FACTS BEHIND THE HEADLINES DOI: 10.1111/nbu.

12420

Removing plastic packaging from fresh

produce – what’s the impact?
A. White and S. Lockyer
British Nutrition Foundation, London, UK

Abstract There has been a rise in public awareness and scrutiny of the negative
environmental impact of plastic pollution in recent years. Plastic packaging of
food causes a significant proportion of the UK’s plastic waste, and manufacturers
and retailers are exploring alternatives to single-use plastics, particularly in
relation to fresh produce, including increasing the availability of loose items in
supermarkets. However, there is an important trade-off to consider when
removing plastic packaging from fruit and vegetables, which is the resultant
reduction in shelf life and therefore potential increase in food waste. Fresh
produce is estimated to be the most highly wasted type of food in the UK and it
is likely that food waste has an even greater environmental impact than the
production and disposal of plastic. Full life cycle analysis is currently unavailable
for some alternative types of packaging (such as edible films and coatings), which
means the relative effect of these on the environment compared to plastic is
unclear, and may in fact be worse. More research is required to fully ascertain
the best solution for this complex issue. However, communicating strategies to
the general public to minimise household wastage of fresh produce, including
optimal storage conditions for different varieties of fruit and vegetables, is likely
to be of benefit.

Keywords: food waste, fresh produce, fruit and vegetables, packaging, plastic, shelf life

Introduction popular wildlife documentary series (European Com-

mission 2019a; The Guardian 2019).
There has been a great deal of media attention in
Most plastic is produced from fossil fuels, although
recent years around reducing the use of plastic, and in
some is produced using renewable, plant-based sources
particular single-use plastics, due to the environmental
such as lignin, oils, starch and cellulose (termed ‘bio-
impact of plastic waste (BBC News 2017; The Guar-
based’ plastics) (van den Oever et al. 2017; WRAP
dian 2018; The Independent 2019a). Heightened cov-
2018a), and some types of plastic can take hundreds
erage of the so-called war on plastic is likely partly
or thousands of years to biodegrade (Shahnawaz et al.
attributed to the ‘Blue Planet Effect’, that is increased
2019; Simon 2019). Therefore, excess plastic that is
awareness of the issue generated in response to the
not recycled can pollute the natural environment when
amount of plastic found in the sea by David Attenbor-
littered and transferred to terrestrial and marine envi-
ough and crew while filming, as reported in the
ronments via different pathways (WRAP 2018a;
Correspondence: Dr. Stacey Lockyer, Nutrition Scientist, British
Barnes 2019).
Nutrition Foundation, New Derwent House, 69-73 Theobalds Packaging is the largest use of plastic in Europe
Road, London WC1X 8TA, UK. (Plastics Europe 2019), and, though difficult to quan-
E-mail: [email protected] tify, it has been estimated that UK supermarkets

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36 A. White and S. Lockyer

generate at least 800 000 tonnes of plastic per year Programme (WRAP) in 2018, is a collaborative initia-
(Eunomia 2018). Furthermore, eight of the ten most tive between the Department for Environment, Food
littered items reported in the International Coastal & Rural Affairs (Defra), businesses (including food
Cleanup 2017 were directly associated with food and manufacturers and retailers) and non-governmental
drink packaging, for example drinks bottles, carrier organisations (NGOs) (WRAP 2019b). Members of
bags and food wrappers (International Coastal the Pact are responsible for 85% of the plastic packag-
Cleanup 2017). The issue of single-use plastics found ing sold through UK supermarkets (WRAP 2019c).
on beaches and in seas was also highlighted as part of Targets set to be reached by 2025 are:
the EU’s landmark European Strategy for Plastics in a
Circular Economy, adopted in 2018 (European Com- • to take actions to eliminate problematic or unneces-
sary single-use packaging items (disposable plastic
mission 2019b), with new rules banning particular sin-
cutlery; all polystyrene packaging; cotton buds with
gle-use plastic items, such as drinks stirrers, for which
plastic stems; plastic stirrers; oxo-degradables that
alternatives exist on the market (European Commis-
break down to create microplastics; plastic straws;
sion 2019c). The strategy aims to improve the design
PVC packaging; and disposable plastic plates and
of plastic products, increase the rate of plastic waste
bowls) through redesign, innovation or alternative
recycling, boost the market for recycled plastic and
(reuse) delivery models. It is estimated that UK Plastic
ultimately protect the environment (European Com-
Pact members* sold 1.1 billion problematic or unnec-
mission 2019b). While waste management infrastruc-
essary plastic items in the UK in 2018 (WRAP 2019c);
ture to support the collection and recycling of plastic
is undoubtedly part of the solution (WRAP 2019a), • 100% of plastic packaging to be reusable, recyclable
or compostable. It is estimated that 65% of UK
plastic cannot be recycled indefinitely and not all plas-
Plastic Pact members’* packaging was practically,
tics are easily recycled (Parliamentary Office of Science
not just technically, recyclable in 2018 (WRAP
& Technology 2019; WRAP 2019a). This has meant
2019c);
that there have been calls to reduce unnecessary food
packaging and increase reusable and alternative mate- • 70% of plastic packaging effectively recycled or
composted (WRAP 2019a). The national recycling
rials (Parliamentary Office of Science & Technology
rate in 2018 was 44% (WRAP 2019c);
2019). Indeed, the UK government’s 25 Year Environ-
ment Plan, published in 2018, sets out a target for • 30% average recycled content across all plastic
packaging (WRAP 2019a). It is estimated that 10%
eliminating avoidable plastic waste by the end of 2042
of UK Plastic Pact members’* plastic packaging was
(HM Government 2018a), with proposed actions
recycled content (by weight) (WRAP 2019c).
including use of the tax system or charges to reduce
the amount of single-use plastic waste (HM Govern- *Data relate to packaging sold by 55 businesses
ment & Defra 2019) and encouraging the develop- (WRAP 2019c).
ment of bio-based, biodegradable and environmentally Examples of steps being taken towards achieving
friendly plastic. The EU vision is that all plastic pack- these targets can be seen in the out-of-home sector,
aging placed on the market is either reusable or can where many outlets are offering reduced prices to con-
be recycled in a cost-effective manner by 2030 (Euro- sumers who bring in their own plastic cup or con-
pean Commission 2019d). tainer to purchase food or drinks. In addition, some
It is now a legal requirement for large retailers to manufacturers and retailers are providing compostable
charge customers a minimum of 5 pence for plastic carrier bags, discontinuing their use of dark plastics,
carrier bags at checkouts (with some exceptions, such which are particularly problematic as they are often
as those used solely for raw meat and fish) to encour- not recognised by the optical systems used in plastics
age shoppers to bring their own reusable bags (Defra recycling (WRAP 2011; Parliamentary Office of
2018). This has resulted in the use of carrier bags Science & Technology 2019), and exploring strategies
being reduced by 83% (HM Government 2018a). to reduce plastic packaging in the fruit and vegetable
However, polyethylene bags are commonly supplied in aisle.
fresh produce aisles free of charge. In response to In the light of the recent media focus on efforts
increased public pressure, a variety of other initiatives made by UK supermarkets to reduce their use of plas-
have been put in place by retailers who have commit- tic packaging on fresh produce (BBC News 2018; BBC
ted to plastic food packaging reduction as part of their News 2019a; FoodNavigator 2019; The Grocer
own corporate social responsibility (CSR). The UK 2019a; The Grocer 2019b; The Independent 2019b;
Plastic Pact, set up by the Waste & Resources Action The Independent 2019c; The Independent 2019d; The

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 Removing plastic packaging from fresh produce 37

Independent 2019e; Retail Gazette 2019; Tree Hugger plastic waste (Narancic & Connor 2019). However,
2019), this paper aims to outline some of the chal- plastic has a number of important functions as a pack-
lenges and complexities around its removal, as investi- aging material for fresh produce (and indeed other
gated in a 2018 evidence review (WRAP 2018c) and types of food). This includes extending produce shelf
discussed elsewhere (The Independent 2019f; BBC life, prolonging freshness and food quality and ensur-
News 2020), as well as highlighting some ways in ing safety; hence, the potential removal of single-use
which the wastage of fresh produce could be reduced plastic could result in the knock-on-effect of increased
from the retailer and consumer perspective. food waste (Russell 2014). For example, the in-store
shelf life of new potatoes can be extended by 3 days if
packaged in a modified atmosphere plastic bag, 1.5 g
Consumer attitudes towards food
of plastic wrapping keeps a cucumber saleable for 11
packaging
additional days, and selling grapes in trays or bags has
A 2011 survey of 1520 UK consumers showed that reduced in-store waste by 20% (Verghese et al. 2013).
94% of those polled reported they felt manufacturers It has been estimated that the environmental impact
should be reducing the amount of all plastic packaging caused by food waste is likely to be greater than the
and 93% felt that supermarkets should be doing the impact of plastic pollution (Zero Waste Scotland
same. However, at this time only 23% reported that 2019). However, there has been a simultaneous
plastic packaging would be a barrier to purchasing increase in food waste alongside the increased use of
products (Which? 2011). In 2013, a survey conducted plastic packaging in Europe, suggesting that the use of
by WRAP reported that packaging was a low priority plastic packaging is not a definitive solution
for shoppers when choosing food, with higher con- (Schweitzer et al. 2018).
cerns around price and quality (WRAP 2013a). How-
ever, when the issue was framed within the context of
The scale and consequences of food waste
the environment, consumers’ attitudes to packaging
in the UK
tended to be negative, with 81% believing that pack-
aging is a major environmental problem and 57% see- The term ‘food waste’ describes any food and inedible
ing it is as wasteful and unnecessary. Consumers’ parts sent to food waste destinations including com-
concerns were most commonly associated with how posting, incineration, landfill, sewers or crops ploughed
easy it is to recycle packaging materials at home. in to fields (WRAP 2020). This definition excludes any
More recently, a survey of 2000 British adults found material that is sent for redistribution to people, ani-
that 91% supported the idea of having an entire aisle mal feed or conversion into industrial products (collec-
dedicated to the sale of products free of plastic pack- tively referred to as ‘food surplus’). Figure 1 illustrates
aging [Populus 2017 (on behalf of A Plastic Planet)] the amount of food waste generated in the UK.
and further research has suggested that many con- Food waste negatively impacts the economy and the
sumers feel guilty about the amount of plastic they use environment, and, therefore, both government and
and would pay more for eco-friendly packaging (You- businesses are setting targets to step up action on tack-
Gov 2019). Eighty-two per cent of people surveyed in ling food waste (see Box 1). The environmental impact
a 2019 YouGov poll (n = 1023) were actively trying of food waste is caused by the natural resources used
to cut down on their personal plastic use and, interest- to produce the food in the first place; the resources
ingly, by far the most commonly targeted item was involved in transporting, storing and displaying food
fresh fruit and vegetables, with 81% trying to reduce products, for example energy used to refrigerate
their use of plastic in this area (YouGov 2019). goods; the methane released from decaying food in
Initiatives to reduce single-use plastic packaging in landfill (WRAP 2019d); and overall the sheer volume
the fresh produce section in UK supermarkets, such as of food waste produced globally, which is estimated
increasing the availability of loose fruit and vegetables; to be 1.3 billion tonnes per year (FAO 2019). Fresh
providing reusable bags for loose fruit and vegetables, vegetables and salad are estimated to be the most
often made from recyclable materials; and offering highly wasted type of food in UK households,
financial incentives to customers bringing their own accounting for 28% of edible food waste by weight
containers, are being introduced or trialled in the UK. (WRAP 2018b). It is estimated that around 1.3 million
Reducing the use of single-use plastic packaging may tonnes of edible fresh vegetable and salad waste and
appear to be an ideal solution to environmental con- 940 000 tonnes of fruit waste (a third of which is edi-
cerns, resulting in the obvious benefit of reducing ble) are generated per year in the UK (WRAP 2018b).

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38 A. White and S. Lockyer

Figure 1 UK food waste by sector in 2015. Source: HM Government (2018b). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Reasons for discarding food include the following: disease, stroke and some cancers (WHO/FAO
food ‘not being used in time’ (i.e. because it has 2003). Interestingly, analysis carried out using US data
become rotten, mouldy or otherwise unfit to eat or has indicated that those with a healthier diet actually
being past a labelled date); cooking, preparing or serv- generate more food waste than those with less healthy
ing too much; accidents (i.e. food becoming contami- diets, likely due to the high perishability of fruit
nated, burnt or otherwise spoilt); and personal and vegetables (Yu & Jaenicke 2020). Higher income
preference (e.g. health reasons or not liking certain and food security was also associated with more
foods) (WRAP 2018b). Fresh vegetables and salad food waste in this study. Low consumption of fruit
waste thrown away due to ‘not being used in time’ and vegetables is typically particularly evident among
costs consumers around £1.3 billion a year and those on a low income, with diet quality being one
account for approximately half of the total cost of example of socio-economic health inequalities evident
fresh vegetable and salad waste in the UK (WRAP in the UK and elsewhere (Lockyer & Spiro 2019).
2018b). The highest fresh fruit and vegetable contribu- Food waste occurring in a nation such as the UK in
tors to UK food waste can be seen in Table 1. which individuals are experiencing food insecurity,
In the UK, on average, we are not meeting the gov- evidenced by school holiday hunger and increased
ernment recommendations of consuming at least five food bank use (The Conversation 2019), is difficult to
(80 g) portions of fruit and vegetables a day, with just reconcile. Being perishable, fresh fruit and vegetables
31% of adults (19-64 years) and a lower proportion are not normally offered by food banks but commu-
of adolescents meeting these recommendations nity fridges, some located in schools, mean that pro-
(Roberts et al. 2018). As well as the environmental duce and other perishable food that is still safe to eat,
significance, reducing fruit and vegetable waste may but would otherwise be wasted, can be made available
be particularly important for health (if it were to to individuals experiencing food poverty (BBC News
result in increased consumption) as meeting the 5 A 2019a, 2019b). Further initiatives include the collec-
DAY recommendation could help reduce risk of heart tion and distribution by charities of would-be wasted

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 Removing plastic packaging from fresh produce 39

Box 1 The scale of the food waste problem, associated impacts and costs and targets for reduction

• Seventy per cent of household food waste is calculated to be edible food, defined as products (or parts of
products) intended for human consumption (WRAP 2018b).
• Every year, UK citizens throw away 20% of the food and drink they buy, which could be worth up to £810
a year for a typical family or £230 per individual (WRAP 2018b).
• The greenhouse gas emissions associated with UK household food waste in 2015 are estimated at 22 million
tonnes of CO2 equivalent (WRAP 2018b).
• Preventing 1 tonne of food waste from going to landfill saves 5 tonnes of CO2 equivalent (WRAP 2019d).
• Over 2 million tonnes of UK fresh produce are lost or wasted each year in the supply chain (WRAP 2019e).
• It has been estimated that nearly a third of world food produce is going uneaten annually and that this costs
$940 billion and emits 8% of greenhouse gases globally (FAO 2015).
• The Courtauld Commitment 2025, a voluntary agreement launched in 2016 which is focussed on cutting
food, carbon and water waste associated with food and drink, aims to reduce UK food waste by 20% by
2025, which is predicted to result in 1.5 million tonnes less food waste in 2025 compared with 2015 (WRAP
2018d; WRAP 2019f).
• The UK government is working towards no food waste entering landfill by 2030 by supporting local authori-
ties to collect and recycle food waste. In addition, the government has pledged to provide funding for chari-
ties who redistribute surplus food from food businesses to those in need (HM Government 2018a; HM
Government 2018b).
• UK waste policy has been largely dictated by EU legislation, such as the EU Waste Framework Directive
(European Commission 2019e) and the EU Landfill Directive (The Council of the European Union 1999).
This may change after the UK leaves the EU.
• The Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC) obliges EU Member States to reduce the amount of biodegradable
municipal waste that they landfill to 35% of 1995 levels by 2016 (for some countries by 2020).
• The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals include a target of halving consumer and retail food
waste by 2030 and reducing food losses in production and supply chains (SDG 12.3) (United Nations 2015).

fruit and vegetables that do not meet cosmetic stan- polyethylene or polyester films can be used (Linke &
dards (see ‘Cosmetic standards for fresh produce and Geyer 2013), and modified atmosphere packaging
the impact on food waste’). (MAP), which acts through changing the composition of
the gases within the food packaging to ensure optimal
conditions, is often used for highly perishable food that
What is the impact of reducing plastic
is stored at chilled temperatures such as salad leaves (Lee
packaging on the shelf life of fresh produce?
et al. 2015). Retailers have traditionally supplied brown
Plastic has many advantages for use in packaging for paper bags for mushrooms as they are particularly prone
fresh produce, for example plastic can act as a barrier to rot and discolouration (WRAP 2018c) (and some
to oxygen, aromas and moisture, prevent contamina- retailers have trialled offering these more widely for all
tion with foreign bodies and protect produce from loose produce in place of polyethylene bags). Due to the
physical damage, all reducing spoilage along with add- delicate nature and high perishability of fresh produce
ing convenience for the consumer (Jabeen et al. 2015). (e.g. compared to canned, frozen or dried goods), and
Packaging can also be used to provide consumers with potential confusion around how specific fruit and veg-
useful information to read at home, including optimal etables should be stored (WRAP 2008), the removal of
storage conditions. Types of packaging used for fresh packaging from produce may increase damage and
produce vary. Plastic nets, for example, are often used reduce shelf life by accelerating spoilage, leading to
for items such as onions, garlic and satsumas that have increases in food waste.
their own skin to protect them. For foods that are Optimum storage conditions vary between different
liable to water loss (such as broccoli, melons and types of produce. For example, an evidence review by
tomatoes) (WRAP 2018c), plastic packaging such as WRAP showed that storage advice, including type of

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40 A. White and S. Lockyer

Table 1 The highest fresh fruit and vegetable contributors to UK extend the shelf life of apples by up to 2 weeks and
food waste, adapted from household food waste: Restated Data use of polyethylene bags can reduce weight loss. How-
for 2007–2015 ever, as apples have a relatively long shelf life of 3-
4 weeks, they can be sold without plastic packaging
Wasted food (edible
Produce parts, tonnes) Cost (£ million) and the advice is to store apples in a refrigerator set at
below 5°C (WRAP 2018c). Despite this, apples are
Potatoes 710 000 555 commonly stored in a fruit bowl at room temperature
Carrots 96 000 102 by consumers (WRAP 2008).
Apples 63 000 130 WRAP gathered evidence relating to 17 different
Lettuce 57 000 402
types of fresh fruit and vegetables (WRAP 2008) and
Other fresh vegetables and salad 49 000 315
Bananas 47 000 67
combined this with more recent evidence in their 2018
Onions 47 000 69 report comparing produce stored in plastic packaging
Tomatoes 46 000 128 and produce stored without packaging both at room
Cabbages 43 000 65 temperature and refrigerated (WRAP 2018c). Evidence
Cucumbers 43 000 77 related to the most effective storage conditions for
Soft berry fruit 42 000 210 selected fruits and vegetables is summarised in Table 2,
Stone fruit 37 000 140
although for a more in-depth review, see WRAP
Oranges 29 000 56
(2018c). Overall, the findings revealed that refrigeration
Other root vegetables 29 000 57
Melons 24 000 59 is vitally important in maintaining freshness and extend-
Leafy salad 22 000 64 ing storage life in 13 of the 17 types of loose produce
Other citrus fruit 18 000 52 examined (i.e. apples, broccoli, carrots, grapes, lemons,
Pears 18 000 33 kiwi fruit, melons, mushrooms, oranges, pears, peppers,
Other fresh fruit 13 000 200 tomatoes and strawberries), when compared to being
Pineapples 10 000 120 stored at room temperature (22°C). This is important in
Source: WRAP (2018b).
addressing household food waste, as research shows
that consumers often choose to store certain types of
fruit and vegetables, such as oranges, outside of the
packaging and temperature, would likely differ fridge (WRAP 2008). It is important to note, however,
between each of the four varieties of produce generat- that refrigeration is not recommended for all fruit and
ing the most waste in the UK (potatoes, carrots, apples vegetables, with the results suggesting that onions,
and lettuce; see Table 1) (WRAP 2018c). For example, bananas (refrigeration causes skins to blacken) and
it is not recommended that potatoes are stored within pineapples should be kept cool but not refrigerated.
the refrigerator as this can cause an increase in the The evidence review also explored the effect of
amount of free sugars and acrylamide levels, known refrigerating produce stored within polyethylene bags
as ‘cold sweetening’. For this reason, the current rec- (the type commonly supplied in the produce section of
ommendations from the Food Standards Agency (FSA) supermarkets). This method was predicted to help
are to store raw potatoes in a dark, cool place at tem- retain moisture and freshness, and increase storage life
peratures above 6°C (FSA 2018a). However, research compared with refrigerating loose (uncovered) pro-
has shown an improvement in shelf life of carrots duce, based on research from 2008 (WRAP 2008).
stored in the refrigerator compared with carrots stored The data showed that keeping items in the fridge in a
at room temperature and there is evidence that shelf polyethylene bag only significantly extended the stor-
life would increase further if stored within plastic age life (defined by WRAP as an increase in storage
packaging (WRAP 2018c). Research into the most life of more than 3 days) of two of the 17 fruit and
effective storage techniques for lettuce and other salad vegetables tested compared with keeping them in the
leaves showed that wrapping these in a dry paper fridge without a plastic bag. However, this practice
towel and placing in a sealable plastic bag in the did extend the storage life of some varieties of pro-
fridge, or placing in the crisper drawer in the fridge duce by 1-3 days [bananas (at room temperature), car-
(an enclosed compartment designed to prolong the rots and tomatoes]. Interestingly, the two items with
freshness of stored produce), extended shelf life by extended storage lives of 4 or more days when refrig-
four and a half times compared with keeping salad erated within a polyethylene bag were lemons and
leaves unwrapped in the fridge (WRAP 2018c). It has peppers, which are both commonly available to pur-
been estimated by WRAP that shrink wrapping could chase loose. Compared with when stored at room

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 Removing plastic packaging from fresh produce 41

Table 2 Summary of the evidence for the most effective storage conditions for selected fruits and vegetables

Produce Packaging methods typically used Effect of packaging methods on condition and shelf life

Apples Sold loose or in packaging, • Polyethylene bags help to limit the weight loss over time, especially in varieties more prone to weight
typically: loss.
• ‘flow wrap’ (polyethylene or • Paper mould trays and corrugated fibreboards can help to limit spoilage.
polypropylene);
• MAP can be beneficial in extending shelf life of fresh-cut apples, but only if combined with an anti-
• polyethylene bags; browning dipping treatment, and it has been suggested that the costs of using MAP for apples generally
• plastic/polystyrene/cardboard outweigh the benefits.
trays. • Shrink wrapping may extend shelf life by up to 2 weeks but may affect texture.
• Use of binary-coated chitosan film may warrant further investigation.

Bananas Sold loose or in packaging, • Evidence suggests bananas lose their visual quality quicker when stored at 22°C compared with at 15°C;
typically: therefore, storing in a cool place is likely to be beneficial.
• polyethylene bags. • Storing within plastic bags may maintain visual quality and retain moisture for longer.
• For ripening bananas, it is estimated that plastic packaging can benefit quality, firmness and colour.
• Edible films and coatings may extend shelf life.

Broccoli Sold loose or in packaging, • Spraying with water, wrapping in paper towel and storing in a sealable plastic bag or keeping in a plastic
typically: bag in the crisper drawer in the fridge have been found to be more effective than covering in cling wrap.
• cling wrap.

Carrots Sold loose or in packaging, • Storage within plastic bags in the fridge can help retain hydration and turgidity.
typically:
• Although maintaining a high relative humidity is beneficial, MAP is not suitable.
• high- or low-density
• Recent evidence suggested a potential benefit of a film based on chitosan and casein polymers in
polyethylene tied bags; reducing spoilage of carrots.
• PET film.

Grapes Sold in packaging, typically • Due to their fragility, it is likely that grapes will require some form of packaging.
• PET box. • It has been hypothesised that cardboard boxes could be used as a storage container.
• There is some evidence that biofilms can aid preservation.

Mushrooms Sold loose or in packaging, • Purpose-designed paper bags are the most optimal method of mushroom storage as storage in
typically: polyethylene plastic bags leads to moisture accumulation through condensation, which increases the risk
• dark plastic punnets with PVC of rots and off-odours.
cling film;
• purpose-designed paper bags.

Oranges Sold loose or in packaging, • There is predicted to be little to no benefit of storing oranges in nets compared with storing them loose.
typically:
• If oranges are stored at room temperature, there is benefit in storing within a polyethylene bag.
• plastic netting.
• Edible coating may preserve shelf life.
Peppers Sold loose or in packaging, • Studies have reported considerable differences in the shelf life of loose peppers.
typically:
• Polypropylene wrap may be the best type of plastic packaging.
• ‘flow wrap’ polyethylene or
• MAP (particularly combined with silica sachets) may extend shelf life.
polypropylene;
• Biofilms may be effective.
• polyethylene bags.

Potatoes Sold loose or in packaging, • Storing raw potatoes in a polyethylene bag (in a dark, cool place at temperatures above 6°C) prevents
typically: moisture loss.
• polyethylene bags.

Tomatoes Sold loose or in packaging, • Due to their fragility, it is likely tomatoes will require some form of packaging.
typically:
• While storage of tomatoes within plastic bags in the fridge may reduce weight loss, there is reportedly no
• plastic punnets covered in film significant effect on firmness or visual quality.
or ‘flow wrap’;
• Packaging based on yam starch or glycerol may be of benefit, and there is emerging research on a
• cardboard punnets. number of other different coatings.

Source: WRAP (2018c). MAP, modified atmosphere packaging; PET, polyethylene terephthalate.

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42 A. White and S. Lockyer

temperature, lemons retained freshness and quality for temperature of the specific fridge that they have in
at least 7 days longer when stored in the fridge and their home (WRAP 2018e).
for at least 14 days longer stored in a bag in the Storing produce within polyethylene bags or seal-
fridge. Peppers retained freshness and quality for at able plastic containers may extend shelf life even fur-
least 10 days longer stored in the fridge and for at ther in some cases and freezing produce to consume at
least 14 days longer stored in a bag in the fridge. a later date before it becomes spoiled will additionally
Some fruits and vegetables, including broccoli, car- prevent waste. Consumers can also reduce their
rots, melons, oranges, peppers and tomatoes, lose mois- wasted food by trying to avoid overpurchasing, not
ture when refrigerated without packaging (WRAP automatically throwing away produce past its ‘best
2018c). WRAP previously identified that the loss of before’ date and trying to cook an appropriate portion
water caused by the dryness in the refrigerator nega- for meals (with any leftovers appropriately stored and
tively affects perceived product quality and acceptabil- consumed at a later time) (Priestley 2016). Recipes to
ity by consumers (WRAP 2008). In addition, consumers inspire consumers to use leftovers and all edible parts
were found to have low awareness of the important role of foods (including fruit and vegetable peelings, seeds,
packaging plays in maximising home shelf life (WRAP stalks and leaves) are available on the Love Food,
2013a). It was predicted that storing items that lose Hate Waste website. The best methods of disposing of
moisture when refrigerated in an airtight container is household food waste to prevent it going into landfill
likely to have the same effect as keeping them in plastic are to collect it separately from other rubbish using a
packaging. Therefore, reusable airtight containers, such kitchen caddy provided by some local authorities to
as strong, sealable and plastic boxes, used in the home facilitate the production of compost or biogas, or to
could be a viable alternative to single-use plastic pack- create compost at home (Recycle Now 2019a).
aging (WRAP 2018c) to increase storage life of these
products without having to compromise on produce
Are alternative types of packaging
quality. Overall, WRAP concluded that there remains a
preferable to single-use plastic?
limited amount of research on the effect of packaging
on the storage life of a number of commonly consumed In the light of its role in extending shelf life, plastic
fruit and vegetables and that more data are ideally packaging may be viewed as a good option for fresh
needed (WRAP 2018c). produce, provided it is recyclable. It is estimated that,
in the UK, the recycling rate of all plastic packaging is
currently 44% (WRAP 2019c). The recyclability of
What can consumers do to reduce wastage
plastics that are labelled as recyclable is, however,
of fresh produce at home?
complex, with the myriad of symbols present on pack-
In the UK, over half of food waste occurs in the home, aging (Recycle Now 2019b) causing confusion among
as opposed to food wasted in parts of the supply chain the public as to which plastics can be recycled and
such as on farms, by retailers and by food service pro- where they should be deposited (RECOUP 2019). The
viders (WRAP 2018b; see Fig. 1). Therefore, encour- ease at which plastic packaging can be recycled by
aging consumers to act to extend product storage life consumers ranges from:
at home could make an important impact. One of the
most effective ways to do this is to ensure the refriger- • widely recyclable [i.e. as part of household kerbside
collections by most local authorities (though this
ator is set to below 5°C and to store fresh produce in
can be highly variable), for example fruit punnets.
the fridge (with the exception of onions, pineapples,
Currently, only around 10% of local authorities
potatoes and bananas), which could reduce food waste
accept plastic film];
by 70 000 tonnes and, taking into account the addi-
tional energy required to reduce fridge temperatures, • recyclable at specialist points (i.e. recycling centres,
including those offered at some supermarket pre-
save £200 million and reduce CO2 equivalent emis-
mises, for example polyethylene bags used for fresh
sions by 210 000 tonnes a year (WRAP 2013b). The
produce, bags used for frozen vegetables); to
work additionally suggested that storage lives of the
majority of chilled foods would be increased if fridge • not easily recyclable (e.g. salad bags) (Which? 2019;
Recycle Now 2019c).
temperatures could be lowered (e.g. from 7 to 4°C)
and this is reflected in advice from the FSA (FSA In addition, there are a number of factors that can
2018b). WRAP’s Chill the Fridge Out campaign gives influence whether a piece of plastic packaging is ulti-
consumers information on how to adjust the mately recycled after being placed in a recycling bin,

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 Removing plastic packaging from fresh produce 43

such as if there is any contamination, for example limitations if key considerations are absent (Schweitzer
with large amounts of food; liquid residue (e.g. oils); et al. 2018) and a recent report highlighted calls for
printing inks and labels; other plastics (multi-material more standardised methodology (Green Alliance
packaging is common); and the cost and ease of recy- 2020). For example, alternative packaging will likely
cling the particular type of plastic in question only have a net positive effect on greenhouse gas emis-
(Hahladakis & Iacovidou 2018; Iacovidou et al. 2019; sions if it can effectively reduce food waste, thereby
Parliamentary Office of Science & Technology 2019; offsetting the greenhouse gas emissions produced by
WRAP 2019a). In addition, the technologies used at food degradation in landfill, the transport and
the material recovery facilities, as well as reprocessing production of food that is wasted, the treatment of
methods, can also impact on plastic packaging recycla- waste water and the incineration of waste (Dilkes-
bility (Hahladakis & Iacovidou 2019). The types of Hoffman et al. 2018), particularly as more resources
materials that are permitted to be used in contact with and energy may be needed to produce alternative
food are dictated by legislation (European Commis- types of packaging in the first place (Parliamentary
sion 2017), meaning that films of different composi- Office of Science & Technology 2019). Indeed, bio-
tion may need to be included within packaging as a based plastics have become popular for use in food
barrier between food and any materials that are not packaging, yet are currently more expensive to pro-
suitable, and this decreases the potential for recycled duce than plastics produced from fossil fuels (Iacovi-
plastic to be used within packaging for fresh produce dou & Gerassimidou 2018). It is also important to
(WRAP 2019g). note that, just because a plastic is bio-based (or par-
Some varieties of fresh produce require packaging tially bio-based), it does not necessarily mean it will
of some sort for protection from damage [e.g. berries biodegrade (e.g. polyethylene is bio-based but will not
(Blanc et al. 2019)], and therefore, investigating alter- biodegrade) (WRAP 2018a). Furthermore, even plas-
natives to single-use plastics is a key area for future tics that are labelled as biodegradable will not rapidly
research. Alternative packaging materials, such as degrade in the sea (United Nations Environment Pro-
paper or cardboard, have been suggested, although gramme 2016) and it has been estimated that the use
one negative is, as with plastic, these can only be recy- of such plastics will not result in a significant decrease
cled a limited number of times (WRAP 2009). Innova- either in the quantity of plastic entering the ocean or
tive bio-based films such as chitosan film (sourced the risk of physical and chemical impacts on the mar-
from shellfish waste products), film based on casein ine environment (United Nations Environment Pro-
polymers and packaging based on yam starch or glyc- gramme 2015). Despite this, evidence suggests that
erol have also been considered as alternatives to plas- consumers view biodegradable packaging very favour-
tic for packaging fresh produce (WRAP 2018c). There ably (The Grocer Vision 2019; INCPEN & WRAP
are also a number of post-harvest technologies, includ- 2019).
ing physical (e.g. heat treatments and edible coatings), At present, it is likely that some packaging alterna-
chemical (e.g. anti-browning agents such as citric acid) tives increase carbon emissions relative to plastic,
and gaseous (e.g. controlled atmosphere storage) treat- especially if the product has a long supply chain (Pilz
ments, which can be used to maintain produce quality et al. 2010; Trucost 2016; Iacovidou & Gerassimidou
and reduce spoilage (Dhall 2013; Mahajan et al. 2018). Aside from potential reductions in product
2014). Modified atmosphere packaging commonly shelf life and associated increases in food waste,
uses plastic made from fossil fuels, though there are another reason for this is that plastic is lightweight
efforts to use bio-based, biodegradable, sustainable compared to other materials [such as glass (Humbert
and recycled materials to produce MAP (Wilson et al. et al. 2009)] and therefore relatively cheap to trans-
2019). The future may be the use of ‘active’ and ‘intel- port and so this aspect needs to be considered when
ligent’ packaging systems that monitor the condition searching for viable alternatives. Single-use paper bags
of packaged foods and communicate this information can require more energy to produce than single-use
to consumers (Lee et al. 2015; Ghaani et al. 2016). plastic bags and also fare worse in relation to other
Life cycle assessment analyses are used to ascertain environmental impacts. Furthermore, encouraging con-
the environmental impact of food packaging (Russell sumers to collect some products in their own refillable
2014), and such analysis is still required for many of containers may reduce shelf life versus factory-sealed
the alternatives to plastic that may be suitable for packaging (Green Alliance 2020). There may also be
fresh produce (Parliamentary Office of Science & other negative consequences; for example, the produc-
Technology 2019). Life cycle assessments can have tion of bio-based plastics using food crops could

© 2020 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 45, 35–50

44 A. White and S. Lockyer

increase commodity prices and affect land use (Tru- proportion of consumers (84%) report that they
cost 2016), though it was recently suggested that would be likely to use clear on-pack storage guidance
whether or not bio-based plastics are more sustainable if it was highlighted to them (WRAP 2013a). How-
than fossil fuel-based plastics still remains unknown ever, it was previously estimated that advice on stor-
due to a lack of data (though analysis indicates that age, using methods such as tags, stickers or
bio-based plastics do have potential in this regard) information printed on paper bags, was only provided
(Spierling et al. 2018). Reducing the amount of plastic on 6-19% per cent of loose produce (WRAP 2008).
used within packaging or changing the type (e.g. from Information could also be provided on fixtures or
rigid to flexible) and making the manufacturing of posters within supermarkets; by training employees to
plastic more sustainable may be better solutions (Tru- advise customers; or supplying information online, as
cost 2016; Karmaus et al. 2018). Overall, the picture online grocery shopping is predicted to continue to
is complex, with many potential impacts that need to increase (Mintel 2019a). One survey estimated that
be considered and further research is required to iden- just 22% of consumers look at storage guidance on
tify and produce cost-effective solutions that are truly pack (WRAP 2013a) and so there may be larger scope
better for the environment than plastic. Guidance for in making storage information easily accessible and
industry on sustainable packaging is available, for digestible for the consumer to increase understanding
example from the Sustainable Packaging Coalition and (FSA 2016). There may also be benefit in positioning
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, and the topic is at-home storage solutions, such as reusable airtight
also a focus of the Circular Economy Task Force containers, next to produce in store although further
(Green Alliance 2020). research would be required to assess the effectiveness
of this.
There is concern that ‘best before’ or ‘display
What about selling fresh produce loose?
until’ dates on packaging may prompt consumers to
Some consumers may prefer to purchase produce that throw away produce unnecessarily due to confusion
is devoid of any packaging (Which? 2011; YouGov with ‘use by’ dates that indicate food safety (Leber-
2019). Fruit and vegetables with their own natural sorger & Schneider 2014). This has led to calls to
protection, such as squash or aubergines, are robust review consumer understanding and use of dates on
enough to be sold loose (Schweitzer et al. 2018), a produce to help reduce waste (WRAP 2017). Current
strategy that may also help reduce food waste, as con- guidance from WRAP recommends that ‘best before’
sumers are able to purchase the exact quantity they dates on fresh produce, excluding short-life products
need rather than having to buy a specific, packaged and where there is a limited time for consumption
amount. This can be especially beneficial for those liv- in the home, should be removed (WRAP 2017).
ing in single-person households, who on average waste However, the impact of such changes on consumer
40% more food and 34% more fresh fruit and vegeta- behaviour remains to be demonstrated (YouGov
bles per capita than other households (WRAP 2018b). 2018).
Furthermore, schemes offering free fruit and vegeta-
bles to children in store are useful to encourage con-
Cosmetic standards for fresh produce and
sumption of single, loose items of produce, such as
the impact on food waste
bananas, which may otherwise be left on the shelves
and wasted. A proportion of fruit and vegetable food waste is attri-
Although selling fruit and vegetables loose may be butable to produce that is safe for consumption, yet
favoured by consumers, the materials used for trans- does not meet the aesthetic standards for the shape
porting and displaying loose fruit and vegetables, and appearance set by retailers and therefore will
which in some instances are single-use, need to be often not leave the farm or will not be sold within
considered (Parliamentary Office of Science & Tech- supermarkets (Canali et al. 2014). It is estimated that
nology 2019). In addition, when offering loose fruit over a third of total farm production in the UK is lost
and vegetables, retailers are missing out on the oppor- due to this reason, up to an estimated 4500 kt-1 per
tunity to provide customers with advice on pack, such year, equating to greenhouse gas emissions of up to
as information on serving sizes and optimal storage 970 kt-1 of CO2 annually (Porter et al. 2018). For
conditions (WRAP 2013a). Effectively communicating example, it has been estimated that 5–25% of apples,
the benefits of using storage information can help 9–20% of onions and 3–13% of potatoes are rejected
consumers reduce food waste, especially as a large based on appearance (Porter et al. 2018). Estimates of

© 2020 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 45, 35–50

 Removing plastic packaging from fresh produce 45

waste in primary production, however, may be higher fresh produce, especially as there are insufficient data
than the reality, as fresh produce sent for use as ani- for many commonly consumed fruit and vegetables
mal feed is likely to be included, which would not be (WRAP 2018c). There has, to date, been no substan-
defined as food waste but is still considered an eco- tial research investigating the wastage rates of pack-
nomic loss (WRAP 2019h). aged compared with loose fruit and vegetables (WRAP
Stringent standards may be based on consumer prefer- 2018c). Further work is also required on alternative
ences; however, research suggests that consumers may in approaches to plastic packaging, such as innovative
fact be willing to purchase produce deemed ‘unaccept- films and coatings or bio-based plastics and indeed
able’ by retailers. For example, research conducted in cardboard, glass and refillable containers. The progres-
Northern Europe concluded that a discounted price, pro- sion of such alternatives could provide an important
portionate to the level of cosmetic flaw, positively influ- solution to many issues around using single-use plas-
enced consumer purchasing (De Hooge et al. 2017). tics. However, it is important to consider economic,
Further research carried out in four countries, including social and technical impacts when assessing their
the UK, reported that 73% of consumers stated that they potential to provide a net sustainability benefit over
were open to purchasing cosmetically flawed fruit and conventional plastics. Overall, an improved under-
vegetables and 90% of retailers felt consumers would standing of the detail, options and unintended conse-
purchase imperfect produce if the price was discounted quences of both recycling and removing plastic waste
(Grow Wales 2018). on the system as a whole needs to be considered, with
UK legislation states that so-called ‘wonky’, ‘ugly’ a recent report highlighting a need for joined-up
or ‘imperfect’ fruit and vegetables labelled in accor- thinking in this space (Green Alliance 2020).
dance with the UK food labelling laws that do not
mislead consumers can be marketed how the retailer
Conclusions
sees fit (Rural Payments Agency 2018) and many UK
retailers do sell produce that is specifically labelled as In order for a reduction in plastic packaging used by
such, at reduced cost compared to standard produce. supermarkets to assist progression towards the targets
Some retailers are also using cosmetically flawed pro- laid out in The Courtauld Commitment and the
duce within products such as soups and smoothies United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, the
(Mintel 2019b). An estimated 1.7 million households long-term sustainability of alternative options must be
were purchasing ‘wonky’ fruit and vegetables in 2016, considered, as outlined above. To aid retailers in mak-
with an increase to 7.7 million households in 2018 ing informed decisions with respect to packaging fresh
(Kantar Worldpanel 2018). However, more may need produce (or not), more research investigating the
to be done to address negative consumer perceptions impact of different types of packaging on the environ-
to consuming wonky fruit and vegetables (Jaeger et al. ment and the shelf and at-home storage life of fruit
2018). In 2017, the Environment Food and Rural and vegetables is required as there are significant diffi-
Affairs Committee commented that while the sale of culties in extrapolating small-scale findings.
‘wonky’ produce is a positive initial step, it would be Research to date suggests that, in the case of many
preferable for retailers to relax their quality standards fruit and vegetables, storage within a refrigerator
and start selling ‘wonky’ produce as part of their main (rather than at room temperature) would have a simi-
fruit and vegetable lines, in order to normalise cos- lar effect on storage life as keeping the produce in
metic flaws within food (The Environment Food & plastic packaging in the fridge. However, a few vari-
Rural Affairs Committee 2017). WRAP has produced eties do benefit from extended shelf life if stored
guidance to aid businesses with setting and maintain- within plastic (e.g. peppers and lemons). There is also
ing quality specifications for fresh produce, which likely to be a benefit to food waste in reducing the
highlights the importance of gathering customer feed- temperature settings on the refrigerator to less than
back on their willingness to purchase cosmetically 5°C or, in the case of produce that loses moisture
flawed fruit and vegetables and advice on how best to when refrigerated, storing them in a reusable airtight
establish ‘wonky’ lines (WRAP 2018f). container. Promoting this information to consumers
would likely have an impact on reducing household
food waste and grocery spends. In addition, raising
Future research
awareness of the need to wash plastic packaging in
More research is needed on the impact of different the home before placing in the recycling bin could
types of plastic packaging on reducing spoilage of help to reduce plastic waste.

© 2020 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 45, 35–50

46 A. White and S. Lockyer

The issue of removing plastic packaging from fresh De Hooge IE, Oostindjer M, Aschemann-Witzel J et al. (2017) This
produce is a complex one. What is clear is that a com- apple is too ugly for me!: Consumer preferences for suboptimal
food products in the supermarket and at home. Food Quality and
prehensive life cycle analysis is required for every
Preference 56: 80–92.
alternative solution to plastic packaging for fruit and
Defra (Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs) (2018)
vegetables and indeed other food products. It may be Carrier bag charges: retailers’ responsibilities. Available at: https://
some time before the impact of recently introduced www.gov.uk/guidance/carrier-bag-charges-retailers-responsibilities
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towards the production of this article, and the content t_materials_en (accessed 13 November 2019).
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