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HIGH-PERFORMANCE MATERIALS
AND ENGINEERED CHEMISTRY
Innovations in Physical Chemistry: Monograph Series

HIGH-PERFORMANCE MATERIALS
AND ENGINEERED CHEMISTRY

Edited by
Francisco Torrens, PhD
Devrim Balköse, PhD
Sabu Thomas, PhD
Apple Academic Press Inc. Apple Academic Press Inc.
3333 Mistwell Crescent 9 Spinnaker Way
Oakville, ON L6L 0A2 Waretown, NJ 08758
Canada USA
© 2018 by Apple Academic Press, Inc.
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-77188-598-0 (Hardcover)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-315-18786-0 (eBook)
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any
electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and re-
cording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher
or its distributor, except in the case of brief excerpts or quotations for use in reviews or critical articles.
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is
quoted with permission and sources are indicated. Copyright for individual articles remains with the authors
as indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable
data and information, but the authors, editors, and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity
of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors, editors, and the publisher have attempted to
trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders
if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowl-
edged, please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017953051
Trademark Notice: Registered trademark of products or corporate names are used only for explanation
and identification without intent to infringe.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

High-performance materials and engineered chemistry / edited by Francisco Torrens, PhD,

Devrim Balköse, PhD, Sabu Thomas, PhD.
(Innovations in physical chemistry : monograph series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Issued in print and electronic formats.
ISBN 978-1-77188-598-0 (hardcover).--ISBN 978-1-315-18786-0 (PDF)
1. Chemical engineering. 2. Materials. I. Haghi, A. K., editor
II. Series: Innovations in physical chemistry
TP155.H54 2017 660 C2017-905898-3 C2017-905899-1

CIP data on file with US Library of C

​ ​ongress

Apple Academic Press also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears
in print may not be available in electronic format. For information about Apple Academic Press products,
visit our website at www.appleacademicpress.com and the CRC Press website at www.crcpress.com
ABOUT THE EDITORS

Francisco Torrens, PhD

Francisco Torrens, PhD, is Lecturer in physical chemistry at the Univer-
sitat de València, Spain. His scientific accomplishments include the first
implementation at a Spanish university of a program for the elucidation of
crystallographic structures and the construction of the first computational-
chemistry program adapted to a vector-facility supercomputer. He has
written many articles published in professional journals and has acted as
a reviewer as well. He has handled 26 research projects, has published two
books and over 350 articles, and has made numerous presentations.

Devrim Balköse, PhD

Devrim Balköse, PhD, is currently a retired faculty member in the Chem-
ical Engineering Department at Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir,
Turkey. She graduated from the Middle East Technical University in
Ankara, Turkey, with a degree in chemical engineering. She received her
MS and PhD degrees from Ege University, Izmir, Turkey, in 1974 and 1977
respectively. She became Associate Professor in macromolecular chem-
istry in 1983 and Professor in process and reactor engineering in 1990.
She worked as a research assistant, assistant professor, associate professor,
and professor between 1970 and 2000 at Ege University, Turkey. She was
Head of the Chemical Engineering Department at Izmir Institute of Tech-
nology, Izmir, Turkey, between 2000 and 2009. She is now a retired faculty
member in the same department. Her research interests are in polymer
reaction engineering, polymer foams and films, adsorbent development,
and moisture sorption. Her research projects focused on nanosized zinc
borate production, ZnO polymer composites, zinc borate lubricants, anti-
static additives, and metal soaps.

Sabu Thomas, PhD

Sabu Thomas, PhD, is Professor of Polymer Science and Engineering at
the School of Chemical Sciences and Director of the International and Inter
University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology at Mahatma Gandhi
University, Kottayam, Kerala, India. The research activities of Professor
vi About the Editors

Thomas include surfaces and interfaces in multiphase polymer blend and

composite systems; phase separation in polymer blends; compatibilization
of immiscible polymer blends; thermoplastic elastomers; phase transitions
in polymers; nanostructured polymer blends; macro-, micro- and nano-
composites; polymer rheology; recycling; reactive extrusion; processing–
morphology–property relationships in multiphase polymer systems; double
networking of elastomers; natural fibers and green composites; rubber vulca-
nization; interpenetrating polymer networks; diffusion and transport; and
polymer scaffolds for tissue engineering. He has supervised 68 PhD theses,
40 MPhil theses, and 45 Masters thesis. He has three patents to his credit.
He also received the coveted Sukumar Maithy Award for the best polymer
researcher in the country for the year 2008. Very recently, Professor Thomas
received the MRSI and CRSI medals for his excellent work. With over 600
publications to his credit and over 23,683 citations, with an h-index of 75,
Dr. Thomas has been ranked fifth in India as one of the most productive
scientists. He received his BSc degree (1980) in Chemistry from the Univer-
sity of Kerala, B.Tech. (1983) in Polymer Science and Rubber Technology
from the Cochin University of Science and Technology, and PhD (1987) in
Polymer Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.
CONTENTS

List of Contributors........................................................................................ ix
List of Abbreviations....................................................................................xiii
Preface........................................................................................................ xvii

Part I: High-Performance Materials.........................................................1

1. Optical Thin Film Filters: Design, Fabrication,
and Characterization.......................................................................................3
Parinam Sunita, Vemuri SRS Praveen Kumar, Kumar Mukesh, Kumari Neelam,
Parinam Krishna Rao, Karar Vinod, and Sharma Amit L

2. Fabrication of Exceptional Ambient Stable Organic

Field-Effect Transistors by Exploiting the Polarization of
Polar Dielectric Layers..................................................................................35
Nimmakayala V. V. Subbarao and Dipak K. Goswami

3. Nonlinear Thermal Instability in a Fluid Layer under

Thermal Modulation......................................................................................57
Palle Kiran

4. Application of a Random Sequential Algorithm for the Modeling of

Macromolecular Chains’ Cross-Linking Evolution During a
Polymer Surface Modification......................................................................79
Stanislav Minárik, Vladinír Labaš, Ondrej Bošák, and Marián Kubliha

5. Polyaniline-Coated Inorganic Oxide Composites for Broadband

Electromagnetic Interference Shielding.......................................................95
Muhammad Faisal

6. A Comprehensive Review of Membrane Science and Technology and

Recent Trends in Research: A Broad Environmental Perspective..........135
Sukanchan Palit

Part II: Chemometrics and Chemoinformatics Approaches..............159

7. Application of Statistical Approaches to Optimize the Productivity
of Biodiesel and Investigate the Physicochemical Properties of the
Bio/Petro-Diesel Blends...............................................................................161
Nour Sh. El-Gendy and Samiha F. Deriase
viii Contents

8. Smart Mobile Device Emerging Technologies: An Enabler to Health

Monitoring System.......................................................................................241
Heru Susanto

Part III: Analytical, Computational, and Experimental

Techniques......................................................................................265
9. Principal Component, Cluster, and Meta-Analyses of Soya Bean,
Spanish Legumes, and Commercial Soya Bean........................................267
Francisco Torrens and Gloria Castellano

10. Electrokinetic Soil Remediation: An Efficiency Study in

Cadmium Removal......................................................................................295
Cecilia I. A. V. Santos, Ana C. F. Ribeiro, Diana C. Silva, Victor M. M. Lobo,
Pedro S. P. Silva, Carmen Teijeiro, and Miguel A. Esteso
11. Nano-Sized Nickel Borate Preparatıon and Characterızatıon................313
Merve Türk, Barış Gümüş, Fatma Ustun, and Devrim Balköse

12. The New Equipment for Clearing of Technological Gases.......................337

R. R. Usmanova and G. E. Zaikov

13. Operational and Engineering Aspects of Packed Bed Bioreactors

for Solid-State Fermentation......................................................................353
Ramón Larios-Cruz, Arely Prado-Barragán, Héctor A. Ruiz,
Rosa M. Rodríguez-Jasso, Julio C. Montañez, and Cristóbal N. Aguilar

14. Effects of Glutathione, Phosphonate, or Sulfonated Chitosans

and Their Combination on Scavenging Free Radicals.............................371
Tamer M. Tamer, Katarína Valachová, Ahmed M. Omer,
Maysa M. Sabet, and Ladislav Šoltés

Index......................................................................................................................391
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Cristóbal N. Aguilar
Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila
25280, México
Sharma Amit L
Optical Devices and Systems, CSIR-Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh, India

Devrim Balköse
Department of Chemical Engineering, İzmir Institute of Technology, Gulbahce, Urla İzmir, Turkey

Ondrej Bošák
Institute of Materials Science, Faculty of Materials Science and Technology in Trnava, Slovak University
of Technology, Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Gloria Castellano
Departamento de Ciencias Experimentales y Matemáticas, Facultad de Veterinaria y Ciencias Experi-
mentales, Universidad Católica de Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Guillem de Castro‑94, València E-46001,
Spain

Samiha F. Deriase
Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Nasr City Cairo 11727, Egypt

Miguel A. Esteso
U.D. Química Física, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid,
Spain
Muhammad Faisal
Department of Physics, PES Institute of Technology, Bangalore South Campus, Bangalore 560100,
Karnataka, India

Nour Sh. El-Gendy

Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Nasr City Cairo 11727, Egypt

Dipak K. Goswami
Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal,
India

Barış Gümüş
Department of Chemical Engineering, İzmir Institute of Technology, Gulbahce, Urla İzmir, Turkey

Palle Kiran
Department of Mathematics, Rayalaseema University, Kurnool 518002, Andhra Pradesh, India

Marián Kubliha
Institute of Materials Science, Faculty of Materials Science and Technology in Trnava, Slovak University
of Technology, Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Vemuri SRS Praveen Kumar

Optical Devices and Systems, CSIR-Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh, India
x List of Contributors

Vladinír Labaš
Institute of Materials Science, Faculty of Materials Science and Technology in Trnava, Slovak University
of Technology, Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Ramón Larios-Cruz
Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila
25280, México

Victor M. M. Lobo
Department of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, Coimbra 3004535,
Portugal
Stanislav Minárik
Research Centre of Progressive Technologies, Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovak
Republic
Julio C. Montañez
Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila
25280, México

Kumar Mukesh
Optical Devices and Systems, CSIR- Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh, India

Kumari Neelam
Optical Devices and Systems, CSIR- Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh, India

Ahmed M. Omer
Polymer Research Department, Advanced Technologies and New Materials Research Institute (ATNMRI),
City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab, Alexandria
21934, Egypt

Sukanchan Palit
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Energy Acres, Post-
Office-Bidholi via Premnagar, Dehradun 248007, Uttarakhand, India

Arely Prado-Barragán
Department of Biotechnology, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Unidad Iztapalapa, Delegación
Iztapalapa, Distrito Federal 09340, México

Parinam Krishna Rao

Optical Devices and Systems, CSIR- Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh, India

Ana C. F. Ribeiro
Department of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, Coimbra 3004535,
Portugal

Rosa M. Rodríguez-Jasso
Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila
25280, México

Héctor A. Ruiz
Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila
25280, México

Maysa M. Sabet
Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry of Drugs, Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology,
Bratislava 84104, Slovakia
List of Contributors xi

Cecilia I. A. V. Santos
Department of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, Coimbra 3004535,
Portugal

Diana C. Silva
Department of Chemistry and Coimbra Chemistry Centre, University of Coimbra, Coimbra 3004535,
Portugal

Pedro S. P. Silva
Department of Physics, CFisUC, Universidade de Coimbra, Rua Larga, P-3004516 Coimbra, Portugal

Ladislav Šoltés
Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry of Drugs, Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology,
Bratislava 84104, Slovakia

Nimmakayala V. V. Subbarao
Center for Nanotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India

Parinam Sunita
Optical Devices and Systems, CSIR- Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh, India

Heru Susanto
Department of Information Management, College of Management, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan

Tamer M. Tamer
Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry of Drugs, Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology,
Bratislava 84104, Slovakia

Carmen Teijeiro
U.D. Química Física, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid,
Spain

Francisco Torrens
Institut Universitari de Ciència Molecular, Universitat de València, Edifici d’Instituts de Paterna, P. O.
Box 22085, València E-46071, Spain
Merve Türk
Department of Chemical Engineering, İzmir Institute of Technology, Gulbahce, Urla İzmir, Turkey

R. R. Usmanova
Ufa State Technical University of Aviation, Ufa 450000, Bashkortostan, Russia

Fatma Ustun
Department of Chemical Engineering, İzmir Institute of Technology, Gulbahce, Urla İzmir, Turkey

Katarína Valachová
Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry of Drugs, Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology,
Bratislava 84104, Slovakia
Karar Vinod
Optical Devices and Systems, CSIR-Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Chandigarh, India

G. E. Zaikov
N. M. Emanuel Institute of Biochemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AFM atomic force microscopy

ANOVA analysis of variance
APCVD atmospheric pressure CVD
AR antireflection
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
BCB benzocyclobutene
CCD central composite design
CCFCD central composite face centered design
CCI coherence correlation interferometer
CdS cadmium sulfide
CDSS clinical decision support system
COM completion of melt onset temperature
CP cloud point
CPCs conducting polymer composites
CVD chemical vapor deposition
dc direct current
DOD D-optimal design
DOS density of state
DPA differential pulse voltammetry
DST Department of Science and Technology
DWNT double wall
EHR electronic health record
EMR electronic medical record
ER electrorheological
FFAs free fatty acids
FP flash point
FrFD fractional factorial design
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
HIM health information management
HIT health information technology
HMDE hanging mercury drop electrode
HR high-reflection
HUD head up display
HWOT half wave optical thickness
xiv List of Abbreviations

ICOP International Conference on Optics and Photonics

EMC electromagnetic compatibility
EMI electromagnetic interference
ICPs intrinsically conducting polymers
IP induction period
JCB Jatropha curcas-biodiesel
LPCVD low pressure CVD
MBE molecular beam epitaxy
MBR membrane bioreactor
MF microfiltration
MIM metal–insulator–metal
MnO2 manganese dioxide
MNu mean value of Nusselt number
MOCVD metal organic CVD
MOLB modulation of only the lower boundary
NF nanofiltration
OA orthogonal arrays
OFETs organic field-effect transistors
OLEDs organic light emitting diodes
OSCs organic solar cells
PAni polyaniline
PECVD plasma enhanced CVD
PM particulate matter
PMMA hydrophobic poly-(methylmethacrylate)
PP pour point
PS polystyrene
PVA poly(vinylalcohol)
PVD physical vapor deposition
PVP poly(vinyl phenol)
RCCD rotatable central composite design
RFID radio frequency identification
RMSE root mean square error
RO reverse osmosis
SBR styrene-butadiene rubber
SEM scanning electron microscopy
SEM scanning electron microscope
SMP soluble microbial products
SMUs source measure units
SS subthreshold swing
SSE sum of squares error
List of Abbreviations xv

SSF solid-state fermentation

SST treatment sum of squares
SWNT single wall
TAN total acid number
TEM transmission electron microscopy
UF ultrafiltration
UHVCVD ultra high vacuum
US-DOE US-Department of Energy
VNA vector network analyzer
WBOS Wei biogenic oxidative system
WCO waste cooking oils
WFSFO waste frying sunflower oil
XRD X-ray diffraction analysis
XRF X-ray fluorescence
PREFACE

An integrated approach to materials and chemistry is necessitated by the

complexity of the engineering problems that need to be addressed, coupled
with the interdisciplinary approach that needs to be adopted to solve them.
This is an advanced book for all those looking for a deeper insight into
the theories, concepts and applications of modern materials and engineered
chemistry. The book comprises innovative applications and research in
varied spheres of materials and chemical engineering. The purpose of this
book is to explain and discuss the new theories and case studies concerning
materials and chemical engineering and to help readers increase their under-
standing and knowledge of the discipline.
This book covers many important aspects of applied research and evalu-
ation methods in chemical engineering and materials science that are impor-
tant in chemical technology and in the design of chemical and polymeric
products.
The integrated approach used in this fosters an appreciation of the inter-
relations and interdependencies among the various aspects of the research
endeavors. The goal is to help readers become proficient in these aspects of
research and their interrelationships, and to use that information in a more
integrated manner.

This book:
• highlights some important areas of current interest in polymer
products and chemical processes
• focuses on topics with more advanced methods
• emphasizes precise mathematical development and actual
experimental details
• analyzes theories to formulate and prove the physicochemical
principles
• provides an up-to-date and thorough exposition of the present state
of the art of complex materials.

In this book you can also find an integrated, problem-independent

method for multi-response process optimization. In contrast to traditional
xviii Preface

approaches, the idea of this method is to provide a unique model for the
optimization of engineering processes, without imposition of assumptions
relating to the type of process.
 PART I
High-Performance Materials
CHAPTER 1

OPTICAL THIN FILM FILTERS:

DESIGN, FABRICATION, AND
CHARACTERIZATION
PARINAM SUNITA, VEMURI SRS PRAVEEN KUMAR,
KUMAR MUKESH, KUMARI NEELAM, PARINAM KRISHNA RAO,
KARAR VINOD, and SHARMA AMIT L*
Optical Devices and Systems, CSIR-Central Scientific Instruments
Organisation, Chandigarh, India
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

Abstract.........................................................................................................4
1.1 Introduction..........................................................................................4
1.2 Development Process...........................................................................7
1.3 Case Studies.......................................................................................19
Keywords....................................................................................................31
References...................................................................................................31
4 High-Performance Materials and Engineered Chemistry

ABSTRACT

This chapter outlines the introduction and importance of optical filters in

precision optics applications and its development process. First section gives
a brief overview of the thin film optical filters, materials used, their types,
and applications. Second section discusses the development process of the
optical filters. Third section shows some examples design, fabrication, and
characterization aspects of optical filter.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Thin film optical filters are one of the important components which are used
in precision optics applications like optics, avionics, sensors, fiber optics,
and space applications.1–3 It consists of one or more thin layers of material
deposited on an optical component such as a lens or mirror, which alters the
way in which the optic component reflects and transmits light due to light
wave interference (see Fig. 1.1) and the differences in refractive indices of
layers and substrate.4 The thickness of the layers of coating material must
be in the order of the desired wavelength. Metals, metal oxides, dielectrics,
or composites having desired optical constants in the wavelength range of
interest are used for optical coating. Commonly used metals are gold (Au),
silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron
(Fe), platinum (Pt), etc., which can be deposited as either single layer or
multi-layers. Dielectric materials are magnesium fluoride (MgF2), titanium
dioxide (TiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), silicon dioxide (SiO2), hafnium
dioxide (HfO2), lithium fluoride (LiF), zinc sulfide (ZnS), indium tin oxide,
etc., which are commonly used for coating.
These materials can be deposited on a variety of substrate materials such
as optical grade glass (BK7, SF6, and SK2 used in precision optics), plas-
tics, metals, semiconductors, and ceramics. Various theoretical and experi-
mental investigations have been carried out on properties of metal oxide thin
films.5–9 TiO2 is one of the semi-conductor metal oxides, which has gained a
lot of attention in past few years due to its excellent physical, chemical, and
optical properties.10–14 It has a high band energy and exhibits high transpar-
ency in the visible region. TiO2 has tunable refractive index, low thermal
stress, and high stability, which make it suitable for various applications like
sensors, optical coatings, self-cleaning, anti-fogging,15 anti-reflective coat-
ings,16 band pass, and band stop filters, where it is used in combination with
other dielectric materials.17,18
Optical Thin Film Filters: Design, Fabrication, and Characterization 5

FIGURE 1.1 Principle of interference phenomenon.

1.1.1 TYPES OF OPTICAL COATINGS

Antireflection (AR) coating is a special type of optical coating, which is

applied to the surface of lenses to reduce unwanted reflections from surfaces.
It is commonly used on spectacle and photographic lenses. This coating
improves the efficiency of the system as it reduces the loss of light. When-
ever, a ray of light moves from one medium to another (from air to glass),
some portion of the light is reflected from the surface (known as the inter-
face) between the two media19–21 (Fig. 1.1). A number of different effects are
used to reduce the reflection. The simplest is to use a thin layer of material
at the interface, with an index of refraction between those of the two media.
The reflection is minimized when:22

n1 = n0 ns (1.1)

where n1 is the index of the thin layer, and n0 and ns are the indices of the
two media.
6 High-Performance Materials and Engineered Chemistry

Another type of coating is high-reflection (HR) coating, which work the

opposite way to AR coatings. These coatings are used to produce mirrors
of high reflectance value. They reflect more than 99.99% of the light
falling on their surface. The general idea is usually based on the periodic
layer system composed from two materials, one with a high index, such
as zinc sulfide (n = 2.32) or titanium dioxide (n = 2.4) and low index mate-
rial, such as magnesium fluoride (n = 1.38) or silicon dioxide (n = 1.49).
This periodic system significantly enhances the reflectivity of the surface in
the certain wavelength range called band-stop, whose width is determined
by the ratio of the two used indices only (for quarter-wave system). More
complex optical coatings exhibit high reflection over some range of wave-
lengths, and anti-reflection over another range, allowing the production of
dichroic thin-film optical filters. Further, the narrow band pass optical filters
have been extensively utilized for fiber optic communication technologies.
Various other examples of optical coatings23–32 (see Fig. 1.2) are metallic and
front surface mirrors with protective coatings, hot and cold mirrors, dichroic
mirrors and beam splitter coatings, band pass, short pass, long pass, wide
band pass, notch filters, neutral density filters, transparent conducting films,
antiglare films for night driving, coatings for beam combiners, and head up
display (HUD) system.

FIGURE 1.2 Different types of optical coatings.

Optical Thin Film Filters: Design, Fabrication, and Characterization 7

Optical filters have applications in other areas like medical application

(UV absorbing coatings), electrical applications (shielding and display
coatings), night vision (IR coatings and night driving filter), coatings
for wind screens, humidity sensor, analytic instrumentation, laser appli-
cations, ophthalmic applications, lens coatings, military applications,
surveillance and targeting systems, binocular coatings, and astronomy
(space telescopes).

1.2 DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Optical filter development process mainly consists of three steps—design,

fabrication, and characterization (see Fig. 1.3). Each step plays a pivotal role
in the development of the optical filters.

1.2.1 DESIGN

The design of optical thin film coatings has always remained as a key
research area in the field of optical filters as it has outpaced the manufac-
turing capabilities of most of the advanced deposition processes with the
incorporation of graded index, graded thickness, and apodization concepts.
Advances in computation techniques have resulted in better synthesis and
optimization methods to match the required filter performance. An efficient
design of an optical thin film filter largely depends on the choice of suit-
able material combinations, a good starting design coupled with a powerful
optimization algorithm. Starting design includes the selection of various
design parameters like substrate and coating materials, thickness, refractive
index, number of layers, angle of incidence, etc. Algorithms like genetic
algorithm,33,34 particle swarm optimization,35 etc. are used for the design and
optimization of the filters.
Design procedure includes:

1. Filter specifications are finalized based on the application

requirements.
2. Materials are selected depending upon their dispersion behavior.
3. Targets are set and optimization algorithm is chosen.
4. An initial design with suitable number of layers and thickness values
is specified.
8 High-Performance Materials and Engineered Chemistry

FIGURE 1.3 Optical filter development process.

Optical Thin Film Filters: Design, Fabrication, and Characterization 9

1.2.2 DEPOSITION PROCESS

A thin film is deposited onto a substrate or onto previously deposited layers.

Deposition process mainly involves following steps:

a. coating plant,
b. substrate cleaning and preparation,
c. material preparation,
4. coating process.

1.2.2.1 COATING PLANT

Chamber is cleaned before the coating process is started. Calibration test

runs are often required to determine tooling factors for particular machines
and materials. The geometrical distance of the substrate from the source,
chamber vacuum, and temperature as well as evaporation rate may all affect
the final coating. Conditions during the process must be monitored and
reproduced as closely as possible from run to run. All the jigs and fixtures
that are required to hold the substrates, especially unusual shapes and sizes,
can be produced as per the requirement.

1.2.2.2 SUBSTRATE CLEANING AND PREPARATION

Cleanliness and preparation of substrates is essential for success in thin

film work. Condensation rate and adhesion of the deposit are critically
dependent of conditions on the surface. Even a thin layer of grease can
have such a gross effect on a molecular scale as to alter completely the
characteristics of the layer. Substrates and optical components are cleaned
in an ultrasonic bath with an alkali based cleaner. Then they are rinsed
in hot water and submerged in isopropyl alcohol to prevent watermarks.
Drying and dust removal finally makes them ready for the coating process.
Any slight marks found on the substrates mean that the whole process must
be repeated. After cleaning, the items are secured in special jigs; this stops
any movement of the piece and vibration from the coating plant affecting
the coating. Any jigs that are not held in house are manufactured when
required.
10 High-Performance Materials and Engineered Chemistry

1.2.2.3 MATERIAL PREPARATION

The preparation of materials for deposition or coating depends upon the type
of deposition to be performed (which is discussed in Section 1.2.2.4). The
materials can be either in solid or in chemical (gaseous) form. This chapter
mainly considers the solid materials which are usually in tablet, palettes, or
powdered form. Tablets or palettes are powdered using mortar and pestle
before they can be used for deposition. The selected materials during design
process are filled into the boats/crucibles and are kept in the crucible holder
inside the chamber of the deposition plant. The material of the boat depends
upon the type of material being used. For materials with high melting point
usually molybdenum or tungsten boats are used.

1.2.2.4 COATING PROCESS

There are a number of methods in which thin films can be grown or depos-
ited36,37 on a substrate. The type of deposition technique chosen for a partic-
ular filter depends on the application of that filter as well as mechanical and
environmental stress stability requirements.
Deposition techniques of thin films are broadly divided into two categories:

• physical vapor deposition (PVD),

• chemical vapor deposition (CVD).

1.2.2.4.1 Physical Vapor Deposition

PVD refers to “physical” movement of the bulk material in a high vacuum

environment toward the substrate in its vapor phase which condenses on
the substrate to form the thin film. Physical deposition uses mechanical,
electromechanical, or thermodynamic means to produce a thin film of solid.
Since engineering materials require high energies to be held together and
chemical reactions are not used to store these energies, physical deposi-
tion systems tend to require a low-pressure vapor environment to function
properly. In order to make the particles of material escape its surface, the
source is placed in an energetic and entropic environment. A cooler surface
which draws energy from the particle source as they arrive is kept facing
the source, allowing them to form a solid layer. The whole system is kept
in a vacuum deposition chamber, so that the particles can travel as freely
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Westminster was fortunate in having for Abbot, Lawrence, a man
of much learning, and what was even more important, of much tact,
for he managed to keep on excellent terms with the king, whom he
persuaded to repair and cover with lead the roofs of the building. It
was he who gained for the Abbey the great honour for which the
whole nation had been longing, and as the result of a sermon he
preached before the king, the nobles, and a great assembly of people,
an embassy was sent to Rome, praying that Edward the Confessor
might be raised to the honour of a saint. More than once had this
appeal been made and refused, but now the Pope, who feared Henry
and had a great regard for Lawrence, decreed that "this glorious light
was to be no more hid from the world."
Perhaps, too, the large sum of money, willingly offered by pious
Englishmen, carried some little weight.
At midnight on October 13, 1163, Abbot Lawrence with the
Archbishop Thomas à Beckett opened the grave of Edward, and the
"body of the glorious king, who was henceforth to be honoured on
earth as he was glorified in heaven," was removed into a "precious
coffin," made ready by the order of Henry II. The celebrated "pilgrim
ring" Lawrence drew from his finger to keep in the monastery as a
precious relic, and the anniversary of this day was solemnly kept for
many a long year.
The king was so anxious to make safe the succession of his
eldest son, Prince Henry, that he insisted on his being crowned during
his lifetime. But Prince Henry did not live to succeed to the throne,
and it was Richard Coeur de Lion who was crowned as the next
English king. A very vivid account has come down to us through the
Chronicle of De Hoveden describing the doings on this day, telling
how from the Palace to the Abbey the ground was covered with
woollen cloth over which walked the long procession as it wended its
way to the ringing of bells, the swinging of censers, lighted tapers
shining everywhere. Then before the altar Duke Richard swore that he
would all the days of his life observe peace, honour, and reverence
towards God and the Holy Church, that he would put an end to any
bad laws or customs that were in his kingdom, and confirm all good
laws, in token of which Baldwin of Canterbury anointed him with oil
on his head, his breast, and his limbs to signify glory, valour, and
knowledge, afterwards placing the crown on his head.
But the people who were gathered together for the ceremony
were filled with great forebodings of evil at the sight of a bat who
fluttered round the king, though it was the bright part of the day, and
at the sound of a peal of bells which rang mysteriously. And when
some among them caught sight of a party of Jews, whose curiosity
had overcome their prudence, Jews and witches having been
commanded by a royal proclamation not to come near the Abbey or
Palace lest they should work evil to the king, they fell upon them and
beat them to death, thus laying the train for a series of horrible
Jewish massacres throughout the country.
Richard, as you know, devoted himself to fighting the battles of
the Cross in Palestine, and England was left to the mercy and the
conflicts of the Barons.
When he fell in battle, his brother John succeeded in getting
himself elected king, though by this time a right of inheritance had
been established, and there was living Arthur, the son of John's elder
brother, and therefore the lawful heir. Never perhaps has a king been
crowned in Westminster who was so false to God, to man, and to his
people. Even on his coronation day he jeered and mocked during the
celebration of the Mass, and through the years which followed no
gleam of light breaks through his deeds of treachery, cruelty, and
crime. "Hell itself is defiled by his presence," wrote the
uncompromising chronicler of his reign.
Although the desperate Barons had forced him to sign the Great
Charter, they had no belief that he would abide by it, and certain of
them therefore entered into treaty with Louis, the Dauphin of France,
who came over to England prepared to accept the crown. Just at this
moment, however, John died, and the French Prince was too hasty in
assuming that the throne was his, for he began to divide up the
kingdom and give lands to his French followers in a manner which
roused the indignation of the stalwart Barons. John had left a little
son of ten. Why not make him king, they reasoned? The Council could
rule the land, and for adviser to the little Prince, who would be more
likely to carry out the spirit of the Great Charter than that wise and
trusted noble, William, Earl of Pembroke? So after a short struggle,
Louis, who had taken possession of the Abbey and many other places
in London, went back to France, and the boy king, who had been
hurriedly crowned at Gloucester to make him secure, was crowned
again in Westminster with great rejoicings on the Whit-Sunday of
1220. Once more the people of London felt that peace and prosperity
would now be theirs, and never before had a coronation day been
kept with such spontaneous joy.
The Abbot of Westminster was a certain Humez, a Norman, "the
last of that country," Widmore tells us with glee, and he was anxious
that the Abbey should not be behind the other great churches of the
day through not having a special chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
For everywhere cathedrals and abbeys were being enlarged, and the
Lady Chapel, stretching behind the high altar, held the place of
honour.
 Humez had obtained the necessary money from certain pious
persons, and with much wisdom begged that the boy king should lay
the foundation-stone of this new chapel on his coronation day. Henry,
who from his childhood was deeply religious, readily agreed; perhaps
it was on that day that the dream came to him of leaving behind him
some such memorial as this of King Edward. Certainly it was from
watching the building of this Lady Chapel, with its light pointed arches
and its graceful form, representing as it did the "new style," that his
dream took shape, so that twenty-five years later he commenced the
work of completely rebuilding Edward's massive Abbey on the
beautiful Early English lines. His reverence for the memory of Edward
almost amounted to worship, and like his ancestor—for he proudly
claimed to be of Edward's stock through Queen Matilda—his religion
was more to him than anything else, for he spent the greater part of
his days praying or in attending masses. But he was also a great lover
of all that was costly and beautiful, and having married a French
Princess, he had become familiar with many of the magnificent
buildings of France. So he felt that the Abbey with its stately simplicity
was not splendid enough to hold the shrine of the sainted king, and
he determined to raise a building which was to be "the most lovable
thing in Christendom."
It is for giving us this most lovable thing that we owe to Henry
III. a deep measure of gratitude, and yet heavy was the price paid for
it at the time by those who, being weak and defenceless, were
powerless to resist the heavy taxes laid on them. The new Abbey was
paid for by the people: sometimes money was cruelly extorted from
them; sometimes a great fair was arranged in the fields near
Westminster, and all the shops in the neighbourhood were
commanded to be closed for many days, so that the crowds would be
forced to flock round the Abbey and spend their money there;
sometimes large sums were extorted from the Jews; sometimes the
king was driven as a last resource to pawning the Abbey jewels and
treasures. At all costs money had to be found, and money in
abundance, for Henry's ideas were all on the most lavish scale, and
could not be carried out with less than £500,000 of our money.
So, in every sense of the word, the Abbey is the church of the
nation, built with the gold of the people. And there is another striking
fact to remember. Gradually the clear-headed and patriotic among the
Barons were beginning to realise that though they had made the king
swear to observe the Great Charter, they had no power of putting into
laws which had to be observed the different provisions of that
Charter; and though Henry was neither cruel nor tyrannical by nature,
as his father had been, he was weak, impulsive, changeable, and
extravagant. His idea of power lay in the carrying out of his
magnificent ideas at Westminster, regardless of the cost, till, says
Matthew of Paris severely, "Oh shame! his folly, by frequent repetition,
came to be looked on as a matter of course."
This is not the place to tell you at length how one of the barons,
Simon de Montfort by name, fought the good fight by means of which
the Charter became a living power in the land; you must read of him
in other books, and learn how he came to be called the father of
English Parliaments. What I want you to remember now is that it was
he who determined to check the unjust taxation which was being
imposed by Henry in his efforts to raise the money for the building of
the Abbey. "Let the king," he said, "call together the barons and
citizens, and let him tell them how much money it is that he wants,
and what he wants it for, and then it will be for the barons and people
to say how much money they will give, and how it shall be collected.
If the king asks what is right and just, then what he asks will be given
to him."
There was only one way by which king and people could thus
come face to face—Henry must summon to Westminster a Parliament
to discuss those matters with him, and it must be a Parliament not
made up of bishops and barons only; all England must be
represented.
So in the year 1265 the first real Parliament assembled at
Westminster—twenty-three barons, a hundred and twenty churchmen,
two knights from every county, and two burgesses from every town.
To-day the Houses of Parliament and Westminster Abbey stand
side by side, a truly wondrous group of carved grey stone; but as you
look at them, I want you to remember how it was through the
building of the Abbey that the first Parliament which at all represented
the people of England came into being.
Can you not imagine some of the scenes which took place round
Westminster during those days? Can you not fancy the interest and
anxiety with which those knights and burghers, many of them
perhaps in London for the first time, walked around the nearly
completed building, struck with amazement that so fair a thing could
be fashioned out of stone? How closely they must have watched the
workmen, some of them foreigners of great skill, but many of them
entirely English, masons, carpenters, builders, carvers, all doing their
part, all carrying out the designs of that unknown architect, now held
to be an English master of the work, who had been sent by the king
of France to learn there the new style. How eagerly they must have
chatted with the monks, who during this rebuilding were living in the
most uncomfortable manner, but who nevertheless would be ready
enough to take the strangers inside, and point out to them one
beauty after another. How their eyes must have been dazzled by the
wealth of colour and the exquisite carvings in marble, stone, and oak.
How they must have marvelled at the fairy lightness of those arches,
the delicate tracery of the windows, the glint and glitter of the glass
mosaic, the soft colours of the marble.
For in very truth this building of King Henry's exceeded
everything they had dreamt of or imagined. In every way the new
Abbey was far larger than the old, though a limit was set on its length
by the Lady Chapel of Abbot Humez, which is now known to you as
the Chapel of Henry VII. The old form of the Cross was kept, but a
ring of chapels encircled the east end, while transepts, aisles, and
cloisters were all made longer and far loftier. But the central point of
magnificence was the shrine of Edward the Confessor, which lay
immediately behind the high altar, made to stand even higher than
the altar by a mound of earth said to have been brought all the way
from the Holy Land.
On the 13th of October 1269, the choir and east end being all
complete, the coffin of King Edward, which had been kept during the
rebuilding, first in the "quire where the monks do sing," and then in
the Palace of Westminster, was solemnly carried back to the Abbey by
the king and his brother, his two sons and many nobles, followed by a
vast procession of clergy and citizens, and placed with great pomp
and ceremony in the newly-made shrine.
The next time you go into Edward the Confessor's Chapel, you
must wander back in imagination for more than six hundred years,
and picture to yourself that solemn service of the "Translation of St.
Edward."
 THE CONFESSOR'S CHAPEL.

The workmen had done their work right well, and we know at
least the names of some of them; for Peter, the Roman citizen who
wrought the mosaic, has left an inscription telling us that he finished
the work in 1269; and among the Fabric Rolls of Westminster we can
find accounts sent in by Robert de Beverley, mason; Brother Ralph,
the convert; Alexander, the carpenter; and Adam Stretton, clerk of the
works, "for the wages of masons serving before the shrine,
carpenters, painters, plumbers, glaziers, inferior workmen, and
workmen sent to divers places."
The tomb of the Confessor was in the middle of the shrine, set on
high "as a light to the church," and was divided into three parts: the
base, in the niches of which sick people were to be laid, that the Saint
might heal them; the tomb itself, of soft Purbeck marble, rich with
mosaic work of coloured gems and stones, and above this a shrine of
pure gold set with all manner of costly jewels, sapphires, emeralds,
and rubies, whilst images in gold and silver of the Virgin and the Holy
Child, John the Evangelist and Peter, stood around as guardian spirits.
Much of the old magnificence has vanished; time has wrought its
work, but more deadly than time have been the ravages of covetous
men who longed to possess its treasure, or violent men who believed
it to be little better than an idol set up in their midst.
Yet it has a mellow beauty of its own, a dignity enhanced rather
than lessened by the traces everywhere apparent of its former glory,
and we see in it not only an exquisite piece of work, but also that
shrine which, like a magnet, drew so many of England's kings and
queens to rest beneath its shadow.
 TOMBS OF EDWARD I. AND HENRY III.

CHAPTER V
WITH KINGS AND QUEENS IN EDWARD'S SHRINE
As you stand in the Confessor's shrine, you will see all around you the
tombs of kings and queens, and in the next chapters I am going to
tell you something of those who were thought worthy to lie in a place
of such high honour.
Henry III. was not at first buried in this chapel, on which he had
lavished so much thought and wealth. He died in the November of
1272, and was carried to Westminster, the Knights Templars, who had
given some precious gifts to the Abbey, undertaking to provide the
coffin and to pay all the expenses of the funeral, that it might be on a
scale befitting one who had been so princely in his dealings with the
Church and all matters concerning religion. There is something
pathetic in the ending of Henry's life, for though he had reigned
nearly sixty years, he had not won the love or trust of his people, and
it has been truly said that "in his time England did nothing great
except against him." The old king was alone when the end came, for
his son Edward was away on a Crusade, and his brother, Richard, had
died the year before, broken-hearted at the murder of his son Henry
by a son of Simon de Montfort. But the Templars spared nothing that
could make the funeral costly, so that, as the solemn procession
passed along, men declared that "the king shone more magnificent
dead than he had appeared when living."
He was laid before the altar, in the very place from which the
coffin of Edward the Confessor had been removed, for it was
considered that special virtues still hovered round that spot.
Very different must the new choir have looked, with its immense
height, its delicate work, and its mysterious flying buttresses, to the
low, simple choir of the Confessor's day. Round the High Altar itself
was a blaze of colour, for all the mosaic work on the floor, which you
still can see, was freshly brought from Rome by the Abbot Ware, who
had gone there to do homage to the Pope, the monks of Westminster
having refused to hold themselves subject to the Bishop of London,
and it was dazzling in its richness. Quarrels between the monks of
Westminster and other dignitaries seem to have occurred very often
in those days, as the monks, somewhat elated at the royal favours
showered upon their church, were inclined to be overbearing and to
resent any authority; while once at least during Henry's reign there
had been a serious fracas between the "citizens of London" and the
"men of Westminster" on the occasion of some sports. For when the
"men of London" seemed to be getting the mastery, the Baylif of
Westminster, with some men, harnessed themselves and fell to
fighting, so wounding the citizens that they resolved to be revenged.
Spurred on by one Constantine Fitz-Henulfe, they issued forth without
any order, fought a civil battle round Westminster, and pulled down as
many houses as they could belonging to the Abbot and Baylif. Nor
when Constantine was captured would he express any sorrow for his
misdeeds. On the contrary, he affirmed gladly that "he had done it all,
and had done much less than he ought to have done." The fact that
King Henry, among other punishments, forced the citizens to pay
many thousand marks for this raid, did not tend to soften down the
ill-feeling which existed.
Even at Henry's funeral the dignity of the Abbot had to be
asserted, for he refused to allow the Archbishop to read the service
until he had signed a paper explaining that his so officiating was not
to be made a precedent, or to rob the Abbot of any privileges.
So, with quarrels going on around him to the end, King Henry
was buried, and the Earl of Gloucester, laying his hand on the coffin,
solemnly swore fealty to "Lord Edward," the lawful heir, then far away
in Palestine.
 Edward I. was in a special sense a child of Westminster, for he
had been born in the Palace there, and had been christened Edward
after the Confessor. With all his faults, Henry was devoted to his wife
and to his children, and the young Edward spent much more of his
boyhood with his parents than was usual in those days. He was
delicate too, and often his mother had greatly upset the old monks in
the monastery at Beaulieu by going to nurse him there when he had
fallen ill while on a visit. He was kept during his boyhood under her
watchful eye at Westminster. Probably he was taught by one of the
Westminster monks, and though we hear that he was "fonder of
actions than of books," he learned to speak eloquently in French and
English and to understand Latin. As he grew stronger he showed a
great liking for all outdoor sports, riding, hawking, hunting, and sword
exercises, and with his cousin Henry, the son of Richard of Cornwall,
his young French uncles, who had taken up their abode at the Court,
and the sons of Simon de Montfort, he played many a game and had
many a boyish adventure round Westminster. His affection for the
place never failed. Had not he watched it growing in grace and
beauty, and was there a single corner of it with which he was not
familiar? The deeply religious influence of King Henry, too, could not
fail to leave its mark on his son, who, in spite of being his opposite in
every other way, had always an intense reverence for sacred things.
Henry was the dreamer, Edward the doer, but among the many fine
qualities the young Prince possessed, one of the most charming was
his loyalty and patience towards his father, which had never wavered,
however sorely he had been tried by Henry's utter incapacity to hold
the reins of government.
It was nearly two years after the death of Henry before Edward
was able to reach England, and yet all had gone on quietly during the
interval. The new king had been proclaimed; the assembly of prelates,
knights of the shire and citizens had met, had solemnly bound
themselves by the same oath as that taken by the Earl of Gloucester
at Henry's funeral, and three men, the Archbishop of York, Robert
Mortimer, Lord of the Welsh Marches, and Robert Burnell, all trusty
friends of Edward, were appointed to carry on the government for the
time being.
On August 1, 1272, Edward landed at Dover, and on August 19
he was crowned with his dearly loved wife Eleanor, who had been at
his side through all the perilous years which were past. "Nothing
ought to part those whom God has joined, and the way to heaven
was as near from Palestine as from England," she had declared.
Great were the rejoicings in London that day, for the beautiful
Eleanor had a warm place in all hearts, and of Edward all had high
hopes. "In face and form he is comely. By a head and shoulders he
outstrips most every man," the citizens said as they marked his white
determined face, his eyes, which, though soft, could flash like fire, his
hair the colour of burnished gold, and his well-knit figure straight as a
dart.
And throughout his reign the nation understood Edward. His was
a great simple character which appealed to them. His faults were the
faults of a strong man who will not be turned aside from his purpose;
his ambitions were bound up in England only. To make her a strong
united kingdom was the dream of his life, and though in this cause,
he fought relentlessly, alike against Llewellyn of Wales and Wallace of
Scotland, he strove with equal vigour to give his people good laws,
fair taxation, and just representation. "That which touches all should
be approved by all," was his creed, and it was he who developed the
Parliaments of Simon de Montfort, until, under his guidance, what was
called the Model Parliament was assembled at Westminster in 1295.
So large was this new assembly, that it was no longer an easy matter
for all to sit together in the hall of Westminster Palace, and a division
was made, the Barons remaining in the Palace, and the Commons, or
representatives of the people, using the wonderful new Chapter-
House, which formed part of Henry III.'s work in the cloisters of the
Abbey. This Chapter-House was the place in which the monks, with
the Abbot and all the other dignitaries of the Abbey, met once a week
for conference. Here complaints were listened to, here misdeeds were
inquired into, here, tied to the central pillar, those older monks who
had offended were publicly flogged. It was designed for a meeting-
place, with its rows of stone benches and its stall at the east end for
the high officials; and what more natural than that the Abbot should
offer it to the king as the place where the Parliament should
assemble?
 ENTRANCE TO THE CHAPTER HOUSE.

The story goes that the prudent Abbot made one condition with
the offer, and stipulated that the Chapter-House, being lent to the
king for the use of the Commons, the Crown should keep it in repair.
No doubt the story is true, nor can we blame Abbot Wace for making
the best terms he could. Can you not see the knights and the
burgesses making their way up the cloisters, where the monks were
working or walking, through the door, with its wealth of gold and of
carving, past the graves of Chamberlain Hugelin, with his wife and
daughter, Abbot Eadwyn, and the chronicler Seculdus, into that
"incomparable building" which Henry had determined should be
unequalled in beauty? Handsome indeed had been their old meeting-
place, but this exceeded anything they had ever seen. "In the centre
rose a slender pillar of grey marble, or rather a group of shafts held
together by moulded bauds, from which seemed to spring the vaulted
roof; the building was eight-sided, in itself a new idea; the walls were
richly painted with frescoes setting forth the glories revealed to St.
John in his vision of that New Jerusalem, the city not built with hands;
the large windows had glass of wondrous colours; saints stood in their
niches, and from within and without the Virgin Mother watched over
the place."
Edward I., throughout his life, held the Abbey in great reverence,
and besides carrying on his father's work and completing the choir
stalls, he caused several magnificent tombs to be set up there. Always
a devoted son, he resolved that the tomb of Henry III. should lack
nothing in beauty; so he sent to Purbeck for the marble, to Rome for
the gold and glass mosaics, and to these he added the precious
stones of jasper to be brought from France, while to a certain William
Torrel he entrusted the work of carving in gilt bronze the fine effigy of
the dead king, which, save that it has been robbed of its jewels, is still
in perfect preservation, stately in its simplicity. To this tomb the body
of Henry was removed; only his heart, as he had himself desired, was
carried to the Abbey of Fontrevault in France, there to be placed near
to where his mother, his uncle, Richard Coeur de Lion, and others of
his race lay buried.
In the same year the greatest blow of his life fell on Edward, for
after thirty-five years of the happiest married life, Queen Eleanor, "the
good merciful lady beloved of all the English," died of slow fever near
Lincoln.
"I loved her with a great love while she lived; I cannot cease to
love her while she is no more," said Edward. And his people loved him
all the more for his deep grief. He came straight away from his
journey to Scotland, to follow that sad funeral procession which slowly
made its way to Westminster, and at each place where they paused to
rest, he caused a cross to be erected to the memory of the "Chère
Reine," one of which, as you know, stood close to Charing Cross
station. She was buried in King Edward's Chapel at the feet of Henry
III., and once more the skilful hands of William Torrel, "goldsmith and
citizen of London," fashioned in gilt copper a wonderfully wrought
figure, "the finest in any country" a great authority has declared,
which shows us a sweet strong face at peace with God, a sleeping
form, queenly and beautiful. Another English workman, Master
Thomas of Leghton, made the screen of wrought-iron which protects
this monument, round which run the words—

"Ici Gost Alinor, jadis Reine de Engleterre

Femme Al Rey Edward, Fiz le Rey Henri
E Fille Al Rey de Espagne, Contesse de Puntiff
Del Alme de li Dieu pur sa pitié eyt merci.
Amen."

"The king, who loved her well, as she deserved, gave to the
monastery seven or eight manors, to the yearly value of two hundred
pounds, for religious services, and for an anniversary to be performed
for her, and for wax tapers to be kept burning on her tomb both day
and night."
 THE CORONATION CHAIR.

It being in the chapel of the Confessor that she who was dearer
than all else was laid, he brought here, as if to lay it at her feet, his
greatest trophy wrested from the Scots, the famous stone of Scone,
on which so many kings of Scotland had been crowned. This was put
at his command into a chair by a certain Walter of Durham, who was
paid one hundred shillings for his work, with an extra sum of about
£2, 12s. for carving, painting, and gilding two small leopards, for the
wages of carpenters and painters, and for colours and gold employed.
When you look at this chair, remember that on it every sovereign
of England has been crowned from the reign of Edward II.
Another trophy had been offered to the shrine of the Confessor a
few years before, and that was the golden crown of the conquered
Welsh Prince Llewellyn. The offering had been solemnly made by
Edward's own little son, Alphonso, a boy of twelve, who, dressed from
head to foot in chain-armour, and wearing a long cloak, followed by
nobles and knights, had laid it down at the feet of the blessed King
Edward, the jewels thereof being applied to adorn the tomb. In the
same year the little prince died, and was buried in this chapel of the
kings.
More than one great disturbance agitated the Abbey during the
later years of Edward's reign. First a fire, which began in the Palace,
spread rapidly and caused much damage to parts of the building; then
there were several quarrels with some of the Begging Friars, a new
Order which was highly disapproved of by the regular monks, for
those begging orders got a great reputation among the people, and
likewise were in high favour with the Court of Rome. But worst of all,
a terrible scandal arose, which ended in forty of the Westminster
monks being thrown into prison.
King Edward, when he went to Scotland, left all his jewels and
treasures, with a sum of money, amounting all told to the value of
£100,000, in the care of the Abbot, who carefully put away most of
this charge in the strongly made Chapel of the Pyx, and the rest in the
Refectory. In the April of 1303 a great quantity of treasure was stolen,
and the king, very wroth, ordered a strict investigation to be made,
which ended in the discovery that a certain small merchant or pedlar,
named Roger Podlicote, had got into the Abbey during the night on
several occasions, and had carried away his booty in bags. That he
could have got in unaided was impossible; he must have had
accomplices within the Abbey. Besides, the Sacrist was found with a
gold cup, which he said he had picked up outside St. Margaret's
Church. William the Palmer, keeper of the Palace, declared he had
noticed the Sacrist, the sub-Prior, and many of the monks, coming
and going unusually often, carrying bags and hampers; while John
Abbas, a workman, told how Alexander the monk had caused him to
make tools of a special design, threatening to kill him if he spoke
aught of this.

PYX CHAPEL.
 Podlicote, a most adventurous spirit, made a full confession, in
which he generously took all the blame upon himself, saying he knew
the ways of the Abbey and where the treasury was; and being poor,
he had thought how easily he could obtain the goods which were in
the Refectory, which he had seen. But considering that this wholesale
robbery went on for many months, it is impossible to believe that
Master Podlicote's nightly visits to the Abbey through a window in the
Chapter-House were quite unknown to the monks, and no one had
much pity for them when they were committed to the Tower for two
years. Still it was a great disgrace to fall on a monastery which held
its head so high; besides, to quote Widmore, "it was a peculiar
baseness to wrong a prince who had been so kind to their house, had
readily renewed their charters, had improved some of them, and had
been very bountiful in giving them lands of great value."
One action taken by the Abbot at this time, however, greatly
pleased both the king and the people. For a certain brave knight, John
de St. John, governor for Edward in Aquitaine, having been decoyed
and taken prisoner by the French, and being too poor to pay the large
ransom they demanded, was presented with a generous offering by
Abbot Wenlock, "a commendable and charitable thing of public
service," comments an old writer, "seeing that monasteries did not
always lay out their money so well as for the liberty of a person in
high command, a gallant man whom, while fighting valiantly for his
prince, the chances of war had made prisoner." Edward's eventful
reign was drawing to a close; already he was the oldest king who had
ruled England, and his life had been a hard one. He had never spared
himself in mind or body; he had never wavered in his great aims; and
his favourite motto, Pactum serva, "Keep troth," words he had desired
should be carved upon his tomb, was the motto to which he had
consistently been faithful. And yet over these closing years a dark
cloud hung, for his son, young Edward, showed no signs of rising to
his great responsibilities. Tall and handsome to behold, he was weak,
changeable, and careless, given to gambling and low society, a tool in
the hands of first one and then another of his worthless friends. The
old king knew all too well how useless it was to dream that his son
would carry on the work to which he had devoted himself, but the
knowledge was a veritable cup of bitterness. He had always sought to
inspire him with high thoughts, great enthusiasms, and now, as the
end loomed on the horizon, he made one more effort, and appealed
to the deepest feelings of the young prince. At the festival of
Whitsuntide in Westminster Abbey, he admitted his son, with many
other young nobles, to the order of knighthood, and throughout one
long night the Prince of Wales kept his vigil before the altar at the
shrine of the Confessor. Then at the royal banquet which followed,
Edward, though so weak he could barely stand, swore solemnly to
march at once to Scotland to crush the rebellion which had broken
out afresh when all seemed peaceful, and to avenge the death of
Comyn, who had been murdered in the church at Dumfries by Robert
Bruce. The Scotsmen had not kept troth, and the king was fierce with
indignation. But to this vow Edward added another, which was made
also by the prince and all the newly dubbed knights in the ball at
Westminster; they pledged themselves that so soon as Robert Bruce
was conquered, they would no more bear arms against Christendom,
but would go to the Holy Land and conquer the infidel, or die in the
attempt to do so.
Without delay, king and army set off for Scotland, but the great
triumph for which he had longed was not to be his. His spirit was as
strong as ever, only his body failed him. He struggled bravely on, then
came a day when he could only ride two miles, and at last he had to
own that he was face to face with an enemy before whom even his
strong will lay powerless. Near Carlisle he died, knight and warrior to
the end. He entreated his son to tear himself away from his
favourites, and to set before himself the conquest of Scotland and the
recovery of the Holy Land, and he asked that his bones might be
carried about with the army till Scotland was subdued, that his heart
might go with the knights to the Holy Land. Then with a prayer for
mercy on his lips he passed away.
Edward II. had not even the grace to carry out one of these
dying requests. Four months later Edward was buried in the
Confessor's Chapel near to his father, his brother, and his wife, while
to his memory was raised only the plainest tomb, in striking contrast
to the beautiful monuments around it. The new king scattered his
money among his favourites with too free a hand to have anything to
spare for the building of a costly tomb.
Yet, after all, as you stand by the grave of this "greatest of the
Plantagenets," and look at the simple unornamented monument, I
think you will feel with me that in its very simplicity and strength it is
unconsciously a truthful memorial of Edward, a striking description of
those qualities which in life he loved and strove after. He was a man
of action, not of words; a soldier, not a saint; a statesman, not a
dreamer. For Edward the Confessor there was a beautiful shrine, the
delicate work, the gold, the jewels, the angels, and the martyrs. For
Edward the First there was the uncarved block of grey marble, and
the blunt inscription—
"Here lies Edward the First, the Scourge of Scotland.
Keep troth."
 CHAPTER VI
EDWARD III. AND QUEEN PHILIPPA

"The character of the reigning Prince, King Edward II., will not give
leave to expect anything of great service to this place," wrote grimly a
chronicler of the Abbey. Indeed, beyond the fact that he was crowned
here, that a riot nearly took place at the coronation, so angered were
the people at Piers Gaveston being given the place of honour and
allowed to carry the crown, in defiance of the old king's last request,
and that he made an offering of two images to the shrine of the
Confessor, there is nothing to tell of Edward's reign in connection with
Westminster Abbey.
The country bore with the king for nearly twenty years. Then the
Parliament assembled at Westminster asserted itself. The king, all
were agreed, had shown himself unfit to rule; he had violated his
coronation oath, he had oppressed his people, and had lost Scotland.
It was only right, therefore, that he should be deposed, and his son, a
boy of great promise, be chosen in his stead. Out of that great
assembly only four voices were raised for the king, and a deputation
was sent to him telling him what his Parliament had resolved to do. To
his honour, the young Prince Edward refused to accept the crown
unless with his father's consent, but Edward II., "clad in a plain black
gown," submitted without a word to the decree of the assembly, and
listened unmoved as they told him how they "rendered and gave back
to him, once king of England, their homage and fealty, counting him
henceforth as a private person, without any manner of royal dignity."
 So Edward III. was crowned on the 29th of January 1327, and
the shield with the sword of state, Scottish trophies of his
grandfather's which were carried before him, are the identical shield
and sword which exist to-day.
Only fourteen years old when he was crowned king, young
Edward had already impressed all those who came in contact with
him. Men saw in him a worthy successor of Edward I., whose great
qualities stood out in shining contrast after the second Edward's
disastrous reign. He was strong, he was brave; he, like his
grandfather, passionately loved justice and passionately loved
England. Nothing could have been more unfortunate than his boyhood
or his early education. For neither his father nor his mother could he
feel the smallest respect, and the influences about the Court were of
the worst. A weaker character would have been swamped by
circumstances, and would have sunk to the level of its surroundings;
Edward fought his way through, and came out triumphantly on the
other side. When he was sixteen he married Philippa of Hainault, and
a year later a son was born to them. The delight of the nation was
intense; Edward was deeply touched at the signs of affection
everywhere shown to him by his subjects, and he resolved all the
more earnestly, with the growing strength of his young manhood, to
be a king indeed, to rule his people justly, to lead them wisely, to live
up to the great things expected of him. England in those days was a
young nation, just beginning to feel its power, rejoicing in its strength
and its freedom, ready for action, for adventure, for enterprise, and
Edward represented in the highest degree all these enthusiasms and
aspirations. He was able to lead; he grasped the spirit of his people;
king and nation were at one in their aims, so that into the years which
followed were crowded great deeds and great victories, victories
made all the more honourable by the chivalrous conduct of the
conquerors.
I should like to linger over the stories of Edward and his men-at-
arms, the knights, the hobblers, and the archers, who won such fame
for England on foreign battle-fields, but that would be to wander far
away from Westminster, so we must leave Crecy, Calais, and Poitiers,
and come back to the Abbey and the Monastery, this little world of
itself, where life went on in its own way, regardless of wars in
Scotland and France.
As usual, there were several disputes in progress, and one
between the Abbot and the king's treasurer ended in a lawsuit which
lasted both beyond the Abbot's and treasurer's time. The quarrel was
as to who had the right to visit the Hospital of St. James, a hospital
founded and endowed by some citizens of London for fourteen
leprous maids, on the ground where now St. James's Palace stands.
No fewer than six chaplains were attached to this hospital, to perform
divine service for the afflicted fourteen lepers, and as the building
stood within the parish, the Abbot declared that these chaplains were
under his authority. To this the king's treasurer would not agree, and
hence the dispute. Apparently at last the verdict was given in favour
of the Abbot, but the original Abbot and treasurer being dead, and
the new Abbot being indolent, while the new treasurer was grasping,
it ended in an actual victory for the latter.
Another quarrel centred round the little chapel of St. Stephen's,
which had been founded by Edward I. within the Palace at
Westminster, and so liberally endowed by Edward III. that it
possessed its own dean and canons.
In this chapel masses were said daily for past and present kings,
while altogether nearly forty priests were attached to the foundation,
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