:• Climatic conditions: Turmeric thrives in tropical and
Representatives of Ministry of subtropical climates with the following conditions:
AYUSH, Department of o Temperature: Between 20°C and 30°C.
Pharmaceuticals, Department of o Rainfall: Between 1,500 to 2,500 mm annually.
Agriculture & Farmers Welfare and o Soil: Well-drained, fertile soils rich in organic matter.
Department of Commerce. o Altitude: Grows best at elevations up to 1,500 meters above
o States: Will be represented on the sea level.
Board by rotation.
• Type: NTB is an executive body (not a Statutory Body).
India’s Dominance in the Global Turmeric Industry
• India is the largest producer, consumer, and exporter of turmeric.
• Accounts for: 70% of global production & 62% of global trade.
• The largest producing states of Turmeric: Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
o More than 30 varieties of Turmeric are grown in India and it is grown in over 20 states in the country.
> Major varieties with GI (Geographical Indication) Tags: Erode Turmeric (Tamil Nadu), Lakadong
Turmeric (Meghalaya, known for high curcumin content), Kandhamal Haldi (Odisha).
• Targets:
o Double the production to 20 lakh tonnes in five years.
o By 2030, turmeric exports are projected to reach $1 billion USD.

3.6.4. INDIA’S COFFEE EXPORTS

Why in the news?
Indian coffee exports surpass $1bn for the first time: Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE).

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 Reason for increase in export
• Surge in Robusta coffee prices: By over 60% in 2024, reaching 45-year high due to increased global coffee
consumption.
o It was driven by poor weather (e.g. droughts) which disrupted supply in key coffee producing
countries like Brazil and Vietnam.
• European Union Deforestation Regulation (EUDR): Sharp growth is due to stocking ahead of EU’s new
deforestation regulation that could raise cost of coffee and other agricultural exports to EU.
Status of Coffee Production

• India is eighth largest coffee producer globally in 2022-23.

o Brazil is world’s largest coffee producer, contributing about 40% of global production.
• Traditionally grown in rainforests of Western Ghats in South India mainly produced in Karnataka
(highest), Kerala, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
• Arabica and Robusta Coffee are of major economic importance.
o Arabica is superior in quality to Robusta and trades at higher price than that of Robusta.
o India is fifth largest producer for robusta coffee which accounts for 72% of country's total coffee
production.

3.6.5. OTHER KEY DEVELOPMENTS

3.6.5.1. INDIA’S FIRST ORGANIC FISHERIES CLUSTER
Union Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying launched India’s first Organic Fisheries Cluster
in Soreng District of Sikkim.
• It aims at development of organic fisheries and aquaculture in Sikkim under Pradhan Mantri Matsya
Sampada Yojana (PMMSY).
o PMMSY aims to bring about Blue Revolution through sustainable development of fisheries sector in
India.
o PMMSY provides for adoption of cluster-based approach to enhance competitiveness of fisheries
sector, facilitate economies of scale, and generate higher incomes.
• Organic Fisheries focuses on ecologically healthy fish farming system avoiding the use of harmful
chemicals, antibiotics, and pesticides.

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 3.6.5.2. BASIC ANIMAL HUSBANDRY STATISTICS (BAHS) 2024
Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry & Dairying released BAHS 2024 on National Milk Day (26th November)
to celebrate birth anniversary of Dr. Verghese Kurien (Father of White Revolution in India).

3.6.5.3. WORLD ORGANISATION FOR ANIMAL HEALTH (WOAH)

Indian Council of Agricultural Research-National Research Centre on Equines (ICAR-NRC Equine) in Haryana
has been granted WOAH Reference Laboratory status.
• This recognition is specifically for its expertise in Equine Piroplasmosis disease.
o Equine Piroplasmosis is caused by tick-borne protozoan parasites, affects horses, donkeys, mules,
and zebras.
About WOAH
• An intergovernmental organization founded in 1924.
• Objective: Disseminating information on animal diseases and improving animal health globally.
• Members: 183 including India.
• HQ: Paris, France

3.6.5.4. DIGITIZATION OF LAND RECORDS

Union Minister of Rural Development recently notified that nearly 95% of the land records have been digitized
in Rural India since 2016.
• This achievement is due to Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP).
About Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP)
• Launched: In 2016 by revamping the National Land Records Modernization Programme.
• Ministry: Central Sector Scheme under Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development.
o It has been extended from 2021-22 to 2025-26 with addition of two new components viz.
> Computerization of all Revenue Courts in country & their integration with land records.
> Consent-based linking of Aadhaar number with Records of Rights (RoR).
• Aim: To replace manual presumptive land-title system with a digital conclusive land titling system.
Key Initiatives under DILRMP
• Bhu-Aadhar - Unique Land Parcel Identification Number (ULPIN): A 14-digit alphanumeric code for each
land parcel to streamline real estate transactions, resolve property disputes, and improve disaster
management efforts.

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 • National Generic Document Registration System (NGDRS): e-Registration ensuring a uniform process for
deed/document registration.
• Bhoomi Samman: Awards (Platinum Grading) for districts achieving saturation of core components of
DILRMP.

3.6.5.5. BANANA CULTIVATION

According to Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), India has
achieved a tenfold increase in banana exports over the past decade and aims to reach $1 billion in the next 5
years.
• In FY 2023-24, India exported bananas worth $300 million, a substantial leap from $176 million in 2022-
23.
About Banana cultivation
• Climate: Tropical crop grows well in a temperature range of 15ºC – 35ºC with relative humidity of 75-
85%.
• Soil: Deep, rich loamy soil with pH between 6.5 – 7.5
o Should have good drainage, adequate fertility and moisture, should neither be too acidic or alkaline.
• Major varieties: Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Monthan, Poovan, Nendran, etc.
• Major producers: Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat etc.

3.6.5.6. TOBACCO BOARD

On its formation day, Tobacco Board highlights that earnings of Flue-Cured Virginia (FCV) tobacco farmers have
more than doubled between 2019-20 and 2023-24.
• FCV tobacco is a high-quality, aromatic tobacco variety widely used in production of cigarettes.
• Currently, India is 2nd largest producer of tobacco in world after China (4th in FCV).

3.6.5.7. PROJECT VISTAAR

IIT Madras has partnered with the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare on Project VISTAAR (Virtually
Integrated System to Access Agricultural Resources)
About VISTAAR
• It is a "Network" of Networks (Al-augmented) and every State can build their own Agri-Advisory network.
• It is a comprehensive network that connects decentralized databases to provide seamless access to vital
agricultural resources.
• Objective: Enhance decision-making and resource utilization
• Significance
o Expand access to high-quality advisory services on crop production, marketing, value addition, and
supply chain management.
o Provide farmers with information on relevant government schemes.

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 3.6.5.8. NANO FERTILIZERS
Indian Scientists have developed a nanomaterial coating (made of nanoclay) for muriate of potash (MoP).
• MoP serves 80% of potassium fertilizer needs.
About Nano Fertilizers
• Nano fertilizers are nutrients that are encapsulated or coated within nanomaterial (measuring 100
nanometres or less).
o It enables controlled release and its subsequent slow diffusion into the soil.
• IFFCO had launched world's first 'Nano Liquid Urea' fertiliser in 2021 & then Nano-DAP in 2023. Indian
Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) has developed a new product, nano-NPK fertilizer.
• Benefits:
o Promotes sustainable farming: Reduces soil and water contamination.
o Cost Effectiveness: Improves nutrient absorption, reduce nutrient wastage and lower application
frequency, etc.

3.6.5.9. KISAN KAVACH

Scientists affiliated to the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) have developed an Indigenous ‘anti-pesticide’
suit called Kisan Kavach.
About Kisan Kavach
• Developed by BRIC-inStem, Bangalore, it is designed to protect farmers from the harmful effects of
pesticide exposure.
• The kit consists of a trouser, pullover, and a face-cover made of ‘oxime fabric’.
o Oxime fabric can chemically breakdown any of the common pesticides that get sprayed onto cloth
or body during spraying operations

3.6.5.10. MILKWEED FIBER

Ministry of Textiles encouraging research & development into new natural fibers, including milkweed fiber.
About Milkweed fiber
• It is a unique natural fiber extracted from the seed pods of milkweed plants (Asclepias syriaca L).
o The plant is native to North America. In India, it is found as a wild plant in Rajasthan, Karnataka &
Tamil Nadu.
• Properties: It contains oily material & lignin, a woody plant substance, which makes them too brittle for
spinning.
o Its amphiphilic material that can exhibit both hydrophilic (water absorbing) & hydrophobic (water-
repelling/resisting) properties.
• Applications: Used as an absorbent material, water-safety equipment (life jackets & belts) etc.

3.6.5.11. TOMATO GRAND CHALLENGE (TGC)

Centre announced “funding and mentorship” for winners of 'Tomato Grand Challenge (TGC)'
• TGC seeks innovative, scalable solutions to stabilize the tomato supply chain.
• It was launched in 2023 by the Department of Consumer Affairs in collaboration with Ministry of Education
(Innovation Cell).
• Tomatoes, along with Onions and Potatoes (collectively referred as TOPs) have seen huge fluctuations
in agriculture commodities among all crops.
o TOPs are the largest cultivated, produced and consumed vegetables in India.
o TOPs make up more than a third of the Consumer Price Index (CPI) vegetables category.
• Operation Greens was launched under PM Kisan Sampada Yojna to address price volatility of TOPs, later
it was extended to other fruits & vegetables (TOP to TOTAL).
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 3.7. INFRASTRUCTURE
3.7.1. LOGISTICS EASE ACROSS DIFFERENT STATES (LEADS) 2024’ REPORT
Why in the news?
The LEADS 2024 is has been released by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
About LEADS
• Objective: Provides insights into improvement of logistics performance at State/UT level.
o LEADS was conceived on the Performance Highlights of 2024
lines of Logistics
Achievers Fast movers Aspirers
Performance Index (LPI) of
Gujarat, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, West Bengal,
World Bank in 2018.
Assam, Bihar, Himachal Manipur, Chhattisgarh,
> While the LPI relies
Chandigarh, etc. Pradesh etc. etc.
entirely on perception-
based surveys, LEADS incorporates both perception as well as objectivity.
• Parameters: 4 key pillars i.e., Sustainable Logistics, Operating and Regulatory Environment, Logistic
Infrastructure and Logistic Services
• Categories of State/UTs: They are categorised into four groups Coastal, Landlocked, Northeast and
Union Territories.
o And further they are given tags of Achievers, Fast movers, and Aspirers on the basis of their
performance.

3.7.2. OTHER KEY DEVELOPMENTS

3.7.2.1. GRIHA (GREEN RATING FOR INTEGRATED HABITAT ASSESSMENT)
Inland Waterways Authority of India’s Intermodal Terminal at Kalughat in Bihar has received five five-star
SVAGRIHA rating from GRIHA.
• Terminal is part of World Bank funded Jal Marg Vikas Project for capacity augmentation of National
Waterway 1 – River Ganga.
About GRIHA
• Ministry: Joint venture of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy and The Energy and Resources Institute
(TERI)
• Role: GRIHA is a rating tool that evaluates the environmental performance of a building holistically over
its entire life cycle, thereby providing a definitive standard for what constitutes a 'green building'.
• SVAGRIHA: SVAGRIHA (Simple Versatile Affordable GRIHA), is given to small-scale stakeholders (owners
of projects such as bungalows and small offices).

3.7.2.2. SMILE PROGRAM

India and Asian Development Bank (ADB) recently signed a $350 million policy-based loan under the second
subprogram of SMILE (Strengthening Multimodal and Integrated Logistics Ecosystem) program.
About SMILE Program
• It is a programmatic policy-based loan (PBL) by ADB to support the government of India to undertake wide
ranging reforms in the logistics sector.
• Objective
o To strengthen the institutional and policy framework for inter-ministerial coordination and planning
for incentivizing private sector participation in multimodal logistics projects (MMLPs)
o To improve efficiencies in external trade logistics and encourage the use of smart and automated
systems for improved service delivery.

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 3.7.2.3. KANDLA PORT
Union Minister of Ports, Shipping & Waterways announced major initiatives to boost the capacity at Kandla Port.
About Kandla Port
• Establishment: Constructed in the 1950s as a replacement for the Karachi Port (lost after the partition of
India).
• Official Name: Deendayal Port (renamed in 2017 under the Indian Ports Act, 1908.)
• Location: Kutch District, Gujarat, India.
• Significance:
o India's second largest port by cargo volume (Paradip Port ranked one).
o It serves as a gateway port for states in North, West, and Central India.
o It hosts the Kandla Special Economic Zone (KASEZ), established in 1965 as the first SEZ in India and
Asia.

3.8. SERVICES
3.8.1. TOURISM SECTOR IN INDIA
Why in the News?
Cruise Bharat Mission (CBM) launched by the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways.
About Cruise Bharat Mission
• Aim: To excel in India’s vision to become a global hub for cruise tourism and promote the country as the
leading global cruise destination. It also aims to:
o Double cruise passenger traffic within five years; i.e. by 2029.
o Double volume of cruise calls from 254 in 2024 to 500 by 2030.
• Phase wise implementation: It will be implemented during 2024-2029 in 3 phases.
• Three key cruise segments:
o Ocean & Harbour Cruise segment: Encompasses ocean cruises, including deep-sea and coastal
cruises, along with harbour-based yachting and sailing cruises.
o River & Inland Cruise segment: Focuses on river and inland cruises on canals, backwaters, creeks,
and lakes.
o Island Cruise segment: Highlights inter-island cruises, lighthouse tours, etc.

Other Initiatives taken to promote Tourism Sector

• Swadesh Darshan 2.0 to develop sustainable tourism destinations, following a destination & tourism-
centric approach.
• National Mission on Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spiritual Heritage Augmentation Drive (PRASHAD)
scheme to safeguard India's ancient civilizational heritage.
• 100% FDI is allowed through automatic route in tourism construction projects including development of
hotels, resorts, and recreational facilities.
• Dekho Apna Desh initiative to promote domestic tourism.

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 • Promotion of Rural Tourism: Dhordo village in the Kutch district of Gujarat was awarded as the Best
Tourism Village by the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).
• Special Assistance to States/Union Territories for Capital Investment (SASCI) scheme: To infuse long
term interest free loans for a period of 50 years to States for comprehensively develop iconic tourist
centers in the country, branding, and marketing them at global scale.

3.9. MINING, ENERGY AND INDUSTRY

3.9.1. MANUFACTURING SECTOR
Why in the news?
“Midgets making widgets” phenomenon
Annual Survey of Industries (ASI) released by Ministry of • Indian firms are increasingly setting up
Statistics and Programme Implementation for FY 2022-23. multiple factories (multi-plants) in the
Key Highlights same state instead of expanding a single
large factory.
• Manufacturing Gross Value Added (GVA): Grew by • Multi-plant firms have lower productivity
7.3% in current prices in 2022-23 over 2021-22. than single-plant firms of equivalent size.
o Top 3 States: Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, Hence, Indian firms are losing out to
in terms of Manufacturing GVA.me smaller countries like Bangladesh.
• Employment: 7.4% increase in manufacturing
employment in 2022-23 over previous year.
o Top 3 states in employment: Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat.

Initiatives for Manufacturing Sector

• National Manufacturing Mission: Announced in Budget 2025-26, aims to support small, medium, and large
industries under the “Make in India” initiative.
o Five focal areas: Ease and cost of doing business; future ready workforce for in-demand jobs; a vibrant
and dynamic MSME sector; availability of technology; and quality products.
o Make in India: Launched in 2014, it aims to transform India into a global hub for design and
manufacturing.
• Production linked Incentive (PLI) Schemes: Aligned with India’s vision of becoming 'Atmanirbhar' (self-
reliant), the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Schemes were introduced to enhance the country’s
manufacturing capabilities and boost exports.
• National Manufacturing Policy (NMP): Targets increasing manufacturing sector contribution to 25% of
GDP.
About ASI
• Conducted under Collection of Statistics Act, 2008 except in Jammu & Kashmir (Conducted under J&K
Collection of Statistics Act, 2010).
• Industries covered:
o Factories registered under Sections 2m(i &ii) of Factories Act,1948
o Bidi and cigar manufacturing establishments under the Bidi & Cigar Workers (Conditions of
Employment) Act,1966
o Electricity undertakings not registered with Central Electricity Authority (CEA)

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 o Units with 100 or more employees registered in the Business Register of Establishments (BRE)
maintained by the States.

3.9.2. MSMES
Why in the news?
In Union Budget 2025-26, government revised the classification for MSMEs (Refer Infographic).
Status of MSMEs
• Globally, MSMEs account for 90% of businesses, 60 to 70% of employment, and 50% of GDP.
• In India MSMEs contributes around 30% to India's GDP, ~46% of India’s total exports.
Other Key Measures for MSMEs in Union Budget 2025-26
• Enhanced Credit Availability: The credit guarantee cover for micro and small enterprises has been
increased from ₹5 crore to ₹10 crore, enabling additional credit of ₹1.5 lakh crore over five years.
o Startups will see their guarantee cover double from ₹10 crore to ₹20 crore, with a reduced fee of 1% for
loans in 27 priority sectors.
• Customised Credit Card scheme: A new scheme will provide ₹5 lakh in credit to micro enterprises
registered on the Udyam portal, with 10 lakh cards set to be issued in the first year.
• Other:
o A new Fund of Funds with ₹10,000 crore will be established to expand support for startups.
o A scheme for 5 lakh first-time women, Scheduled Caste, and Scheduled Tribe entrepreneurs will provide
term loans up to ₹2 crore over five years.

Initiatives to support MSMEs in India

• Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY): To facilitate easy collateral-free micro credit of up to ₹20 lakh.
o A new ‘Tarun Plus’ category has been created for loans above Rs. 10 lakh and upto Rs. 20 lakh.
• Centre for Rural Enterprise Acceleration through Technology (CREATE): It supports and enhances local
productivity, product quality, economic potential and improves livelihoods for the local communities.
• Credit Guarantee Fund Trust for Micro and Small Enterprises (CGTMSE): Set up in 2000 by Ministry of
Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises and SIDBI.
o It aims to provide credit guarantee support to member lending institutions for credit facilities
sanctioned by them to MSEs, especially in absence of collateral.
o Eligible Lending Institutions: Scheduled commercial banks (Public Sector Banks/Private Sector
Banks/Foreign Banks) and select Regional Rural Banks.
o Corpus Contribution: Government and SIDBI in ratio of 4:1.
• MSME loans: All bank loans to MSMEs shall qualify for classification under PSL.

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 3.9.2.1. RECEIVABLES SECURITIZATION GAINING POPULARITY AMONG MSMES FOR
ACCESSING LIQUIDITY
About Receivables securitization
• Receivables securitization is a financial process where companies convert their accounts receivable
into cash by selling them as securities in the capital markets.
o Companies pool their receivables & transfer them to a third party which finances the purchase by
issuing securities that are sold to investors in the financial markets.
• Significance: It allows MSMEs to unlock the value tied up in outstanding payments & gain access to
funds quickly.

3.9.2.2. TREDS
Bills financed through TReDS (Trade Receivables Electronic Discounting System) has seen significant growth
in 2024.
About TReDS
• It is an electronic platform for online discounting of bills of MSMEs for supplies to large Corporates.
o It facilitates the discounting of both invoices as well as bills of exchange.
• It enables MSMEs secure financial assistance digitally at competitive terms and without any collateral
security, based on the invoices/ bills for supplies to large corporates.
• 3 Operations TReDS platforms - Receivables Exchange of India Ltd (RXIL), M1xchange, and
Invoicemart.

3.9.3. ANNUAL SURVEY OF UNINCORPORATED SECTOR ENTERPRISES (ASUSE) FOR

2023-24 RELEASED
Why in the news?
It has been released by National Statistics Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
(MoSPI) for the reference period October 2023 – September 2024.
About ASUSE
• Objective: To measure various economic and operational characteristics of unincorporated non-
agricultural establishments in manufacturing, trade and other services sector (excluding construction).
• Purpose: Input for policymaking, supporting national accounts statistics & requirements of key
ministries, data-driven decisions etc.
About Unincorporated Sector Enterprise
• A producer unit which is not incorporated as a legal entity separate from the owner.
• Assets used in such enterprises do not belong to the enterprises but to the owners.
• They cannot engage in transactions or enter into contractual relationships with other economic units
nor incur liabilities on their own behalf.
Owners are personally liable for any debts or obligations incurred in the course of production.

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 3.10. ORGANISATIONS IN NEWS
3.10.1. WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM

3.10.2. INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION (ILO)

International Labour Organization (ILO) has recently released its World Employment and Social Outlook:
Trends 2025 report.

3.10.3. NATIONAL FEDERATION OF STATE CO -OPERATIVE BANKS LIMITED

(NAFSCOB)
Union Home Minister and Minister of Cooperation attended Diamond Jubilee Celebrations of National
Federation of State Co-operative Banks Limited (NAFSCOB).

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 3.10.4. EMPLOYEES’ PROVIDENT FUND ORGANISATION (EPFO)
EPFO wins International Social Security Association’s (ISSA) ‘Good Practice Award’ for Asia and Pacific.

3.10.5. NATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING AUTHORITY (NFRA)

Recently, NFRA recommended the revision of Standards on Auditing aligning it with the global Standard ISA
600.

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 3.10.6. DIRECTORATE OF REVENUE INTELLIGENCE (DRI)
The Supreme Court restored Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) officers authority to issue notices and
recover dues under the Customs Act, 1962.

3.10.7. NCDRC
• Supreme Court set aside the 2008 NCDRC ruling in Awaz & Others vs. RBI, which barred banks from
charging over 30% interest on credit card dues, deeming it an unfair trade practice.

3.11. MISCELLANEOUS
3.11.1. WORLD FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2024 STATISTICAL YEARBOOK
Why in the news?
Recently, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations released the Statistical Yearbook
which offers a synthesis of the major factors at play in the global food and agriculture landscape.
Key Highlights from the Yearbook
• Economic dimensions of agriculture
o Share of agriculture in global GDP has been stable at around 4% since 2000.
o Agriculture employed 26% (892 million people) of the global workforce, compared with 40% in 2000.
> India had the largest number of people working in agriculture in 2022 at 226 million people.
o In 2022, India (76 million ha) and China (75 million ha) had the largest equipped area for irrigation.

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 • Production, trade, and prices of commodities
o Americas and Europe are the largest exporters and Asia the largest importer of cereals.
o India is top producer of milk (23% of Global share in 2022) and second largest producer of sugarcane
and fisheries.
• Food security and nutrition: Prevalence of food insecurity is higher for women across all continents.
• Sustainability and environmental aspects of agriculture
o Between 2000 and 2022, agricultural land declined by 91 million ha, while forest area declined by
109 million ha.
o Greenhouse gas emissions from agrifood systems grew by 10% between 2000 and 2022.

3.11.2. REPORTS IN NEWS

Reports Released/Published by
India Skills Report 2025 Wheebox
The World Energy Employment 2024 report International Energy Agency
Global Investment Trends Monitor United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD)
Trading with Intelligence: How AI Shapes World Trade Organization (WTO)
and is Shaped by International Trade”
Report
World Intellectual Property Indicators 2024 World Intellectual Property Organization
report
World Economic Situation and Prospects UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA)
(WESP) 2025 in partnership with UN Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD) and the five UN regional
commissions.
Sustainable Trade Index India has been ranked 23rd on the Sustainable Trade Index
2024 released by World Competitiveness Center and the
Hinrich Foundation.
Global Wage Report (2024-25) International labour organization (ILO)

3.11.3. EMPLOYEES' STATE INSURANCE CORPORATION (ESIC)

ESIC has been awarded one certificate of merit for its mobile application -Ask An Appointment (AAA+).
• Also awarded three certificates for Occupational Accident and Disease, Sustainable Investment and
System Resilience at Regional Social Security Forum for Asia and Pacific (RSSF Asia-Pacific).
• RSSF Asia-Pacific organized by International Social Security Association (ISSA) in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
About ESIC and AAA+
• ESIC set up under Employees' State Insurance Act, 1948 under Ministry of Labour & Employment.
• AAA+ serves insured persons, beneficiaries, staff, and ESI pensioners and streamlines healthcare
services.
International Social Security Association (ISSA)
• About: It is world’s leading international organization for social security institutions, government
departments & agencies.
• Genesis: Founded in 1927, under ILO.

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 3.11.4. QUICK UPDATE
Banihal Bypass • The Banihal bypass has been completed.
• The pass is 2.35 km road section of NH-44 in Jammu and Kashmir,
o NH44, also known as the Old NH 7, is the longest national highway in
India.
o It stretches 3,745 kilometers, connecting Srinagar in the northern tip of
Jammu and Kashmir to Kanyakumari at the southernmost point of India.
Z Morh Tunnel • Prime Minister has inaugurated Z-Morh tunnel in Ganderbal’s Sonamarg area
in J&K.
• Initially started by BRO in 2015 and evolved with National Highways and
Infrastructure Development Corporation Limited.
• Significance: Enhance all-weather connectivity between Srinagar and
Sonamarg enroute to Leh.
Anji Khad Bridge The Indian Railways has unveiled a monumental engineering achievement with
the completion of the Anji Khad Bridge, India’s first cable-stayed rail bridge.
• Location: Reasi district, Jammu and Kashmir, part of the Udhampur-Srinagar-
Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) Project.
• Significance: Enhances connectivity between Katra and the Kashmir Valley.
BAANKNET • Ministry of Finance launched a revamped e-auction portal ‘BAANKNET’.
• It consolidates information on e-auction properties from all Public Sector
Banks and offers a one-stop destination for buyers and investors to discover
a wide range of assets.
• The listings include residential properties such as flats, independent houses,
and open plots, as well as commercial properties, industrial land and
buildings, shops, etc.
• The platform is expected to unlock the value of distressed assets and
boosting investor confidence.
Interest Coverage Ratio • According to the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), the Interest
(ICR) Coverage Ratio (ICR) of unlisted companies is at a 30-year high.
• About ICR
o Definition: It is a financial ratio that indicates the ability of a firm to
service its outstanding debt.
o ICR Formula: Company’s Operating Profit (Earnings before Interest and
Taxes) divided by the Interest Expense (interest payable on borrowings
such as bonds, loans, etc.)
o It is used by lenders, creditors and investors to determine the riskiness
of lending capital to a company.
o It reflects the short-term financial health and stability of the firm.
> Lower ICR indicates greater debt and higher risk of the company’s
bankruptcy and vice versa.
ISHAN Initiative • The Airports Authority of India (AAI) has started work on ISHAN (Indian Single
Sky Harmonized Air Traffic Management) Initiative.
• ISHAN: Involves Combining India's four airspace regions (FIRs) into a single
system overseen from Nagpur.
Uniform Protection • Central Electricity Authority approves the Uniform Protection Protocol for
Protocol users of Indian Grid for implementation on Pan India basis.
• It aims to ensure Grid stability, reliability, security and support India’s vision
for integration of 450 GW Renewable Energy into the National Grid by 2030.
All-India House Price • Reserve Bank of India released its quarterly House Price Index (HPI).
Index (HPI) • About All-India Home Price Index (HPI)

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 o Base: 2010-11 = 100
o Data Source: Transaction-level data from registration authorities in 10
major cities.
o Cities Covered: Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Jaipur, Kanpur,
Kochi, Kolkata, Lucknow, Mumbai.
Delhi Declaration on civil• The 2nd Asia Pacific Ministerial Conference on Civil Aviation (APMC)
aviation concluded with unanimous adoption of Delhi Declaration on civil aviation.
• Delhi Declaration Commitments
o Reaffirming Asia and Pacific Ministerial Declaration on Civil Aviation
(Beijing).
o Aviation Safety & Security and Aviation Environment Protection.
o Ratification of International Air Law Treaties including Amendments to
Convention on International Civil Aviation.
UPI • RBI has recently decided to permit Small Finance Banks to extend pre-
sanctioned credit lines through UPI.
• Credit Line through UPI by SFBs
o Under this facility, payments through a pre-sanctioned credit line issued
by a Bank to individuals, with prior consent of the individual customer, are
enabled for transactions using UPI System.
o Previously, in September 2023, RBI allowed operations of pre-sanctioned
credit limits through UPI by Scheduled Commercial Bank to individuals.
• RBI has revised transaction limits to ₹ 1,000 from ₹ 500 earlier for UPI Lite to
encourage use of UPI. RBI also raised the total limit for offline transactions on
UPI Lite to ₹ 5,000 from ₹ 2,000.
Restricted Return InvITs • Recently, SEBI has proposed a framework for Restricted Return InvITs to
enhance investor security.
• About Restricted Return InvITs
o Differentiating from traditional InvITs, where returns are directly tied to
full performance of the underlying infrastructure assets, in this model,
returns are structured with downside protection (a floor) and/or an
upside cap.
o Downside protection: If the InvIT's returns fall below guaranteed
minimum, sponsors must provide funds to ensure unitholders receive a
baseline return.
o Upside cap: If the InvIT's returns exceed a threshold, excess will go to
the sponsor.
Medical Device Sector • Medical device sector is recognized as a sunrise sector in India.
o Sunrise Sector is a term used for a sector that is developing and poised for
rapid growth. E.x- Semiconductor, Artificial Intelligence,etc.
• India ranks as the 4th largest market for medical devices in Asia and stands
among the top 20 globally.
• 100% FDI through automatic route for the medical devices sector.
National Legal Metrology• Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution launches National
Portal (e-Mapp) Legal Metrology e-Mapp on National Consumer Day 2024.
• Every year, National Consumer Day is celebrated on 24th December
commemorating the receipt of Presidential assent for Consumer Protection
Act, 1986.
• Department of Consumer Affairs is developing eMaap to integrate State Legal
Metrology Departments and their portals into a unified National System.

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 3.11.5. ERRATA
• In the infographic titled “Brief Glance at Indian Economy” on page 5, in the first bar diagram depicting
India’s Structural Transformation, third category of bars should be titled “Services” instead of “Industry
Services”.
• In the infographic titled “Targets/Sub-targets for PSL for Different Types of Banks” on page 8, the last
parameter is “Advances to Weaker Sections” instead of “Same as Domestic Commercial Bank”.
• In the infographic titled “Human Development Index” on page 50, “Expected Years of Schooling” and
“Mean Years of Schooling” are two indicators under the Knowledge Dimension.
• In the infographic titled “Schemes Identified for Convergence” on page 62, “Pradhan Mantri
Formalization of Micro Food Processing Enterprises Scheme (PMFME)” is a single scheme under
Ministry of Food Processing Industries and will be placed under same bullet point.
• In the infographic titled “Schemes Identified for Convergence” on page 62, “Allocation of food grains
under National Food Security Act, 2013” will be placed under same bullet point in Ministry of Consumer
Affairs, Food and Public Distribution.
• In the infographic titled “Edible Oil Sector in India” on page 62, under the Production tab, correct
information will be as follows: India accounts for 15-20% of global oilseed area; 6-7% of vegetable oil
production; 9-10% of total consumption.

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 4. ENVIRONMENT
4.1. BIODIVERSITY
4.1.1. WILDLIFE
4.1.1.1. COP-16 TO THE UNCBD
Why in the News?
Recently, 16th Conference of Parties (CoP-16) to
the UN Convention on Biological Diversity
(UNCBD) concluded in Cali, Colombia.
More on the News
• Theme of this year’s conference was ‘Peace
with Nature’.
• It is the first CoP, since adoption of Kunming-
Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework
(KMGBF).
• CoP-17, 2026 is to be held in Yerevan, Armenia.
About UNCBD
• Origin: International legally binding treaty
adopted at the United Nation’s Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED),
Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.
o Entered into force in 1993, operates under
United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
• Objectives: Conservation of biological
diversity; sustainable use of its components;
and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits.
• Secretariat: Montreal, Canada.
• Members: Ratified by 196 members (India
became a party in 1994).
o USA hasn’t ratified the convention.
• Governing mechanism: CoP meets every two years (biennial).
About KMGBF
• Non-binding framework adopted at the CoP-15 to CBD at Montreal, Canada in 2022.
• Successor to ‘Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020’ and its Aichi Targets.
• Aim: To halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030.
• Goals: Sets 4 goals to be achieved by 2050: Protect and restore ecosystem and species health; Prosper with
Nature; Share benefits fairly; Invest and collaborate (to close biodiversity finance gap of $700 billion per year).
• Targets: Sets 23 targets to be met by 2030.
• Some of the key targets being:
o 30-by-30 Target (i.e. 30% conservation of land, sea, and inland water and 30% restoration of various
degraded ecosystems by 2030).
o Reducing the introduction of invasive alien species by 50% by 2030.
o Formulate mechanism for “benefit-sharing from use of Digital Sequence Information (DSI) on
genetic sources” and traditional knowledge.

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 Major Outcomes of CoP-16
• Operationalization of Cali Fund for sharing the benefits from Digital Sequence Information (DSI).
o DSI is a policy term that refers broadly to genomic sequence data and other related digital data of
organisms used for research in agriculture, pharmaceuticals, biodiversity conservation etc.
o Companies benefiting commercially from DSI to contribute 1% of their profit (0.1% of their
revenues) to support Indigenous Peoples and local communities.
o Goal-C (Share benefits fairly) and Target-13 of KMGBF: Promotes equitable sharing of benefits from
utilization of DSI and traditional knowledge.
• Through establishment of permanent subsidiary body under Article 8(j) of the UNCBD and Cali Fund to
enhance participation of indigenous people.
o At least 50% of the Cali Fund is for self-identified needs of indigenous communities including women
and youth.
• Launch of Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF) under Global Environment Facility (GEF).
o Earlier at CoP-15, Global Biodiversity Framework Fund (GBFF) was agreed and established by GEF.
• Identification of Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSAs) Crucial for 30-by-30
Target under KMGBF and Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement (High Seas Treaty).
• Invasive alien species management: Through new databases, improved cross-border trade regulations,
etc.
• Approved Global Action Plan on Biodiversity and Health: Embraces ‘One Health’ approach.

4.1.1.2. NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN (NBSAP)

Why in the News?
India unveiled its updated NBSAP for 2024-30 at CoP-16 to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity
(UNCBD).
About NBSAP
• Article 6 of the UNCBD requires every party to the convention to prepare NBSAPs.
• It is the primary tool for mainstreaming biodiversity and implementation of the UNCBD at the country
level.
• It provides a framework for biodiversity
conservation, sustainable use of biological
resources, and fair and equitable sharing of benefits
derived from them.
• India’s 1st NBSAP was created in 1999; later National
Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) was adopted in
2008, updated in 2014 to align with Aichi Biodiversity
Targets.
Key highlights of the updated NBSAP 2024-30
• Approach: Adopts a ‘Whole of Government’ and
‘Whole of Society’ approach aligning itself with
KMGBF.
• National Biodiversity Targets (NBTs): 23 NBTs
focused on 3 themes – reducing threats to
biodiversity; ensuring sustainable use of resources;
and enhancing tools for implementation.
• Implementation framework: Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
serves as the central agency.
o Enactment of Biological Diversity Act, 2002 developed a multi-tier governance structure (refer
infographic).
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 • Resource mobilization: Recognizes India among leading countries for implementation of Biodiversity
Finance Initiative (BIOFIN) at national level.
o BIOFIN is a global partnership launched by UNDP and the European Commission to support countries
for the financial management of biodiversity and ecosystems.
Other commitment at CoP-16 by India
• Budgetary Allocation: Around ₹81,664 crore on biodiversity and conservation efforts for the period 2025-
30.
• Call for resource mobilization: In mobilizing international financial resources laid down under KMGBF’s
Target 19 for implementation of NBSAP.
o Target 19 calls for mobilizing $200 billion per year for biodiversity from all sources, including $30
billion through international finance.
• Other highlights: Advocates for global conservation through ‘Plant4Mother’ Campaign; wildlife
conservation through establishment of International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA); increase in Ramsar sites from
26 to 85 since 2014 etc.

4.1.1.3. BIODIVERSITY RULES, 2024

Why in the News?
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notified rules in accordance with the Biological
Diversity Act of 2002 to replace Biodiversity Diversity Rules, 2004.
Key Highlights of the Rules
• National Biodiversity Authority (NBA):
o Chairperson appointed by the Central Government, for a term of three years’, eligible for re-
appointment.
• General Functions of the NBA
o Administering the National Biodiversity Fund (NBF), under the Act of 2002.
o Granting approvals for biodiversity-related agreements.
o Providing technical guidance and support to state bodies.
o Developing and maintaining databases related to biological resources and traditional knowledge.
• Intellectual Property Rights: Approval of Authority will be required before the actual grant of the IPR.
• Penalties for Contraventions: Penalties for violations range from ₹1 lakh to ₹50 lakh, collected penalties
go to the NBF or relevant state funds.
About Biological Diversity Act, 2002 (last amended in 2023)
• Aim: Highlights India’s commitment in implementing the provisions of UNCBD.
• Goals: Protect and conserve the biological diversity; sustainable use of biological resources; and fair and
equitable sharing of benefits.
• Key provision of the Act
o Provides conditions and modalities for research, commercial utilization etc. These are:
> All foreign nationals require approval from NBA for obtaining Biological Resources.
> Indian individuals/ entities seek approval before transferring knowledge/ research and material
to foreigners.
> Prior approval of NBA before applying for any kind of IPR based on research conducted on
biological material and/ or associated knowledge obtained from India.
• 2023 Amendments
o Exemption granted to AYUSH practitioners and Traditional Knowledge holders from paying Access
and Benefit Sharing (ABS).
> ABS, a type of compensatory amount, typically paid to tribal and other communities who
traditionally gather, protect and utilize herbs and medicinal plants crucial to AYUSH industry.
o Removes criminal penalties for violations and replace them with fines.

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 • Institutional structure under the Act: Three-tier implementation at National-level [National Biodiversity
Authority (NBA), headquartered at Chennai], at State-level [State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs)] and at Local-
level [Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs)].
o SBBs are not constituted for Union Territories (UTs). NBA exercises the powers and performs the
functions of a SBB for the UT.

4.1.1.4. OTHER RELATED NEWS

4.1.1.4.1. GARUDAKSHI
Karnataka launched the ‘Garudakshi’ online FIR system to curb wildlife crimes.
About Garudakshi
• It is software to enable an online FIR system similar to that of the Police Department developed in
collaboration with the Wildlife Trust of India.
• Allows the public to register complaints on forest offences using mobile phones or email addresses.

4.1.2. FORESTS
4.1.2.1. COP16 OF THE UNCCD
Why in the News?
Recently, some new initiatives and reports were launched at the CoP 16 of the UNCCD under the chairmanship
of Saudi Arabia.
About UNCCD
• About: It is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to
sustainable land management.
• Genesis: 1994
• Members: 197 countries and the European Union.
• Objectives
o To protect and restore land
o It is committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people.
• Report: Global Land Outlook.
• Flagship initiatives:
o In 2015, Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) target setting programme (LDN TSP) : Parties were
invited to formulate voluntary targets to achieve LDN.
> LDN: It refers to the sustainable management of land resources to support ecosystem services
and food security.
> India committed to restore 26 million hectares by 2030.
o In 2017, the Strategic Framework 2018−2030: urging nations to incorporate desertification/land
degradation and drought concerns into national policies.
o Other initiatives: the Great Green Wall (2007), The Changwon Initiative (2011), International Drought
Resilience Alliance (2022), G20 Global Land Initiative (2020), etc.

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 4.1.2.2. FOREST ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION
Why in the News?
The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) marked the 10th anniversary of Forest
Ecosystem Restoration Initiative (FERI) in 2024.

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 About Forest Ecosystem Restoration Initiative (FERI)
• It is a collaborative project developed by The Korea Forest Service of the Republic of Korea, in cooperation
with the Executive Secretary of the CBD in 2014.
• Mandate: It directly supports developing countries in the implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Global
Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF)
• FERI’s other Initiatives:
o Short-Term Action Plan on Ecosystem Restoration (STAPER)
o WePlan – Forests: A decision support platform for tropical forest ecosystem restoration.
About Forest ecosystem restoration
• Involves returning trees to former forest land and improving the condition of degraded forests, etc.
• Restoration Interventions: Rehabilitation, Reconstruction, Reclamation, Replacement.
• Major global Initiatives for forest restoration
o IUCN’s Forest Conservation Programme for sustainable management of forests.
o WWF’s Forests for Life Programme for conserving biological diversity.
o ‘REDD+’ framework of UN for sustainable management of forests and conservation of forest carbon
stocks.
o The Forest and Landscape Restoration Mechanism (FLRM) by Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO).
Steps taken by India
• The Forest Conservation Act (FCA), 1980 to regulate forest clearing.
• National Mission for a Green India (NMGI) to restore and afforest different ecosystems.
• The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), statutory body
under FCA, 1980.
• Nagar Van Yojana: Envisages creation of 600 Nagar Vans and 400 Nagar Vatika during 2020-21 to 2026-
27.
• National Forest Policy, 1988 aims at maintaining at least 1/3rd of the country’s land under forest or tree
cover and 2/3rd in hilly and mountainous regions.
• Other Afforestation schemes such as National Bamboo Mission, and Sub-Mission on Agroforestry.

4.1.2.3. INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT (ISFR) 2023

Why in the News?
The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
recently released India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023.
About ISFR
• Overview: Prepared by Forest Survey of India (FSI), published every
two years since 1987.
• Assessment Method: Used satellite data, National Forest
Inventory data, Field verification, Covered 751 districts (up from
636 in previous report).
Key Definitions Used in ISFR 2023
• Tree Cover: Comprises all tree patches outside the forest area,
less than one hectare in extent including all the scattered trees in
the rural and urban settings, not captured under the forest cover.
• Forest Cover: Defined as all lands, more than one hectare with a
tree canopy density of more than or equal to 10% including orchards, bamboo and palm, irrespective of
ownership, legal status and land use. Such lands may not necessarily be a recorded forest area (RFA).

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 • Forest Area: Also known as the Recorded Forest Area (RFA), defined as “all such lands which have been
notified as forest under any Government Act or Rules or recorded as ‘forests’ in the Government
Records”.
o Thus, the term ‘forest area’ denotes the legal status of the land as per the government records,
whereas the term ‘forest cover’ indicates presence of trees over any land.

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 4.1.2.4. SACRED GROVES
Why in the news?
SC pronounced direction on the identification of sacred groves such as Orans by the Rajasthan Government in
accordance with the T.N. Godavarman judgment (1996).
More on the news
• The court suggested the Promotion of Piplantari model.
o Piplantri is a village in the Rajsamand district of Rajasthan, that gained international recognition as
the villagers planted 111 trees, whenever a girl child is born.
• T.N. Godavarman judgment expanded definition of "forest" to include:
o All areas recorded as "forest" in any government (Union and State) record, irrespective of ownership,
recognition, and classification.
o All areas that conformed to the "dictionary' meaning of forest.
• Areas that are identified as "forest" by expert committees set up by the State governments following the
1996 order.

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 About Sacred Groves
• Comprise patches of forests or natural vegetation that hold deep religious and spiritual meaning to
indigenous communities and are protected by them.
• India is estimated to have around 100,000 to 150,000 sacred groves (IUCN).
• Living Root Bridges (Jingkieng Jri) of Meghalaya a sacred groove is part of the tentative list of UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
• Need for Protection: Cultural (associated with deities and serve as venues for weddings, festivals, etc. E.g.,
Sabarimala in Kerala and Hariyali in Garhwal); Economic and medicinal benefits; growth of livestock-
based economies (41% livestock in Barmer district of Rajasthan is dependent on the sacred groves
“Orans”), etc.

4.1.2.5. FOREST RIGHTS ACT, 2006

Why in the News?
The District Level committee approved Community & individual rights under Forest Rights Act, 2006, to
Nagaroothu I, Nagaroothu II, & Chinnarpathi tribal settlements in Anamalai Tiger Rerserve, Tamil Nadu.
About Forest Rights Act, 2006
• Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition Of Forest Rights) Act, popularly
known as FRA was enacted in 2006.
• Objective: Undo historical injustice to forest dwelling communities; ensuring livelihood & food security.
Key Features
• Forest Rights Recognized Under FRA:
o Individual Rights: Rights of Self-cultivation & Habitation, In-situ rehabilitation etc.
o Community Rights: Grazing, Fishing & access to Water bodies in forests, right to intellectual property
& traditional knowledge, right to protect traditional customary rights etc.
• Eligibility: Rights can be claimed by any member or community that has for at least three generations (75
years) before the 13th day of December 2005 lived in the forest.
• Critical wildlife habitats: Provides that critical wildlife habitats of National Parks & Sanctuaries must
remain inviolate for wildlife conservation.
Authorities for vesting forest rights
• Gram Sabha: Authority to initiate process for determining nature & extent of individual/community forest
rights.
• Sub-Divisional Level Committee: Constituted by state government, examines resolution of Gram Sabha.
• District Level Committee: Final approval of forest rights.
• Role of State Governments: Entrusted with task of implementing FRA, constitute State Level Monitoring
Committee, District Level Committees and Sub-Divisional Level Committees.

4.1.2.6. OTHER RELATED NEWS

4.1.2.6.1. MIYAWAKI FOREST
A dense forest created in Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand, using the Miyawaki method has achieved 93% success
rate.
About Miyawaki method
• It is a reforestation technique developed by Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki based on Potential
Natural Vegetation (PNV) concept.
o It deals with the regeneration of forest by closely planting a variety of tree species, best suited for the
specified locality.
• Benefits: High tree density, mitigation of noise and air pollution, help in carbon sequestration, etc.
• Limitations: Limited genetic diversity, resource intensive, not suitable for all locations.

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 4.1.2.6.2. OTHER EFFECTIVE AREA-BASED CONSERVATION MEASURES (OECMS)
Why in the News?
Recently, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) released ‘Guidance on OECMs’ report on
conserving land, water and coastal areas through OECMs.
About OECMs
• Definition: Geographically defined area other than Protected Areas (PAs).
o It is governed/ managed to achieve sustained long-term outcomes for in-situ conservation of
biodiversity, with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable, cultural,
spiritual, socio-economic, and other locally relevant values.
o Areas that are already established as PA or lie within PA should not also be identified/reported as
OECMs.
• Can be governed by a government agency, private group (e.g. NGO), Indigenous peoples, local
communities or in a shared arrangement.
• OECMs term first appeared in 2010 within Aichi Biodiversity Targets established by CBD.
o At CoP-14 in 2018, CBD adopted its official definition.

4.1.3. WETLANDS, COASTLAND AND OCEANS

4.1.3.1. MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAS)
Why in the News?
A study highlighted that MPAs management can conserve biodiversity and improve nutritional security.
About Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
• They essentially a space in the ocean where human activities are more strictly regulated than the
surrounding waters (as per ENVIS).
• Given special protections for natural or historic marine resources by local, state, territorial, native, regional,
or national authorities.
• Significance: Reservoirs of Genetic material, shields marine species from various threats, reference sites
for scientific research, nature based conservation and tourism, climate change mitigation, etc.
• Challenges in conservation of MPAs: Difficulties in enforcing regulations, requirement of substantial
resources, impacts livelihoods of local fishing communities.

Global Initiatives to Protect Marine Biodiversity

• Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework: Protect 30% of the planet’s oceans and lands by
2030.
• Agreement on Marine Biodiversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction (High Seas Treaty).
• MPAs in India: Gulf of Mannar Marine Park (Tamil Nadu), Lothian Island (West Bengal), Gahirmatha
(Odisha).

4.1.3.2. COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT PLAN (CZMPS)

Why in the News?
Recently, Ministry of Environment approved the CZMPs for 10 coastal districts of Kerala.
About CZMP
• CZMP is a strategic framework designed to manage and regulate human activities in coastal areas.

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 • Key components of CZMPs
o Zoning: CZMPs divide coastal areas into different zones, such as No Development Zones (NDZ), and
Coastal Regulation Zones (Refer Table).
o Public Participation: To consider the opinions and worries of local communities etc.
• Approval of CZMP is a pre-condition for the States to make the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification
2019 applicable and avail relaxed norms under it.
About CRZ
• Central Government declares coastal stretches of the country and the water area up to its territorial
water limit, excluding the islands of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep as CRZ.
• MoEF&CC under the Environment Protection Act, of 1986, issued the first CRZ notification in 1991.
o Subsequently, CRZ was noticed in 2011 further superseded by CRZ 2019.
CRZ-IA Ecologically Sensitive Areas like Mangroves, Corals and coral reefs, Sand dunes, Salt Marches
etc.
CRZ-1B Intertidal zone i.e. area between Low Tide Line and High Tide Line.

CRZ-II Developed Land Areas up to or close to the shoreline, within the existing municipal limits or in
other existing legally designated urban areas

CRZ-III A Area with population density more than 2161 per square kilometre. In CRZ-III A, area up to 50
meters from the HTL on the landward side earmarked as the ‘No Development Zone (NDZ)’,
provided the CZMP have been approved.
CRZ-III B All other CRZ-III areas with population density of less than 2161 per square kilometre. In CRZ-III
B, the area up to 200 meters from the HTL on the landward side shall be earmarked as the ‘NDZ’.
CRZ-IV CRZ- IV shall constitute the water area and shall be further classified as CRZ-IVA and CRZ-IVB.

4.1.3.3. WETLAND ACCREDITED CITIES

Why in the News?
Recently, Indore and Udaipur became the first two
Indian cities making global list of 31 accredited
wetland cities under Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
More on the News
• Indore: Sirpur Lake (Ramsar Site) recognised for
water bird congregation and is being developed as
a bird sanctuary.
• Udaipur: Surrounded by five major wetlands,
namely, Pichola, Fateh Sagar, Rang Sagar, Swaroop
Sagar, and Doodh Talai.
About Wetland City Accreditation (WCA)
• Voluntary Accreditation system provides an
opportunity for cities that value their natural or
human-made wetlands to gain international
recognition and positive publicity for their efforts.
• Approved at Uruguay in COP12 of Ramsar
Convention (2015).
• Valid for 6 years, must be renewed, filling each of 6
criteria (refer image).
• Significance: Promotes Conservation and wise of
urban and peri-urban wetlands, help in implementation of Amrit Dharohar initiative of MoEF&CC, etc.

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 4.1.4. ORGANIZATIONS IN NEWS
4.1.4.1. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PLATFORM ON BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
(IPBES)

4.2. CLIMATE CHANGE

4.2.1. INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF GLACIERS’ PRESERVATION
Why in the News?
Recently, UN has declared 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers' Preservation.
More on the News
• It was also announced that March 21 of each year will be celebrated as World Day for Glaciers, starting in
2025.
About International Year of Glaciers' Preservation
• Co-facilitated by: UNESCO and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
• Objective: To raise global awareness about the critical role of glaciers in the climate system and the
hydrological cycle, and the economic, social and environmental impacts in the Earth’s cryosphere.
• Significance of Glaciers: There are more than 275 000 glaciers in the world, covering an area of around
700,000 sq. kms, which account for ~70% of the global freshwater.

4.2.2. TERMS IN NEWS

4.2.2.1. GEOENGINEERING
New Study explores Diamond Dust as a potential Geoengineering Strategy for Cooling of Planet.
Benefits of using diamond dust
• Enhanced Properties: It reflects light and heat effectively, remains airborne longer, and is less likely to
clump together in atmosphere
• Safer Alternative: Unlike sulfur dioxide, which poses risks like acid rain and ozone depletion, diamond dust
is chemically inert
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 What is Geoengineering /Climate Engineering?
• Large-scale intervention in the Earth's climatic system, with an aim of reducing global warming.
• There are two main categories of geo-engineering:-
o Carbon Dioxide Removal
> Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage (DACCS): uses chemical processes to capture and
separate and then store CO2 directly from ambient air.
> Ocean fertilization: Addition of nutrients (e.g iron) to enhance the growth of phytoplankton that
remove CO2.
o Solar Radiation Management
> Stratospheric aerosol injection: Injecting reflective particles such as sulfate aerosols into the
stratosphere to reflect incoming radiation
> Marine cloud brightening: injection of salt spray into shallow marine clouds to brighten them,
increasing their reflection of sunlight

4.3. POLLUTION
4.3.1. OZONE
Why in the News?
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) took cognizance of the
increasing levels of ground-level ozone, which is a key air
pollutant and a precursor to smog.
About ground-level ozone (GLO) or Tropospheric Ozone
• Ozone (O3): It’s a variant of oxygen composed of three
oxygen atoms.
o It occurs both in the Earth’s upper atmosphere
and at ground level/Tropospheric Ozone (See
Image).
• Genesis of GLO: It’s a short-lived secondary pollutant
which is formed in the ground level through
atmospheric reactions (Troposphere) in the presence
of sunlight.
• Responsible factors: High temperature and
emissions of Precursor pollutants. E.g., Oxides of
Nitrogen (NOx) & Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs).
o Peak O3 levels occur in summers.
• Sources of Precursor Pollutant: Largely vehicular emission, fossil fuel power plants, oil refineries, the
agriculture sector, etc.
• Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): has set the following National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for GLO:
o 8-hour average: 100 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m³)
o 1-hour limit: 180 µg/m³
Steps taken to control the precursors of ozone, i.e. NOx and VOC emissions:
• BS VI Vehicles: Reduced NOx emissions by up to 87% for heavy vehicles and 70-85% for 2-wheelers.
• Electric Mobility: Under PM-E Drive to achieve zero vehicular emissions.
• Revised Industrial Emission Standards: Stricter NOx and VOC standards for industries like fertilizers,
thermal power plants etc.
• Vapor Recovery System (VRS): Installed at Delhi-NCR petrol pumps to reduce VOC emissions during
refueling.

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 4.3.2. URBAN AIR POLLUTION
Why in the News?
As per World Cities Report 2024: Cities and Climate Action of UN-Habitat, urban air pollution accounted for
6.7 million premature deaths in 2019.
More on the News
• 6th Annual World Air Quality Report by IQAir found
New Delhi to be the most polluted capital city in the
world.
o 9 out of the 10 most polluted cities in the world
were found to be located in India.
Reasons for urban air pollution in India
• Meteorological and Geographical Factors
o Low Rainfall and Winds: Low rainfall in
September-October and sluggish winter winds
contribute to stagnant pollutant levels in north
India.
o Airshed Dynamics: Regional air pollution
spreads through wind patterns.
o Dust Storms: Dust from the Sahara and Thar deserts, rich in nitrates, contributes to surface ozone
formation;
o Topography: Northern India’s low-lying terrain traps pollutants, with the Himalayas blocking dispersion.
o Temperature Inversion: Winter conditions trap cooler air near the ground, preventing pollutant
dispersal.
o Agricultural practices: Stubble Burning.
• Urban and Industrial Factors: Construction and Demolition Waste,High Vehicle Density, Unscientific
Waste Disposal, Industrial Emissions.
Related News
Air Quality Dashboard By ICIMOD
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has unveiled an Air Quality Dashboard.
About Air Quality Dashboard:
• It combines ground sensor data with satellite imagery to provide a comprehensive view of air pollution
across local, sub-regional and regional scales.
• It is powered by the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with Chemistry (WRF-Chem).
• This model reveals the alarming spread of PM2.5 plumes across the region, including hotspots like
Lahore, New Delhi and Kolkata.
About PM 2.5 & 10
• PM10: Particles that are 10 microns or less in diameter.
• PM 2.5: Particles that are 2.5 microns or less in diameter.

4.3.3. ANNUAL GROUND WATER QUALITY REPORT 2024

Why in the news?
Ministry of Jal Shakti released Annual Ground Water Quality Report Conducted by the Central Ground Water
Board (CGWB) for the year 2024.

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 Key Findings on Groundwater Quality in India
• Groundwater Usage:
o India is the largest user of groundwater and has the largest area under groundwater irrigation in the
world.
o 87% of extracted groundwater is used in agriculture and 11% is used for domestic purposes.
• Recharge: Total Annual GW Recharge has increased (15 BCM) substantially and Extraction has declined
(3 BCM) in 2024 from 2017 assessment.
• Seasonal Trends: Electrical Conductivity (EC) and fluoride levels indicate positive effects of monsoon
recharge, improving water quality.

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 4.3.4. DRAFT SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2024
Why in the News?
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has released the Draft Solid Waste
Management (SWM) Rules, 2024 for wider public consultations.
More on the News
• Statutory Provisions: The SWM Rules, 2024 amend and expand upon the Solid Waste Management (SWM)
Rules of 2016.
o SWM Rules are issued under the Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1986.
• The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) are responsible
for enforcing the pollution control guidelines including the rules under the EPA, 1986.
o Implementation Date: The rules are set to come into force on October 1, 2025, providing a transition
period for stakeholders.
Key Features of Draft Solid Waste Management Rules 2024
• Monitoring and Compliance: CPCB to establish centralized online registration and annual reporting
system.
• Circular Economy Focus: MoHUA is the apex coordinating body to drive circular economy initiatives while
CPCB shall drive and monitor the circular economy initiatives.
• Waste Segregation into biodegradable and non- biodegradable: Safai Karamcharis authorized to fine
violators and refuse unsegregated waste collection.
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): EPR covers all waste generators including Bulk generators.
Environmental compensation based on "polluter pays" principle.
• Agricultural Waste Management: Local bodies, including Gram Panchayats, mandated to prevent burning
of agricultural waste.
• Processing Requirements: Encourages on-site waste processing. Stricter implementation timelines and
responsibilities for local bodies.
About SWM in India
• Definition: Any discarded material including garbage, trash, and refuse.
• Categorisation: India legally classifies waste into 6 types: Municipal, Hazardous, Electronic, Biomedical,
Plastic, and Construction waste.
• Current Status (according to the TERI):
o Annual waste generation: 62+ million tons
o Collection: 43 million tons
o Treatment: Only 12 million tons
• Remaining 31 million tons dumped in wasteyards
Key Initiatives for Promoting Effective SWM
India
• Smart Cities Mission: Over 60 cities are managing solid waste with increased technology use,
improving route management, efficiency of collection, and daily management.
• Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen): Phase-II of the mission focuses on proper management of solid
waste at the village level.
• Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban): Launched in 2014 for scientifically managing municipal solid waste
(MSW) throughout India.
o SBM-U 2.0 and aims to achieve a “Garbage Free” status for all urban areas by 2026.
Global
• UNEP International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC) in Japan: Its work focuses on the proper
treatment of special wastes (electronics, agricultural biomass, plastics) in developing countries.

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 4.3.5. ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION (MANNER OF HOLDING INQUIRY AND
IMPOSITION OF PENALTY) RULES, 2024
Why in the News?
MoEFCC has introduced new rules for conducting inquiries and imposing penalties on polluters after SC's
pollution order.
About new rules
• Complaints against violators of environmental regulations can be initiated by key bodies, including
CPCB, SPCBs, Pollution Control Committees and others.
• In cases of jurisdictional issues, adjudicating officers may transfer a case to appropriate authority.
• Initiation of enquiry: By designated adjudicating officer within 30 days, as per Section 15C of Environment
(Protection) Act.
o Violators are given at least 15 days to reply and may be asked to appear in person etc.
o Timely resolution: Inquiries be completed within six months from the notice date.
Related News
Union Environment Ministry notified Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) (Manner of Holding
Inquiry and Imposition of Penalty) rules, 2024
Water Rules 2024
• The rules comes in backdrop of amendments wherein offenses and violations of the Act were
decriminalized, replacing them with penalties
• It had also allowed the Centre to appoint ‘Authorised Officers’ to adjudicate offenses, violations and
determine penalties.
• Significance: Reduce the burden on the judicial system; encourage compliance through financial
disincentives.

4.3.6. WEF GLOBAL PLASTIC ACTION PARTNERSHIP (GPAP)

Why in the News?
Recently, New members including Angola, Bangladesh, Gabon, Guatemala, Kenya, Senegal & Tanzania
joined GPAP.
About Global Plastic Action Partnership
• Launched: During Sustainable Development Impact Summit in 2018 of the World Economic Forum
(WEF).
o Plastic pillar of the Platform for Accelerating the Circular Economy and Friends of Ocean Action.
• Present members: 25 (including Maharashtra State from India)
• Objectives: Accelerate global response to plastic pollution crisis, advance circular plastics economy
to reduce emissions & protect land and ocean ecosystems.
• Key activities: Helps countries in developing National Action Roadmaps & Investment Mobilization for
waste management

4.3.7. POLLUTANTS IN NEWS

4.3.7.1. MANGANESE
As per a recent study by Scientists, Manganese (Mn) contamination of water is causing cancer in the Gangetic
plains of Bihar.
About Manganese (Mn)
• It is the fifth-most abundant metal on earth that exists in the form of oxides, carbonates, and silicates.
• Manganese is an essential component of the steel-making process.

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 • It is present in food, water, soil, and rock as a naturally occurring component.
• It is an ‘essential trace element’ which plays a vital role in maintaining body homeostasis.
• It has been reported to be toxic in higher doses for human beings.
• Source of Mn contamination of Groundwater: Industrial pollution (anthropogenic), or sedimentary or
igneous rocks (geogenic) deposits of Mn.

4.3.7.2. TRICHLOROETHYLENE & PERCHLOROETHYLENE

US EPA announces final bans on manufacture, processing, & use of trichloroethylene & perchloroethylene.
About Trichloroethylene & Perchloroethylene:
• Toxic chemicals used in stain removers, degreasers, and range of industrial processes, including dry
cleaning
o Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with significant industrial utility but raise concerns due to their
environmental and health impacts.
• Health Impact: Linked to severe health issues like kidney cancer, Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, cardiac
defects and bladder cancer

4.3.7.3. SILICON DIOXIDE

National Green Tribunal (NGT) directed the Central Pollution Control Board to draft new guidelines for
granting permission for silica mining and washing plants.
About Silicon Dioxide
• Silica is the common name given to materials composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2), which exist in crystalline
or amorphous forms.
• The toxicity of silica has been linked to its crystallinity and capacity to generate free radicals.
• Sources:
o Industrial Processes: Mining, construction, sandblasting, glass manufacturing, and cement
production
o Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions, soil erosion, and dust storms
o Agriculture: Tilling operations that release soil particles
• Health Impact:
o Respiratory issues: Lung diseases such as silicosis, chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, emphysema, pulmonary tuberculosis, and even lung cancer.
o Cognitive Decline: Exposure to silica from drinking water leads to risk of cognitive decline, dementia
and Alzheimer’s disease.
• Environmental Effects: Dust deposition on vegetation reduces photosynthesis and plant growth.

4.3.8. MISCELLANEOUS
4.3.8.1. CONSENT TO ESTABLISH
Why in the news?
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) removed the dual compliance of
Environmental Clearance (EC) and Consent to Establish (CTE) for setting up of new industries.
More on the news
• Now, non-polluting white category industries will not be required to take CTE or Consent to Operate (CTO)
at all.
• Also, industries who have already taken EC will not be required to take CTE.

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 About Consent to Establish (CTE)
• CTE is required under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• A CTE from the State Pollution Control Board is required to industries that discharge effluents or emit
pollutants into the environment.

4.3.8.2. AROTRACK
Scientists at IIT Bombay have developed portable water-pollutant detecting device called ‘AroTrack’.
About AroTrack
• The device uses a protein-based biosensor to detect harmful ‘aromatic xenobiotic’ pollutants like
phenol, benzene and xylenols from water samples.
o Aromatic xenobiotic compounds can be extremely toxic to living organisms and are difficult to
detect.
• The MopR biosensor with engineered protein DNA sequence senses different pollutants and a LED
phototransistor relays the results through light of varied intensities.
• Significance: It’s a low cost, battery-operated nature can revolutionize water quality testing.

4.3.8.3. RIVER CITIES ALLIANCE

Ganga Utsav 2024 organized recently by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) witnessed participation
from several river cities under the River City Alliance.
River Cities Alliance
• About: It is an organization which includes 145 river cities nationwide and is open to all river cities of India.
• Objective:
o Promote healthy urban rivers through river-sensitive urban planning, contributing to water-secure
cities and fostering inclusive, sustainable urban development.
o Provides a platform to the member cities for sustainable management of urban rivers, sharing best
practices and supporting innovation.

4.4. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

4.4.1. GREEN GDP
Why in the News?
Recently, Chhattisgarh became the first state to adopt Green GDP.
More on the news
• The move highlights the direct link between significant environmental contributions of forests like clean
air, water conservation, biodiversity and the state’s economic progress.
o Forest accounts for Chhattisgarh’s 44% of land cover with forest products like tendu leaves
contributing to the rural economy.
About Green GDP
• Genesis: Coined in the late 1980s.
• Definition: Green GDP refers to environmentally adjusted gross domestic product (GDP).
• Calculation:
o Green GDP = Net Domestic Product - (Cost of Depletion of Natural Resources + Cost of Degradation of
Ecosystem)
• Need for Green GDP: GDP overlooks environmental depletion and degradation, often treating them as
economic gains.

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 o For instance, cutting down a rainforest and selling the timber increases GDP but harms long-term
wellbeing and growth.
Green GDP Accounting Initiatives
• SEEA (1993): UN framework for standardizing environmental-economic statistics.
• WAVES: World Bank initiative integrating natural capital into economic accounts.

4.4.2. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

4.4.2.1. NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR ORGANIC PRODUCTION (NPOP)
Why in the News?
Recently, Ministry of Commerce and Industry launched the 8th edition of NPOP.
About NPOP
• Aimed at promoting ease of operations and enhancing transparency for stakeholders, including farmers.
• NPOP strengthens India's organic
certification system (refer to the
infographics).
o APEDA, Ministry of Commerce &
Industries, is implementing Agency.
Key highlights of 8th Edition of NPOP
• Simplified Certification: Organic grower
groups have been granted legal status in place
of the Internal Control System (ICS).
• Market Support: ICS of organic grower groups
must ensure the procurement of the entire
organic produce.
• Faster land conversion to organic farming:
Reducing the transition period by up to three
years.
Achievements of NPOP
• Global Ranking: India ranks first globally in
organic producers and second in organic
agricultural land.
• Certified area: The total certified area reaches 7.3 million hectares (2023-24), with Madhya Pradesh
leading, followed by Maharashtra and Rajasthan.
• Organic Exports: Currently at ₹4,007.91 crore, are projected to reach ₹20,000 crore in three years.

4.4.3. OTHER RELATED NEWS

4.4.3.1. KODO MILLET
Recently, consumption of kodo millet was considered to be the reason behind the death of wild elephants in
Madhya Pradesh’s Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve
About kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum)
• It is also known as Kodra and Varagu in India and is a staple food for many tribal sections
• Features:
o Rich in dietary fiber and minerals like iron, antioxidant.
o Useful in curing asthma, migraine, blood pressure, heart attack, diabetic heart disease and for
postmenopausal in females.
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 o Drought tolerant, high yield potential, better storage properties.
• Climate: Warm and Dry climate (grown mainly in Deccan Region)
• Issues: Ingesting millets harvested after rainfall can result in adverse health conditions.

4.4.3.2. REGENERATIVE AGRICULTURE

Recently, Government of Odisha and ICRISAT launched a ‘Compendium of Regenerative Agriculture’, for
scaling regenerative agriculture practices.
About Regenerative agriculture (RA)
• Regenerative agriculture is a way of farming that focuses on soil health.
• Key Principles include:
o Minimizing soil disturbance (minimum ploughing) keeping CO2 in soil, and improving its water
absorvency.
o Maximizing crop diversity, improving biodiversity,
o Maintaining soil cover, keeping living roots year-round, and integrating livestock.

4.4.3.3. AGRIVOLTAIC FARMING

Practical implementation of agrivoltaic systems showcased in 7th session of the International Solar Alliance
(ISA).
About Agrivoltaic farming
• Practice of growing crops underneath solar panels uses land for both agriculture and solar photovoltaic
energy generation.
• It’s also sometimes referred to as agrisolar, dual use solar, low impact solar.
• Benefits: Diversified income for farmers, reduced land use competition, reduced carbon footprint and
energy resilience.

4.4.4. ALTERNATIVE FUELS/ENERGY AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY

4.4.4.1. INDIGENOUS HYDROGEN TRAIN ENGINE
Why in the News?
Indian Railway Minister announced the development of the
world's most powerful hydrogen fuel-run train engine with
1,200 horsepower.
More about the news
• Only four countries (Germany (1st), France, Sweden,
and China) have hydrogen-powered trains, capable of
producing around 500 to 600 horsepower.
• All hydrogen powered rail vehicles, whether large or
small, are categorized as ‘hydrail,’ whether the fuel is
used for the traction motors, auxiliary systems, or both.
• They have considerable advantage over electric
trains: Electric trains require expensive and complex
infrastructure, including overhead gantries to carry
power cables and power substations unlike hydrail.
About India’s Indigenous Hydrogen Train
• Designed by: Research, Design, and Standard
Organization (RDSO) in Lucknow.
• Manufactured by: Integral Coach Factory, Chennai
manufacturing coaches for the train.

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 • Background: The Ministry of Railways, announced the “Hydrogen for Heritage” project in 2023.
o Union Budget 2023–24: Announced and allotted funds for developing 35 hydrogen fuel cell trains.
o As part of this venture, existing Diesel-Electric Multiple Unit (DEMU) rakes will be retrofitted with green
hydrogen fuel cells.
• Trial Route: Jind-Sonipat in Haryana.
Global initiatives for Hydrogen production
• World Bank's 10 GW Clean Hydrogen Initiative
• The Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM): International clean energy leadership platform.
o The Clean Energy Ministerial Hydrogen Initiative (CEM H2I): Coordinated by The International Energy
Agency (IEA), developed according to the CEM framework document. India is member.
• Global Programme for Hydrogen in Industry (GPHI): Launched in 2021 by UNIDO.
India’s initiatives for Hydrogen production
• National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM)
o Recently, Prime Minister laid the foundation stone of India’s First Green Hydrogen hub under NGHM
in Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.
• The Green Hydrogen standard for India: Define emission thresholds for 'Green' classification, was
notified on 19th August 2023.
• Guidelines for Pilot Projects for utilizing Green Hydrogen in the Shipping and Steel Sector:

4.4.4.2. END-OF-LIFE VEHICLES RULES, 2025

Why in the News?
Recently, Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC) notified Environment Protection (End-
of-Life Vehicles) Rules, 2025.
More on the News
• Rules are notified under Environmental Protection Act, 1986, and will come into force from 1st of April,
2025.
• End-of-Life Vehicles (EoLV) means all vehicles which are no longer validly registered or declared unfit
through Automated Fitness Centres or their registrations have been cancelled.
Key Highlights
• Applicability: Apply to producer, registered owner of vehicles, Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facility
(RVSF), automated testing stations etc. involved in testing of vehicles, handling, processing and scrapping
of EoLV.
• Exception: Not apply to
o Waste batteries covered under Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022.
o Plastic packaging covered under Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016.
o Waste tyres and used oil covered under Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and
Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016.
o E-waste covered under E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022.
• Producer Responsibilites: Fulfil Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) either through purchase of EPR
certificate generated by its own RVSF or by any entity having RVSF.
• EPR certificate: Issued by Central Pollution Control Board through centralised online portal in favour of
RVSF.
• Responsibilities of registered owner and bulk consumer: They must deposit EoLV at any of the
producer’s designated sales outlet or designated Collection Centre or RVSF within 180 days.
• Implementation Committee: Constituted by Central Government and chaired by CPCB Chairman for
effective implementation of rules.

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 4.4.4.3. OTHER RELATED NEWS
4.4.4.3.1. CORPORATE AVERAGE FUEL EFFICIENCY (I) NORMS
Centre is likely to impose penalties on some carmakers for violation of Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (I)
norms.
About I Norms
• Norms were first notified by the Government in 2017, under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
• Aim: Mitigate fuel consumption by lowering CO₂ emissions, reduce oil dependency and air pollution.
• Relate the gasoline equivalent corporate average fuel consumption (in litres/100 km) to the corporate
average kerb weight of all the cars sold by any original equipment manufacturer (OEM) in a fiscal year.
• Applicability: Petrol, diesel, liquefied petroleum gas, CNG, etc., with gross vehicle weight less than
3500kgs.
4.4.4.3.2. GLOBAL ENERGY ALLIANCE FOR PEOPLE AND PLANET (GEAPP)
The GEAPP and the International Solar Alliance (ISA) signed an agreement to establish a $100 million fund to
support high-impact solar energy projects.
• Additional Initiatives Announced: Digitalization of Utilities for Energy Transition (DUET) and Energy
Transitions Innovation Challenge (ENTICE 2.0)
About Global Energy Alliance for People and Planet (GEAPP)
• It is a global, public-private initiative focused on accelerating clean energy transition in developing
countries.
• Goals: 1 billion people with energy access, 150 million green jobs, 4 billion tons of emissions avoided.
• Focus Areas: Distributed renewable energy solutions, energy poverty alleviation, sustainable development.
4.4.4.3.3. AMENDMENT TO ALMM ORDER, 2019
Recently, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) approved amendment to Approved List of Models
and Manufacturers (ALMM) Order, 2019.
Key Highlights of Amendment:
• Introduction of ALMM List-II (Solar PV Cells): All solar PV modules used in government-backed projects,
net-metering projects, & open-access renewable energy initiatives must source their solar cells from ALMM
List-II.
o List I under ALMM framework was issued in 2021 mandating to source PV modules from models &
manufacturers included in ALMM List I.
• Exemption: Projects that have already been awarded/completed their bidding process before the
issuance of this order.
• Promoting Technology Innovation: Thin-film solar modules manufactured in integrated solar PV module
manufacturing units will be considered in compliance with requirement to use solar PV cells from List-II.
• Implementation: From 1st June 2026.

4.4.5. MISCELLANEOUS
4.4.5.1. RIVER LINKING PROJECT
Why in the News?
Prime Minister laid the foundation stone of the Ken- Betwa River Linking National Project.
About Ken-Betwa Link Project
• Overview: Part of India’s National River Linking Project (NRLP), aimed to divert surplus water from the Ken
basin to water-scarce areas in the Betwa basin.
• Completion: Target by 2030.

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 • Location: Spans Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, focusing on the drought-prone Bundelkhand region.
• Key Components:
o Phase I:
> Daudhan Dam (77 m high) in Panna
Tiger Reserve for irrigation and power
generation.
> Ken-Betwa Link Canal (221 km) to
transfer water.
o Phase II:
> Lower Orr Dam, Bina Complex, and
Kotha Barrage to address water
scarcity in the Betwa basin.
National River Linking Project (NRLP)
• Background:
o First proposed by Sir Arthur Cotton in 1850s, revived in 1972 by K.L. Rao, then India’s Power and
Irrigation Minister.
o Initiated in the 1980s under the National Perspective Plan (NPP) and in 1982 National Water
Development Agency (NWDA) was set up to study the feasibility of the river linking.
> In 2021, the Centre proposed National Interlinking of Rivers Authority (NIRA) as the apex
implementing body for NPP to replace NWDA.
• Objectives: Irrigating 30 million hectares and generating 20,000-25,000 MW of power, mitigating flood
droughts, etc.
• National Water Development Agency (NWDA) has identified following components:
> Himalayan Rivers Development: 14 links, focusing on northern rivers like the Ganga and
Brahmaputra.
> Peninsular Rivers Development: 16 links, including the Ken-Betwa link.
> Intra-State Links: For within-state water management.

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 4.4.6. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS
4.4.6.1. INDIGENOUS HERBAL KNOWLEDGE
Herbal patents were granted to custodians of herbal traditional knowledge from Jammu & Kashmir and Gujarat.
About Indigenous Herbal knowledge
• Knowledge holders interact within their ecological system and possess deep understanding of local flora
accumulated through experiences, experiments and wisdom.
• In India, of the 17,000 species of higher plants, 7500 are known for medicinal uses (highest proportion of
plants known for their medical purposes in any country).
• Initiatives to protect traditional knowledge in India: Traditional knowledge digital library; National IPR
Policy, etc.

4.4.6.2. SVASTIK INITIATIVE

Significance of SVASTIK initiative was highlighted during the International Conference on Communication and
Dissemination of Traditional Knowledge.
About SVASTIK (Scientifically Validated Societal Traditional Knowledge)
• It is coordinated by CSIR-NIScPR (National Institute of Science Communication and Policy Research).
• Objective: To preserve traditional practices, promote scientific validation of traditions, etc.
• Significance: Disseminates scientifically validated traditional knowledge through social media in 17
languages.

4.4.6.3. GRIHA (GREEN RATING FOR INTEGRATED HABITAT ASSESSMENT)

Inland Waterways Authority of India’s Intermodal Terminal at Kalughat in Bihar received five five-star
SVAGRIHA rating from GRIHA.
• Terminal is part of World Bank funded Jal Marg Vikas Project for capacity augmentation of National
Waterway 1 – River Ganga.
About GRIHA
• Ministry: Joint venture of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy and The Energy and Resources
Institute (TERI)
• Role: GRIHA is a rating tool that evaluates the environmental performance of a building holistically over
its entire life cycle, thereby providing a definitive standard for what constitutes a 'green building'.
• SVAGRIHA (Simple Versatile Affordable GRIHA): Given to small-scale stakeholders (bungalows and
small offices).

4.4.6.4. CAIRO CALL TO ACTION

World Urban Forum (WUF) concluded its 12th edition in Cairo (Egypt), with the adoption of 10-point Cairo Call
to Action.
• WUF, established in 2001 by UN, is the premier global conference on sustainable urbanization.
Cairo Call to Action
It calls for:
• Urgent action to address the global housing crisis, sharing urban spaces inclusively, and Urban planning
to deliver better local outcomes.
• Achieving global goals through local action, Representation of local actors at all levels, and Building
alliances to scale local impact.
• Unlocking finance for cities and communities, ensuring equity and justice, leveraging local and
grassroot data, Harnessing culture and heritage as an asset for sustainability.

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 4.4.6.5. INDIAN GREEN BUILDING COUNCIL (IGBC)
Upcoming 'Durgesh Aranya Zoological Park' at Bankhandi in Kangra district (Himachal Pradesh) would become
India's first zoo to receive certification from the IGBC for its sustainable and eco-friendly initiatives.
About IGBC
• Genesis: IGBC, part of the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) was established in 2001.
• Vision: Facilitate India to be one of the global leaders in the sustainable built environment by 2025.
• Role:
o Developing new green building rating programmes, certification services, green building training
programmes.
o The council also organises Green Building Congress, its annual flagship event on green buildings.

4.4.6.6. NET-ZERO BANKING ALLIANCE (NZBA)

Recently, Wall Street’s biggest banks including Goldman Sachs Group Inc., etc. have announced exit from
NZBA.
About Net-Zero Banking Alliance
• Bank-led and UN-convened, it is a group of leading global banks committed to aligning their lending,
investment, and capital markets activities with net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.
• No Indian bank is a member of NZBA.
• It is the climate accelerator for UNEP Finance Initiative’s Principles for Responsible Banking (PRB).

4.4.6.7. BHARAT CLEANTECH MANUFACTURING PLATFORM

Recently, the Union Minister of Commerce & Industry launched the Bharat Cleantech Manufacturing Platform
at the Bharat Climate Forum 2025.
About Bharat Cleantech Manufacturing Platform
• Designed to enhance India's cleantech value chains in the solar, wind, hydrogen, and battery storage
sectors.
• Provide an opportunity for the Indian firms to collaborate, co-innovate and provide a platform for financing.
o Help India become an attractive business case and global leader in sustainability and cleantech
sector.

4.4.6.8. INDIA LAUNCHED THE WORLD’S FIRST GREEN STEEL TAXONOMY

Recently, Union Ministry of Steel launched the World’s First Green Steel Taxonomy (or classification).
Key features of Green Steel Taxonomy
• Definition of Green Steel: Steel with CO2 equivalent emission intensity of less than 2.2 tonnes of CO2e
per tonne of finished steel.
• Star Rating System (based on greenness): Threshold limit for star ratings will be reviewed every 3 years.
And the current threshold is
o Five-star green-rated steel: Emission intensity lower than 1.6 tonnes; Four-star, green-rated steel
(between 1.6 and 2.0 tonnes); Three-star green-rated steel (between 2.0 and 2.2 tonnes).
• Nodal Agency: National Institute of Secondary Steel Technology (NISST) for measurement, reporting,
and verification (MRV) and issuance of greenness certificates (issued annually) and star ratings.
• Importance of Green Steel Taxonomy: Advancing National Mission on Green Steel; global
competitiveness, etc.

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 4.4.6.9. CHAMPIONS OF EARTH AWARD, 2024
UNEP has announced Champions of Earth Award, 2024.
Key Highlights
• 2024 Lifetime Achievement category is awarded to Indian ecologist Madhav Gadgil, renowned for his work
in ecologically fragile Western Ghats region of India.
About Champions of Earth Award
• Awarded annually since its inception in 2005, UN’s highest environmental honour.
• In 2024, UNEP honours individuals and organizations working on innovative and sustainable solutions.
• Given in categories like Policy leadership; Inspiration and action; Entrepreneurial vision; Science and
innovation.

4.5. DISASTER MANAGEMENT

4.5.1. 150 YEARS OF INDIA METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT (IMD)
Why in the news?
Marking 150 years of IMD, the Prime Minister launched Mission Mausam.
About the Mission Mausam
• Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
• Aim: Making India a "Weather-ready and Climate-smart" nation to mitigate the impact of climate
change and extreme weather events and strengthen the resilience of communities.
• Implementation: The Phase-I of Mission Mausam will be implemented during 2024-26 and Phase-II will
be implemented during 2026-31 in the next financial cycle.
• Implementation: IMD, the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology; Pune, and the National Centre for
Medium-Range Weather Forecasting; Noida.
• Target beneficiaries: General public and numerous sectors, such as agriculture, disaster management,
defense, environment, aviation, water resources, power, tourism, shipping, transport, energy, health etc.
o It can improve the short- and medium-range weather forecast accuracy by about 5-10%.
History and Background of Meteorology in India
• Background: In 1636 Halley, a British scientist
published treatise on the Indian monsoon, which he
attributed to a seasonal reversal of winds due to the
differential heating of the Asian land mass and the
Indian Ocean.
• History of IMD
o Genesis: 1875.
o Headquarters: New Delhi. (Initially it was
Calcutta).
o The first Director General of Observatories was
Sir John Eliot, who was appointed in May 1889 at
Calcutta headquarters.
• Evolution post 1947
o Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
o First organization in India to have a message
switching computer: For supporting its global
data exchange.
o One of the first few electronic computers introduced in the country was provided to IMD for scientific
applications in meteorology.

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 • India was the first developing country in the world to have its own geostationary satellite, INSAT, for
continuous weather monitoring of this part of the globe and particularly for cyclone warning.
• International help: It provides Cyclone forecast and warning services to 13 north Indian Ocean countries
along with forecast and warning services to SAARC nations.

4.5.2. THE DISASTER MANAGEMENT (AMENDMENT) BILL, 2024

Why in the news?
Lok Sabha passed Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill, 2024 to amend Disaster Management Act 2005.
Key changes in Bill
• Preparation of plan: Transfers disaster plan responsibilities from executive committees to National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMA).
• Additional Functions of NDMA and SDMA: Adds certain functions at their respective levels like, assess
disaster risks, provide technical assistance, Recommend relief guidelines etc.
• State and national disaster database: Will contain information on type and severity of disaster risks,
Allocation of funds etc.
• Urban DM authorities: Bill empowers state government to constitute a separate Urban Disaster
Management Authority for state capitals and cities with a municipal corporation.
• Formation of State Disaster Response Force (SDRF): Bill empowers state government to constitute a
SDRF and define its functions and terms of service.
• National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) and the High-Level Committee (HLC): Bill provides
statutory status to NCMC and HLC.
o NCMC will function as nodal body for major disasters while HLC will provide financial assistance to
state governments during disasters.

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 4.5.3. MOEF&CC NOTIFIED ENVIRONMENT RELIEF FUND (AMENDMENT) SCHEME,
2024
Why in the news?
Notification, amending the Environment Relief Fund (ERF) Scheme 2008, has been issued in exercise of
powers conferred under Section 7A of Public Liability Insurance Act (PLIA), 1991.
More on the News
• Section 7A of PLIA provides for establishment of Environment Relief Fund (ERF), which is utilized for
providing immediate relief to victims of accidents involving hazardous substances.
Key Amendments
• Administration: It vests the Environment Relief Fund (ERF) in the Central Government.
• Fund Manager: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) replaces United India Insurance Company
Limited as the fund manager for five years with effect from 1st January, 2025.
• Disbursement: Fund Manager, in consultation with Central Government, shall develop and maintain an
online portal and shall disburse amount as per the order of District Collector or Central Government.
• Investment: ERF amount shall be invested appropriately in public financial institutions and in saving
accounts to ensure timely availability of funds.
• Restoration of Environmental Damage: Fund Manager shall earmark the ERF funds for restoration of
damage caused due to manufacture, processing, treatment, package, storage, transportation, use,
collection, destruction, conversion, transfer etc., of hazardous substances.
• The accounts of the Relief Fund shall be audited by an independent auditor appointed by the Central
Government from the panel approved by the Comptroller and Auditor-General.

Related News
Public Liability Insurance (Amendment) Rules, 2024
MoEF&CC notified Public Liability Insurance (Amendment) Rules, 2024, in exercise of powers conferred by
PLIA 1991.
Key Amendments
• Persons with direct and substantial connection and interest in affected public property can also claim
for restoration of property.
• It provides for utilization of ERF towards environmental damage restoration.
• Increases insurance policy coverage limit to ₹250 crore for single accident and ₹500 crore for multiple
accidents.

4.5.4. DAM SAFETY ACT OF 2021

Why in the news?
In a case, SC observed that the National Committee on Dam Safety (NCDS), as mandated under Section 5 of
the Act, had not been constituted since its enactment.
More on the News
• Committee is a part of four tiered institutional structures under the Act.
o It aims to prevent dam failure related disasters and to maintain standards of dam safety.
o It would be chaired by the Central Water Commission (CWC) Chairperson and have representatives
from the Centre and States and include three specialists.
About Dam Safety Act 2021
• Purpose: Provide for surveillance, inspection, operation and maintenance of the specified dam for
prevention of dam failure related disasters.

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 • Four tiers of institutional mechanism
o Centre level: National Dam Safety Authority (NDSA) and NCDS
o State Level: State Committee on Dam Safety and the State Dam Safety Organization
Other Dam Safety Measures Taken in India
• National Register of Large Dams (NRLD), compiled and maintained by CWC.
• Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP), Supported by the World Bank (WB), and Asian
Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)
• Other: National Centre for Earthquake Safety of Dams, Dam Health and Rehabilitation Monitoring
Application (DHARMA), etc.
Dams in India and Associated safety Concerns
• India is 3rd largest dam-owning nation in the world after China and USA.
• About 5000 large dams are in India.

4.5.5. RAT HOLE MINING

Why in the News?
9 workers were trapped in a flooded rat-hole coal mine in Umrangso, Dima Hasao district, Assam.
About Rat Hole Mining
• Mining Mechanism: Rat-hole mining involves digging narrow horizontal tunnels, usually 3-4 feet high,
where workers (often children) enter and extract coal.
o Termed "rat-holes", as each just fits one person, practiced mostly in Meghalaya.
• Reasons for prevalence:
o Natural Factors: Thin coal seams make rat-hole mining more economical than open-cast methods.
 Difficult terrain and high costs discourage advanced drilling methods.
o Governance issues: Constitution’s 6th Schedule protects tribal rights over land.
 Landowners are considered owners of minerals beneath, and it is believed that Coal Mines
Nationalisation Act of 1973 does not apply to these mines.
• Legal Status: National Green Tribunal (NGT) banned rat hole mining in Meghalaya in 2014 stating it is
unscientific and unsafe for workers. The Ban was upheld by Supreme Court.

4.5.6. DISASTERS
4.5.6.1. EARTHQUAKE
Why in the news?
Earthquake of Magnitude 7.1 Struck Tibet in the Himalayas.
More on the News
The Himalayas remain one of the world's most geologically active zones, with a history of significant
earthquakes.

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 • Himalayan region falls primarily in Seismic Zone IV & Seismic Zone V of India’s seismic zoning map
prepared by Bureau of Indian Standards.
• It classifies India into 4 zones - V, IV, III and II. Zone V is seismically most active region, while zone II is
the least.
Why Himalayas are prone to frequent earthquakes?

• Tectonic Collision of Indian & Eurasian Plate: Himalayas lie at the convergent boundary of Indian &
Eurasian plates, where Indian Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate, generating immense stress that
is released as earthquakes.
• Active Fault Lines: Numerous fault systems, like Main Central Thrust & Main Boundary Thrust, where
sudden slip or movement along these faults causes earthquakes.
• Young Mountain Range: Himalayas are geologically young & structurally unstable, which amplifies
seismic activity.
Consequences of Earthquakes in Himalayas

• Landslides & Avalanches: Steep terrain exacerbates landslides, leading to significant infrastructure
damage & loss of life.
• Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs): Earthquakes can destabilize glacial lakes, leading to catastrophic
floods.
• Tectonic Uplift and Faulting: Sudden changes in elevation, affects ecosystems, human settlements etc.
• Cultural & Heritage Loss: The region has ancient monasteries, temples, & cultural sites.

4.5.6.2. TSUNAMI READY’ VILLAGES (DISASTER MANAGEMENT)

Why in the news?
Villages in Odisha conceptualised by Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO (UNESCO-
IOC) as ‘Tsunami Ready’.
More about in News
UNESCO-IOC Tsunami Ready Recognition Programme (TRRP)

• TRRP is a voluntary, international community-based effort to bolster risk prevention and mitigation
across global coastal zones.
• Aim: Build tsunami resilience through awareness and preparedness strategies.
• Methodology: It has 12 preparedness indicators for a consistent evaluation.
About Tsunami
• Series of enormous waves created by an underwater disturbance caused by violent seafloor movement
associated with earthquakes, landslides, lava entering sea, seamount collapse, or meteorite impact.

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 • Features of Tsunami Waves:
o Not noticed by ships in deep oceans because their amplitude is negligible when compared with their
wavelength.
> However, when tsunamis approach shallow water, wave amplitude increases.
• Their speed depends on ocean depth, not distance from wave's source.
Steps taken for Tsunami preparedness
• Globally
o UNESCO-IOC Tsunami Ready Recognition Programme: Voluntary, international community-based
effort to bolster risk prevention across global coastal zones.
o Tsunami United Programme: Flagship initiative of UNESCO to increase preparedness.
o Global Tsunami Early Warning and Mitigation Programme: IOC-UNESCO Programme supports
Member States in assessing tsunami risk, implementing Early Warning Systems etc.
• India
o Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC): Established at Indian National Centre for Ocean
Information Sciences, Hyderabad is national authority to issue tsunami advisories.
o Development of Apps and devices: E.g. GEMINI device for warnings and alerts in sea.

4.5.6.3. STAMPEDE
Why in the news?
Stampede caused by overcrowding at Tirupati resulted in the loss of lives.
More on the News
Stampede is “an impulsive mass movement of a crowd that often results in injuries and deaths” due to
Traumatic asphyxia (cessation of respiration) or other injuries.
• Reportedly, religious gatherings accounted for 79% of India's stampedes between 1954-2012.
• Recent examples include the 2024 incidents at Hathras and Kalkaji temple.

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 Crowd Management
Highlights of National Disaster Management Authority
(NDMA) Guidelines on crowd management:
• Crowd management strategies and
arrangement: Capacity Planning (infrastructure
development), Understanding of crowd Behaviour
and Crowd Control by restricting or limiting group
behaviour.
• Risk Assessment & Mitigation: Identify and
address potential hazards.
• Information Management: Clear communication
with visitors and stakeholders.
• Safety & Security: CCTV surveillance and
emergency exits.
• Medical Services: Equipped facilities and trained
personnel.
• Traffic Management: Efficient transportation and
clear route marking.

4.5.6.4. WILDFIRES
Why in the news?
A 2023 study, published in journal Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences revealed that 10 of the largest
California wildfires have occurred in the last 20 years.
Reasons for wildfires:
• Anthropogenic activities: Nearly 85% of all forest fires across the US are started by humans, either
deliberately or accidentally, according to the US Forest Service.
• Dry winter: Since October, Southern California has received negligible rain.
• Santa Ana winds: These winds blow from October to January due to pressure difference between Great
Basin i.e. area between Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada in USA (high pressure) and California’s coast
(low pressure).
o As it comes down mountains, it compresses and heats up leading to drop in humidity making vegetation
dry and prone to burning.
• Climate change: Rise in global temperatures over the years has led to warmer springs and summers.
o Such conditions cumulatively cause longer and more intense dry seasons, putting more moisture stress
on vegetation.
• Consequences of Wildfires: Toxic pollutants, Intensify climate change, Result in loss of timber,
biodiversity and have severe impacts on indigenous communities and tourism.
o Wildfire also affects soil Biome, organic matter and increases soil erosion.
Related News: Hydroclimatic Whiplash
Experts attribute the severity of the wildfires in USA to hydroclimate whiplash, a phenomenon intensified by
climate change.
About Hydroclimate whiplash
• Rare meteorological Hydro climatic volatility condition wherein an extremely wet season is succeeded
by an extremely dry season.
• Impact: Amplification of hazards like flash floods, etc., affects water quality, food security, etc.

4.5.6.5. CHEMICAL DISASTER

Why in the news?
This year marked the completion of 40 years to the Bhopal Gas tragedy.
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 About Bhopal Gas Tragedy
• On 3rd December 1984, highly toxic Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas leaked from a pesticide plant owned by
Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL).
o Even after four decades of tragedy, hundreds of tonnes of toxic waste remain on premises of UCIL.
• It was India's first major Chemical (industrial) disaster.
Other Chemical Disasters in India
• Ammonia Gas Leak at Chennai (2024): Due to damaged gas pipeline caused by cyclone Michaung.
• Vizag Gas Leak (2020): Styrene gas leak at LG Polymers in Visakhapatnam.
• Tughlakabad Gas Leak (2017): Chemical Chloro methylpyridine (used in pesticides manufacturing) leaked
from container.
Reasons for Chemical Disasters
• Process and safety systems failures due to Human, Technical, and Management errors; Induced effect of
natural calamities; Hazardous waste processing/ disposal; Terrorist attack/ unrest leading to sabotage etc.
Impact of Chemical Disasters
• Health: Exposure to toxic chemicals can lead to reproductive health of women, respiratory issues,
cancer, and genetic mutations.
• Environmental: Soil, water, and air contamination, further disrupting ecosystems and biodiversity.
• Crop health: Exposure to hazardous chemicals damages plant cells, inhibits photosynthesis, stunting
growth, and decreased productivity.
• Bioaccumulation: Released toxins can enter food chain, leading to bioaccumulation.
About Methyl Isocyanate (CH3NCO)
• Volatile, colorless liquid that is extremely flammable, and potentially explosive when mixed with air.
• Reacts with water, giving off heat and producing methylamine and carbon dioxide.
• Liquid and vapor are toxic when inhaled, ingested, or exposed to the eyes or skin.
Initiatives taken to tackle Chemical accidents
• NDMA guidelines on Chemical Disaster Management: Inspection System by Regulatory Bodies,
Establish Information networking system with states and districts on priority basis etc.
• Explosives Act, 1884: To control manufacture, possession, use, transportation and importation of
Explosives.
• Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Response) Rules 1996.

4.5.7. OTHER DISASTER RELATED NEWS

4.5.7.1. SPONGE CITY
The emerging concept and construction of “sponge cities” is an effective approach to solving urban floods.
About Sponge city:
• It refers to sustainable urban development including flood control, water conservation, water quality
improvement and natural ecosystem protection.
o E.g., green roofs, constructed wetlands, increased tree cover etc.
• Benefits: increase air humidity, regulate urban microclimates, and reduce public health risks.
• Sponge cities around the world: Tirana in Albania is creating a ring forest to clean the air; Berlin’s use of
green roofs and vertical gardens

4.5.7.2. KAWACHAM
Why in the news?
Kerala has launched the Kerala Warnings, Crisis, and Hazard Management System (KaWaCHaM) for real-
time disaster alerts.
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 About KaWaCHaM
• It is developed by the Kerala State Disaster Management Authority (KSDMA) with support from the National
Disaster Management Authority and the World Bank.
o It is supported under the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP).
• It offers hazard assessment, alert issuance, and threat-based action planning.
o Provides updates for extreme weather events such as heavy rain etc.
• Key features include:
o A network of siren-strobe light units.
o Emergency operation centers connected via Virtual Private Network (VPN).
o Decision support software and a large data center.

4.6. GEOGRAPHY
4.6.1. EQUATORIAL ELECTROJET (EEJ)
Why in the News?
Recently, Indian Scientists have developed a Model to understand the Equatorial ElectroJet (EEJ).
About the Equatorial ElectroJet (EEJ)
• EEJ: Ribbon of intense 100 kA (kiloamperes) current flowing in Earth's ionosphere (Earth’s Upper
atmosphere) at 100km altitude.
o EEJ’s (North‐South) width: It’s of a few hundred kilometres (∼600 km).
• Location of Genesis: Formed in Earth's magnetic equator, where magnetic field lines run parallel to
Earth's surface, leading to an intense current density in the ionosphere.
• Path of travelling: EEJ travels along magnetic equator (See
image).
o Typically, the EEJ current flows eastward during the day,
and reverses direction in the night-time & produce a
characteristic magnetic signature both on ground and in
space (measured by magnetometers).
o Magnetic equator is a line of zero magnetic dip, meaning
that a magnetic needle has no dip at these points.
> Unlike Earth's geographic equator, the magnetic
equator is not fixed, but slowly changes. The
geographic equator is a great circle around the Earth
and it remains fixed at Zero-degree latitude.
• Effects of EEJ: Intensifies Earth’s geomagnetic field near
equator; EEJ disruptions impact power infrastructure and
electricity monitoring systems across equatorial regions.
• Significance of the Model: Understand the EEJ’s impact on
orbiting satellite, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-
based navigation/positioning, satellite communication links
as well as electrical power grids.

4.6.2. TERMS/CONCEPTS IN NEWS

4.6.2.1. DEPRESIÓN AISLADA EN NIVELES ALTOS (DANA)
Recent catastrophic flash floods in Spain are attributed to DANA.
About DANA:
• It is a phenomenon in which a mass of very cold polar air becomes isolated from polar jet stream and
begins to circulate at very high altitudes (5-9 km).

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 o Forms independently of polar or subtropical jet streams unlike common storms.
• When it collides with warmer, more humid air in Mediterranean Sea, it generates strong storms,
especially at end of northern summer and beginning of autumn.
• Unlike a common storm, which moves eastwards, a DANA can remain stranded in same place or even
move westwards.

4.6.2.2. BOMB CYCLONE

Recently, a bomb cyclone struck North-western US and western Canada.
About Bomb Cyclone
• Referred to as bombogenesis, it describes a mid-latitude cyclone (low pressure region) intensifying rapidly
over a 24-hour period.
o Witness a drop in their central air pressure to at least 24 millibars in 24 hours.
• Majority of these occur over the ocean and can be tropical or non-tropical in nature.
• Usually coupled with weather events, ranging from blizzards to severe thunderstorms to heavy
precipitation.

4.6.2.3. INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE (IOD)

Study finds mangrove dieback in Maldives linked to sea level rise and extreme Indian Ocean Dipole.
About IOD
• Climate phenomenon based on the difference in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) between the Eastern
and Western regions of the Indian Ocean.
• It has 2 phases:
o Positive phase: Warm waters pushed to the Western Indian Ocean, while cold deep waters are
brought up in the Eastern Indian Ocean.
> The high temperatures along coastal Africa cause heavy rains and droughts in Australia.
o Negative Phase: Temperature and rainfall Pattern is reversed.

4.6.2.4. INDIA'S COASTLINE RECALCULATED

India's coastline has been recalculated from 7,516 km in 1970 to 11,098 km in 2023-24, reflecting a 48%
increase in past 53 years.
Key Findings
• West Bengal recorded highest percentage increase (357%) while Kerala (5%) reported the smallest
increase.
o Puducherry's coastline contracted by 4.9 km.
• Gujarat retains its position as the state with the longest coastline followed by Tamil Nadu which overtook
Andhra Pradesh (now 3rd).
• Methodology: Upward revision is attributed to a new methodology to measure India's maritime established
by National Maritime Security Coordinator.
o It measures complex coastal formations like bays, estuaries, unlike older methods using straight-
line distances.

4.6.2.5. POLAR VORTEX

The ongoing extreme cold spell in USA & Canada is attributed to arctic blast due to southward expansion of
the polar vortex.
About Polar Vortex
• Definition: Large area of low-pressure and cold air swirling like a wheel (counterclockwise) around both
of the Earth’s poles.

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 • Types:
o Tropospheric Polar Vortex: Forms in the
lowest atmospheric layer, 10-15 km.
o Stratospheric Polar Vortex: Forms at around 15
km to 50 km high.
 Unlike tropospheric one, the stratospheric
polar vortex disappears during summer, is
strongest during the autumn.
• Impacts of Polar Vortex: Arctic Blast (sudden and
intense surge of cold air in US); Extreme Weather
Events (causing jet stream to dip southward bringing
cold arctic air to lower latitudes); Ozone Depletion;
Impact on India (Western Disturbances due to
weaker polar vortex), etc.

4.6.2.6. ARTESIAN CONDITION

Artesian condition was recently observed in a village in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.
Artesian Condition
• The word “artesian” is specifically used when water is “confined under pressure below layers of
relatively impermeable rock.”
o Located deeper below the earth’s surface surrounded by poorly permeable rocks causing high
pressure underground.
• Artesian Conditions occur due to the movement of groundwater from a recharge area to a point of
discharge at a lower elevation. E.g., natural spring, drilling industry, etc.
o Different from water flowing normally through tube wells/wells as this can sprouts above on its own.

4.6.2.7. AUSTRALOPITHECUS
New research provides evidence that Australopithecus, an important early human ancestor, consumed very
little or no meat, relying on a plant-based diet.
• It was revealed by the Nitrogen isotope analysis of tooth enamel challenging the previous assumptions
about early hominins suggesting significant meat-eating.
About Australopithecus
• Australopithecus afarensis is one of the longest-lived and best-known early human species, inhabiting
eastern and southern Africa from roughly 4.2 to 1.9 million years ago.

4.6.3. UPDATES FROM PT 365 (APRIL TO OCTOBER)

4.6.3.1. NATURAL MISSION ON NATURAL FARMING (NMNF)
Recently, Union Cabinet approved the launch of the National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF) as a
standalone Centrally Sponsored Scheme under Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare.

4.6.3.2. WORLD’S FIRST CO₂ TO METHANOL PLANT

NTPC announced successful synthesis of CO2 captured from flue gas with hydrogen produced from a Proton
Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, which was then converted into methanol.
• NTPC has also developed its first indigenous methanol synthesis catalyst.
• It is considered to be a historic step in carbon management and sustainable fuel production.

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 4.6.4. REPORTS/INDICES IN THE NEWS
State of the Released By: World Metrological Organisation.
Climate 2024 Key messages of the report
• Temperature: Jan-Sept 2024 Global average temperature is 1.54 (±0.13) °C above
pre-industrial level.
• Greenhouse Gases: Atmospheric concentration of CO2 has increased from
around 278 ppm in 1750 to 420 ppm in 2023, an increase of 51%.
• Sea level Rise: From 2014-2023, global mean sea level rose at a rate of 4.77 mm
per year, more than double the rate between 1993 and 2002.
• Sea ice extent: Antarctic sea ice was the second lowest in satellite record (1979-
2024) after 2023.
World Cities Released By: UN-Habitat
Report 2024: • UN-Habitat is mandated by UN General Assembly to promote socially and
Cities and environmentally sustainable towns and cities.
Climate Action Key-findings of Report:
• More than 2 billion people could be exposed to an additional temperature increase
of at least 0.5 °C by 2040.
• Cities need an estimated $4.5-5.4 trillion per year for climate-resilient systems.
• Some climate interventions have inadvertently worsened conditions for vulnerable
communities.
Climate Change Released by: Think tanks Germanwatch, New Climate Institute, and Climate Action
Performance Network International.
Index • First three places have been kept empty followed by Denmark (fourth place).
• India ranked 10th on a list.
About CCPI
• Tracks the progress of the world’s largest emitters in terms of global greenhouse
gas (GHG) Emissions, Renewable Energy, Energy Use and Climate Policy.
• It covers 63 countries and the European Union.
Asia–Pacific Released by Asian Development Bank (ADB)
Climate Report • Report highlighted that India is shifting its focus from an unsustainable
dependence on fossil fuel subsidies to fostering clean energy.
‘No Escape: On Released by: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) at COP29.
the Frontlines of Key findings of the report:
Climate, Conflict • 3 in 4 forcibly displaced people live in countries with high-to-extreme exposure to
and climate-related hazards.
Displacement’ • Most refugee settlements and camps are projected to experience twice as many
report days of dangerous heat by 2050.
First-Ever Global International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) conducted the first-ever multi-
Freshwater Fauna taxon global freshwater fauna assessment for The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Assessment Species.
Key-findings
• 24% of the world's Freshwater Species are at risk of extinction.
• Major Hotspots: Lake Victoria (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), Lake Titicaca
(Bolivia and Peru), Sri Lanka’s Wet Zone, and the Western Ghats (India).
Coal 2024: Released by: International Energy Agency (IEA).
Analysis and Key Findings
Forecast to 2027 • Coal Demand: It is expected to shrink in advanced economies accompanied with
growth in few emerging economies E.g. India, China, Indonesia.
o India: It is expected to see the largest increase in coal demand.

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 • Coal Production: Globally, it is expected to reach an all-time high in 2024 and
then flatten through 2027.
Global Water Released by: Global Water Monitor Consortium
Monitor 2024 Key Findings
Report • In 2024, Water-related Disasters caused over 8,700 deaths, displaced 40 million
people, and inflicted more than US$550 billion in damages.
• Soil water showed strong regional contrasts, with extreme dryness in South
America and Southern Africa and wet conditions in West Africa.
• Lake and reservoir water storage worldwide declined for the fifth year in a row.
Global Carbon Published by: Global Carbon Project during UNFCCC’s COP29 summit.
Budget Report Key Findings:
• Globally, fossil-based CO2 emissions are set to touch a record high of 37.4 billion
tonnes this year.
• The largest contributions to global fossil CO2 emissions were China (31%), the
USA (13%), India (8%), and the European Union (7%), in 2023.
o These four regions account for 59% of global fossil CO2 emissions, while the
rest of the world contributed 41%.
• Global emissions from land-use changes like deforestation have dropped 20%
over ten years.
Sustainable Released by: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
nitrogen Key Highlights of Report
management in • Alteration in Nitrogen Cycle: Humans currently add approximately 150 teragrams
Agrifood Systems (Tg) of reactive nitrogen to the Earth’s land surface each year through agriculture
and industry.
o Climate change could raise this to 600 Tg per year by 2100, increasing nitrogen
loss into the environment.
• Nitrogen Loss: It occurs through:
o Emissions of ammonia (NH3) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which lead to air
pollution,
o Nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas (GHG), and
o Leaching of Nitrates (NO3–) in soil and water bodies, causing eutrophication
and acidification, harming ecosystems.
An Eye on Launched by: United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) International
Methane: Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO).
Invisible but not Key Findings of Report
unseen’ • Human-caused methane emissions are responsible for roughly one-third of the
planet’s current warming.
• UNEP’s OGMP 2.0, which require its members to report their emissions, covers only
42% of global production.
About Methane
• It is a major greenhouse gas and 86 times more potent than CO2.
• It is a short-Lived Climate pollutant having an atmospheric lifetime of 12 years.
“Waste to Worth: Released jointly by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) and National
Managing India’s Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG).
Urban Water Key Highlights of the Report
Crisis through • Decline in India’s annual per capita freshwater availability: Currently below
Wastewater 1,700 cubic metres.
Reuse” report • Huge amount of untreated wastewater: Nearly 72% of India’s wastewater ends
up in rivers, lakes, etc.
• Potential in India: India presents a strong case for circular economy in water, as
20%of groundwater blocks are in critical condition or overexploited, 55% of
households have open or no drains.
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 District-Level Released by: Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Guwahati, in collaboration with IIT
Climate Risk Mandi and the Centre for Study of Science, Technology, and Policy (CSTEP),
Assessment Bengaluru.
Report for India: • It uses the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) framework, and
Mapping Flood identifies the dual challenges posed by floods and droughts.
and Drought Risks
Protected Planet Recently, UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre
Report 2024 (UNEP-WCMC) and IUCN released the report that assesses the global status of
Protected and Conserved Areas (PCA) in context of Target 3 of the KGBF
About Protected and Conserved Areas
• Protected Area is geographically defined area regulated and managed to achieve
specific conservation objectives.
• Conserved Areas are areas outside Protected Areas managed to conserve
biodiversity, ecosystem services, and local values.
• Target 3 aims to expand global network of PCA to 30% coverage in a way that is
equitable and respects rights of Indigenous Peoples and Local communities
(IPLC).
India Submits Its BUR-4 updates the Third National Communication (TNC) and contains the National
Fourth Biennial Greenhouse Gas (GHG) inventory for the year 2020.
Update Report • The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is India's nodal
(BUR-4) to ministry for managing and coordinating climate change activities and reporting
UNFCCC under Article 4.1 of UNFCCC.
Key Highlights of report
• GHG emissions: It has decreased by 7.93% in 2020 compared to 2019.
o Sector wise Emissions: Energy (75.66%)> Agriculture (13.72%)>Industrial
Process and Product Use (8.06%)>Waste (2.56%).
• Emission Intensity of GDP: It has reduced by 36% (Between 2005 to 2020)
• Share of non-fossil sources: It constitutes 46.52% of installed electricity
generation capacity (October 2024)
• Generation of Carbon Sinks: An additional carbon sink of 2.29 billion tonnes of
CO2 have been created through forest and tree cover (2005 to 2021).

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 4.6.5. COUNTRIES IN NEWS

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 4.6.6. PLACES IN NEWS
4.6.6.1. INDIA
4.6.6.1.1. WATER BODIES IN NEWS

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 4.6.6.2. WORLD
4.6.6.2.1. WATER BODIES IN NEWS

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 4.6.6.2.2. OTHER GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES IN NEWS

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 4.6.7. PROTECTED AREAS IN NEWS

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 4.6.8. SPECIES IN NEWS
4.6.8.1. TERRESTRIAL SPECIES

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 5. SOCIAL ISSUES
5.1. ISSUES AND DEVELOPMENTS RELATED TO WOMEN AND CHILDREN
5.1.1. GLOBAL ONE-STOP CENTRES (OSC)
Why in the news?
The Empowered Committee of the Ministry of Women and Child Development has approved 9 global OSCs for
Indian women in distress proposed by Ministry of External Affairs.
About Global OSCs
• Aim: To provide comprehensive assistance to women in vulnerable situations, addressing their
immediate needs and offering critical support.
• They include 7 OSCs with provision of shelter homes in Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, UAE, Saudi Arabia
(Jeddah & Riyadh) and 2 OSCs without shelter homes in Toronto and Singapore.
• Indian Community Welfare Fund (ICWF) will play a vital role in extending welfare measures to distressed
Indian nationals, particularly women.
About ICWF
• ICWF, set up in 2009, stands extended to all Indian Missions and Posts abroad.
• Aim: Assisting Overseas Indian nationals in distress situations in the ‘most deserving cases’ on a ‘means
tested basis’.
• Function: Provides critical support in emergency evacuation of Indian nationals from conflict zones,
countries affected by natural disasters etc.
• Eligibility for ICWF fund assistance: Only Indian citizens residing in the host country or those in distress
while visiting a foreign country.
o Persons of Indian Origin (PIO) and Overseas Citizens of India (OCI) Card Holders are not eligible.

5.1.2. ‘NAYI CHETNA – PAHAL BADLAAV KI’ CAMPAIGN

Why in the news?
Union Minister of Rural Development and Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare has launched third edition of
national campaign ‘Nayi Chetna – Pahal Badlaav Ki’.
About Nayi Chetna – Pahal Badlaav Ki campaign
• Aim: To raise awareness and promote targeted action against all forms of gender-based violence through
SHG-led grassroots initiatives, adopting a whole-of-society and whole-of-government approach.
• Organized by Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana - National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) under
aegis of Ministry of Rural Development.
• As part of initiative, 227 new Gender Resource Centers were inaugurated across 13 states.
• Campaign’s slogan: ‘Ek Saath Ek Awaaz- Hinsa Ke Khilaaf.’

5.1.3. PROTECTION OF CHILDREN FROM SEXUAL OFFENCES (POCSO) ACT, 2012

Why in the News?
Supreme Court (SC) penalised the possession and storage of Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse Material
(CSEAM) under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012.
Judgement of Supreme Court
• Change in Terminology: SC directed Courts across the country to abstain from using the term "child
pornography" and instead use "Child Sexual Exploitative and Abuse Material" (CSEAM).
o Court suggested Parliament should amend the POCSO Act for the same.
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 • Violation of Fundamental Rights: SC held CSEAM to be violative of the fundamental rights of children,
especially right to live with dignity (Article 21).
• Criminalized physical as well as constructive (power to control with knowledge of that control)
possession of CSEAM.
o Section 15 of POCSO Act penalizes the storage or possession of pornographic material involving
children.
POCSO Act, 2012
• It is a gender-neutral Act passed in lieu of ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1992).
• Definition of Child: Any individual below 18 years of age.
• Three broad categories of sexual offences punishable: Sexual assault, sexual harassment and using a
child for pornography.
• Objective: Enforcing the rights of all children to safety, security and protection from sexual abuse and
exploitation.
• Key Provisions:
o Child-friendly procedures: Establishes special courts, in-camera trials, no direct confrontation
with the accused, and child-friendly reporting and recording mechanisms.
o Stringent Punishments: 2019 Amendment introduced more stringent punishment including death
penalty for committing sexual crimes on children.
o Mandatory reporting: Anyone who has knowledge of sexual offenses against children must report to
the authorities; failure to report is punishable.
> Punishment for false complaint or false information.
o Presumption of guilt: Burden of proof lies on the accused rather than the victim in certain
circumstances.
o Speedy trials: The evidence of the child shall be recorded within 30 days of the Special Court taking
cognizance of the offence and reasons for delay, if any, shall be recorded by the Special Court; the
disposal of the case is to be done within 1 year.

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 5.1.4. SOCIAL MEDIA ADDICTION IN CHILDREN
Why in the news?
Australia has become the first country to pass a law banning social media use for children under the age of
16.
Key Provisions of the Online Safety Amendment (Social Media Minimum Age) Bill 2024
• Minimum Age Requirement: Require age‐restricted social media platforms to take reasonable steps to
prevent Australians under 16 years old from having accounts.
• Responsibility of Social Media Providers: Companies are responsible for ensuring children under the
minimum age cannot access their platforms.
• Fines for Non-Compliance: Impose maximum penalties of up to $49.5 million for a breach of the minimum
age obligation.
Child Safety Digital Well-being on Social Media Platforms
• 71 % of youth (aged 15-24) are online compared with 48% of total population globally. (UNICEF)
• One in three young people in 30 countries report being cyberbullied, with 1 in 5 skipping school because
of it.
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 5.2. OTHER VULNERABLE SECTIONS
5.2.1. SENIOR CARE REFORMS IN INDIA
Why in the News?
NITI Aayog released a position paper titled “Senior Care
Reforms in India: Reimagining the Senior Care Paradigm.”
Senior care – An overview
• 58% of the total number of elderly are women.
• 7 out of 10 elderly persons reside in rural areas.
• Health: 75% of the elderly have one or more chronic
diseases and around 20% have mental health issues.
• Pension: 78% of the elderly population without a
pension.

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 Status of Ageing
• Global population aged 60+ was 1 billion in 2020, projected to reach 2.1 billion by 2050.
• Population aging, initially seen in high-income countries like Japan, is accelerating in low- and middle-
income countries, where two-thirds of the elderly will live by 2050.

South Korea Becomes ‘Super-Aged’ Society

Recently, South Korea has formally declared that it has become a “super-aged” society as the share of its
population aged 65 or over surpassed 20%.
• This makes South Korea only the second country in Asia, after Japan, to become a ‘Super-Aged’ Society.
• According to the UN, a country is defined as “aging” when the share of people aged 65+ is above 7%,
“aged” when it is 14% or more, and “super-aged” when it exceeds 20%.

5.2.2. MANUAL SCAVENGING

Why in the News?
Supreme Court (SC) sought an action taken report on each of its directions issued on Dr Balram Singh V. Union
of India & Ors (2023) case.
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 Directions issued by SC
• Directed the Union and States to take measures to eradicate manual scavenging and hazardous cleaning
in the country.
• Ensure full rehabilitation (including employment to the next of kin, education to the wards, and skill
training) of sewage workers, and kin of those who die.
• Enhances the compensation payable for sewer deaths to ₹30 lakh from the earlier ₹10 lakh.
o Compensation for permanent disablement: ₹20 lakhs; other disablement: ₹10 lakhs.
• Conduct a comprehensive national survey within one year to identify manual scavengers.
• NCSK, NCSC, NCST and the Union government are required to coordinate and prepare training and
education modules, under the 2013 Act.
About Manual Scavenging
• Defined under Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation (PEMSR) Act,
2013.
• Manual scavenging refers to the practice of manually cleaning, carrying, or handling human excreta from
insanitary latrines, open drains, or pits.
• It is officially banned by the Employment of Manual Scavengers and its Prohibition Act (1993).
• Current Status: India had 58,098 manual scavengers (75% women) in 2021. Between 2018-22, 339 died
cleaning sewers and septic tanks.

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 5.2.3. PRADHAN MANTRI VANBANDHU KALYAN YOJANA (PMVKY)
Why in the News?
Pradhan Mantri Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana (PMVKY), a landmark initiative launched in 2014 as a comprehensive
strategy to address the unique challenges faced by tribal communities in India completes 10 years.

Tribals in India:
• Scheduled Tribes (ST) constitute approximately 8.6% of population of India. (Census 2011)
• There are over 730 Scheduled Tribes notified under Article 342 of the Constitution of India.
o There’re 75 identified PVTGs in 18 States, and Union Territory of Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Other Steps for Tribal Welfare
• Eklavya Model Residential Schools: Established in 1997-98 to provide quality education to Scheduled
Tribe students from classes VI to XII.
• Pradhan Mantri Janjatiya Vikas Mission (PMJVM): By merging two existing schemes- “Mechanism for
Marketing of Minor Forest Produce through Minimum Support Price” and the “Institutional Support for
Development and Marketing of Tribal Products.”
o Implementing Agency: Tribal Co-Operative Marketing Development Federation of India Limited
(TRIFED)

5.3. EDUCATION & HEALTH

5.3.1. ONE NATION ONE SUBSCRIPTION SCHEME
Why in the news?
The Union Cabinet approved the ‘One Nation, One Subscription’ (ONOS) scheme to provide equitable access
to scholarly journals in all public institutions.

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 About One Nation One Subscription Scheme
• Aim: To provide country-wide access to international high impact scholarly research articles and journal
publications to students, faculty and researchers of all government-managed Higher Education
Institutions and Research & Development Institutions.
• Objective: To acquire national licenses for e-journal/database subscriptions from most of the prominent
journal publishers.
• It is a Central Sector Scheme under Ministry of Education.
• Financial allocation: Rs. 6,000 crores for 2025-2027.
• Implementation: The Department of Higher Education (DHE) will have a unified portal “One Nation One
Subscription” for institutions to access the journals.
o National subscription-based access to journals is coordinated by Information and Library Network
(INFLIBNET) Centre.
> It is an autonomous inter-university centre of the University Grants Commission (UGC),
Gandhinagar, Gujarat.
o ANRF will periodically review the usage of ONOS and publications of Indian authors of these
institutions.

5.3.2. NATIONAL TESTING AGENCY (NTA)

Why in the news?
Radhakrishnan panel recommends restructuring of National Testing Agency.
About Radhakrishnan panel
• Seven-member panel was appointed in June 2024 following complaints of question paper leak in
Common University Entrance Test-Undergraduate (CUET-UG).
• Recommendation of panel for Exam Reforms:
o DigiExam on lines of DigiYatra: For comprehensive authentication to prevent impersonation.
o Restructuring of NTA: To conduct higher education entrance exams only.
o Institutional linkage with state/ district authorities: To identify suitable testing centres, prepare a list
of suspicious elements and keep a close eye on them etc.
o Mobile Testing Centres: To facilitate aspirational candidates from rural, remote and thinly populated
areas.
About NTA
• Nodal Ministry: Set up by Ministry of Education in 2017 as a premier, specialist, autonomous and self-
sustained testing organization.
o It is registered as a Society in 2018 under Societies Registration Act (1860).
• Aim: To conduct entrance examinations for admission/fellowship in higher educational institutions.
• Mission: To improve equity and quality in education by administering research based valid, reliable,
efficient, transparent, fair and international level assessments.

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 • Functions:
o To establish strong R&D culture as well as a pool of experts in different aspects of testing.
o To undertake any other examination that is entrusted to it by Ministries/Departments of Government
of India/State Governments.
o To undertake reforms and training of school boards to ensure testing standards are comparable with
the entrance examinations.

5.3.3. THE RIGHT OF CHILDREN TO FREE AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION (RTE)

ACT, 2009
Why in the News?
Ministry of Education scraps ‘no detention’ policy for Classes 5 and 8 for the schools under the Centre.
Key points regarding the new policy
• The no-detention policy was part of the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 aiming to reduce dropout rates
but abolished in 2019 (implementation delayed).
• The new policy allows schools to fail students who do not pass their year-end exams under the Right of
Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) (Amendment) Rules, 2024.
o If a student fails to meet promotion criteria, they will receive additional instruction and a chance for re-
examination within two months from result declaration.
o No child can be expelled from school until they complete elementary education.
• 16 states and 2 Union Territories have already adopted this policy, as education is a State subject.
About Right to Education in India
• Article 21-A (inserted by 86th Amendment, 2002): Fundamental right to free and compulsory education to
every child of the age 6-14 years.
• RTE Act, 2009
o The Act aims at realizing the fundamental right guaranteed by Article 21-A.
o Key Provisions of the Act:
> It specifies minimum norms in elementary schools like Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs),
infrastructure, school-working days, teacher-working hours.
> Provision for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age-appropriate class and special training
of school drop-outs
> Government schools: To provide free education to all children and the schools will be managed
by School Management Committees (SMC).
> Private Schools: Reserve 25% of seats for children belonging to disadvantaged sections.
(reimbursed by the state as part of the public-private partnership plan).
> Prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other than decennial census,
elections, and disaster relief.
> Prohibits physical punishment and mental harassment; screening for admission of children;
capitation fee; private tuition by teachers and running of schools without recognition.
> No child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until the
completion of elementary education.
> Education being a concurrent subject, the Act lays down specific responsibilities for the centre,
state and local bodies for its implementation.
> The National Council of Educational Research & Training (NCERT) is the academic authority to
lay down the curriculum and evaluation procedure for elementary education.
UDISE+ 2023-24 Report on School Education
Ministry of Education released Unified District Information System for Education Plus (UDISE+) 2023-24
Report on School Education.
• UDISE+ system of online data collection from schools was developed by Department of School
Education & Literacy in the 2018-19.

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 • It collects information through an online Data Collection Form on parameters ranging from school,
Infrastructure, teachers, enrolments, examination results etc.
• UDISE+ has attempted collection of national level individual student wise data for the first time in 2022-
23 to align it with recommendations of NEP 2020 as compared to school-wise comparable data till
2021-22.
Key findings of UDISE+ 2023-24
• Student Enrolments: Overall dip in school enrolments, falling from 25.18 crore in 2022-23 to 24.8 crore
in 2023-24. (Reduction of 1.55 crore students (nearly 6%) from 2018-19 to 2021-22)
• Dropouts: Zero-dropout rate at Foundational level (pre-primary to Class 2) is due to admission of
students from Anganwadi, standalone private pre-primary school directly to Class I in recognized
schools.
o Maximum dropout rates were at Secondary level (Classes 9 to 12).
o Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra saw among highest drop in enrolments.
• Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER): Minor dip at all levels except at the secondary level.
o GER compares enrolment in a specific level of education to population of age group that is age-
appropriate for that level of education.

5.3.7. PM-VIDYALAXMI SCHEME

Why in the News?
Union Cabinet approved PM-Vidyalaxmi Scheme to provide financial support to meritorious students for
higher studies.
PM-Vidyalaxmi Scheme
• It is a Central Sector scheme in line with the National Education Policy, 2020 recommendation of
financial assistance to meritorious students in both public and private Higher education institutions.
• Objective: Providing collateral free, guarantor free loans from banks and financial institutions to cover
full amount of tuition fees and other expenses related to the course in higher education.
• Eligibility: Any student who gets admission in Quality Higher Education Institution (QHEIs).
• Coverage: 860 qualifying QHEIs (Based on NIRF ranking), covering more than 22 lakh students every year.
• Benefits: Loan amounts up to Rs.7.5 lakhs will be provided a 75% credit guarantee by the Government of
India.
o For students with up to Rs. 8 lakhs annual family income, 3% interest subvention for loan up to Rs.10
lakhs.
o This is in addition to the full interest subvention already offered to students with up to Rs. 4.5 lakhs
annual family income.
• Unified portal “PM-Vidyalaxmi”: For simple, transparent, student-friendly and inter-operable system that
will be entirely digital.
o Payment of interest subvention will be made through E-voucher and Central Bank Digital Currency
(CBDC) wallets.
• The Scheme is applicable for all Scheduled Banks/Regional Rural Banks (RRBs)/Cooperative Banks.
• It will supplement Pradhan Mantri Uchchatar Shiksha Protsahan (PM-USP) Scheme.
o It provides a maximum of 82,000 fresh scholarships per annum to meritorious students from poor
families to meet a part of their day-to-day expenses while pursuing higher studies.
o Components: Central Sector Interest Subsidy (CSIS) and Credit Guarantee Fund Scheme for Education
Loans (CGFSEL).

5.3.8. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

5.3.8.1. UGC DRAFT (MINIMUM STANDARDS OF INSTRUCTION FOR THE GRANT OF UG AND
PG) REGULATIONS, 2024
UGC Draft (Minimum Standards of Instruction for the Grant of UG and PG) Regulations, 2024 released in exercise
of the powers conferred by the University Grants Commission Act, 1956.
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 About the Regulations
• Aim: To match global standards in Higher education alongside upholding inclusivity and adaptability to
diverse learner needs, in line with NEP, 2020.
• Major Changes proposed:
o Biannual admission in Higher Education Institutes (HEIs).
o Flexibility: Irrespective of disciplines opted in schooling (12th grade), a student is eligible for admission
in any discipline based on a National/University level entrance examination.
> Pursuing 2 UG/PG programmes simultaneously with flexibility in terms of change of
discipline/institution/mode of learning.
> Multiple entry and exit options.
o Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL): Admission based on RPL i.e. learnings outside formal education,
training at workplace or community post-assessment.
o Credit structure: Minimum 50% credits to be earned from the discipline with the remaining 50% to
be earned from Skill Courses and Apprenticeships. Provided SOP for Accelerated Degree
Programme (ADP) and Extended Degree Programme (EDP), in line with National Credit Framework
(NCrF).
> ADP allows students to complete the degree in a reduced time by earning additional credits per
semester, while EDP enables an extended timeline with fewer credits per semester.
> It is Applicable to only UG level, to be opted at the end of 1st or 2nd semester only.

5.3.8.2. STRENGTHENING TEACHING-LEARNING AND RESULTS FOR STATES (STARS)

PROGRAM
World Bank releases “Jobs at Your Doorstep” Report, commissioned as a part of STARS Program.
About STARS Program
• It is a centrally sponsored scheme supported by the World Bank and approved in 2020 for five years i.e.
till FY 2024-25.
• Implemented in six states i.e. Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and
Kerala.
• Aim: To improve quality and governance of school education with focus on early education, learning
assessments, teacher performance, school-to-work transitions, and decentralized management.
• Aligned with the Samagra Shiksha scheme, it also supports operationalization of the NEP, 2020.

5.3.8.3. KENDRIYA VIDYALAYAS AND JAWAHAR NAVODAYA VIDYALAYAS

Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs approved setting up of 85 new Kendriya Vidyalayas (KVs) and 28
new Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs).
About KVs
• Set up under Kendriya Vidyalaya Scheme (Central Sector Scheme) approved in 1962 on the
recommendations of the Second Central Pay Commission.
• Mission:
o To cater to educational needs of wards of transferable and non-transferable employees of Central
Government and for children of floating population including those living in remote and undeveloped
locations;
o To develop the spirit of national integration among children.
• Key Features:
o Common textbooks, bilingual medium of instruction, co-educational, comprehensive schools.
o All KVs are affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE).
o No tuition fee for boys up to class VIII, girls up to class XII, SC/ST students and children of KVS
employees.

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 • Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan
o Registered Society under the Societies Registration Act (XXI of 1860) in 1965 wholly funded by the
Government of India.
o Aim: To provide, establish, endow, maintain, control and manage the KVs located all over India and
abroad.
About JNVs
• Set up under Navodaya Vidyalaya Scheme (Central Sector Scheme) as envisaged under the National
Policy on Education,1986.
• JNVs are fully residential, co-educational schools providing good quality modern education from Class
VI to XII to the talented children, predominantly from the rural areas.
• As per policy, one JNV is to be established in each district.
• Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti: Autonomous body under Ministry of Education to establish, endow, maintain,
control, and manage NVs.
Note: Almost all KVs and JNVs have been designated as PM SHRI schools (exemplar schools that showcase
the National Education Policy 2020).

5.3.8.4. PATIENT SAFETY RIGHTS CHARTER

The Charter was developed by World Health Organisation (WHO) at Global Ministerial Summit on Patient
Safety.
Patient Safety Rights Charter
• Developed within the framework of World Patient Safety Day 2023 under theme “Engaging patients for
patient safety”.
• Aim: Provide healthcare workers, leaders and governments with the tools to build patient-centric
healthcare systems, improving patient safety and reducing risk of harm.
• It is intended to support implementation of Global Patient Safety (GPS) Action Plan 2021–2030. (India is a
signatory)

5.3.8.5. CHARAK (COMMUNITY HEALTH: A RESPONSIVE ACTION FOR KOYLANCHAL)

INITIATIVE
Under guidance of Ministry of Coal, Singrauli-based Coal India arm Northern Coalfields Limited has launched
‘CHARAK’ initiative.
About CHARAK Initiative
• CHARAK’- “Community Health: A Responsive Action for Koylanchal”, is an innovative health-centric
CSR Initiative.

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 • Aim: Providing free treatment for patients belonging to Economically Weaker Sections suffering from
identified Life-threatening diseases in Singrauli region (covers MP and UP).
o Singrauli is situated at northern-most part of Son Mahanadi Master Basin in Central India.
• Under this, Malignancy, TB and related complications, HIV and related complications, Organ Transplant,
Neurological Disorders, Connective Tissue disorders, etc. are covered.

5.4. ORGANIZATIONS IN NEWS

5.4.1. WORLD URBAN FORUM (WUF)
The 10-point Cairo Call to Action was adopted at the 12th edition of the World Urban Forum (WUF) held in
Cairo (Egypt).
About WUF
• Established in 2001 by United Nations (UN).
• Convened by UN-Habitat, as a high level, open and inclusive platform for addressing the challenges of
sustainable urbanization.
• Aim: To address issues of rapid urbanization and its impact on communities, cities, economies, climate
change and policies.
• The first WUF was held in Nairobi, Kenya in 2002.
About Urbanisation
• World: Cities are projected to house 70% of the world's population by 2050.
• India: By 2036, India’s towns and cities will be home 40% of the population, up from 31% in 2011.

5.4.2. UNITED NATIONS ALLIANCE OF CIVILIZATIONS (UNAOC)

The 10th Global Forum of United Nations Alliance of Civilizations (UNAOC) adopted Cascais Declaration in
Portugal.
About Cascais Declaration
• Objective: To promote principles of tolerance and peaceful existence and build bridges between cultures.
About UNOAC
• Established in 2005 to serve as a soft-power political tool of UN Secretary-General for conflict prevention
& conflict resolution.
• Five Priority Areas for action: Education, Youth, Migration, Media, and Women as peace mediators.
• Objectives:
o Facilitate the global conversation on the challenges and opportunities of intercultural interactions,
promoting innovation to uphold mutual respect and cooperation.
o Prevent intercultural tensions and crises; combat stereotypes, misperceptions, discrimination and
xenophobia.
• Group of Friends: A community of countries and international organizations which actively promotes the
UNAOC’s objectives. It consists of 160 members (India is a member).

5.5. MISCELLANEOUS
5.5.1. ‘RIGHT TO DISCONNECT’ IN INDIA
Why in the News?
Recently, various sections in India have raised voices on the need to bring a law on ‘Right to Disconnect’ in the
backdrop of death of a young female employee due to work stress.

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 ‘Right to Disconnect’ in India
• 'Right to Disconnect' means that employees are not obliged to reply to calls made by employers after
work hours and such an employee shall not be subject to any disciplinary action by employers.
• Currently, India lacks specific laws recognizing right to disconnect from work.
• Constitutional Provisions:
o Article 38 (directs state to promote welfare of people)
o Article 39(e) (directs state to secure strength and health of its workers).
• Judicial pronouncements:
o Vishakha v State of Rajasthan, 1997: On safe working environment for women.
o Ravindra Kumar Dhariwal and Ors v. UoI, 2021: Accommodate persons with disabilities.
• Recent Initiative: In 2018, a Private Member’s Bill was introduced in Lok Sabha, which aimed to delineate
the right to disconnect from work after working hours.

5.5.2. CONJUGAL RIGHTS

Why in the News?
SC recently ruled that proceedings on restitution of conjugal rights and those on maintenance are entirely
independent of each other.
About Conjugal rights
• Conjugal rights are rights created by marriage, i.e. right to live together, right of the husband or the wife to
the society of the other spouse.
• Law recognises these rights, both in personal laws dealing with marriage, divorce etc, and in criminal law
requiring payment of maintenance and alimony to a spouse.
• Hindu Marriage Act, 1955: Deals with conjugal rights, which says if either husband or wife without
reasonable excuses withdraws from society of other, aggrieved party may approach court for restitution
of conjugal rights.
o Similar provisions exist in Muslim personal law as well as the Divorce Act, 1869, which governs
Christian family law.

5.5.3. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

5.5.3.1. DOMESTIC MIGRATION IN INDIA
Report titled ‘400 Million Dreams’ released by Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM)
highlights the changing patterns of migration in India since 2011 Census.
Internal/Domestic migration
• It refers to movement of people within a country from one region to another.
o Push factors: Lack of job opportunities, natural disaster, lack of quality education and healthcare, etc.
o Pull factors: Economic opportunities, higher standard of living, peace and stability, etc.

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 Key findings of report
• Reduction in Domestic Migrant Numbers: By about 12% from 45.57 crore to 40.20 crore in 2023.
o Migration rate dropped from ~38% to ~29% (2023).
• Migration Dynamics:
o Short-distance migration is predominant,
o Migration originates primarily from areas around major urban centers like Delhi, Mumbai, etc.

5.5.3.2. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

4th edition of ILO Global Estimates on International Migrants in the labour force released.
International Migrants
• International migrants are defined as persons who are part of the resident population of a country other
than their country of birth (foreign-born residents).
• It also includes refugees, asylum seekers, and related groups.
• Key Finding of the report:
o International migrants reached 284.5 million (2022), 255.7 million of them belong to the global
working-age population (aged 15 and over).
> Women constituted 38.7 % while men were 61.3 % of international migrants in the labour force.
> They accounted for 4.7 % of the global labour force in 2022.
> Unemployment rate for international migrants was higher than for non-migrants.

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 5.5.3.3. WFP GLOBAL OUTLOOK FOR 2025
Why in the news?
World Food Programme (WFP) released ‘Global Outlook for 2025’ Report providing updates on global food
security solutions to respond to the crises related to hunger.
Key Highlights
• Global Hunger Crisis: An estimated 343 million people across 74 countries are acutely food insecure.
o This is a 10% increase from last year.
• Key Factors: Armed violence is a key driver in 14 out of 16 hunger hotspots like Sudan, Gaza, etc.
o Other factors: Food Inflation, extreme weather events etc.
o 65 % of acutely food-insecure people live in fragile/conflict-affected situations.
• India Specific:
o India is home to a quarter of all undernourished people worldwide.
> Around 21.25 % of population lives on less than US$1.90 a day.
o 38% of children aged 6-59 months are grappling with chronic malnutrition.

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 6. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
6.1. BIOTECHNOLOGY
6.1.1. GENOME INDIA PROJECT
Why in the News?
Genome India Project (GIP) has achieved a significant milestone by making the genomic data of 10,000
individuals publicly accessible.
More on the News
• Whole genome sequencing data for 10,000 individuals have been archived at Indian Biological Data
Centre (IBDC).
o IBDC, Faridabad is India’s first national life science data repository, supported by Department of
Biotechnology (DBT).
• Framework for Exchange of Data Protocols (FeED) and the IBDC Portals were also launched.
o ‘Framework for Exchange of Data (FeED)’ Protocols is under Biotech-PRIDE Guidelines and it
ensures high-quality, nation-specific data sharing in a transparent, fair, and responsible manner.
About Genome India Project
• Genesis: Initiated in 2020 by DBT with collaborations of 20 institutions to map India's genetic diversity.
• Primary objective: Build a comprehensive catalogue of genetic variations that reflect unique diversity of
Indian population.
• Key Achievements:
o 20,000 samples collected from 83 diverse populations, establishing a bio bank.
o 10,000 genomes sequenced in first phase, creating a reference genome for India.

To know more about Genome Sequencing, refer to Article 1.1. Genes and Related Concepts in PT365
Science & Technology 2025.
Related News
Next Generation DNA Sequencing
• Pashmina Certification and Next Generation DNA Sequencing Facilities inaugurated at Wildlife Institute
of India (WII).
• About Next Generation DNA Sequencing
o Next-generation sequencing (NGS): A modern method of analyzing genetic material that can
rapidly sequence large amounts of DNA or RNA.

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 o Benefit: NGS can sequence an entire genome within days, compared to months with earlier
techniques.
o Key applications of NGS
> Microbiology: Helps in pathogen identification, outbreak tracking, and studying antimicrobial
resistance etc.
> Medical Research & Gene Therapy: Identify cancer types, replace defective genes for inherited
diseases etc.
> Other: Wildlife conservation (assessment of population genetic health, etc.), Agriculture
(Sequence crop genomes to enhance drought resistance), etc.

6.1.2. KEY CONCEPTS/TERMS IN NEWS

6.1.2.1. EXTRACHROMOSOMAL DNA (ECDNA)
Studies reveal how ecDNA drives cancer progression and drug resistance.
About Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA)
• ecDNA are small circular DNA fragments that float freely in the nucleus, separate from chromosomes.
• Genesis: Formed due to DNA damage (e.g., chromothripsis) or errors during DNA replication.
• Role of ecDNA in Cancer:
o Found in up to 90% of certain tumour types, including brain tumours, liposarcomas, and breast
cancers.
o ecDNA often contains multiple oncogenes, promoting tumour growth and drug resistance.
> Oncogenes are mutated genes capable of causing cancer that are required to activate tumour
growth.

6.1.2.2. SELECTIVE SILENCING

Researchers at Columbia University have revealed impact of selective silencing on disease outcomes.
About Selective Silencing
• Every cell in the body (except sperm and eggs) contains two copies of each gene (one inherited from each
parent).
• However, certain cells can exhibit a bias, selectively inactivating one parent’s copy of a gene, i.e., selective
silencing.
o Silencing means blocking a specific gene’s message.
• This selective silencing could be the reason why some individuals carrying genes linked to diseases
remain symptom-free.

6.1.2.3. CIS-REGULATORY ELEMENTS

Researchers have used AI to design new DNA Switches (also called Cis-Regulatory Elements (CREs)) that can
precisely control expression of a gene in different cell types.
• It opens the possibility of controlling when and where genes are expressed in human body, for human health
and research.
About CREs
• CREs themselves are not part of genes, but are separate, regulatory DNA sequences.
• Although every cell in an organism contains the same genes, not all the genes are needed in every cell, or at
all times. This gene expression is regulated by CREs.
• These play a crucial role in cellular identity, developmental processes, and stimulus responses.

6.1.2.4. BIOFILM
Indian Institute of Science (IISc) has devised a way to break down ‘biofilm barriers’ to aid entry of drugs.

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 • Most of the disease-causing bacteria secrete matrix-like layers around themselves called biofilms.
• These biofilms act as thick barriers limiting the entry of drugs and helping the bacteria become resistant to
antibiotics.
About Biofilm
• A biofilm is an assemblage of microbial cells that is irreversibly associated (not removed by gentle rinsing)
with a surface and enclosed in a matrix of primarily polysaccharide material.
• It may form on a wide variety of surfaces like living tissues, indwelling medical devices, industrial or
potable water system piping, natural aquatic systems etc.
• In food industries, usually the surfaces and equipment with food and non-food-contact are regularly
annexed by microorganisms that can form biofilms.

6.1.3. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS

6.1.3.1. QARTEMI
Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has approved 2nd Living drugs, Qartemi, a Chimeric
Antigen Receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy for treating blood cancer.
• NexCAR19 is first CART-cell therapy.
About Qartemi
• India's first globally benchmarked CAR T-cell treatment specifically designed for adult B-cell non-Hodgkin
lymphoma.
• Developed by Immuneel Therapeutics, a Bengaluru-based biotech startup.
To know more about CART-cell therapy, refer to Article 1.2.1. Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T-cell
therapy in PT365 Science & Technology 2025.

6.1.3.2. ARCHAEA
Study of archaea have given scientists clues to survival strategies of microorganisms by adapting to harsh
conditions with the help of their Toxin-Antitoxin (TA) systems.
• TA Systems are found in many bacteria and archaea, and are usually composed of a toxin that inhibits an
essential cellular process and an antitoxin that counteracts its cognate toxin.
About Archaea
• Archaea are organisms consisting of a single cell without a nucleus.
• Archaea form one of the three domains of life; the others are bacteria and eukaryotes.
• They inhabit a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as near rift vents in deep sea
or heat springs.

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 6.2. IT AND COMPUTER
6.2.1. QUANTUM TECHNOLOGY

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 6.2.1.1. MAJORANA 1
Why in the News?
Microsoft has launched Majorana 1 Quantum Chip.
More on the News
• It is the world's First quantum chip to be powered by new topological core architecture.
o While regular chips use ‘bits’ (O or 1) to process information, quantum chips use ‘qubits’.
• It will revolutionize the development of quantum computers because it creates more stable and scalable
quantum computing components. About Ocelot
• Also, recently, Amazon launched a • A prototype that has only a tiny fraction of the computing
quantum computing chip named power needed to create a useful machine.
Ocelot (refer to box). • Key features:
About Majorana 1 o It consists of two integrated silicon microchips.
o Its high-quality oscillators are made from a thin film of
• Uses the first-ever topoconductor ( superconducting material called Tantalum
(topological superconductor) • It uses cat qubits, named after the famous Schrödinger's
o A topoconductor is a special
cat thought experiment.
category of material that can o Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment where a cat
create an entirely new state of inside a sealed box is both alive and dead
matter (not a solid, liquid or gas but simultaneously (superposition) until someone observes
a topological state). it.
o Material is made from indium
arsenide (a semiconductor) and aluminium (a superconductor).
• Uses a superconducting nanowire to observe the particles and can be controlled with standard computing
equipment.
• Relies on a subatomic particle called the Majorana fermion
o Majorana fermion is a fermion that is both a particle and its antiparticle; its existence was first
theorized in the 1930s.
Why Majorana 1 is a Big Development?
• It requires fewer qubits (or quantum bit) than rival chips and also has error rates are lower compared to
other rival chips like Google (Willow), IBM, etc.
• Combining with AI can deliver transformative and real-world solutions such as breaking down
microplastics into harmless byproducts, etc.

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 Related News
Quantum Diamond Microchip Imager
• India’s first Quantum Diamond Microchip Imager will be developed by Tata Consultancy Services (TCS)
in partnership with IIT-Bombay.
• About Quantum Diamond Microchip Imager
o An advanced sensing tool for semiconductor chip imaging.
o Uses the defects in a diamond’s structure, known as Nitrogen-Vacancy (NV) centers.
Quantum Teleportation
• Researchers successfully teleported a quantum state of light over 30 kilometers of fiber optic cable.
o This breakthrough shows the potential for quantum and classical networks to share the same
infrastructure.
• About Quantum Teleportation
o A method for transferring quantum information between two points using entangled states &
preserving their identities across distances.
o Significance: Paves the way for a quantum internet, offering benefits like faster encryption, improved
sensing, and global connectivity for quantum computers.

6.2.2. BIG DATA

Why in the News?
India joins the UN Committee of Experts on Big Data and Data Science for Official Statistics (UN-CEBD).
About Big Data
• Definition: Data whose scale, diversity, and complexity require new architecture, techniques, algorithms,
and analytics to manage it and extract value and hidden knowledge from it.
o It includes structured data (inventory database, list of financial transactions); unstructured data
(social posts or videos); and mixed data sets (used to train large language models for AI).
• Characteristics of Big Data: Volume, Variety, Velocity (high rate of change) and Veracity (uncertainty and
incompleteness).
Applications of Big Data in Various Sectors
• Healthcare: Personalized medicine, clinical risk management, disease prediction, drug recommendations,
etc.
• Logistics and Transport: Bolster supply chain performance by fostering proactive and reactive capabilities.
• Marketing and Advertising: Precise targeting, market analysis, customer insights.
• Smart Cities: Resource management, improved infrastructure planning, and AI-driven solutions to urban
challenges.
• Education: Personalized learning, improving educational quality.
• Earth Sciences: Climate and earth studies, weather modelling, and prediction.

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 UN Committee of Experts on Big Data and Data Science for Official Statistics (UN-CEBD)
• Aim: Provide a strategic vision, direction and coordination for a global programme on big data for official
statistics.
• Membership: consists of 31 member states and 16 international organizations (Including India).

6.2.3. KEY CONCEPT/TERMS IN NEWS

6.2.3.1. NEUROMORPHIC DEVICE
Indian Scientists have developed a Neuromorphic device.
About Neuromorphic Device
• Neuromorphic devices give ideas about how the human body senses and responds to pain.
• Inspired by the habituation process of human body.
o In our bodies, special sensors called nociceptors detect pain and help us respond to harmful
situations.
o Over time, with repeated exposure, one can actually feel pain less intensely through a process called
habituation.
• Benefit: Make wearable tech smarter, and improve human-machine interactions.

6.2.3.2. BLUETOOTH LOW ENERGY GATEWAY

State of the Art Bluetooth Low Energy Gateway and Node System launched at IIT Ropar.
About Bluetooth Low Energy Gateway
• Connects Bluetooth-enabled sensors to cloud platforms, enabling seamless data transmission, real-
time environmental monitoring, and advanced analytics across diverse sectors.
• Key features include:
o Robust Connectivity: Offers 4G, Wi-Fi, and LAN compatibility for flexible networking.
o Long-Range Communication: Supports data transmission up to 1 km in line-of-sight (LOS) scenarios.
• Application: Precision farming, Logistics, Monitoring work in Smart cities, Industrial sites etc.

6.2.3.3. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) SPOOFING

As per reports, Israel used GPS spoofing against Iran.
About GPS Spoofing or GPS simulation
• Refers to the practice of manipulating or tricking a GPS receiver by broadcasting false GPS signals.
o This form of cyber-attack undermines the reliability of GPS data.
• Spoofing is different from GPS jamming.
o In the latter, the GPS signals are jammed or blocked.

6.2.4. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS

6.2.4.1. DHARANI
IIT Madras has become the first research organization in the world to releases an open-source brain mapping
dataset named DHARANI.
About DHARANI
• Largest open-access digital dataset of the human fetal brain (developing brain of a fetus).
• Created with custom-made Indian technology.
• Advances neuroscience research and could aid in brain-related health treatments.

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 6.2.4.2. SSI MANTRA
India’s indigenous Surgical robotic system, SSI Mantra, performed two world-first robotic cardiac
telesurgeries with latency of only 40 milliseconds.
About SSI Mantra
• Only robotic system worldwide to receive regulatory approval for telesurgery and tele-proctoring.
• Performed the robotic beating heart Totally Endoscopic Coronary Artery Bypass (TECAB), considered one
of the most complex cardiac surgical procedures.

6.2.4.3. THE BHASHINI PROJECT

Ministry of Labour & Employment launches Multilingual Functionality on e-Shram Portal.
• The Bhashini project upgraded the e-Shram portal to support all 22 Scheduled Languages.
About The Bhashini project (2022)
• An AI-based language translation tool, enabling multilingual support for Indian languages.
o It is part of the broader National Language Translation Mission (NLTM).
• Aim: Bridge language barriers and provides content and services in speech and text to citizens in their native
language.
• Ministry: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY).

6.2.4.4. GENCAST AI
Google DeepMind Unveils GenCast AI Model for Advanced Weather Forecasting.
About GenCast AI
• A weather forecasting model that claims better accuracy and extended forecasting range compared to
existing tools.
• It uses ensemble forecasting, similar to traditional numerical weather prediction (NWP), but is powered by
AI rather than simulations.
To know more about Artificial Intelligence, refer to Article 3.1. Artificial Intelligence in PT365 Science &
Technology 2025.

6.2.4.5. MULEHUNTER.AI
RBI launched AI tool MuleHunter.AI to help financial institutions identify mule bank accounts and curb digital
frauds.
• Mule accounts are used by criminals for illicit laundering of funds.
About MuleHunter.AI
• Developed by Reserve Bank Innovation Hub (RBIH), a wholly owned subsidiary of RBI.
• Uses AI/ Machine Learning based solutions to identify suspected mule accounts efficiently on a near-
real-time monitoring.

6.2.4.6. SECURE IOT

IIT-Madras incubated startup Mindgrove launched Secure IoT, India’s debut high-performance SoC (system on
chip).
• SoC combines many electronic parts into one chip, like a mini-computer.
About Secure IoT
• Secure IoT is first indigenous microcontroller chip.
• Applications: In deep embedded applications like smart variants of fans, speakers, wearables, etc.
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 6.2.4.7. MOIRÉ SUPERCONDUCTORS
Recent study reported that moiré materials made from semiconductor materials can be superconducting.
About Moiré Materials
• About: They are a type of superlattice material (periodic structure formed by alternating layers of materials)
with unique structures and properties.
o Created by stacking two layers of a semiconductor, and rotating one layer by a small angle.
• Benefits: Tunable electrical and optical properties, exhibit superconductivity, orbital magnetism, and
quantum properties, etc.

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 6.3. SPACE TECHNOLOGY
6.3.1. CRYOGENIC ENGINE

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 6.3.1.1. CE20 CRYOGENIC ENGINE
Why in the News?
The ISRO’s CE20 cryogenic engine passed a critical sea-level test,
a breakthrough in its propulsion technology.
More on the News

• Test Location: ISRO Propulsion Complex in Mahendragiri,

Tamil Nadu.
o The sea-level test introduced an innovative ‘Nozzle
Protection System’ to address technical challenges in
engine restart capability.
• ISRO has been working on the engine in view of its Gaganyaan
mission.
About CE20

• Developed by: The Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC),

Valiamala, Kerala.
• Output: It has been upgraded to produce a thrust level of 20
tonnes.
• Successful Mission: It has demonstrated its capability by successfully operating in six successive LVM3
missions, including the Chandrayaan-2, Chandrayaan-3, etc.
o LVM3 (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III) is three-staged vehicle, capable of lifting
4000kg payload.

Related News
Semi-Cryogenic Engine (SCE)-200
• ISRO successfully conducted the first Pre-Burner Ignition trial for semi-cryogenic engine (SCE)-200
o The SCE ignition is achieved using a start fuel ampule which uses a combination of Triethyle
Aluminide and Triethyle Boron developed by Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC).
• Semi-Cryogenic Engine (SCE)
o SCE uses refined kerosene instead of liquid hydrogen which offers advantages of lighter weight and
storage at normal temperature.
o ISRO is developing a powerful SCE that produces a thrust of 2,000 kilonewtons (kN).
Vikas engine
• ISRO successfully carried out demonstration of restarting its Vikas liquid engine.
o It is a step towards developing technologies for recovery of stages, leading to reusability in future
launch vehicles which could substantially reduce cost of future space missions.
• About Vikas (Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai) Engine
o It has been conceptualized and designed by ISRO’s Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC).
o It is workhorse engine that powers liquid stages of ISRO’s launch vehicles.
o It improves payload capability of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Launch
Vehicle (GSLV) and GSLV Mk-III launch vehicles.

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 6.3.2. BLACK HOLE

6.3.2.1. V404 CYGNI SYSTEM

Why in the News?
Astronomers discovered the first black hole triple system “V404 Cygni system”.
About V404 Cygni system
• It holds a central black hole in the act of consuming a small star that’s spiralling in very close to the black
hole.
• V404 Cygni system, initially believed to be a binary black hole system.
o Binary black hole systems often pair a black hole with either a star, neutron star, or another black
hole, orbiting each other due to gravitational attraction.
• The new discovery found, a 2nd star orbiting the black hole at a vast distance, completing one orbit every
70,000 years (making it a triple system).
• It is located within the Milky Way and around 8,000 light-years from Earth.
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 Significance of the New Discovery
• Debunks Supernova explosion: The distant star's presence challenges traditional black hole formation
theory.
• Direct collapse: Scientists suggest this black hole is formed through "direct collapse,"
o In direct collapse, a star quietly implodes, allowing distant objects to maintain their orbital connections.
Related News
LID-568
• According to a study, LID-568 Black hole is expanding at an unprecedented rate challenging the
conventional understanding of black holes.
o LID-568 appeared to be consuming infalling material due to gravitational attraction known as
accretion, at more than 40 times the Eddington limit.
> Eddington limit shows the maximum energy output the black hole can produce through the
accretion process.
• About LID-568
o A supermassive black hole formed about 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang event.
o It has a mass about 10 million times greater than the sun, so 2-1/2 times that of Sagittarius A*.
> Sagittarius A*is a supermassive black hole located at the center of our galaxy-the Milky Way.

6.3.3. THIRD LAUNCH PAD

Why in the News?
Union Cabinet approved the establishment of ‘Third Launch Pad’ (TLP) project at Satish Dhawan Space Centre
of ISRO at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
About TLP
• Key Features: Configured to support Launch of Next Generation Launch Vehicles (NGLV) and LVM3 with
Semi cryogenic stage as well as scaled up configurations of NGLV.
• Significance of TLP
o Capacity augmentation: Enables higher launch frequencies
o Expanded vision of Indian Space Programme: Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) and an Indian Crewed
Lunar Landing by 2040 require a next generation of heavier launch vehicles with new propulsion
systems.

Existing Launch pads in India

• Currently, ISRO relies on 2 launch pads located at Shriharikota:
o First Launch Pad provides launch support for PSLV and Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV).
o Second Launch Pad was established primarily for GSLV & LVM3 and also functions as standby for
PSLV.

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 Next Generation Launch Vehicles (NGLV) Programme
• About: Aims to develop a new rocket (also known as Soorya Rocket) to launch satellites and spacecraft
• Features
o 3 stage vehicle with reusable first stage.
o The booster stages will use semi-cryogenic propulsion.
o It will have 3 times the present payload capability with 1.5 times the cost compared to LVM3.
Other Launch Vehicles of the ISRO
• Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV): It is the third generation launch vehicle.
o First Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages.
o It is a 4 stage launch vehicle with 1st & 3rd stages being solid rocket motors and 2nd & 4th being liquid
engines.
o Second stage is powered by a Vikas engine.
• Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV): Operational fourth generation launch vehicle with
3-stage.
o It is used to launch communication satellites in geo-transfer orbit using cryogenic third stage.
o Its second stage is powered by Vikas engines.
• Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV): A 3 stage Launch Vehicle configured with three Solid Propulsion
Stages and liquid propulsion.
• GSLV Mk-III (LVM3): A three stage vehicle with two solid strap-on motors (S200), one liquid core stage
(L110), and a high thrust cryogenic upper stage (C25).

6.3.4. ANALOG SPACE MISSION

Why in the News?
ISRO has launched India’s first analog space mission in Leh (Ladakh) to plan lunar mission experiments.
About Analog Space Mission
• Analog space missions are field tests done in locations that have physical similarities to that of the extreme
space environments.
• Developed by joint collaboration of ISRO’s Human Spaceflight Center, and other partner.
• Other major analog missions: NEEMO (NASA), SIRIUS Program (UAE), etc.
Why is Ladakh ideal as Analog Site?
• Geomorphological similarities to an early Mars and Moon:
o Dry, cold, arid desert, with abundant rocky ground.
o Vast flat land devoid of vegetation, dunes, and drainage networks.
o Segregated ground ice and permafrost, and rock glaciers.
• Geochemical similarities to Martian surface: Volcanic rocks, saline lakes, and hydrothermal systems.
• Exobiological similarities: Permafrost (evidence of water in past), increased UV and cosmic radiation flux,
reduced atmospheric pressure, hot springs (rich in boron) and sufficient isolation.

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 6.3.5. DIRECT-TO-DEVICE (D2D) SATELLITE CONNECTIVITY
Why in the News?
BSNL launched India’s first Direct-to-Device (D2D) Satellite connectivity.
More on the News
• It marks a major event in extending satellite communications to everyday consumers which were earlier
limited to emergency and military use.
• Global initiatives such as AST Space Mobile, Lynk Global, Constellation Global, SpaceX- Starlink, also
uses D2D technology.
o Chinese scientists have developed world’s first satellite series (Tiantong-1) to make Direct Satellite
Calls.
Working of Direct-to-Device Satellite Technology
• Principle: Satellites act as cell towers in space, bypassing the need for terrestrial cell towers.
• Non-Terrestrial Network (NTN) technology: It allows for seamless two-way communication between
devices and satellites.
Significance
• Reliable connectivity: Uninterrupted internet
connectivity, regardless of weather conditions.
• High-speed internet and wider coverage even in
the remotest areas where cellular or Wi-Fi
networks are unavailable.
• Emergency calls and SOS messaging:
Communication in emergency situations where
cellular or Wi-Fi networks are unavailable (useful
for adventurers, travellers etc)
Challenges
• Latency: Ensuring minimal delay for real-time
applications like voice calls and video streaming.
• Device compatibility: Ensuring technology works
across various smartphones and operating systems.
• Propagation challenges: Overcoming signal loss and interference in diverse environments.

6.3.6. SATELLITE CONSTELLATION FIREFLY

Why in the News?
Indian private space-tech company Pixxel launched India’s first private satellite constellation ‘Firefly’.

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 More on the News
• First three satellites of the Firefly constellation were successfully launched aboard SpaceX’s Transporter-
12 mission.
• Firefly is Pixxel’s flagship Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI) satellite constellation, featuring six of the highest-
resolution commercial hyperspectral satellites to date.
About Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI) Satellites

• HSI analyses a wide spectrum of light instead of just assigning primary colours (red, green, blue) to each
pixel, effectively spectrally fingerprinting the Earth.
• HSI provide more information on what is imaged.
o For instance, while a typical satellite can identify a forest from space, HSI can distinguish between
different types of trees and determine health of each individual tree.
• Key Application: Waste Sorting, environmental monitoring, mineral exploration, etc.
About Satellite Constellation

• A network of identical artificial satellites with the same purpose and shared control, designed to work as
a system.
o They communicate with global ground stations and, at times, interconnect to complement each
other’s functions.
• Starlink, with 2,146 active satellites, is the largest satellite constellation.
• Types: Based on orbital altitude there are three types:
o Geostationary orbit (GEO): At an altitude of 36,000 km, it synchronizes with Earth's rotation.
> Geosynchronous orbit is a low inclination orbit having a period of 23 hours 56 minutes and 4
seconds.
o Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): At altitude of 5,000 to 20,000 km, traditionally serving navigation
purposes.
o Low Earth Orbit (LEO): At altitude of 500 to 1,200 km, primarily support research, telecommunication
and Earth Observation needs.

Related News
TSAT-1A
• Tata Advanced Systems Ltd and Satellogic announced the successful deployment of TSAT-1A into space.
• About TSAT (Tata Satellite) -1A
o India’s first indigenously developed and built satellite capable of sub-meter resolution optical
imaging.
o It is equipped with both multispectral and hyperspectral imaging capabilities.

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 6.3.7. KEY SPACE MISSIONS IN NEWS

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 6.3.8. OTHER SPACE PROGRAMME/SATELLITES/ MISSION IN NEWS

6.3.9. KEY CONCEPTS/TERMS IN NEWS

6.3.9.1. DARK COMET
NASA researchers have discovered more dark Comets, Oumuamua-like (a messenger from afar arriving first)
objects.
Dark Comets
• These celestial objects look like asteroids but act like comets and have less surface area for material to
form tails.
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 • They deviate from expected orbit. That deviation couldn’t be explained by the Yarkovsky effect.
o It is a phenomenon which changes the path of celestial objects due to asymmetric radiation of heat
energy.
• They spin quite rapidly and disperse escaping gas and dust in all directions, making them less visible.
• Dark comets follow elongated, elliptical paths that bring them close to the Sun before sweeping back out
to the farthest reaches of the Solar System.

6.3.9.2. GRAVITATIONAL LENSING

Physicists at Durham University, UK, have discovered over 44 previously unknown stars located behind a
cluster of galaxies using Gravitational Lensing (GL).
About Gravitational Lensing
• GL occurs when massive objects distort and magnify light from objects behind them (such as a galaxy or
a quasar), acting as cosmic telescopes and making distant galaxies appear brighter
• This happens because the object's mass curves space and time, causing light to travel along a curved path.
o According to Einstein's general theory of relativity, mass causes spacetime to curve, and light follows
the curvature of spacetime.
• A key effect of this lensing is magnification, allowing us to see distant, faint objects. The Hubble Space
Telescope uses this effect to study galaxies far beyond its normal range.

6.3.9.3. TIDAL TAIL

A Nascent galaxy was discovered in formation at the end of the tidal tail of the NGC 3785 galaxy.
• NGC 3785 galaxy is known to possess the longest tidal tail discovered so far.
About Tidal Tail
• Formed due to gravitational forces ("tidal forces") when two galaxies interact closely, essentially pulling
material away from each other during a close encounter or merger process.
o A seemingly longer-than-average tidal tail consists of a stream of stars and gas.
• Tidal tail offers a glimpse into how galaxies like ultra-diffuse ones, with very low surface brightness,
come into being.

6.3.10. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENT IN NEWS

6.3.10.1. KODAIKANAL SOLAR OBSERVATORY
International solar conference celebrates 125th anniversary of the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory.
About Kodaikanal Solar Observatory, 1899
• Genesis: Currently owned & operated by Indian Institute of Astrophysics.
• Objective: To obtain more data on how the sun heats up Earth’s atmosphere and to understand monsoon
patterns.
• Location: Kodaikanal, Palani range of hills (Tamil Nadu).
o Kodaikanal was chosen for its proximity to equator & its dust-free high-altitude location.
• Radial motion of sunspots, better known as the Evershed Effect, was discovered from the sunspot
observations made at KSO.

6.3.10.2. MISSION SCOT

The Prime Minister congratulated the Digantara team for the success of Mission SCOT.
About Mission SCOT (Space Camera for Object Tracking)
• Aim: Creating maps for space by tracking object,
• Benefits: Precise object tracking and imaging in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
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 • Contribution: growing Indian space industry towards enhancing space situational awareness.

6.3.10.3. KM3NET
Scientists are deploying two underwater telescopes under Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope (KM3NeT) to
detect high-energy neutrinos.
About KM3NeT
• KM3NeT houses the next generation neutrino telescopes under Mediterranean Sea.
o It will search for neutrinos from distant astrophysical sources such as supernovae, gamma ray bursters
or colliding stars.
• Telescopes are similar to IceCube Neutrino Observatory, located in frozen ice of Antarctica.

6.3.10.4. MEERKAT TELESCOPE

Astronomers have used the MeerKAT radio telescope to investigate giant radio galaxies in the field of
Cosmological Evolution Survey (COSMOS).
About MeerKAT radio telescope
• Location: Northern Cape province of South Africa.
• Features:
o It consists of a connected array of radio telescopes.
o It consists of 64 interlinked receptors, including the main reflector, sub-reflector, receivers, and other
electronics.
o Benefits: Extremely high sensitivity, wide field of view, and unprecedented imaging capabilities
• It is a precursor instrument to mid-frequency component of Square Kilometer Array (SKA) telescope

6.3.10.5. CROPS EXPERIMENT

ISRO achieved a milestone as cowpea seeds aboard PSLV-C60's CROPS experiment sprouted leaves in
space.
• It was ISRO’s first biological experiment and part of CROPS (Compact Research Module for Orbital Plant
Studies).
About CROPS Experiment
• An automated platform designed to cultivate and sustain plant life in microgravity environment of space.
• Developed by the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre.
• Current accomplishment not only demonstrates ISRO’s capability to grow plants in space but also
provides valuable insights for future long-duration missions.

6.4. HEALTH
6.4.1. DISEASES AND RELATED DEVELOPMENTS
6.4.1.1. RARE DISEASES
Why in the News?
Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) approves first anti-complement therapy for rare
diseases
What are Rare Diseases?
• WHO defines rare disease as often debilitating lifelong disease or disorder with a prevalence of 1 or less,
per 1000 people. For E.g. Fanconi Anemia, Osteopetrosis etc.
o However, different countries have their own definitions to suit their specific requirements.

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 • Rare diseases also come under the category of 'orphan diseases'.
o Drugs to treat such diseases are called "orphan drugs" as the number of persons suffering from
individual rare diseases is small and do not constitute a significant market for drug manufacturers.
• Currently, 63 Rare Diseases are listed under National Policy for Rare Disease 2021 (NPRD, 2021),
classified under 3 groups.
Classification of Rare Diseases in India (as per NPRD 2021)
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
• Amenable to one-time • Long-term treatment needed • Definitive treatment is
curative treatment with relatively lower costs available but challenges in
o E.g., Disorders and documented benefits optimal patient selection for
amenable to organ o E.g., Disorders managed benefit, very high cost and
transplantation like Urea with special dietary lifelong therapy
cycle disorders, etc. formulae like o E.g., Gaucher Disease,
Phenylketonuria, etc. Pompe Disease etc.
Initiatives taken to tackle rare diseases
• Global
o WHO’s Fair Pricing Forum: It foster dialogue between regulators, insurers, pharmaceutical companies
and patient groups to ensure sustainable access to medicines, including orphan drug.
o Rare Diseases International (RDI): Global alliance of people living with a rare disease of all
nationalities.
• India
o National Policy for Rare Diseases, 2021: Aims to lower incidence and prevalence of rare diseases.
> Financial support of up to Rs. 50 lakhs per patient is provided for treatment.
o Rashtriya Arogya Nidhi: Provides financial assistance for poor patients suffering from rare disease.

6.4.1.2. DIABETES
Why in the News?
Ministry of Science & Technology introduces 'PPP plus PPP' Model to check diabetes in India.
More on the News
• “PPP plus PPP” is a two-tiered collaboration where India’s public and private sectors unite internally
to strengthen healthcare infrastructure while simultaneously engaging with international counterparts.
• Also, recently, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has set up the country’s first diabetes biobank
in Chennai.
About Diabetes or Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
• A chronic, metabolic disease that causes elevated blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia).
• Symptoms: Loss of glucose through urine and formation of harmful compounds known as ketone bodies.
o It can cause serious damage to the heart, blood vessels, eyes, kidneys, and nerves.
• Major Types
o Type 1 (juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes): Autoimmune disorder in which insulin
producing cells are destroyed.
o Type 2: Most common type and usually occurs in adults. Caused when body becomes resistant to
insulin or doesn't make enough insulin.
o Gestational: Develops during pregnancy
• WHO Target: To halt the rise in diabetes and obesity by 2025

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 About Insulin
• A peptide hormone secreted by β-cells of Pancreas.
• Plays a major role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis.
• Nowadays, recombinant human insulin is mainly produced either in E. coli or Saccharomyces
cerevisiae.

Related News
IL-35 Protein
• Researchers have discovered a specific protein IL-35 that protects against type 1 and autoimmune
diabetes.
• About IL-35-Protein
o Protects the immune system by lowering particular immune cells that produce inflammatory
chemicals.
o Regulates macrophage activation, T-cell proteins, and regulatory B cells.
> Macrophages form from monocytes (type of White blood cells (WBC)), which themselves derive
from the bone marrow.
o T cells and B cells are a type of WBC called lymphocytes
GLP-1 Receptor Agonists
• Scientists at the WHO have endorsed a new class of medicines known as Glucagon-Like Peptide
(GLP)-1 receptor agonists to treat type 2 diabetes and obesity.
• About GLP-1
o These interact with GLP-1, a key hormone that plays an integral role in regulating blood glucose levels,
lipid metabolism, and several other crucial biological functions.
▪ GLP-1 is produced in the intestine and released in response to food.
▪ It causes reduced appetite and release of insulin.

6.4.1.3. POLIO
Why in the News?
Recently, India completed 10 Years of Polio Eradication.
More on the News
• In March 2014, the WHO declared India polio-free.
• Eradication was achieved through the initiatives like Universal Immunization Programme (UIP),
participation in the Global Polio Eradication Initiative, etc.
About Poliomyelitis (Polio)
• Highly infectious viral disease that largely affects children under 5 years of age.
• Transmission: Person-to-person spread mainly through the faecal-oral route or by a common vehicle (e.g.,
contaminated water or food), etc.
• Vaccine-derived polio occurs when the weakened strain in oral polio vaccine (OPV) mutates, potentially
regaining the ability to cause paralysis in under-vaccinated populations.
About Universal Immunization Programme
• It is one of the world’s largest public health programs providing free vaccines for 12 vaccine-preventable
diseases.
• In 1985, Expanded Programme on Immunization was renamed as UIP.
• UIP is a part of the Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) Program under National Health Mission (NHM).

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 Related News
U-WIN portal
• Prime Minister of India launched U-WIN portal.
• About U-WIN
o It captures each & every vaccination event of all pregnant women & children under UIP.
o It will ensure timely administration of life-saving vaccines to pregnant women and children (from
birth to 16 years) against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases.

6.4.1.4. OTHER DISEASE IN NEWS

Guillain-Barre • Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS) outbreak has been reported in Pune, Maharashtra
Syndrome (GBS) • Campylobacter, a bacterial gut infection that spreads through contaminated
food and water, has been linked to the outbreak.
• About Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)
o A very rare but potentially paralysing nerve disorder caused by the immune
system mistakenly attacking the body's own nerves.
> It is often triggered by gastrointestinal or respiratory infection.
o Symptoms: weakness, sensation changes, sometimes paralysis etc.
Human • China experienced a surge in HMPV cases, particularly in children under 14 years
metapneumovirus of age.
(HMPV) • About HMPV
o A respiratory virus that causes mild infections similar to that caused by a
common cold.
> It belongs to the Pneumoviridae family along with respiratory syncytial
virus (RSV).
o Transmission: Spreads from person to person or surfaces to person.
o Symptoms: Cough, fever, nasal congestion, and shortness of breath.
o Treatment: Currently, there is no specific antiviral therapy to treat HMPV and
no vaccine to prevent HMPV.
Norovirus • US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has reported significant surge in
Norovirus cases.
• About Norovirus
o A highly contagious virus that causes gastroenteritis, commonly known as
"stomach flu."
> Noroviruses are relatively resistant in environment as they can survive
freezing as well as high temperatures (up to 60°C).
o Symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, etc.
o Transmission: Primarily through faecal-oral route, either by consumption of
contaminated food or water, or by spreading directly from person to person.
Thrombotic • A recent study found an association between the inactivated COVID-19 vaccine
Thrombocytopenic CoronaVac and Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (TTP).
Purpura • About TTP
o A rare blood disorder in which thrombi (blood clots) are formed in small
blood vessels throughout the body.
o Clots can limit or restrict the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the organs
including brain, kidneys and heart.
o It can be inherited or acquired and occurs due to lack of an enzyme,
ADAMTS13, that controls blood clotting.
o Major symptoms may include thrombocytopenia (lower than normal platelet
count), purpura (purple bruises under the skin); hemolytic anemia (abnormal
destruction of red blood cells), etc.
Disease X • Recent unclassified outbreak in Democratic Republic of Congo has raised
concerns over Disease X.
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 • About Disease X
o Refers to a hypothetical disease, unknown pathogen with potential to
cause global epidemic or pandemic.
o Coined by WHO in 2018 and included it in Blueprint for Priority Diseases to
focus on risks of emerging diseases.
o COVID-19 is regarded as first instance of real Disease X.

6.4.2. ORAL REHYDRATION THERAPY (ORT)

Why in the News?
Richard Cash, physician and global health scholar, died who was instrumental in the development of Oral
Rehydration Therapy (ORT).
About ORT
• ORT is the administration of appropriate solutions (glucose, sodium chloride, etc.) by mouth to prevent or
correct dehydration.
• ORT consists of:
o Rehydration: water and electrolytes to replace losses.
o Maintenance fluid therapy to take care of ongoing losses once rehydration is achieved.
• Richard conducted the first clinical trials of ORT in the late 1960s.
o It demonstrated that this low-cost intervention could effectively and safely reduce intravenous fluid
needs.
• Dilip Mahalanabis was an Indian public health specialist who pioneered the use of oral rehydration
solution (ORS) to treat diarrheal diseases.
o Potent in treatment of Diarrhoea and Cholera.
• Efficacy in Adults: Patients receiving the oral solution required 80% less intravenous fluids for cure in
comparison to other techniques.
How ORT works?
• ORT works because of the molecular mechanisms that govern sugar and sodium absorption inside the
gut.
• The cells that make up the lining of the gut have special receptors on their surfaces that allow them to
actively absorb sugar molecules.
• The increase in sugar and sodium inside the cells leads to increased absorption of water and chloride
ions.

6.4.3. MINISTRY OF AYUSH

Why in the News?
The Ministry of Ayush recently marked its 10th anniversary.
More on the News
• Founded in 2014, the Ministry of Ayush aims to revive ancient medical knowledge while supporting the UN’s
Sustainable Development Goals and Universal Health Coverage.
• The Ministry evolved from the Department of Indian System of Medicine & Homoeopathy.
• “AYUSH” is an acronym for the traditional medical systems practiced in India: Ayurveda, Yoga &
Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy.
Key Achievements of Ministry of Ayush in last decade
• Technology Integration: Digital platforms like Ayush Grid, e-Sanjeevani, and Ayush Telemedicine have
improved healthcare access, especially in remote areas.
• International Day of Yoga (IDY): Achieved global recognition, with 24.53 crore participants in 2024.

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 • National Ayush Mission (NAM): launched the Centrally Sponsored Scheme in 2014.
• Expanding Ayush Infrastructure: India has over 755,780 registered Ayush practitioners, supported by 886
undergraduate and 251 postgraduate colleges.

About National AYUSH Mission (NAM)

• It was launched to promote and develop traditional medical systems: Ayurveda, Yoga, Naturopathy,
Unani, Siddha, Sowa-Rigpa, and Homeopathy.
• Objective: Increasing accessibility to Ayush services, etc.
• Tenure: Till 2026.
Steps taken by India to promote Traditional Medicines
• Quality Assurance and Certifications: Introduced the Ayush Mark and Ayush Premium Mark certification
programs for Ayush products.
o Provided WHO Good Manufacturing Practices-Certified Manufacturing Units for Certificate of
Pharmaceutical Products (COPP) certifications to 31 Ayurvedic drug manufacturers.
• WHO Collaboration: India signed
an agreement with WHO to
establish the WHO Global Centre
for Traditional Medicine (GCTM)
in Jamnagar, Gujarat.
o WHO and the Ministry of
AYUSH organized the First
WHO Traditional Medicine
Global Summit in
Gandhinagar, Gujarat.
o WHO released the Outcome document titled Gujrat Declaration.
• Capacity Building: The Champion Sector Services Scheme (CSSS) was launched to develop skilled
human resources.
• Education Reforms: Under the NCISM Act, 2020, the government established the National Commission
for Indian System of Medicine (NCISM) and National Commission for Homeopathy (NCH).
• Other: National Exit Test (NExT) for AYUSH, AYURGYAN Scheme, etc.
Related News
Varmam Therapy
• National Institute of Siddha (NIS) has set a Guinness World Record for providing Varmam therapy.
• About Varmam Therapy
o A unique and traditional healing modality within Siddha system of medicine.
> Varmam is one of the oldest South Indian Martial Arts which later evolved into a therapy. It is
an art of unarmed fighting system targeting nerves, veins, joints and organs.
o Process: Involves therapeutic manipulation of Varmam points called Varma Adi (Varmam
assault) wherein pranic energy remains concentrated.
o Therapy is a very unique, non-invasive, cost effective, non-pharmacological form of treatment.

6.4.4. KEY CONCEPTS/TERMS IN NEWS

6.4.4.1. BRAIN ROT
The term brain rot has been named the Oxford Word of the Year 2024.
About Brain Dot
• Refers to a decline in mental health and cognitive abilities due to excessive consumption of low-quality
online content, particularly on social media.
• Factors responsible:
o It is the result of overstimulation of human brain.
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 o It has been associated with issues like decreased attention span, reduced critical thinking, mental
health issues etc.

6.4.4.2. ANTIBIOTICS
Recently, Union Minister of Science and Technology launched the first indigenous antibiotic “Nafithromycin”
for resistant infections.
About Antibiotics
• They are chemical substances (produced both synthetically and by some microbes) used as drugs to kill
or stop the growth of disease-causing microorganisms.
• They have low toxicity for humans and animals and can be mixed with livestock feed to check microbial
infections in animals.
• They work against bacterial and not viral infections (like common cold, flue).
o Viruses lack cell wall that is attacked by antibiotics.

6.4.4.3. XPERT MTB/RIF ULTRA

WHO has granted prequalification to molecular diagnostic test for tuberculosis (TB) called Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra.
• The test is the first to meet WHO's prequalification standards for TB diagnosis and antibiotic
susceptibility testing.
About Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra
• Detects the genetic material of MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS in sputum samples.
• Simultaneously, the test identifies mutations associated with rifampicin resistance, a key indicator of
multidrug-resistant TB.

6.4.4.4. METHYLCOBALAMIN
FSSAI provided clarification in Guidelines for usage of Methylcobalamin in health supplements, medical
purposes and nutraceutical products under certain conditions.
• FSSAI had banned Methylcobalamin in 2016 and lifted the ban in 2021 but is yet to notify the same
About Methylcobalamin
• An activated form of Vitamin B12 essential to regulate vital bodily functions like cell multiplication,
blood formation and protein synthesis.
o Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin integral to DNA synthesis, RBC production, and neurological
function.
o Other forms of Vitamin B12 are cyanocobalamin and hydroxocobalamin.
• Source: Milk Products
• Uses: Pain alleviation in diabetic neuropathy, treatment of anaemia, Alzheimer's disease.

6.4.5. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS

6.4.5.1. INTERNATIONAL PATHOGEN SURVEILLANCE NETWORK (IPSN)
IPSN has announced first round of grants towards understanding disease threats.
About IPSN
• Brought together by WHO Hub for Pandemic and Epidemic Intelligence, established in 2021.
• Aim: Provide world with better data, analytics and decisions to detect and respond to health
emergencies.
o It is a new global network of pathogen genomic surveillance (PGS) actors.

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 6.4.5.2. PANDEMIC FUND PROJECT
It focuses on “Animal Health Security Strengthening in India for Pandemic Preparedness and Response”.
About Pandemic Fund Project
• A $25 Million initiative funded by the G20 Pandemic Fund and was established under Indonesia’s G20
Presidency (2022).
• Aim: To enhance low- and middle-income country’s capacity to respond to animal health threats and
pandemic through financing investments
• Implementing Entities: Asian Development Bank (ADB), World Bank, and Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO).

6.4.5.3. GLOBAL ANTIBIOTIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PARTNERSHIP (GARDP)

WHO and GARDP jointly released report on policy and regulatory interventions to address antibiotic shortages
in low and middle-income countries.
About GARDP
• Genesis: GARDP is a not-for-profit organization established in 2016 by the WHO and the Drugs for Neglected
Disease initiative (DNDi). It was legally formed as a Swiss foundation in 2018.
• Purpose: To deliver on WHO’s Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (2015).
• Role: Works with public, private, and non-profit sectors to preserve antibiotics for future generations.

6.4.5.4. GLOBAL HEALTH EMERGENCY CORPS (GHEC)

WHO and partners, activated the GHEC for the first time in response to a recent Mpox outbreak.
About GHEC
• Genesis: WHO founded the GHEC in 2023 after the response to COVID-19 pandemic.
• Objective: Strengthening the response to health emergencies, and a collaboration platform for countries
and health emergency networks.
• Role: It supports countries on their health emergency workforce, the surge deployment of experts, etc.

6.4.5.5. BHARAT HEALTH INITIATIVE FOR SAHYOG HITA AND MAITRI (BHISHM)
The Bharat Health Initiative for Sahyog Hita & Maitri (BHISHM), part of Project Aarogya Maitri, is an innovative
emergency medical aid program.
About BHISHM
• At its core are compact, portable "mini cubes" filled with essential medicines and equipment, designed
for rapid deployment in various emergencies.
• Highly modular and scalable. 36 mini cubes combine to form a mother cube, and 2 mother cubes create
a full BHISHM Cube.
• The system incorporates advanced technology, featuring inventory management via RFID and digital
support in 180 languages.

6.4.5.6. HIGH RISK FOOD

FSSAI has classified packaged drinking water as ‘High Risk Food Category’.
About High-Risk Food
• High risk foods are ready to eat foods that support multiplication of pathogenic bacteria that could be
harmful.
• These include dairy products; meat products including poultry; fish and fish products, etc.
• All Central Licensed Manufacturer/Processors under High-Risk Food Categories shall get its business
audited by FSSAI focusing on food safety auditing agency every year.

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 6.5. DEFENCE
6.5.1. SCRAMJET ENGINE
Why in the News?
Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) successfully conducted a 120-seconds ground test
of an active-cooled Scramjet combustor for the first time in India.
More on the News

• Indigenous endothermic scramjet fuel, jointly developed by DRDL (Hyderabad based laboratory of DRDO)
and Industry, was used.
o An endothermic fuel absorbs heat from its surroundings when it undergoes a chemical reaction.
o It offers dual benefits of significant cooling improvement and ease of ignition.
• It used state-of-art Ceramic Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC), designed to withstand extreme temperatures
encountered during hypersonic flight.
• The test marks a crucial milestone in developing next-generation hypersonic missiles.
• Jet engine (also called gas turbines) is an internal-combustion engine that propels aircraft by discharge of
a jet of fluid, usually hot exhaust gases generated by burning fuel with air drawn in from the atmosphere.
o And, it works only within the atmosphere.
About Scramjet Engine

• A scramjet engine means a Supersonic

Combusting Ramjet engine.
o It is an improvement over the ramjet
engine.
> A ramjet is a form of air-breathing
jet engine that uses the vehicle’s
forward motion to compress
incoming air for combustion
without a rotating compressor.
> Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ) is also a
variant of an air-breathing engine,
operate both in subsonic and
supersonic combustor modes.
• Key Features:
o Uses flame stabilisation technique:
This holds continuous flame inside the combustor.
o Depends on assisted take off: Both ramjets and scramjets cannot produce thrust at zero air speed.
> Therefore, a scramjet-powered vehicle requires an assisted take off by a rocket to accelerate it to
a speed where it begins to produce thrust.
• India is part of elite club of nations that have successfully tested scramjet engines which includes the USA,
Russia, China, etc.

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 How does the Scramjet engine work?
• Air Intake: Vehicle must already be
moving at supersonic speeds
(above Mach 3).
• Compression: Incoming air is
compressed due to the high
velocity of the aircraft.
• Combustion: Fuel (typically
hydrogen) is injected into the compressed air and ignited while maintaining supersonic airflow.
• Thrust Generation: The expansion of hot gases produces thrust, propelling the vehicle at hypersonic
speeds (based on Newton’s third law).
Advantages of Scramjet Technology
• Increased Efficiency: It is a more efficient propulsion
system than a rocket.
o A rocket engine carries both fuel and oxidizer, while a jet
engine relies on atmospheric oxygen for combustion.
• Enhanced Space Access: It will reduce the cost of space
missions as jet engines are re-usable.
o Also, rockets fitted with scramjet engines will be able to
carry heavier satellites.
o An ISRO project called AVATAR is aimed at developing a
rocket to launch the ramjets and scramjets engine.
DRDO (Defence Research & Development Organisation)
• Formed in 1958, it is the R&D wing of the Ministry of Defence for developing cutting-edge defence
technologies and achieving self-reliance in defence.
• DRDO constitutes a network of around 41 laboratories for aeronautics, electronics, combat vehicles,
missiles, advanced computing and simulation, etc.

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 6.5.2. MISSILES IN NEWS

6.5.3. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS

6.5.3.1. PANTSIR AIR DEFENSE SYSTEM (PADS)
Bharat Dynamics Limited, signed a MoU with Russia’s Rosoboronexport for “cooperation on Pantsir variants”.
About PADS
• Pantsir-S1 system is a mobile, short-range air defence system equipped with both missile and gun
capabilities.
• Provides air defence to small military, industrial, and administrative facilities.
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 • Defend against fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft, cruise missiles, and high-precision weapons.

6.5.3.2. DARK EAGLE ANTI-MISSILE SYSTEM

Recently, the United States successfully tested the new Dark Eagle Anti-Missile System.
About Dark Eagle Anti-Missile System:
• A Long-Range Hypersonic Weapon (LRHW) jointly developed by US Army and Navy.
• It features a two-stage ballistic missile equipped with a gliding hypersonic warhead (C-HGB).
• Designed to challenge and potentially surpass capabilities of Russia’s S-300V4, S-400, etc.

6.5.3.3. PINAKA WEAPON SYSTEM

DRDO completed Flight Tests of the indigenously developed Guided Pinaka Weapon System.
About Pinaka Weapon System
• A Multi-Barrel Rocket Launcher (MBRL) system.
• Precision strikes: It can launch a salvo of 12 rockets within 44 seconds covering an area of 700x500
meters.
• Range: 38Km (Pinaka I), 60 Km (Pinaka II), 75 Km (Pinaka III, the latest version)

6.5.3.4. IRON BEAM

Israel expects its “Iron Beam” laser defence system to be operational within one year.
About Iron Beam
• Aim: To intercept and destroy various projectiles with precision using high-powered laser.
o It would be a significantly cheaper alternative to the interceptor missiles.
o It would supplement other existing aerial defense capacities such as the iron dome.
• Limitation: it struggles in poor weather and low-visibility conditions.

6.5.3.5. MH-60R HELICOPTERS

Recently, U.S. approved $1.17 billion deal to sell India support equipment for MH-60R helicopters.
About MH-60R helicopters
• These helicopters provide Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) and Anti-Surface Warfare (ASuW) capabilities.
• These can operate from shore and ship.
• Boasts advanced digital sensors, including multi-mode radar, electronic support measures system,
etc.

6.5.3.6. DHRUV ADVANCED LIGHT HELICOPTERS (DALHS)

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) has stated that DALHs flying safety records are better in comparison to
global standards.
About Dhruv ALHs
• An indigenously developed utility aircraft by HAL with a twin engine.
• It has a multi-role, multi-mission dimension to it.
• It can be used for the military as well as for civil operations.

6.5.3.7. INS VAGHSHEER

Prime Minister commissioned INS Vaghsheer along with INS Surat and INS Nilgiri.
• INS Surat is 4th and final ship of the P15B Guided Missile Destroyer Project.
• INS Nilgiri is 1st ship of the P17A Stealth Frigate Project.

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 About INS Vagsheer
• It is named after the sand fish, a deep sea predator of the Indian Ocean.
• It is 6th and final submarine of the P75 Scorpene Project built by Mumbai-based Mazagaon Dock Limited.
o Other five submarines of this class are Kalvari, Khanderi, Karanj, Vela, Vagir.
• It is indigenously constructed submarine of the Kalvari-class based on French Scorpene-class design.

6.5.3.8. SANJAY SYSTEM

SANJAY has been launched to enhance the Indian Army’s surveillance and reconnaissance capabilities.
About SANJAY System
• An advanced Battlefield Surveillance System (BSS).
• Jointly developed by the Indian Army & Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).
• Creates a unified surveillance picture of the battlefield via the Army Data Network and Satellite
Communication Network by processing the gathered information.
o The system is designed to seamlessly integrate data from both ground and aerial battlefield sensors.

6.5.3.9. BHARGAVASTRA
India has successfully tested first indigenous micro-missile system, Bhargavastra, designed to counter the
threat of swarm drones.
• Swarm drones are multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) working together as a coordinated
system.
Key Features of Bhargavastra
• Detection Capability: Capable of detecting small incoming drones at distances exceeding 6 kilometers.
• Rapid Response: Designed for rapid deployment on mobile platforms.
• Multi-Target Engagement: can simultaneously detect and track & engage up to 64 targets.
• Guided Micro Munitions: Utilizes micro munitions that can be guided towards identified threats.

6.5.3.10. E-TARANG SYSTEM

Ministry of Defence launched the AI-enabled e-Tarang System.
About AI-enabled e-Tarang System
• A unique software, developed by Integrated Defence Staff in collaboration with Bhaskaracharya
National Institute for Space Applications and Geo-informatics (BISAG-N).
• Key Features:
o It will enable automated, efficient planning and management of Defence Spectrum.
o It will ensure interference-free operation of equipment in both peacetime and wartime.
• It will support development of newer technologies in higher frequency bands.

6.5.3.11. KAVERI ENGINE

Kaveri engine has been cleared for inflight testing.
About Kaveri Engine project
• Developed by: Gas Turbine Research Establishment under DRDO.
• Initiation: The Kaveri engine project began in the late 1980s to power the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas.
• Current Capability: The dry Kaveri engine produces 49-51 kilonewton of thrust, suitable for UAVs like the
Ghatak stealth UCAV.
• Significance: Marks a strategic achievement, enhancing India’s self-reliance in aero-engine technology.

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 6.5.3.12. EURODRONE
India has joined Eurodrone programme as an observer member.
• Eurodrone or European Medium Altitude Long Endurance Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (MALE
RPAS) is a twin-turboprop MALE unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).
• It can be used for long-endurance missions such as intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and
reconnaissance (ISTAR), maritime surveillance, etc.
About Eurodrone programme
• Members: Four-nation initiative involving Germany, France, Italy, and Spain.
• Led by: the Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR).

6.5.3.13. SATAN 2
Russia is set to deploy the RS-28 Sarmat intercontinental ballistic missile, known as 'Satan 2'
About Satan 2
• A next-generation intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) considered one of the most powerful nuclear
weapons globally.
• Equipped with Multiple Independently Targetable Re-Entry Vehicles (MIRVs), allowing it to strike
multiple targets simultaneously.

6.5.3.14. SABAL 20 LOGISTICS DRONE

EndureAir Systems, a private drone manufacturer, has delivered its innovative Sabal 20 Logistics Drone to
Indian Army for deployment in the Eastern sectors.
About Sabal 20 Drones
• An advanced electric UAV designed for aerial logistics, capable of carrying up to 20 kg of supplies over long
distances.
o Its tandem rotor and variable pitch technology, like the Chinook helicopter, offer stability, high-
altitude performance, and minimal turbulence, making it perfect for rugged terrains.
• Key features: Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) technology, a low RPM design for stealth during sensitive
military operations, etc.

6.5.3.15. UNIFIED COMPLEX RADIO ANTENNA (UNICORN)

India and Japan signed a Memorandum of Implementation for co-development of UNICORN mast for Indian
naval warships.
About UNICORN
• It is a mast with integrated communication systems which will help improve the stealth characteristics
of Naval platforms.
o Indian Navy currently uses Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)’s Advanced Composite Communication
System, a 4th-gen integrated voice/data system for ship communications.
o This is first case of co-development and co-production of defence equipment between India and Japan
signed in 2015.

6.5.3.16. SONOBOUYS
India and U.S. will coproduce interoperable sonobuoys for the Indian Navy
About Sonobouys
• An Air-launched expendable electro-mechanical acoustic sensor.
• Provides crucial water temperature data to enhance the accuracy of other sonar systems.

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 o Sonar, short for Sound Navigation and Ranging, is helpful for exploring and mapping the ocean using
sound waves.
• Crucial for anti-submarine warfare and oceanographic research.

6.6. MISCELLANEOUS
6.6.1. HYPERLOOP
Why in the News?
Avishkar Hyperloop team of IIT Madras in
collaboration with TuTr (a startup) has recently
completed a 410-meter Hyperloop test track, the
first such experiment in Hyperloop in India.
What is Hyperloop Technology?
• Concept: In 2013, the CEO of SpaceX, Elon
Musk, proposed a concept of ultra-high-speed
rail (UHSR) called hyperloop and open-sourced
it.
• Hyperloop: A high-speed transportation
system in which pods, essentially pressurized
vehicles travel at extraordinary speeds through
low-pressure tubes.
o The technology is based on gravity vacuum tube,” “gravity vacuum transit, or high-speed tube
transportation.
• Functioning:
o It is essentially a magnetic levitation (maglev) train system that uses one set of magnets to repel cars
so that they hover above a track and another set of magnets to propel them forward over the track.
o The track is a low-pressure tube with built-in vacuums that remove nearly all air from the steel tube.

6.6.2. SATYENDRA NATH BOSE (S. N. BOSE)

Why in the News?
The Centenary celebration of iconic ‘Bose-Einstein’ (B-E) Statistics was recently inaugurated by S. N. Bose
National Centre for Basic Sciences, Ministry of Science and Technology.
Scientific Contributions of S. N. Bose
• Bose-Einstein Statistics: Describes how a collection of non-interacting and indistinguishable particles
distribute themselves among a set of available discrete energy states at thermodynamic equilibrium.
o The statistics was extended to gas molecules by Einstein. And Particles which obey B–E statistics are
referred as Bosons.

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 o Bose-Einstein statistics predict phenomena such as Photon Behaviour (explains blackbody
radiation and the Planck distribution of energy).
o Also it enabled first Quantum revolution in 20th century which helped in development of technologies
such as lasers, the transistor, etc.
> Second revolution led to
development of quantum
computing, quantum sensing, etc.
• Bose-Einstein Condensates (BEC): A
quantum phenomenon predicted by Bose
and Einstein (1925).
o BEC is a state of matter created when
particles are cooled to near absolute
zero (-273.15 degrees Celsius/0
Kelvin).
o All the atoms become a single entity at this point, and possess quantum properties, wherein each
particle together functions as a wave of matter.
o Referred to as the ‘fifth state of matter’
• Organic chemistry: X-ray diffraction methods and the differential thermal analysis were employed in
order to understand the atomic structure of common clay minerals.
• Thermoluminescence: He designed a rapid scanning spectrophotometer of comparatively high
sensitivity to meet the requirements of the experimental workers in this field.
• Discovery of GOD Particle: The Higgs Boson, also known as the God Particle, was discovered using
scientific principles rooted in Bose-Einstein statistics and the concept of BEC.
o The fundamental particle 'Bosons' were named after him.
o Also, he is referred as "Father of the God Particle" along with Peter Higgs.

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 6.6.3. GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY

6.6.3.1. OPERATION DRONAGIRI

Why in the News?
Ministry of Science and Technology launched Operation Dronagiri and Integrated Geospatial Data Sharing
Interface (GDI).
About Operation Dronagiri
• A pilot project under National Geospatial Policy 2022, and will be implemented by Geospatial Innovation
Cell, Department of Science and Technology.
• Purpose: To demonstrate the potential applications of geospatial technologies and innovations in
improving the quality of life of citizens and ease of doing business.
• First Phase Implementation: In the states of UP, Haryana, Assam, Andhra Pradesh & Maharashtra.
o Pilot projects and use cases will be demonstrated to showcase potential applications of integration of
geospatial data and technology in 3 sectors: Agriculture, Livelihoods, Logistics and Transport.
About Integrated Geospatial Data Sharing Interface (GDI)
• Interface is being built for making spatial data accessible with advanced data exchange protocols and
privacy-preserving features.
• Significance: Enabling seamless data sharing, enabling data-driven decisions for public good, fostering
responsible use of geospatial data.

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 Related News
Bhuvan Panchayat and NDEM 5.0
• Ministry of Science and Technology to launch two Geoportals – Bhuvan Panchayat 4.0 and National
Database for Emergency Management (NDEM 5.0).
o National level geospatial databases for these two portals are created by ISRO.
• About Bhuvan Panchayat 4.0
o An online geospatial data and services dissemination platform.
o Objective: Integrate and use space-based information in governance and research initiatives for
spatial planning at Gram Panchayat level.
• About NDEM 5.0
o It provides a comprehensive geospatial database for entire country for situational assessment and
effective decision-making during disasters/ emergency situations.

6.6.3.2. LIDAR
Why in the News?
Scientists have detected a lost Mayan city, hidden for centuries by
the dense Mexican jungle, using LiDAR.
About LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
• A dual-use optical remote sensing technology that uses light
in the form of a pulsed laser to measure distances and map the
surrounding environment.
• Types of LiDAR
o Topographic: Typically uses a near-infrared laser to map the
land
o Bathymetric: Water-penetrating green light to also measure
seafloor and riverbed elevations.
• Working of LiDAR Systems
o Consists of three main components: Laser emitter, scanning mechanism, and Specialized GPS
receiver.
o Works on the same principles as RADAR and SONAR, i.e., emits waves of energy to detect and track
objects.
> RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) uses microwaves and SONAR uses sound waves

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 6.6.4. NANOTECHNOLOGY RELATED NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS
6.6.4.1. NANOPORE TECHNOLOGY
Scientists have developed a nanopore based tool that could help diagnose illnesses much faster and with
greater precision by analyzing signals from individual molecules.
About Nanopore Technology
• Refers to nano-scale holes embedded in a thin membrane structure to detect potential change when
charged biological molecules smaller than nanopore pass through hole.
• Makes possible to sequence nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) directly from biological samples in real time.
• Potential application: Can be used for detection of disease markers, and non-invasive early diagnosis
of cancer.

6.6.4.2. NANO-TRANSPORTERS
Breakthrough on Advancements in drug delivery inside cells through Nano-transporters has been reported.
Breakthroughs:
• Nano-burflower shaped gold nanoparticles’: Improve the efficiency of intracellular delivery and in
treatment of cancer.
• Hydrogels created using five amino acid protein fragments from SARS-CoV-1.
o These hydrogels, which are gels without liquid content, are effective for drug delivery.
About Nano-transporters
• Designed to deliver active compounds to a specific target site (cells or tissues) in a controlled manner.
• Significance: Minimize the damage to the surrounding tissue & allow a lower dose of the drug to be used.

6.6.4.3. NANO BUBBLE TECHNOLOGY

Union Minister of State for Environment launched 'Nano Bubble Technology' for cleaning and purifying water of
National Zoological Park, Delhi.
About the Nano Bubble Technology
• Nanobubbles: They are 70-120 nanometers in size, 2500 times smaller than a single grain of salt.
o Nanobubbles have a strong negative surface charge that prevents them from coalescing and enables
them to physically separate small particles and droplets like emulsified fats, from water.
• Applications: Water Purification, Agriculture (Enhance oxygenation of irrigation water), Healthcare, etc.

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 6.6.5. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY RELATED DEVELOPMENTS
6.6.5.1. GRAVITY ENERGY STORAGE (GES)
GES is emerging as an alternative to battery energy storage for solar and wind power.
About GES:
• A type of mechanical energy storage system that uses gravitational potential energy to store and generate
electricity.
o It involves lifting a heavy mass during excess energy generation and releasing it to produce
electricity when demand rises or solar energy is unavailable.
> Types of weights used are often water, concrete blocks or compressed earth blocks.
• Advantages: High efficiency, large storage capacity, low environmental impact, longevity etc.
• Applications: Renewable energy integration, grid stabilization etc.

6.6.5.2. SURFACE HYDROKINETIC TURBINE TECHNOLOGY (SHKT)

Central Electricity Authority has recognized SHKT technology under Hydro Category to drive innovations in
alternate technologies.
About SHKT
• Unlike conventional hydroelectric systems that rely on potential energy of water, it harnesses kinetic energy
of flowing water with minimal potential.
• Enables generation of electricity without the need of large dams.
• Significance of SHKT
o It is a cost effective and scalable solution for generating renewable energy.
o Turbines are easy to install, making them highly suitable for locations like canals, hydropower
tailrace channels.
o They can be deployed in remote locations where powergrid might be absent.

6.6.5.3. SOLAR- MICRO-HYDROPOWER

In Manipur's Hengbung village, a groundbreaking micro solar pumped storage facility provides 24/7 power to
the village.
About solar micro hydropower
• Utlizes solar energy to pump water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir during periods of high
solar irradiance.
• This stored water can then be released through a micro-hydro turbine to generate electricity when solar
power is unavailable.
• Key advantages: Grid stability, reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, etc.

6.6.5.4. DIAMOND BATTERY

Scientists from University of Bristol and UKAEA have created world’s first carbon-14 diamond battery, a
sustainable power source that can last thousands of years.
About Diamond Battery
• Uses a man-made diamond that, when placed in a radioactive field, is able to generate a small electrical
current.
o The diamond incorporates carbon-14 (half-life of 5,700 years), an isotope used in radiocarbon dating.
• Uses fast-moving electrons from radioactive decay.
• Encased in diamond, it safely absorbs short-range radiation, and generates low levels of electricity
without leakage.

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 • Potential Applications
o Can power devices like pacemakers, hearing aids, and ocular devices.
o Ideal for space missions because of long-lasting power for satellites, etc.

6.6.5.5. ANEEL (ADVANCED NUCLEAR ENERGY FOR ENRICHED LIFE)

NTPC Limited signed a strategic pact with US-based Clean Core Thorium Energy (CCTE) to explore
development and deployment of ANEEL.
About ANEEL
• Developed by CCTE, ANEEL is a Thorium based fuel for Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs).
o It combines thorium with small amounts of enriched uranium.
• Expected Benefits of ANEEL Fuel:
o Utilization of thorium as a fuel in existing PHWR reactors.
o Waste Reduction: Through high burn up fuel performance, it reduces nuclear waste generation by over
85%.
o Cost Savings: Fewer fuel replacements reduce operational expenses.

6.6.5.6. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION (AEC)

The Union government has re-constituted the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC).
About AEC
• Establishment: First set up in August 1948 within the Department of Scientific Research, later it was
brought under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)
• Mandate: To plan and implement the various measures required for the expansion of the atomic energy
programme and responsible for formulating the policy of the DAE.

6.6.6. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS

6.6.6.1. ATOMIC CLOCK
Quantum-based atomic clock has been developed in United Kingdom.
About Atomic clock
• Atomic clock, type of clock that uses certain resonance frequencies of atoms (usually cesium or rubidium)
to keep time with extreme accuracy.
o It is claimed that Quantum-based atomic clock will lose less than one second over billions of years,
allowing scientists to measure time at an unprecedented scale.
• Benefits of Quantum-based atomic clock:
o Increasing accuracy of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS),
o Enhance the accuracy of advanced weapon systems, like guided missiles etc.

6.6.6.2. DARK OXYGEN

Recently, Scientist discovered "dark" oxygen 13,100 feet deep in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone of the Pacific
Ocean.
About Dark Oxygen
• Metallic nodules on the seafloor, rich in manganese and iron, were found to generate oxygen by splitting
seawater (H₂O) without sunlight.
o This challenges the belief that photosynthesis is the sole source of oxygen and suggests oxygen-rich
environments could exist on other planets, potentially supporting life.
• It also hints that oxygen production on Earth may have occurred before photosynthesis, reshaping our
understanding of life’s origins.

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 6.6.6.3. TUNGSTEN
Grant of tungsten mining rights to Hindustan Zinc Limited sparked strong opposition from the public,
environmentalists, and politicians due to concerns over the biodiversity-rich heritage area in Melur.
About Tungsten
• Appearance: A shiny, silvery-white metal.
• Properties: highest melting point of all metals.
• Principal tungsten-containing ores: Are scheelite and wolframite.
• Uses: Filaments of light bulbs, arc-welding electrodes, Tungsten carbide as a new ‘painless’ dental drill
which spins at ultra-high speeds.
• Issues: Not very energy efficient; they produce much more heat than light.
• As per Second Schedule of Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act 1957, Tungsten is a
major mineral

6.6.6.4. ORGANOPHOSPHATE
Doctors in Jammu & Kashmir expressed the likelihood of Organophosphates, used in pesticides, behind the
death of few villagers.
About Organophosphates
• Formation: Chemical compounds formed through the esterification process involving phosphoric acid
and alcohol.
o Esterification is a chemical reaction where two reactants like alcohol and acid combine to create an
ester as the reaction product.
• Applications: Herbicides, Pesticides, Insecticides, Nerve agents in chemical warfare (disrupts the
transmission of nerve signals or neuromuscular transmission in exposed organisms), etc.

6.6.6.5. ELECTROKINETIC MINING (EKM)

Recently, a research team has developed Electrokinetic Mining (EKM), an eco-friendly method for extracting
Rare Earth Elements (REEs).
About Electrokinetic Mining (EKM)
• An innovative technique that uses electrokinetics, the movement of particles or fluids under an electric
field to extract rare earth elements (REEs) from ore bodies.
• Key Features
o High Recovery Rate: Over 95% recovery of REEs.
o Environmental Benefits: Reduces chemical leaching by 80% & energy consumption by 60%.

6.6.6.6. PINK FIRE RETARDANT (PHOS-CHEK)

Recently, Los Angeles authorities used pink fire retardant to combat wildfires.
About Pink Fire Retardant (Phos-Chek)
• Fire retardant is a mix of chemicals used to extinguish or slow down spread of fires.
• Phos-Chek mostly contains ammonium phosphate-based slurry.
o Typically, it is made of salts such as ammonium polyphosphate, which does not evaporate easily
like water and stays for longer.
o It is pink because it most visible by firefighters against the landscape.
o Spraying fire retardant using planes is ineffective, expensive and a growing source of pollution for
rivers and streams.

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 7. CULTURE
7.1. TEMPLES AND OTHER ARCHITECTURE
7.1.1. RAMAPPA TEMPLE
Why in the News?
Centre approves loans for development of Ramappa Circuit under
the Special Assistance to States/Union Territories for Capital
Investment (SASCI) scheme.
About Ramappa Temple
• Also known as Kakatiya Rudreshwara Temple, located in
Telangana.
• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• It is the main Shiva temple in a walled complex built during the
Kakatiya period (1123–1323 CE) under rulers Rudradeva and
Recharla Rudra.
• The temple is constructed with sandstone, featuring decorated
beams and pillars made of carved granite and dolerite.
• It has a distinctive, pyramidal Vimana (horizontally stepped tower) made of lightweight, porous ‘floating
bricks,’ which reduces the weight of the roof.
About SASCI Scheme by Ministry of Tourism
• Aim: To infuse long term interest free loans for a period of 50 years to States for comprehensively
develop iconic tourist centers in the country, branding, and marketing them at global scale.
• It envisages the local economy growth and creates employment opportunities through sustainable
tourism projects.
About Kakatiya Dynasty (1123–1323 CE)
• Origin: The Kakatiya dynasty was a prominent Telugu-speaking kingdom that emerged independently in
12th century after serving as feudatories to the Western Chalukyas earlier.
• Region: Eastern Deccan, including present-day Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, and
southern Odisha.
• Capital: Orugallu (modern Warangal)
• Chief Port: Motupalli, visited by the Venitian traveller, Marco
Polo.
• Key Rulers:
o Prola II: The first independent ruler of the dynasty.
o Prataparudra I (or Rudradeva) (1163–1195): Known for
his military exploits, as described in inscriptions at the
Rudresvara temple in Anumakonda.
o Ganapati Deva (1199–1262): Expanded the kingdom
significantly, bringing Telugu-speaking lowlands under
control.
o Rudrama Devi (1262–1289): One of the few queens in
Indian history, she successfully repelled invasions by the
Pandyas, Eastern Gangas, and Yadavas. Marco Polo
praised her rule during his visit to India.
o Prataparudra II (1289–1323): The last ruler of the dynasty. He resisted invasions by Alauddin Khilji
and Ulugh Khan but was ultimately defeated in 1323 CE, leading to the dynasty's fall.

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 Contributions to Art, Architecture & Literature
• Adopted the Vesara style of temple architecture with stellate forms.
o Used innovative materials like sand for earthquake-resistant foundations.
o Notable structures other than the Ramappa Temple include
> Rudreswara Temple: also known as Veyyisthambala Gudi (Thousand pillars temple) in Telugu is
one of the earliest structures of Kakatiya architecture.
✓ It was built by Rudra Deva in 1163 AD.
✓ The temple is known for special icons like rock-cut elephants and monolithic Nandi.
✓ The temple was desecrated by the rulers of Tughlaq dynasty during their invasion of the
Deccan region.
> Warangal Fort: Warangal fort was built by King Ganapathi in 13th century and completed by his
daughter Rudrama Devi, in 1261 A.D.
✓ The fort has four paths with decorative and lofty gateways known as Keerthi Thorana or Hamsa
Thorana.
• Irrigation Systems: Built extensive water storage tanks and inspired modern initiatives like Telangana's
"Mission Kakatiya" to restore ancient tanks.
• Literature and Dance: Nritta Ratnavali by Jayasenapati (1253 CE) was inspired by dance sculptures in
temples like Ramappa.

7.2. OTHER IMPORTANT ARCHITECTURE

7.2.1. SUN TEMPLE, KONARK
Ministry of Mines, in collaboration with the Government of Odisha, has
set up the District Mineral Foundation Exhibition at Sun Temple,
Konark in Odisha.
About the Temple
• Built by: Narasimha Deva I (1238–1264) of the Ganga dynasty.
• Architecture: Kalingan temple architecture showcases
> Vimana: Once topped by a magnificent shikhara (collapsed in
19th century)
> Jagamohana: Pyramidal audience hall
> Natmandir: Elevated, roofless dance platform
• Symbolic Design: Symbolizes Surya's chariot, featuring 24 intricately carved wheels and 7 horses.
• Heritage Status: Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Other Sun Temples in India: Sri Suryanarayana Swamy Temple (Andhra Pradesh), Dakshinaarka temple (Bihar),
Modhera Sun temple (Gujarat), etc.

7.2.2. ABATHSAHAYESWARAR TEMPLE

Abathsahayeswarar temple has been chosen to receive the
UNESCO Award of Distinction - 2023 for conserving its
heritage.
• The award was announced as part of UNESCO Asia -
Pacific Awards for cultural heritage conservation.
About Abathsahayeswarar Temple (Location: Thanjavur,
Tamil Nadu)
• It is a 1,300-year-old temple dedicated to
Abathsahayeswarar (Lord Shiva).

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 • It is considered a testament to the Chola dynasty's architecture and spirituality as it is believed to have
been constructed by Kings Vikrama Chola and Kulothunga Chola.
• The temple has five prakarams (or enclosures), and a five-tier gateway tower called a gopuram.
• The temple is home to many deities, including Soundaryanayaki Ambal, Ashtabhuja Durga
Parameshwari, Aadhi Sarabeshwarar, Pillayar, Murugan, Chandikeswarar, two Bhairavars, two Suryas
and two Naagar.

7.2.3. RAIGAD FORT

This year’s Rashtriya Ekta Diwas theme celebrates the heritage
of Raigad Fort.
About Raigad Fort:
• Hill fort situated in Raigad district, Maharashtra.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj established his capital here in
1674 and he was also coronated in this fort.
• Surrounded by valleys shaped by the Kal and Gandhari
rivers.
• Labeled as Gibraltar of the east by British historians.
• Nominated for UNESCO World Heritage under the
“Maratha Military Landscapes of India”.
• Main gates: Nanne Darwaza and Maha Darwaza

7.3. SCULPTURES, PAINTINGS AND OTHER FORMS OF ART

7.3.1. ETIKOPPAKA DOLLS
Etikoppaka dolls showcased at President’s reception for
Republic Day.
About Etikoppaka Dolls
• Origin: 400-year-old craft in Etikoppaka, Andhra
Pradesh.
• Officially recognized with Geographical Indication tag in
2017.
• Made from wood of Ankudu tree (Wrightia tinctoria),
known for its lightweight and smooth texture.
• They do not contain any heavy metal or toxic item.
• Made purely out of natural elements like seeds,
lacquer, bark, roots and leaves.
• Process of Etikoppaka toy making is known as ‘turned
wood lacquer craft’ or ‘Tharini.’

7.3.2. KOKBOROK LANGUAGE

Tripura has been conducting language mapping for development of ‘Kokborok’ language’.
About Kokborok Language
• The word "Kokborok" comes from "Kok," meaning "verbal," and "Borok," meaning "people" or "human."
• It is the mother tongue of communities namely Debbarma (Tripuri) Reang, Jamatia, Noatia, Kalai, Rupini,
Murasing, Uchoi etc.
• It is recognized as one of the State language of Tripura.
• It is part of the Sino-Tibetan language family.

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 7.4. IMPORTANT SITES IN THE NEWS
7.4.1. HARAPPAN WATER MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Why in the News?
5,000-year-old Water Management Techniques unearthed at Harappan site, Rakhigarhi (Haryana).
More on the news
• A dried riverbed of the Chautang (or Drishavati) River, was also discovered.
Water management practices of the Harappan Civilization
• Elaborate Drainage: Underground drains build with precisely laid bricks, connecting houses to wider public
drains were found for sewage disposal in major cities.
• Small Bunds: Built by the local people to store rain water for irrigation and drinking in Lothal, Gujarat.
• Channels and Reservoirs: At Dholavira, Gujarat, built completely of stone for storing fresh water brought
by the rains or to store water diverted from the nearby rivulets.
o They were an example of advanced hydraulic engineering for conservation, harvesting and storage of
water.
o At Dholavira, two seasonal streams (Manhar and Mansar) provided water to the walled city.
o Unlike some of the other Harappan cities, which were divided into two parts, Dholavira was divided
into three parts, and each part was surrounded by massive stone walls.
• Tanks and Wells: At Mohenjodaro, where rainwater harvested in tanks was brought to the wells of each
house through efficient drainage system.
o The “Great Bath” at Mohenjodaro was a large tank made of brick floor, probably for mass bathing
during religious functions, is a remarkable example of ancient large water tanks.
About Rakhigarhi
• Location: One of the oldest and largest cities of Harappan Civilization located in the Hissar district of
Haryana on the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain.
• Key Findings: Number of Archaeological mounds, skeletal remains which has yielded the only DNA
evidence from the Harappan era.
o Evidence of craft activity areas, residential structures, streets, drainage systems, burial grounds, etc.
has also been obtained.

Related News: Deciphering Indus Valley Script

Recently, Tamil Nadu announced $1 Million prize for experts and
organizations for deciphering the scripts of the Indus Valley
Civilization.
About Indus Valley Scripts
• Distribution and length: Currently, ~3500 specimens of this
script survive in stamp seals carved in stone, in moulded
terracotta and faience amulets, in fragments of pottery.
• Writing direction and style: The inscriptions discovered are
very short, comprising no more than five signs on the average.
o Generally written right to left, longer texts sometimes
used Boustrophedon style (alternating directions
between lines).
• Composition of the script: Partially pictographic signs,
contains human and animal motifs, distinctive 'unicorn' symbol etc.
• Writing media and methods: Use of seals, tablets, and copper tablets, Materials included terracotta,
ceramics, shell, bone, ivory, stone, metals, and perishable materials like fabric and wood.
o Applied through carving, incising, chiseling, inlaying, painting, molding, and embossing.

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 7.4.2. BUDDHIST SITES OF KANAGANAHALLI AND SANNATI
Why in news?
Recently, researchers highlighted the untapped tourism potential of the ancient Buddhist sites of
Kanaganahalli and Sannati, located in Kalaburgi, Karnataka along the banks of Bhima river.
Findings of Kanaganahalli and Sannati
• 2000-year-old Ashokan edict.
o In this inscription the Emperor is mentioned by his name, unlike elsewhere, where he is referred to
as ‘Devanampiya Piyadasi’ (‘Beloved of The Gods’) as in the rock edict at Maski (Raichur).
• Adholoka Maha Chaitya (the Great Stupa of the Netherworlds)
o Built: From 3rd Century B.C. to 3rd Century A.D.
o Features: Elaborate ornamentation, Ayaka platforms, circumambulatory path, etc.
o Sculptures: Of Buddha, Yakshas, Jataka stories, Ashoka, Shatavahana monarchs etc.
> Sculpture of Asoka etched with ‘Ranyo Asoka’ in Brahmi script, the only surviving image of the
Mauryan emperor.
o Resembles Amaravati School of Art.
About Amravati School of Art
• The Amravati School of Art is a significant style of Indian sculpture and art that flourished during
the Satavahana period (2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE) in the region of Amravati, located in present-
day Andhra Pradesh, India.
• This school is renowned for its contributions to Buddhist art and is closely associated with the Amaravati
Stupa, a major Buddhist monument.
Key Features
• Material: Used white marble or limestone, which gave the sculptures a distinctive, polished appearance.
• Narrative Art: The sculptures are known for their intricate storytelling, often depicting multiple scenes in a
single panel.
• Dynamic Poses: Figures are shown in dynamic, lively poses, with a sense of movement and grace.
• Symbolism: Early works avoided direct representations of Buddha, using symbols like the Bodhi
tree, footprints, or the wheel of law (Dharma Chakra) instead.
• Influence: The Amravati style influenced later South Indian art, including the Chalukya and Pallava
schools.

7.5. OTHER IMPORTANT SITES IN NEWS

7.5.1. BUDDHA’S RELICS
Recently excavations began at Ramgram, UP, led by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), to discover
Buddha’s eighth relic.
About Buddha’s Relics:
• These are Lord Buddha’s cremated remains.
• Stupas were constructed over them at:
o Rajagraha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalvina.
• As per Buddhist beliefs, Lord Buddha attained salvation (Mahaparinirvana) in Kushinagar district (U.P)
and was cremated by Mallas of Kushinagar.

7.5.2. MEGALITHIC CULTURE

An archaeological discovery attributed to megalithic period has been made in Kerala’s Kasaragod, featuring
rock-cut carvings created with iron tools.

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 • These carvings include depictions of human figures representing both children and adults.
About Megalithic Culture
• Period: Belongs to Iron Age (1500 BC–500 BC).
• Megaliths: Refer to burials made of large stones in graveyards.
o Types: Polylithic (Dolmen, Cairn, Cromlekh, Cist) and Monolithic (Menhir).
• Sites: Adichanallur, Kodumanal (Tamilnadu); Thrissur and Kunnattur (Kerala) etc.
o Mangadu, in Kerala is also a recently discovered prehistoric site where megaliths are found in large
numbers. The date of the Mangadu megaliths is approximately from 1000 B.C. to 100 B.C
• Characteristics: Agricultural economy; pastoralism; metal, wood & ceramic industry & craft, religious
practices - Animism.

7.6. PERSONALITIES IN NEWS

7.6.1. GURU NANAK DEV
Why in the News?
Prime Minister while extending greetings on the 555th
Guru Nanak Jayanti remarked that teachings of Sri
Guru Nanak Dev inspire us to further the spirit of
compassion, kindness and humility.
More on the news
• Guru Nanak Jayanti marks birth of 1st Sikh Guru,
Guru Nanak Dev Ji who laid foundation of
Sikhism.
About Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1539)
• He was born at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in
Pakistan),
• He established a center at Kartarpur (Dera Baba
Nanak on the river Ravi)
• His Idea of liberation was not a state of inert
bliss but rather the pursuit of active life with a
strong sense of social commitment.
• Before his death, Guru Nanak appointed one of his followers ‘Lehna’ as his successor.
o Lehna came to be known as Guru Angad who compiled compositions of Guru Nanak
Major teachings of Guru Nanak Dev Ji
• 'Ik Onkar’: It means 'One God' who dwells in every one of his creations and constitutes the eternal
truth.
• Truthfulness: Emphasized on truthful living and declared truth as the highest value in life.
• Social inequality: Led sustained attack on social inequality and criticized the caste system.
• Religion as a means of wealth: He cautioned people to not use religion for earning material benefits.
Relevance of his teachings in modern times
• Emphasis on Equality and Brotherhood: solution to gender and caste discrimination, rising conflicts and
war across the globe
• Vaand Chhako (Share What You Have): growing inequalities between ‘haves and haves not’ can be
reduced.
• Kirat Karo (Earn your money righteously and honestly): can lead to decrease in corruption
• Sarbat da Bhala(welfare of all): can help in addressing climate change and promoting ecological justice.

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 7.6.2. BIRSA MUNDA
Why in the News?
Janjatiya Gaurav Divas was celebrated pan-India, marking the 150th birth anniversary of Bhagwan Birsa
Munda.
More on News
• Indian government declared 15th November as Janjatiya Gaurav Divas during the Azadi Ka Amrit
Mahotsav in 2021.
• It marks the birth anniversary of Bhagwan Birsa Munda and honors the contributions of tribal
communities, especially in India’s freedom struggle.
• During the celebrations the foundation stone was laid for development projects worth over 6640 crores,
aimed at uplifting life of tribal communities under schemes like Pradhan Mantri Janjati Adivasi Nyaya
Maha Abhiyan (PM-JANMAN), Van Dhan Vikas Kendras (VDVKs) etc.
About Pradhan Mantri Janjati Adivasi Nyaya Maha Abhiyan (PM-JANMAN)
• Launched to provide Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) households and habitations
with basic facilities such as safe housing, clean drinking water etc. in 3 years (2023-24 to 2025-26).
• Aims to cover 75 PVTG communities residing in 18 States and 1 UT.
• Total budgetary outlay: Rs.24,104 Cr
• It focuses on 11 critical interventions being implemented by 9 Ministries such as Pucca houses and
connecting roads by the Ministry of Rural Development.
About Birsa Munda
• Early life: Born in Ulihatu Khunti district, Jharkhand in 1875 with birth
name Daud Munda.
o Belonged to the Munda tribe of the Chhotanagpur plateau area,
present day Jharkhand.
o He spent some time in the company of a prominent Vaishnav preacher
Anand Panre.
• His Contributions: Founded a new sect known as the Birsait. It believed
in one God, and aimed for reforming tribal society by observing a code of
conduct.
o Took up a campaign against alcoholism, witchcraft and sorcery and
promoted among people awareness about cleanliness.
o Educated the tribal’s about British atrocities and made them aware of their culture and heritage
regarding community ownership of land.
o Provided leadership to Munda rebellion also known as the “Ulgulan (Great Tumult) movement.
• Because of his contributions to the Munda tribe, he is remembered as Bhagwan (God) and was given the
title of Dharti Aaba (Father of Earth).
About Munda Rebellion
• Birsa Munda mobilized tribes belonging to Chhotanagpur, Bengal and Odisha against the Dikus
(outsiders) and Europeans (referred to as Ravanas) from 1895 onwards to establish an independent
Munda Raj.
Major Reasons for the revolt:
• Introduction of Zamindari system: Traditional systems like the Mundari Khuntkatti (community land
ownership) were replaced, reducing tribals from landowners to landless labourers.
o Change in policies led to Veth begari (forced labour) and Bandhua Majdoori (bonded labour)
conditions for tribals.
• Exploitation by the Dikus: Colonial land revenue system introduced intermediaries (thikadars) from
outside, leading to exploitation through taxation, forced cash payments, excise controls, and other
levies.

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 • Christian Missionaries criticizing their traditional culture.
Methodology:
• Guerrilla warfare technique: Used to attack symbols of power like the police station, government
buildings and other structures administered by the Dikus and the British authority.
• Use of symbols: Traditional symbols and indigenous language used to inspire and unite the tribal
communities. It included-
• Slogan by Birsa Munda: “Abua Raj Setarjana, Maharani Raj Tundujana”. (Let the kingdom of the queen
be ended and our kingdom be established.)
• White Flag conceptualized as a symbol of independence.
Outcomes of the revolution
• 1908 Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act: It prohibited tribal land transfer to non-tribals.
• Government abolished forced labor called “Veth Bigari” system.

7.7. OTHER PERSONALITIES IN NEWS

7.7.1. KHWAJA MOINUDDIN CHISHTI
The Prime Minister greeted people on ‘Urs’ of Khwaja Moinuddin
Chishti.
• Urs is held annually at the shrine of sufi saint to commemorate
his death anniversary.
About Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (1141-1235)
• Born in 1141 CE in Chishti in Herat, Afghanistan.
• He is the most famous saint of the Chishti order of Sufism in
the Indian Subcontinent.
• Chishtiya Order was founded in India by him.
o A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity,
including maintaining a distance from worldly power.
• Famous disciples: Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki,
Nizamuddin Auliya and Naseeruddin Charagh, etc.

7.7.2. SAINT NARAHARI TIRTHA

Idol of Saint Narahari Tirtha has been discovered in Simhachalam Temple, Vishakhapatnam.
About Saint Narahari Tirtha
• Narahari Tirtha was a prominent Dvaita Vedanta philosopher,
scholar, and saint of the 13th century.
• Believed to be born in Chikakolu town (present Srikakulam,
Andhra Pradesh).
• He was a disciple of Madhvacharya, the proponent of Dvaita
Vedanta philosophy.
• He introduced Yaksha Gana and Bayalu Aata (open theatre
drama) as a part of Vaishnava Bhakti Movement.
• He was consecrated near the rock adjacent to Chakratirtha at
Hampi on the banks of river Tungabhadra.

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 7.7.3. ST. FRANCIS XAVIER
Recently, the 18th decennial exposition of the sacred relics of Saint Francis
Xavier was held for 45-days in Goa.
About Saint Francis Xavier (1506-1552)
• Born in Spain and revered as the patron saint of Goa, St Francis Xavier was
the most influential member of the Society of Jesus (or the Jesuits),
second only to Ignatius of Loyola, its founder.
o He is also known as “Goencho Saib”(or the Protector of Goa) in
Goa.
• He arrived in Goa in 1542 and spent the next ten years evangelising in
India, Malacca and Japan.
• On his way to China in 1552, he contracted a fever, died and was buried
on the island of Shangchuan.
• Every year, on the 3rd December, the feast of St Francis Xavier is
celebrated which marks the death anniversary of the Saint.

7.7.4. RANI VELU NACHIYAR

Prime Minister paid tribute to Rani Velu Nachiyar on her birth
anniversary.
About Rani Velu Nachiyar (1730 –1796)
She was princess of Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu) and child of ruler
of Ramnad kingdom.
• Known by Tamils as Veeramangai.
• Reinherited Sivagangai kingdom of her husband.
• She was proficient in languages like French, English, and Urdu.
Contributions
• Was first queen to have ever actively opposed the British rule.
• In collaboration with Hyder Ali and Gopala Nayaker, waged war against British.
• Went on to produce first human bomb and established first army of trained women soldiers.

7.7.5. SAVITRIBAI PHULE

Recently, eminent social reformer and educationist Savitribai Phule was
remembered on her birth anniversary (January 03).
About Savitribai Phule (1831 – 1897)
• She was born in Naigaon, Satara district (Maharashtra).
• She was the first headmistress of the country’s first school for girls
in Pune.
Key Contributions
• She devoted her life to educating Shudras and Ati-Shudras.
• In 1873, she, along with her husband Jyotiba Phule, initiated the
practice of Satyashodhak marriage - a marriage without dowry or a
wedding at minimum cost.
o They also opposed child marriages and advocated and organized widow remarriages.
• In 1854, she published first collection of poems Kavyaphule, making her the first modern poetess of
Marathi.

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 7.7.6. DESHBANDHU CHITTARANJAN DAS
Parliamentarians paid tribute to C. R. Das on his birth anniversary.
• Born in Calcutta, he studied at the Presidency College, Calcutta and
studied law in London.
About Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das (1870-1925)
Key Contributions:
• Successfully defended Aurobindo Ghosh in the Alipore bomb case in
1909.
• Participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920.
• Served as Congress President in Gaya Session (1922).
• Founded the Swaraj Party within the Congress with Motilal Nehru in 1923.
• Also, he was the 1st elected mayor of the Calcutta Municipal Corporation (1924).
• Established National University at Dacca (1921).
Literary Work:
• Newspaper- ‘Forward’, later named ‘Liberty’. (Subhash Chandra Bose was the editor).
• Books- India for Indians, Freedom through Disobidience.

7.7.7. C. RAJAGOPALACHARI
C. Rajagopalachari remembered on his birth anniversary.
About C. Rajagopalachari (1878-1972)
• Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, popularly referred to as Rajaji was
born on 10th december in Thorapalli, Tamil Nadu.
• He was a patriot, social reformer, renowned lawyer & abled
administrator etc.
Key Contribution
• Independence Movement: Participated in agitations against
Rowlett Act, Non-Cooperation movement, Vaikom
Satyagraha, & Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Constitution Making: Rajaji as a member of Constituent Assembly from Madras contributed to
constitution making.
• Later Contribution: Served as the last Governor-General of India till 1950, and formed Swatantra Party.

7.7.8. SUBRAMANIA BHARATI

Mahakavi Subramania Bharti remembered on his 143rd birth
anniversary.
About Subramania Bharti (1882-1921)
• A great Tamil poet and freedom fighter, regarded as the father
of the modern Tamil literary style.
• He was involved in a faction of the Indian National Congress
(INC) party that favoured armed resistance against the British
raj.
• He began his career as a journalist in “Swadesamitran”(1882)

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 Key contributions
• He championed the empowerment of youth and women and had immense faith in science and
innovation.
• Notable works: Kaṇṇan pāṭṭu, Panchali sapatham, Kuyil pāṭṭu etc.

7.7.9. MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD

National Education Day honoring the birth anniversary of
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad is celebrated on November 11
(since 2008).
About Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888 - 1958)
• Born in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, he was a noted
educationist, polyglot.
• He served as first education minister of independent
India from 1947-1958.
Key Contributions
• Served as the President of the Indian National
Congress in 1923 (Delhi special session) and 1940
(Ramgarh).
• Served as the President of All-India Khilafat
Committee during the Khilafat Movement (1920-24).
• Participated in the Dandi March (1930) and the Quit India Movement (1942).
• Was a member of Constituent Assembly from the United Provinces.
• Played role in establishing institutions like Indian Council for Cultural Relation; University Grants
Commission; etc.
• Rewards and Recognition: Awarded Bharat Ratna (1992), posthumously.

7.7.10. DR. HAREKRUSHNA MAHTAB

The 125th Birth Anniversary of Dr. Harekrushna Mahtab (Known
as Utkal Keshari) has been celebrated.
About Dr. Harekrushna Mahtab(1899- 1987)
• He was a freedom fighter, politician, historian, writer,
social reformer, and journalist.
Contribution
• Participating actively in Non-Cooperation Movement,
Salt Satyagraha etc.
• Played key role in the integration of Odisha into the Union
of India.
• Influenced by figures like Swami Vivekananda, Ramkrishna
Paramhansa and Mahatma Gandhi.
• Served as the Chief Minister of Orissa from 1946 to 1950.

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 7.7.11. TULSI GOWDA
The environmentalist and Padma Shri awardee Tulsi Gowda
passed away recently.
About Tulsi Gowda (1944-2024)
• She was born in Halakki tribal family of Karnataka’s
Honnali village.
Key Contribution
• She is known as the "Encyclopedia of the Forest" and by
her tribe as the "tree goddess" because of her knowledge of
the forest.
• She has been credited with planting and nurturing over 1
lakh trees across Karnataka.
• In 2021, she was conferred the Padma Shri for her
exceptional contributions to environmental conservation.

7.8. AWARDS
7.8.1. INDIRA GANDHI PRIZE
Former Chile President, Michelle Bachelet is to be conferred the Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament
and Development, 2024.
• She would be awarded for her work to improve gender equality, human rights and democracy.
About Indira Gandhi Prize
• Awarded annually to a person or organization in recognition of creative efforts towards promoting
international peace and disarmament, etc.
• It consists of an award of Rs.10 million and a trophy with a citation.
• Scrutiny of proposals and final selection is made by a jury of 5 to 9 eminent persons, named by the
Chairperson of the Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust.

7.8.2. NATIONAL SPORTS AWARDS

Recently, President of India presented National Sports Awards 2024.
6 Categories of National Sports Awards
• Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award (Since 1991-92): Awarded for outstanding performances in sports
spanning over a period of 4 years.
o Recently, it has been awarded to Gukesh D (Chess), Harmanpreet Singh (Hockey), Praveen Kumar
(Para-Athletics), Manu Bhaker (Shooting).
• Arjuna Award (Since 1961): Awarded for consistent good performance over a period of 4 years.
• Dronacharya Award (Since 1985): It is highest sports honour for coaches.
• Major Dhyan Chand Award (Since 2002): India’s highest honour for lifetime achievements in sports.
• Rashtriya Khel Protsahan Puruskar (Since 2009): Awarded to organisations /corporates (private &
public) & individuals for playing a role in area of sports promotion & development over last 3 years.

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 7.9. TRIBES IN NEWS

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 7.10. MISCELLANEOUS
7.10.1. IRON AGE IN INDIA
Why in the News?
A groundbreaking study has revealed that the Iron Age may have begun in Tamil Nadu as early as 3,345 BCE.
More on News
• The report ‘Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu’ challenges the belief that iron
technology first emerged in the Hittite Empire (1300 BCE, Anatolia, Turkey).
• Excavations at Adichchanallur, Sivagalai, Mayiladumparai, Kilnamandi, Mangadu, and Thelunganur
provided new scientific dates.
Iron Age in India: New Findings
• Background
o Earlier, India's Iron Age was thought to begin in the 1st millennium BCE, later pushed to the 2nd
millennium BCE with finds from Rajasthan and UP.
o New evidence from Tamil Nadu now dates it back to the mid-3rd millennium BCE.
• Dating Techniques used in study: Accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon (AMS 14C) and Optically
Stimulated Luminescence (OLS) dating.
• Key Findings
o Tamil Nadu's Iron
Age is the oldest
recorded globally.
> Sivagalai:
Iron-related
finds dated
3345–2953
BCE, with a
burial urn
sample at 1155 BCE, making it the earliest recorded evidence of iron technology globally.
> Mayiladumparai: Iron samples from 2172 BCE.
> Kilnamandi: Earliest-dated sarcophagus burial in Tamil Nadu, from 1692 BCE marking a significant
milestone as the earliest-dated burial of its kind in Tamil Nadu.
o Advanced Metallurgy: The sophistication of early Indian metallurgy is evidenced by the discovery of
three distinct types of iron-smelting furnaces at sites including Kodumanal, Chettipalayam, and
Perungalur.
> These furnaces could achieve temperatures up to 1,300°C, demonstrating the advanced pyro-
technological understanding necessary for producing sponge iron.
o Copper and Iron Age were contemporaneous: When cultural zones located north of Vindhyas
experienced the Copper Age, the region south of Vindhyas might have entered into Iron Age due to the
limited availability of commercially exploitable copper ore.
Key Evidences of Iron Age in Different Parts of India
Iron Age in The Iron Age in North India is archaeologically represented by particular pottery types.
North • Key Pottery Types: Painted Grey Ware (PGW) & Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
India • Timeline:
o PGW (800–400 BCE): Found in Ghaggar-Hakra River, Rajasthan, and Ganga-Yamuna
Divide. Used mainly for weapons.
o NBPW (600–100 BCE): Coincides with the Early Historic period (600 BCE–300 CE) ,Iron
use expanded for specialized purposes.

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 Iron Age in In peninsular India, it is essentially the megaliths, sometimes associated with habitation sites
South that comprise the Iron Age in the region
India • Megalithic Culture (1000–100 BCE): Associated with habitation sites.
• Key Sites:
o Naikund, Vidarbha – Evidence of an iron-smelting furnace.
o Paiyampalli, Tamil Nadu – Large quantities of iron slag found.
• Iron Usage: Technological advancement in fire control for iron extraction.
Iron Age in • Central India (Malwa): Sites like Nagda, Eran, and Ahar (750-500 BCE).
Other • Middle & Lower Ganga Valley: Post-Chalcolithic pre-NBPW sites like Pandu Rajar Dhibi,
Regions Mahisdal, Chirand, and Sonpur (~750-700 BCE).
Impact of the Iron Age
• Technological & Economic Impact
o Metallurgical Advancements: Improved agriculture, warfare, and craftsmanship.
o Urbanization: Led to India's Second Urbanization (800-500 BCE), with town development in the Ganga
Valley.
o Agriculture: Iron tools like hoes and ploughshares boosted productivity.
• Political & Cultural Influence
o Rise of Mahajanapadas: Improved food production supported large kingdoms.
o Art & Architecture: The Delhi Iron Pillar (4th century CE) showcases advanced rust-resistant
metallurgy.
o Warfare Evolution: Iron weapons, armor, and chariots transformed military strategies.

7.10.2. FIRST ASIAN BUDDHIST SUMMIT

Why in the News?
Ministry of Culture and International Buddhist Confederation organised the first Asian Buddhist Summit,
2024.
More on the news
• The summit, themed ‘Role of Buddha Dhamma in Strengthening Asia’ saw participation from 32 countries
with over 160 international participants.
Significance of First Asian Buddhist Summit
• Emphasized the profound interconnection among Buddha Dhamma, India, and Asia, showcasing their
complementary relationship.
o The summit also adopted ‘The Delhi Declaration’ (See box).
• The Summit reaffirmed the role of Buddha Dhamma as a guiding framework for ethical governance,
compassionate action, and sustainable development with mindfulness.
• The Summit aligns with India’s Act East Policy and Neighborhood First Policy, focusing on collective,
inclusive, and spiritual development in Asia.
Delhi Declaration
• Build stronger connections between Asian nations based on Buddha Dhamma principles.
• Focus on preserving and studying Pali texts and Buddhist philosophy.
• Involve youth more actively in cultivating a value-based society.
• Explore the relevance of Buddha Dhamma in modern scientific and medical fields.
• Emphasize Buddha’s teachings as a unifying force for global peace and understanding.

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 7.11. GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES IN NEWS
7.11.1. NEW GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATION (GI) TAGS
Product Description
Gharchola Sari, A traditional wedding sari from Gujarat, historically
Gujarat crafted in auspicious colors like red, maroon, green,
and yellow, it is traditionally worn during Hindu and Jain
weddings.

Narasapur From West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, these

Crochet Lace, are Crochets crafted with cotton thread in different
Andhra Pradesh colors. Lace work is done using thin threads woven with
thin crochet needles of varying sizes.

7.11.2. PROJECT VEER GATHA

Over 1.76 crore school students from all States & Union Territories participated in Project Veer Gatha 4.0.
About Project Veer Gatha
• Ministry: It is a joint initiative by the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of Education.
• Started: Organized since 2021.
• Objective: Disseminate the inspiring tales of valour, selfless sacrifice and courage of the Gallantry
Awardees and the life stories among the students to inculcate the spirit of patriotism.
• Scope: The Project is open for all schools in all states and Union Territories as well as all schools affiliated
to CBSE.

7.11.3. YUGA YUGEEN BHARAT NATIONAL MUSEUM

The Ministry of Culture has partnered with France Museums Développement (FMD) to develop the Yuga
Yugeen Bharat National Museum into a world-class cultural institution.
About Yuga Yugeen Bharat National Museum
• It is part of the Central Vista Redevelopment Project, and spans across New Delhi's North and South
Blocks.
• Museum will showcase India’s heritage.
• It will be developed using Adaptive Reuse, ensuring preservation of architectural heritage of North and
South Blocks.
o This approach mirrors France's "Grands Projets" initiative, which saw the transformation of
government buildings into iconic cultural spaces.
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 7.12. HISTORICAL EVENTS IN NEWS
7.12.1. COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA
Why in the News?
2025 marks the Communist Party of India’s (CPI) 100th foundation year.
About Communist Party of India
• Background
o Formation of CPI outside India (1920): A group of seven people including leaders like M.N. Roy, Mohd.
Ali, Mohd. Shafiq, etc. met in Tashkent (capital of the then Turkistan Republic of the Soviet Union), to
form the Communist Party of India.
o Reason behind the formation: Disappointment caused by the sudden withdrawal of the non-
cooperation movement and inspiration from the October revolution of 1917.
o Formation of CPI inside India: A resolution announcing the formation of CPI was adopted during
‘Kanpur Communist Conference’ in December 1925.
o First President: Malayapuram Singaravelu Chettiar. In May 1923, the 1st May Day celebration in India
was organized under his leadership.
o First general secretaries: S.V.Ghate and J P Bagerhatta
o Founding members of the party: Satyabhakta, M.N.Roy, E.T.Roy, Abani Mukherjee, Mohammad Ali,
Hasrat Mohani etc.
• Ideology: They followed Marxist and Leninist ideas. It is a political ideology and a system of government
based on the ideas of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin.
• Publications supported by CPI: Ganavani (Bengali weekly), Mehnatkash (Urdu weekly from Lahore) and
Kranti (Marathi weekly from Bombay).
• Key events in the history of CPI:
o Ban: British government declared CPI illegal in July 1934 and the ban was lifted in 1942.
o Split: In 1964 following the ideological rift between Soviet Union and China, CPI split into the CPI (pro-
Soviet faction) and CPI (Marxist) (pro-China faction).
Role of CPI in Indian Freedom Struggle
• Mobilization of masses: CPI led groups like All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), 1920, All India Kisan
Sabha (AIKS), All India Student’s Federation (1936), and Mahila Sanghmas and mobilized workers,
peasants, women, and youth into the freedom struggle.
• Social reforms: CPI advocated for Dalit rights, Hindu-Muslim unity, and a united nation against colonial
rule.
o Kerala: Leaders like AK Gopalan and P Krishna Pillai led the Guruvayur Satyagraha for temple entry
of Untouchables.
o Maharashtra: R.B. More organized Ambedkar’s Chavdar Lake Satyagraha at Mahad in 1927.
• Demand for Full Independence: With open letters to INC sessions in Ahmedabad (1921) and Gaya (1922),
later adopted at Lahore (1929).
• Ideological Influence: Through the All India Students Federation and Progressive Writers Association,
CPI promoted revolutionary ideas against British rule.
o British reaction: The Meerut Conspiracy case (1929) targeted communist leaders due to their growing
influence.
• Role in Constitution making:
o Idea of constitution: M.N. Roy proposed a constitution in 1934; CPI suggested a constituent
assembly.
o Ideals of Constitution: CPI shaped secularism, justice, equality, suffrage, minority rights, and land
reforms in the Constitution.
For more on key revolts by the CPI, refer to the Appendix 2 at the end of the document.

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 7.12.2. HARIDASA MOVEMENT
Mysuru Sangeetha Sugandha festival is celebrating the revered Daasa traditions of Carnatic music of
Haridasa movement.
About Haridasa Movement
• Origin: In Karnataka, and later spread to eastern states such as Bengal and Assam.
o This movement was started by the Haridasas ("servants of Lord Hari") and took shape in the 13-14th
century.
• Objective: To propagate the Dvaita philosophy of Madhvacharya (Madhva Siddhanta) through Dasa
Sahitya i.e. literature.
o Madhvacharya’s philosophy of shuddha-dvaita, or pure dualism, logically established that God is
eternally a person and is forever distinct from His creation.

7.12.3. 1924 BELGAUM CONGRESS SESSION

Centenary of 1924 Belgaum Congress Session was celebrated in Belagavi (earlier Belgaum), Karnataka on
December 26-27.
About 1924 Belgaum Congress session
• It was 39th Session of the Indian National Congress and was the only session presided over by Mahatma
Gandhi.
• Significance
o Discussed his dream of ‘Swaraj’ and ‘Sarvodaya’.
o Revamped organisational structure and functioning of congress with 90% fee cut, focusing on social
change, etc.
o Held separate conferences against untouchability.
o Strong resolutions were passed to stress upon Hindu-Muslim unity, paid social service, and making
khadi spinning mandatory.

7.12.4. KUKA REVOLT

Recently, tribute has been paid to the martyrs of the Kuka Movement.
About Kuka Movement (1872)
• The Kuka Movement was the first major reaction in Punjab against the British political order established
after 1849.
• It was a crucial phase of the Namdhari Movement, founded by Satguru Ram Singh in 1857, at Bhaini Sahib.
• The Namdharis, also known as "Kukas" due to their high-pitched recitation of Gurbani called "Kook" in
Punjabi, were urged by Ram Singh to boycott all British goods and services.
o He organized the Kukas and provided military training to young men.
• The movement raised awareness of subjugation, promoted civil disobedience, and encouraged wearing
hand-spun white attire as a symbol of resistance.

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 7.13. FESTIVALS IN NEWS
7.13.1. MAHA KUMBH MELA 2025
Maha Kumbh mela, the world's largest spiritual
gathering, was celebrated from January 13 to February
26, 2025 at Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh.
About Maha Kumbh Mela
• Kumbh Mela, in Hinduism, is a religious pilgrimage
that is celebrated four times over 12 years.
• Key Rituals and Practices: Shahi Snan, Deep
Daan, and Kalpavas (emphasizing discipline and
austerity).
Other key Facts:
• It has been listed as an Intangible Cultural
Heritage under UNESCO in 2017.
• Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang (visited India in the
7th century during the reign of King
Harshavardhana) was the first to mention Kumbh
Mela in his diary.
• Saint Shankaracharya gave Kumbh Mela its final
shape in 9th century.
• Prayagraj Kumbh Mela 2019 has been placed in
the Guinness World Record for having the biggest
sanitation and waste disposal mechanism among others.
Year India’s Intangible Cultural Heritage List
2024 Nawrouz
2023 Garba of Gujarat
2021 Durga Pooja
2017 Kumbh Mela
2016 Yoga
2014 Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru, Punjab.
2013 Sankirtana, ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur
2012 Buddhist chanting of Ladakh.
2010 Chhau dance, Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan, Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance
drama of Kerala
2009 Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas, India
2008 Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre, Tradition of Vedic chanting, Ramlila, the traditional performance of the
Ramayana

7.13.2. GANGASAGAR MELA

Lakhs of devotees took a dip at Gangasagar Mela on the occasion of Makar Sankranti.
About Gangasagar Mela
• Location: The mela is held at Sagar Island, located in the Sundarbans delta of West Bengal.
o The island is situated at the point where the Ganges River merges with the Bay of Bengal.
• It is an annual religious fair where the main ritual involves taking a dip in the waters at the confluence,
especially at sunrise on Makar Sankranti.
• The pilgrimage site: Kapil Muni Temple, dedicated to the sage Kapil Muni.
• Significance: Second-largest human gathering after Kumbh Mela.
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 7.14. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS
7.14.1. BHARAT RANBHOOMI DARSHAN
Ministry of Defence launched Bharat Ranbhoomi Darshan website and app as part of its 'Battlefield
Tourism' plan.
• It will be a one-stop destination for information and clearances for battlefield visits, featuring virtual tours
and historical narratives.
• Indian Army, in conjunction with Ministry of Tourism, has shortlisted some other border sites that have
witnessed military action in the past
o These include Kibithoo and Bum La Pass (Arunachal Pradesh), Rezang La and Pangong Tso (Ladakh),
and Doklam (site of 2017 conflict).
7.14.2. KAILASH MANSAROVAR
In Special Representatives meeting, India and China affirmed implementation of October 2024 disengagement
border agreement.
• It also provided positive steps for resumption of Kailash Mansarovar Yatra and data sharing on trans-
border rivers and border trade.
About Kailash Mansarovar
• It is a holy pilgrimage consisting of the Kailash mountain (highest peak in Kailash Ranges) and the sacred
lake, Mansarovar, located in Tibet.
o Mansarovar lake is considered the world’s highest fresh-water lake.
• Pilgrims from India can reach Mount Kailash through the Lipulekh pass in Kumaon.
• Cultural significance: It is considered holy in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and for Tibetans as well.

7.14.3. VEER BAAL DIWAS

Recently, the Veer Baal Diwas was celebrated on the 26th December.
About Veer Baal Diwas
• It is annually observed on December 26 since 2022.
• It honors the bravery and sacrifice of the 10th Sikh guru Guru Gobind Singh’s youngest sons - Zorawar
Singh and Fateh Singh.
o Both were captured by the Mughal forces at Anandpur fort and martyred around December 26, 1705.
• The Government of India also confers the Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya Bal Puraskar (PMRBP) to children for
exceptional achievements in seven categories.

7.14.4. VICE-PRESIDENT ADDRESSED 27TH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF

VEDANTA IN DELHI
The theme of the conference was "Re-
imagining Vedāntic World Order"
reflecting contemporary relevance of
Vedant.
About Vedant Philosophy
• Meaning: Vedanta means "the end
of the Vedas," originally referring to
the Upanishads, the concluding
parts of the Vedic texts.

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 o However, it also includes various interpretations of the Upanishads.
• Philosophy: Vedanta, the Uttara-Mimāṁsā phiosophical thought, addresses profound questions like :
o ‘Who am I?’
o ‘What is this Universe?’
o ‘How am I related to the Universe?’
• Key components: There are three main concepts in Vedanta:
o Brahman: The ultimate reality.
o Atman: The individual souls.
o Prakriti: The physical world.
• Swami Vivekananda introduced Vedanta to the West at the 1893 Chicago Parliament of Religions.

7.14.5. WORLD MEDITATION DAY

UN General Assembly has declared December 21 as World Meditation Day to raise awareness about
meditation's benefits, emphasizing the right to physical and mental health.
About World Meditation Day
• Supported by countries like Liechtenstein, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Mexico, and Andorra, the resolution was
adopted unanimously by the 193-member UN General Assembly on December 06, 2024.
• 2024 Theme: “Meditation for Global Peace and Harmony”
• Significance: Establishment of this day serves as a reminder of the importance of nurturing human
consciousness and addressing global challenges such as conflicts, climate crises, and technological
advancements through inner peace and compassion.

7.14.6. AUSTRALOPITHECUS
New research provides evidence that Australopithecus, an important early human ancestor, consumed very
little or no meat, relying on a plant-based diet.
• Nitrogen isotope analysis of tooth enamel reveals no evidence of meat consumption in Australopithecus.
• The findings challenge previous assumptions about early hominins and suggest that significant meat-
eating may have emerged with later species.
About Australopithecus
• Australopithecus afarensis is one of the longest-lived and best-known early human species
• It inhabited eastern and southern Africa from roughly 4.2 to 1.9 million years ago.

7.14.7. BAALBEK, TYRE & ANJAR

Lebanon’s UNESCO Cultural Heritage sites- Baalbek, Tyre, and Anjar are being endangered by recurrent
assaults.
About Baalbek, Tyre, and Anjar
• Baalbek: Baalbek, with its colossal structures, is one of the finest examples of Imperial Roman
architecture at its apogee.
• Tyre: This great Phoenician city ruled the seas and founded prosperous colonies such as Cadiz and
Carthage, but its historical role declined at the end of the Crusades.
o According to legend, purple dye was invented in Tyre.
• Anjar: The city of Anjar was founded by Caliph Walid I at the beginning of the 8th century.
o The ruins reveal a very regular layout, reminiscent of the palace-cities of ancient times, and are a unique
testimony to city planning under the Umayyads.

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 7.15. ERRATA
• In PT-365 (April to October, 2024) in Article 2.4.5 (Thanjavur Veena), it was incorrectly mentioned that
‘Thanjavur Veena is the first musical instrument in India to receive the Geographical Indication (GI) tag’.
• The correct statement is Thanjavur veena is the second musical instrument in India to receive the
Geographical Indication (GI) tag. The first musical instrument to receive GI tag is Bobbili Veena from
Andhra Pradesh. The error is regretted.

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 8. APPENDIX 1: MOVEMENT LEAD BY TRIBAL
LEADERS

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 9. APPENDIX 2: MAJOR REVOLTS SUPPORTED BY
CPI

Copyright © by Vision IAS

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