size of cullet, and homogeneity of the batch, For example, smaller grain batches will undergo melting quicker, batches with different grain sizes will melt slower. The addition of cullet reduces the amount of time required for melting, ‘while poor homogeneity can seriously affect melting efficiency. During refining (ofien referred to as fining), gas bubbles are eliminated from the batch and molten glass. Refining occurs throughout the ‘melting chamber, beginning with the batch charge to the furnace and continuing until the complete dissolution of crystalline materials, ‘The refining section of the furnace is typically separated from the main melting section by a bridgewall, while glass lows through a wall ‘opening called the “throat.” The exception is flat glass furnaces, in which case the opening between the furnace and re ining area is above the surface of the glass. Imperfections (referred to as stones or cords) ‘may be introduced into the lass during melting when the grains of dry raw material are too large to completely react by the time the flux has melted, or if the batch hasnot been adequately mixed. During refining these glass inclusions are climinated or reduced As the temperature of the glass decreases, some cof the gases are reabsorbed into the melt. As these dissolve, gaseous seeds or bubbles may form containing constituents such as oxygen, sulfur dioxide, water, nitrogen, ar carbon dioxide, depending on the type of glass. Refining helps to remove these seeds, Carbon. dioxide is present because carbonates are used in the glass hatch, whereas gases like sulfur dioxide result ftom the use of refining agents ‘Compounds such as sodium sulfate, barium ‘oxide, boric acid, sodium chloride and calcium fluoride are used as refining agents, although they alsothavea role in the melting process. How much refining is done depends on the desired quality and properties of the glass. For ‘example, manufacturers of flat and specialty glasses may have higher quality requirements and be willing to accept much fewer seeds than ‘container glass. Thus, container glass will require less time and energy for refining Homogenizing occurs throughout the melting ‘chamber, and is finished when the properties of the glass meet the desired specifications. Perfect homagencity exists when the glass melt ‘exhibits no variations in the desired properties. Variations might include local differences in refractive index, density or coefficient of -expansion, all of which will affect the mechanical and optical properties of the dass Glass with excessive stones, cords, or seeds is also non-homageneous. Factors affecting homogeneity include temperature, time, batch ‘composition, degree of mixing, and physiochemical relations in the glass refractory system. The degree of homogencity attained is often a matter of economics, or of quality requirements, and varies considerably between glass sectors. During thermal conditioning, glass is stabilized and brought to a uniform temperature. When thermal conditioning beginsisa matter of interpretation, and depends on furnace type and operating conditions. In general, thermal conditioning is assumed 1p begin immediately after the glass melt reaches its highest average temperature in the furnace, since after this time it will begin cooling to the working temperature for forming, As shown in Figure 4-1, thermal conditioning is occurring in the melting and refining sections of the furnace, and in the forchearth, In container fumaces, the refining is used primarily for temperature conditioning Physical mixing in the feeder, bubblers, and stabilization of gases are all used to help achieve proper thermal conditioning, Stirring isusually accomplished with a water-coded stainless steel cor uncooled platinum paddle operating at the ¢lass melt temperature. Bubblers are water- cooled, high-carbon steel nazzles located on the furnace floor, a‘After the melting and refining, the glass melt flows tothe forehearth, where the glass is then transferred to the forming process. ‘The Forchearth caols the motien glass to a working temperature for forming (typically from 2000°F ~ 2100°F), removes temperature gradients, and provides the means to transfer the molten glass to firming operations. ‘Th: forchearth consists, of an insulated refractory channel and is equipped with burners and an air eooling system on both sides (see Figure 4-2). Itcan be heated vwith natural gas or electricity. A natural-gas heated forchcarth reheats the cooler surface of the glass using radiant heat transfer, which also serves to equalize temperature gradients. Electrically-heated forehearths use submerged clectrodes that heat the glass through conduction ‘and onvection. ‘The length of the forehearth is based on requirements specific to the individual product and the desired heat loss. Control of the gass melt through the forehearth is eritical for forming, and the pracess is highly automated Controls typically include automated setups, cooling air adjustments and precise zane temperature controls Continuous Furnaces Dominate in Larger Glass Plants While the process of meltingand refining is very similar throughout the industry, the type of furnaces used may vary considerably. In general, fumaces are classified as discontinuous ‘or continuous Discontinuous Furnaces Discontinuous furnaces are used in smaller glass ‘melting operations, those on the order of less than five tons per day. Mast of these furnaces are used by producers of small blown and pressed tableware, especially colored, crystal and other specialty glasses. ‘They are operated fora short period of time and can usually go through the entire cycle of charging, melting, and removal of molten lass in a single day Discontinuous farnacesare either pot furnaces ‘or day tanks, In apot furnace, the glass is melted in a refractory pot inside the furnace, and the pot is externally heated. Pot furnaces may shave single or multiple pots, and these may Be ‘open or closed. Open pots.are open to the flames and gases generated by combustion of the fuel. Open pots have capacities ranging from 250-1000 pounds of glass, and must be ‘operated with fuels that have minimum sulfur ‘content, Fewifany openpots are operated in the United States. Closed pots range in capact from 250-2000 pounds of glass, and are used primarily for melting crystal, lead and colored glasses, Pot furnaces are generally aperated to ‘melt glass overnight and permit working of the glass during the day Day tanks are small units employing semi- ‘manual operations, and the charging/melting/ removal cycle is repeated daily. Day tanks are used for many types of specialty glass, and most ‘commonly for opal, ruby, erystal, and soda-lime glasses, Melting times in these furnaces vary ‘considerably. Soft opal orruby can be melted in $10 hours, where sodadime glass may take up to 24 hours. Automatic controls keep the melting temperature constant, and the glass melt must be sampled to determine when melting is complete, Continuous Furnaces ‘Continuous furnaces are found in larger ‘operations and are designed to be used ‘continuously overa period of years. In the ‘continuous fumace glass levels remain constant, -with new batch materials constantly added as molten glass is removed. ‘Continuous furnaces can be fired by natural gas, dectricity, or a combination of both. When Ibath are used, the furnace is said to be fitted ‘with “electric boost.” In natural gas furnaces, the gas is burned in the combustion space abo we the molien glass and the trans fer of energy ‘occurs through radiation and convection When sdectricity is the energy source, clectrical resistance is introduced usingelectrodes that are “4Cooling Air’ Burner Refractory — Cooling Air: Burner Figure 4.2. Forehearth [E1 1988) placed direetly inthe molten glass Continuous Furnaces are classified into four categories recuperative, regenerative, and Direct-fired farnaces, sometimes referred to as “unit melters” are fired with natural gas and are usually found in smaller operations producing, 20-150 tons per day (see Figure 4-3). In the direct-fired furnace, natural gas is combusted continuously in banks of burners placed on cither side of the furnace, which pravides stable temperature conditions. ‘The burners are controlled to generate convection currents, ‘which create a longitudinal temperature gradient along the furnace and the glass melt, The hot combustion gases are drawn over the melt surface and then exhausted at the chargingend of the furnace through the dog house. Direct-fired furnaces are selected because of their lower capttal cost, temperature stability, and when daily tonnage is too low to be practical for aregencrative furnace, They are also used in some cases for specialty glasses ‘containing compounds (¢ .. borosilicates) that ‘could clog ar degrade the refractory bricks in regenerators. Recuperative furnaces are essentially direct- fired furnaces that have been fitted with a recuperator to recover heat from exhaust gases. They are used mostly in smaller operations, primarily in textile and insulation fiber production. They can be fired with either natural gas or oil, and some are equipped with electric boost Recuperative furnaces use a continuous heat ‘exchanger to recover beat from the flue gases and preheat combustion air to1000°F tol S00°F. ‘The heat exchange can be of double-shell or tubular design, and is constructed from stainless steel or Inconel to enable operation in high “3Figure 4-3. Direct-Fired Furr temperature corrosive environment, Recovering, heat nearly doubles the thermal efficiency of the furnace to as much as 25-40 percent Regenerative furnaces are the mosi commonly used in the glass industry, aecounting for about 42 percent of furnace population. Capacities in these furnacesare high (100-1000 tons per day), and they are relatively efficient (up to 65 percent thermal efficiency) when compared with. direct-fired or recuperative fiarnaces They can be fired with either natural gas or with gas and electric boost Muchlike the recuperative furnace, the latert heat in the furnace is collected in a regenerator and then used to preheat combustion air and achieve higher efficiency. Combustion air prcheat temperatures can reach as high as 2300°F. (Checker bricks are placed within the melting/combustion chamber. During operation, incoming combustion air is heated as tt passes e [CMP 1990, E1 1988) through the first hot checker system, and is then joined with the fuel in the burner port. ‘The flame burns above the surface of the glass inside the space under the top of the melter (combustion space). Combustion gases exit the melting area through opposite burner ports and ‘exhausting regenerator chamber, beating the ‘checker bricks. The flow is reversed after a short period oftime (usually 15-20 minutes), which alternates the inlet and exhaust ports ‘Average furnace exhaust temperatures range from L000°F to 1200*F. Direct-fired air recuperative furnaces may utilize high temperature metallic alloy heat exchangers that avoid the need to periodically reverse ait flow Regenerative furnaces typically use alumina- irconia-silica as the refactory of the sidewal with zirconia content ranging from33-41 percent. Chrome-contaning refracteries are used in the fiberglass industry because they resist erosion, but their use is decreasing due to environmental concerns about chrome Refractories cantaining chrome are not used in the flat, container or pressed/blown glass 6industries because chrome impurities can discolor the glass. Silica is commonly used for the crown of the furnace, or sometimes mullite if oxy-fuel firing is employed. Duc to chemical incompatibilities, a layer of alumina-zirconia- silica is often used as a buffer between the crown and sidewall (see Figure 44) [Freitag 1997] Melting in the furnace is usually monitered with thermocouples above and below the melt, and though visual observation of burner nozzle performance. Thermocouples are sheathed with alumina, mullite, or platinum-coated alumina, and must bereplaced every 2-3 months due to thermal shock or impact damage. Fiber optic probes are also being developed to enable ‘monitoring of glass temperalures throughout the melt. Regenerative furnaces can be endkport or side- port, depending on the placement of bumer and exhaust ports End-port regenerative furnaces use side-by-side ports located in the back wall of the furnace (see Figure 4-5), The flame enters through one port, and exhaust gases exit through the other. ‘Thus, the flames travel ina u-shape ‘over the melt from one side: Regenerator ‘chambers are located next to each other against the back wall ofthe furnace. In aside-port regenerative furnace, exhaust ports and burners are placed on opposing sides ‘of the furnace along with two regenerators, one ‘on each side (see Figure 4-6), Flames travel from one side of the furnace to the other These furnaces are used mostly for very high through- put operations. AlL-electric melters take advantage of the conductivity of molten glass. Molybdenum clectrodes are embedded in the bottom or sides ‘of the furnace, and pass electrical current through the refractory chamber, melting the raw materials. The furnace must first be heated with fossil fuel and the temperature of the batch raised prior to electrical melting. During the melting process the batch layer acts as an insulator on top of the melt which virtually ‘climinaies energy losses from the molten glass due to radiation or convection, While the ture of the melt is about 2600°F, the treat the top of the insulating 6-9 inch batch layer will be only about 20°F. This insulating effect, referred to as a “cold top,” increases thermal efficiency up to 60 10 90 percent. Some electric melters use natural gas for auxiliary beating—these are referred tos “hot-top” melters. Bubblers are commonly used to improvethe homogeneity of the melt and to ensure that bubbles are eliminated Many advantages have been cited for electric melters, including reduced air pollution, higher efficiency, reduced emission of wolatiles such as fluoride and lead oxide, improved glass uniformity, faster furnace rebuilds, and small space requirements. However, ifthe efficiency of electricity generation at the power plant is considered (30-35 percent efficient), the averall efficiency of electric melting is much lower (21 percent), and energy costs are high. For this reason, clectric meiters are not cost-competitive for many applications. ‘The size limits of electric furnaces and the electrical conductivity of some batches at high temperatures also limit the use of all-clectric melters Another issue is reduced refiaetory Life in electric melters, which leads to more frequent furnace rebuilds. Typical rebuild time for an electric Furnace is about 2 years, with 2 weeks of downtime [Gridley 2001] Electric melters are commonly used for batches containing borosilicates or fluorides (e g., fiber glass) to minimize volatilization of binders and resins. In a gas-fired furnace as much as 40) percent volatilization can occur, compared with less than 2 percent in electric melters. A typical electric melter configuration for producing fiber alas is illustrated in Figure 4-7, 7‘Sidewall ‘neuation Tank > ZS (alumina Biecania- sila) AZS bottom blocks Figure 4-4. Typical Materials Used in Regenerative Furnaces [Freitag 1287) Electric Boost, Oxy-Fuel Firing, and Batch Preheat Are Used to Increase Furnace Output, Efficiency, and Environmental Performance ‘The amount of glass that can be produced by 2 furnace is limited by the energy that can be provided to the molten glass inside the furnace structure. ‘This limit occurs when the burners have reached their maximumheat output. Purther increases in heat are limited by the temperature capabilities of the furnace structural materials, and the desire to keep emissions af nitrogen oxides low. Acnumber of techniques my be employed to mect needs for additional capacity without 16 TOTAL INDUSTRY e014, 208 | 1987 wae THs Sources ier an neeneeeon ee Excuces ekeroty tees, oases aatocinied wan gence seca eae Estimated based on &2 Census Data and 7% grawh between 1962 and 1957 ‘Assumes 37% al fbr product i ese fers (DOG 1887, GC 197. Bun 1990 Am Cer Sor 1994, EPA 1064, Cer Ind 008, Cer in 1807, Cerind 1904. Gee Ine 1995, 1992 00C. CMP 1990, EPR! 1968, £1 1988 i trsndeinsic of Gert, babe on a converse Inco of 10.500 BLAANAR of 574.4 Emissions Glass Melting Produces Volatiles, Particulates, and Combustion Products ‘The melting and refining process accounts for about 90 percent of the air emissions from a glass manufacturing plant. Melting and refining of the batch resulis in the release of volatile compounds ¢e g., alkali or borates) from the molten dass, particulates of raw materials that are trappod in the flue gas, and pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels (sutfur conxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter), Emission rates vary depending upon the type of furnace employed due to variable operating. temperatures, the composition af raw materials, fuels used, and flow rate of the flue gas The least efficient furnaces generally have the greatest emission rates. Electric furnaces have the lowest emission rates because combustion products are eliminated, ard the melt surface is maintained at a lower temperature. Particulates are released when materials in the melt volatilize and combine with gases to form condensates, Particulates emitted from soda- lime glass are primarily sodium sulfate. In regenerative firaces these collect in the furnace checkers and gas passages or are ‘emitied to the atmosphere, The checkers and passages must be routinely cleaned to prevent the formation of slag that can clogpassages and deteriorate the condition and efficiency of the furnace. Particulates are also generated by the combustion of fuels, although when using natural gas these are comparatively low. Fibrous glass melting results in large emissions of particulates due to the nature of the batch, particularly when non-electric melters are used ‘The manufacture of textile fiber glass, which is done mostly in relatively inefficient direct mellers or tecuperative furnaces, typically has higher pollutant and particulate emission rates ‘Volatile compounds (borates) are emitted during the manufacture of both insulation fiber glass and tentile fiber glass as the result of constituents present in the glass hatch Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are an issue of special concem far glass makers, asthey are the subject of increasingly stringent regulation Glass melting furnaces generate NOx by + homogeneous gas phase reaction of N, and (0, in the combustion air, which produces mostly NO, + evolution of NO. from nitrate compounds present inthe batch, + oxidation of nitrogen in the fuel ‘The homogencous formation of NO is dependent on the temperature of the combustion air and the concentration of nitrogen and oxygen in the gas (sce Table 4-$), NOx is formed by a series of reactions, the mast deminant of which occurs as the combustion air contacts the flame in the furnace at temperatures ranging from 2700°F to 3100°F This resction is temperature sensitive, and requires very high activation energy. Because of its high activation energy, ‘once NOx is formed by this reaction, it does not easily decompose back to nitrogen and oxygen. As Table 4-5 illustrates, fluc gases emerging fom the furnace at around 1000°F should theoretically contain about 1 pra total NOx However, asthe combustion air is heated to temperatures above 2000°F, much higher amounts of NOx are formed. As the gases cool, the reverse of the reaction is kinetically limited and much of the NOx remains in the fluc gas [EPA 1994]. Sulfur oxides (SOx) result during the decomposition of sulfates in the glass batch, and from sulfur in the fuel during combustion Other emissions from combustion of fuel: include carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCS), and carbon dioxide (CO.) Carbon dioxide is also produced as a byproduct of the reactionof silica with sodium carbnatc and other carbonates which are added to the batch, Emission factors for container, flat, pressed and blown, and lead glass manufacturing are shown im Table 4-6, Emission factors for textile and insulation fiber manufacturing are given in ‘Table 4-7. ‘These emission factors are an average of al furnace types withinesch 58Table 4-5. Predicted Equilibrium Concentrations of NOx in Air and Flue Gas (ppm) shuren EPA Tee segment. In some segments (eg., flat dass) a single furnace type dominate s (regenerative side-port) Fumace emissions can vary considerably, depending on the type, age and condition of the furnace. A study done in 1994, which looked at alternative control technologies for nitrogen ‘oxides, illustrates this wide variability in emissions from 22 facilities (see Table 4-8) Emissions From Glass Furnaces are Subject to Regulation Underthe Clean Air Act Glass furnaces are subject to the general rules of the Clean Air Act and its Amendments, ygen oxides (NOx), sulfur particulates. The most stringent standards are found in California, ‘which hasa high concentration of glass Furnaces. California standards are $0 Ibs NOwiton of glass [Cer In 1991]. However, there are no uniform State limits—NOx limits are lower in some areas. New Souree Performance Standards for particulates for all furnace types are shown in Table 49 ‘To meet regulations, glass manufacturers employ a variety of pollution shatement technologies to-control emissions from the melting furnace. The most effective of these for particulatesis the high-energy venturi scrubber, which reduces approximately 95 percent of emissions. This method isabout 60: to 70 percent effective for sulfur oxides. Low- energy wet centrifugal scrubbers arealso in-use, ale Flue Gas Temperature (°F) No NO, No No, £80 (ambient conditions) 3410 2410" 1430" 3310" 990 (glass furnace exhaust) 2a a7 08 on 2.810 peak fureace temperature durng melting) but only have about a SO percent efficiency rate for controlling particulates and sulfur oxides. In some cases hatching techniques (¢ 2 pelletizing, briquetting) can be used to control emissions Anthracitic coal is also sometimes added to the batch to reduce emissions af sodium sulfate as particulate matter. Increasing the batch percentage of cullet, which hasalready been processed, can also reduce emissions. Baghouses can collect 95 to 98 percentof particulates, but the Fabric corrodes at high temperaturesand careful temperature contrals must be instituted. Electrostatic precipitators are most effective for particulate control, with up to 90 percent efficiency [GIC 2001}. In fiber lass manufacturing, fabric filtration isthe ary method of emissions control, These s are effective for contral of particulates sufur oxides, and to a lesser extent, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and fluorides, Fabric Filtration Efficieney in Fibrous Glass Manufacture Regenerative and Recuperative Wool Furnaces Particulates 95 %+ 80x 88% Carton Monexide 30% Fluorides 91-90% Source: EPA 1897 59Table 4-6. Emission Factors for Flat, Container, and Pressed/Blown Glass Melting (ib/ton glass materials processed) [SegmentiFurnace Particulates Cone Uncontrolled [Contralled Low-energy scrubber \Venturiserubber Baghouse Eloetrostile Pracpitater anaes Uneontrolied [Contratiea Low-energy scrubber Venturi scrubber Baghouse Electrostatic Pracpitator rrr Uncontrolled Controlled Low-energy scrubber Venturiscrubber Baghouse Electrostatic Pracpitater ere rere ll Processes 87288" a0 80 a0 80 2 Based on campation of emissions in Aternative Gantol Techniques Documert [EPA 1954) ‘Source EPA IS85AP-42 Techniques for reducing NOx emissions include process modifications (cullet preheat, electric boost), combustion modifications (oxy fuel firing, low NOx bumers, axygen-enriched ait staging), and gas reburn These methods are described in detail in the Process Overview. Section 4.1, Their relative potential for reducing NOx emissions is shown in Table 4-10 ‘Comparative costs far installation and use of various NOx control technologies are shown in Tables 4-11 and 4-12 60Table 4-7, Emission Factors for Fibrous Glass Molting (Ib/ton glass materials) Fuiterab ie Particulates | SOx Furnace Type Fluorides eee Electric 0.02-0.7° JGas - Regenerative | 0.02 - 1.08° JGas - Recuparaive | 0.02 - 1.08 [Gas - Direct Meller oo eee [Gas - Regenerative Gas - Recuperative [Gas - Direct Mattar nbereces 1997 dala. EPA Dackel 4:20. Background for Propooad Ruling fr 40.CFRPar 63. Furnaces equipped wih baghouses: 0 1108 Iften, equipped wih electostaie precipeators: 002 0.5 Ion Source EPA WHRSAP-2, ‘Table 4-8. Comparison of Uncontrolled NOx Emissions from Glass Furnaces Design Uncontrotled Capacity NOx Emissions Average NOx Segment Furnace Type (toniday) (ibiton) Emissions*(ibton) Container Side-Port 260 - 400 52-120 86 ‘Container End-Part 75-185 7.0-21.0 122 Flat ide-Port ~550 28-258 155 Pressed/Giown | Not Reperted 66-226 168-272 22.0 MMRasge cone epong eter ‘Source’ EPA 1004 ‘able 4-9. New Source Performance Standards for Particulates Emitted From Glass Manufacturing Furnaces* Gas-Fired Furnace | Liquid-Fired Furnace ‘Segment (lbiten glass) (aiton glass) ‘Container Glass a2 0.26 Flat Glass 0.45 0.48 Pressed and Blown Glass Borosilicate recipes 10 13 + Soda-lime and lead recipes az 0.26 + Other than abave (opal, fucride, omersy as 06s Weal Fiberglass a pe cnes ah ete eters Pats aes eee a ances Pema ee Ph Sy Seuree: a CPR OO CE. onTable 410, NOx Reductions for Differant Control Options ‘Technology NO Reduction (%) ‘Combustion Modifications Low NOx Burners 40 Oxy-Fuel Fring 80-85 Oxygen Eniched Ar Stagng (OEAS) 20-75 Process Modifications Cullet Preneat 5.25 Electric Boost 10-30 Post-Combustion Modifications SCR SNCR Shue een tee Doe ace Table 4-11. Cost Comparison for Combustion/Past-Combu: (1000S, unless noted otherwise) NOx Control Options EAS Low NOx Burners Oxy Fuel Fling Piant ston | Capitai | Annuat | siton | Capital | Annuai | ston ‘Size (tons day) NOx |cost | cost | Nox | Cost | Cost | Nox '50 (pressediblown) ves | 12s [1880 | 1930 | 708 | «400 250 (container) 40g eas | zo [1.920 | sor | 1260 | 5200 ‘750 flat) x20 | 621 | 700 | set | sse0 | 2180 Table 4-12. Gost Comparison for NOx Control Options Requiring Process. Modifications (10005, unless noted otherwise) Cuttet Preheat Electric Boost Plant Capital | Annus | siton Size (tonsiday) Gost | 1Cost | NOx | Annual Gost | _ $fton/NOx 50 (prossed/biown) ves | «2 | 200 178 9,900 260 (container) az | 110 | 1,000 339 8.060 760 (flat) ne | owe [ne 526 2.600 a N= notfessie‘Some Air Emissions From Melting Furnaces Are Hazardous In the pressed and blown glass sector, furnaces producing glass with arsenic, fluorides, or lead ‘must be carefully controlled to avoid emissions of these constituents. For this reason smaller imelters are often used to produce these glasses In 1986, the EPA made a determination that if glass manufacturers were not usingarsenic asa raw material, but as an additive, then they were not subject to regulations or record-keeping requirements For those gass manufacturers producing arsenic-containing alass arsenic is added as a raw material), emissions of arsenic from the melting furnace are limited to less than 2.75 tons per year under the Clean Air Act New or modified furnaces must keep emissions below 0.44 tons per year (4) CFR 61.160) National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) were proposed in 1997 for facilities manufacturing fiber glass fom sand, feldspar, sodium sulfate, anhydrous borax, co boric acid. The rulings cover three metals (arsenic, chromium, and lead) and three organic hazardous air pollutants —HAPs— (formaldehyde, phenol and methanol) Regulation of these compounds isrequired as ‘exposure can result in reversible or irreversible ‘effects on human health, including those that are carcinogenic, respiratory, nervous system, developmental, reproductive, and dermal Annual emissions of HAPS and particulate matter (PM) from fiber glass melting fumaces are shown in Table 4-13. Only a very small portion of these are metal HAPs—most are ‘organic. These emission estimatesare based on tests conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in cooperation with the member companies of the North American Insulation Manufacturers Associatson (NAIMA). For the melting portion of the fiberglass manufacturing process, particulates (including HAPs) are subject to the same limits as those shown in Table 4-9 and defined under New Source Performance Standards. The most ‘effective methods of control for both particulate and metals HAPs are the electrostatic precipitator and the pulse-jet baghouse. As of 1997, a large percentage af fiber manufact furnaces were already fitted with these types of control technology [40 CFR 63, EPA 1997] Table 4-13, Current Emissions of Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) and Particulates (PM) from Insulation Fiber Glass Manufacture Furnace HAPs (Iblyr) PM (toniyr) ‘il Furnaces ‘600 230 Electric (hot top) 20 700 Electric (cold-top) ea 0 4.5 Byproducts and Wastes Waste residues are generated ftom pollution control equipment installed on glass furnaces to control particulates and other emissions. Pollutants may be controlled using aqueous media, filters, and electrostatic precipitators When aqueous media is used, a solid residue may result. An example of this is the quench reactor, which reacts sulfur dioxide with watsr and sodium carbonate. ‘The water evaporates upon contact with the hot flue gases, leaving behind a solid residue which may contain a number of constituents, depending upon the type of glass.Constituents in the residue may include selenium, chromium, cadmium, cobalt, lead, sodium sulfate and ether compounds, some of which are hazardous compounds. In fiber ‘manufacturing, trapped emissions may include calcium carbonate, sodium fluoride, sodium Auorasilicate, silica, ealeium fluoride, aluminum silicate, sodium sulfate, and boron oxides. Particulates are also trapped in baghouses or filters, and in most cases the dust residue from these can be recycled back ta the process Another byproduct of the melting process is furnace slag. The slag is farmed fromsmall ‘quantities of raw batch materials entrained by the fires and carried into the checkers of the regencrators where it forms a partially glassy material. It iscompased mostly of the oxides of silica, sodium and caletum in the upper checkers and some sodium sulfate in the lower checker pack. Some of this material is eventually deposited in the bottom of the regeneralors and is periodically removed as “checker rakings” or “flue slag.” Maintenance of the furnace also produces refractory wastes [EPA 1995].5.1 Process Overview The Transformation Into Finished Glass Products Begins With Forming Forming is the stage where the molten glass begins its transformation into a final shape. As it moves from the melting tank to the forming, ‘machine, the molten glass looks like a thick red-orange syrup. Forming processes must mold the molten lass quickly, because it becomes rigid as it cools, ‘There are a wide range of forming processes, even within some glass segments, Molien glass can be molded, drawn, rolled, cast, blown, pressed. or spun into fibers. Regardless of the process, farming begins withthe flow of molten ¢glass fiom the forchearth, where it has been cooled to a temperature suitable for working the glass. From that staze on, forming processes depend on the shape of the finished product Glass Forming Flat Glass is Formed Using the Float Glass Process Nearly all flat glass in the United Statesis produced by the float glass process. This process, developed in the 1950s by Pilkington Brothers of England and licensed in the United States in1962, revolutionized flat glass ‘manufacture and has sinee replaced the energy- and waste-intensive plate glass process. Float glass processing uses much less energy than its predecessors (plate or sheet glass forming) due io the use of larger, more efficient furnaces and the elimination of the need for surface finishing (polishing and grinding), whichean consume as muchas 3 million Btu per ton of glass. The process produces a fire-palished glass that is close to the quality of ground and polished plate glass. Since the float process is used to produce Virtually all flat glass, the terms float glass and flat glass are now used interchangeably Inthe float glass process, molten glass (at about 1950°F} flows horizontally from the forehearth. under a tweel and over a lip (or spout) into a 6sLip (Spout) Wotback PB process delivery system Figure §-1. Dellvery Syste: pool of molten tin about 160-190 feet long and 12-30 feet wide. As the hot glass passes over the ‘molten tin it conforms to the perfect flainess of the tin surface and develops a uniformthickness ‘without distortion. Another process developed by PPG Industries in 1974 passes the molten glass over a wide threshold made of a non- reactive material rather than alip. The PPG process has the advantage of reducing the size required for the molten tin bath and produces a velocity field that is more suited to forming the final glass ribbon, Figure 5-1 illustrates both methods of delivering the molten glass to the tin bath. Rollers made of high temperature strength alloys ‘are used for some flat glass, ut the glass produced has arougher surface. The rollers are sometimes embossed ta produce a pattern in the lass. ‘At the end of the chamber acontinuous ass is drawn from the spreading glass. Glass that is contaminated with refractory is pushed to the ‘outside of the ribbon where it can be removed ‘and scrapped. Through the float chamber, different temperature zones allow for heating, fire-polishing, siretching, and forming of the glass ribbon(sce Figure $2). Cs cen PPG process delivery system for Molten Glass to the Flat Glass Tin Bath [EI 1988) ‘The tin bath is kept under a blanket of inest nitrogen gas to prevent oxidation, and is kept in a molten state by electrical heating. The thicker the lass is, the less heating is required. The glass ‘emerges from the tin bath at about 1125°F and is then transferred to finishing processes (see Post- Forming, Chapter 6). The thickness of the glass leaving the bath ranges from about 0.078 to 0.78 inches [Corning 2000, EPA 1995, EPA 1994, EI 1988, EPRI 1988} Glass Containers Are Formed Using Molds Molten glass is formed into containers by transferring it into molds. The most common method of doing this is by forcing the molten glass through small holes and then transferring it into container molds, a method called gob feeding During gob feeding, the weight and shape of the molten glass gobs through an orifice are controlled using a revolvingtube and reciprocating plunger. The glass is then cut using ‘mechanical shears to form the gobs, which range in temperature from 1800°F to 2250°F, ‘The temperature of the moken glass is very important to the formation of gobs. Ifthe glassBATH }) Controlled Atmosphere N2+H2 v | patie [hoc rn el oe Float Bath and Lehr (not to scale) | FURNACE WORKING ‘Summary of Key Energy and Environmental Facts - Float Glass Forming is too cool, the melt is tao viscous to transfer properly. Cooling systems may be employed to liminate temperature variations in the gobs ‘The forehearth temperature is also carefully controlled for this reason (see Chapter 5, Melting and Refining), Today nearly all container manufacturers use the IS (individual section) machine to automatically farm containers from gobs. Each “individual section” of the machine contains its ‘own set of molds and is independent of the other sections. Any section of the machine may be shut down and be repaired or maintained ‘without disruption of the other sections. ‘The IS machine is capable of handlinga variety of types and sizes of molds, and can produce containers at rates of well over 100 per minute ‘An 1S machine can hold up to ten identical sections mounted on a single base with a distributor on top that feeds gobs of molten lass to the molds. IS machines can be mounted with single, double, triple, or quadruple gobs (c.g., double gobs produce twe bottles per cycle, Energy ‘lr Emissions _| efrivents Byproducts/Wastes Energy use parton of glass: Negigibis Waste water may contain Glass contaminated 1.5 10 Btuton suspended solids phosphorus) | with refractory ‘ete.), Double gobbing cin be used for containers weighing up to about 20 ounces, triple gobbing ‘can be used for containers weighing up to 10 Double, triple and quadruple gobbing machines have substantially increased the speed of bottle making, and larger machines are much more productive For example, a “ten quad” machine developed by Owens Illinois with four banks of ten sections ean produce mote than 50) bottles per minute. Two modes af operation are commonly used in IS machines: blow and blow and press and blow. IS machines can form glass by either method, and can be easily converted from one to the other, allowing for greater flexibility and productivity Inthe blow and blow method, the gob is first transferred to a blank mold and settled using compressed air (referred to as the settle blow) A counter blowis then used tocreate what is called a parison. ‘The parison is then transferred toa sccond blow mold where the final shape is created using air (final blow). ‘This operation is oFillustrated in Figure 5-3. Control of container dimension is moderately good with this method, and a high quality surface finish is more easily obtained than with pressed methods, ‘The press and blow method! wes a plungerto form the initial parison in a blank mold (sce Figure 5-4). The parison is inverted and transfered to a blow mold, where it ndergoes final shaping, with vacuum ait pressure in the mold. Ineither case, the blank mold is a thick- walled but smaller version of the final container. Pressing provide greater control of dimensions than blowing, and permits molding of thicker ‘cross-sections. All molds must be maintained at ‘constant temperature to ensure that the prodact quality is consistent [Corning 2000, EPRI 1988, EL 1988} Forming Operations for Pressed and Blown Glass Differ Widely Pressed and blown glass products are very diverse, as are the operations used for forming Products include hand-made and machine made table, kitchen and art ware, lighting, electronic glassware, television tubes, and sctentificand industrial glass. Kitchen and Ant Ware ‘The largest postion of products from the blown. and press glass segment includes table, kitchen, and art ware. Most all of these (about 85 percent) are machine-made using the automated press and blow described in the previous section under coniainer manufacture, ‘Some table and kitchen ware are manufactured using press-forming machines. Press-forming utilizes a mold, plunger and ing to form the Finish arca (see Figure 5-5). Press-forming, ‘molds are mostly made of cast iron, and in some cases, stainless steels or other materials, Simple glassware (bowls, plates) is often male using press-forming, Machine pressing is done using a round, single table machine in a one-step provess where the same plunger can be used on several molds ‘Tables may be driven by air or motor, and pressing mechanisms may work via air cylinders ‘or mechanical toggles. Production speeds for pressed ware are variable, ranging from 10-60 pieces per minutes. Production speeds are ‘dependent on the time required for eooling the glass and allowing it to set up in the press Formed pisces are removed ither manually or automatically. Methods include removal by air Jets or vacuum lift, by automated tongs, by turning the mold over, orhand removal When hot molds are used in press-forming the mold temperatures must be carefully controlled to prevent overheating and sticking of the product to the mold. This is accomplished using fans or compressed air. Plungersare cooled using water that is circulated internally, The mold may also be sprayed with lubricants or even water to reduce the pote nial for sticking, ‘The spinning process is sometimes usedto produce circular articles such as plates and shallow bowls (see Figure 5-6), A hot glass gob is dropped intothe mold, and is then rotated to form the article by centrifugal force [EC 2000] Paste moldsare often used to produce both medium- and high-grade tumblers, ‘The parison in this ease is created by using.a plunger and a cast iron mold. As the cast iron mold pulls away, a two-scction water-cooled paste mold fiolds into place around the parison. The paste ‘mold is then rotated during final air blowing to attain a smooth, high-luster finish [Corning 2000, EPRI 1988, Fl 1938} ot= ek | LL cd ee |! Q 7 i Delivery Leading Pressing Transfer from Reheat Vacuum Take-out aot [Coming 2006, EPRI 1894) = Temas enon eypmaien ares ney cpertnaiges | Patzates ope | What cians Slt rees to ore ses re ere, | aE au | Sumas cameras, | mums |r aa Sot Secs | moecicaate es oo‘Blow Heads ae Rotating Paste Models Co/? Striper TIT ¥ Trackott ( Ser WOU I GOT ee - cis is Ware-conveyer ne Mold-opening cam Figures.7. Lamp Envelope Forming [Corning 2000 The Gass Ribuon] Summary of Key Eneray and Environmental Facts -Incandescent Lamp Forming Eneray Air Emissions Eftwcnts Byproducts/Westes ry Pariewates (conrotec) | waste water(may contain | Culet suspended sols oral) Lighting and Etectronic Products Lighting and electronic products such as lamp envelopes, television tube enclosure assemblies, resistors, capacitors, and glass tubing are ‘manufactured using blowing, pressing, press and blow, casting and drawing techniques ‘The ribbon machine, first conceived by William Woods in 1922, is used to form incandescent lamp glassenvelopes. Prior to that time the“E” and “F" machines were the industry standard able to produce from 10 to42 bulbs respectively per minute. The“E” machine semi-automated the motions of human glassblowers, requiring an operator to open and close the mold and remove the blowpipe. The fully automated “F" machine ultimately eliminated the need for human assistants. William Woods" idea was to blow bulbs automatically by sagging a ribbon of glass through boles ina continuously moving steel belt, and then shaping the bulbs witha puff of air from below. By 1926 his revolutionary idea \was put into commercial production and the first ribbon machine produced 250: bulbs per minute. Modem ribbon machinesean now produce over 2,000 bulbs pet minute, These machines are also used to produce othertypes of bulbs (eg , Christmas lights) In the ribbon process (sce Figure S- continuous stream of molten glass from the forehearth is passed between two water-cooled rollers. This serves to flaten the stream intoa ribbon with heavier sections located at regular intervals. The ribbon is transported onto a moving chain of steel plates which has an orifice located at the same intervals as the heavier sections of ribbon. The heavier portions of the glass ribbon sag through the orifices and form small bubbles. As this happens, a second chain aCentrifugal Casting Figure §-8. Gentrfugal Casting of TV Tube Gonical Sections [Corning 2000) Summary of Key Energy and Environmental Facts - Television Tubs Forming ‘with blowingtips at the same intervals puffs air into the bubbles to-expand them. After the bubbles are expanded they are enclosed ina ‘mold for the final blowing step. After final blowing, the molds are opened and the lamp envelopes are cracked away frem the ribbon, ‘A two-part process is used for the forming of the conical sections of television tubes. A centrifugal casting process is first used where motten glass is cut into gobs and dropped into a cast mold while it rotates (see Figure5-8). The mold is then spun so that the glass spreads uniformly on the inside surface of the mold Television face plates (viewing screens), glass building blocks, and similer products are formed by casting gobs of molten glass directly into finish molds. ‘The molded piece is then pressed to obtain the final product [Coming 2000, EPRI 1988, El 1988, Babeack 1977] Energy Air Emissions Efmuents Byproducts/Westes ‘ND Volatile oranic compounds | Waste water(may contain | Cullet (vOe's) suspended sold, cll lead, fluoro) Astronomical mirror blarks are cast directly into a mold, and the final shape is formed by gravity ‘The glass is then subjected to annealing and other treatments to create a glass-crystalline material with a coefficient of expansion near zero [Corning 2000] Tubing and Rods ‘Glass tubing or rods ean be formed using the Danner, Vello, or Updraw drawing processes sec Figure 5-9), During the Damner process. a regulated amount of glass is dropped onto the surface of a rotating, horizontal mandrel. Glass tubing is pulled away fromthe mandrel while air is continuously blown through the center. Air keeps the tubing from collapsing unti it becomesrrigid. The speed and quantity of air blownthrough the center controls the dimensions of the glass tubing,Rotating ‘Mandrel Figure s-9. Drawing Process. During the Vello process, molten sass is passed downward through an annular space between a vertical mandrel and refractory ring, ‘The mandrel is set in a forchearth at the bottom of amelting tank. Drawing is accomplished in ‘a manner similar to that of the Danner process ‘The Updraw process is used to make large diameter tubing and pipe. In this provess, blown up through a cone to control the dimensions of the glass tube. In.any of the processes described, rods can be formed instead of tubing by turning offor reducing the air pressure, which allows the glass to collapse and form rods [Corning 2000, EPRI 1988, EL 1988} Hand-Made Glass Hand-made glass is a small, very diverse part and includes items such as unique tableware (lead and crystal goblets), Formed Giace Tubin . > Air for Tubing [Corning 2000 Machne Farming) scientific glassware, and other decorative glass. Hand-made glass is still based on the art of glass blowing (discovered by the Romans sometime: around 50 B.C), where molten glass is inflated like.a bubble on the end of a hollow blowing Pipe Modern hand-forming of glass begins with a step called “gathering” which involves taking molten slass from a melting tank using a pipe called a blow iron. As the pipe touches the hot surface it is rotated and the hot glass adheres to the pipe Inserting the pipe once into the tank provides enough “gather” for making a-vase or tumbler Large objects might require repeated “ gatherings” with the pipe removed and the glass slightly cooled each time Aficr gathering is completed, the blow iron is rotated slowly to keep the dass centered. Airis then blown by mouth through the pipe to form an initial bubble, which is further shaped by “marvering,” or rolling the glass on a flat surface 8‘The cooling effects of the metal or stone table allow the glass to become more rigid and easily controlled as the bubble is blown and enlarged ‘This inittal parison is lengthened by swinging, the blow pipe or pulling the glass with a tool Later the parison may be flattened with a paddle, shaped ina mold, or shaped in some other way. Intermittentheating may be needed to finish the forming operation [Corning 2000, EPRI 1985, EI 1988} Glass Fibers are Made into Glass Woo! Insulation, Textiles, or Fiber Optic Cables Fiber glass is usually produced as wool-type fibers (glass wool) or as textile fibers (long, ‘continuous strands or filaments). In the last fifteen years glass has also been increasingly used to make fiber optic cables for transmission of information. Different processes are used for the production wool fibers, textile fibers, and optical fibers, Glass fibers of any type can be formed directly using molten glass from the furnace forehearth, or indirectly by first forming glass marbles or small rods which ean later be remelted. Direct forming requires less fuel, but is less adaptable than the marble process. With an operation that uses marbles, glass composition can be more readily changed to produce different types of fiber glass. A disadvantage with marbles is that it is more difficult to detect, defects (stones and seeds), and marbles may be broken in shipment or incorrectly sized, leading to less than 100 percent use, ‘The two most common ways of forming wool fibers are notary spin fiberizing and flame attenuation. Rotary spin processes account for the langer share of production. Either process can be adapted ta use molien glass directly from the forehearth or indirectly with marbles In the rotary spin pracess, a siream of molten glass from the forchearth is converted ta fibers {sing a high-temperature alloy spinner rotating, ‘at 2000 to 3000 rpm (see Figure $-10), The ‘molten glass is forced through thousands of fine holes in the spinning drum by centrifugal action, ‘The mechanical rotation of the drum forocs the lass stream to break up and exude from the band of holes which are lacated around the perimeter of the spinner. A downward blast of hot air or zgasis used to sweep the fibers down the outside ‘of the drum onio a conveyor belt, Upto 12 spinners can be fed ftom a single forehearth, ‘The lame attenuation process uscs flames or hot air to attentuate fiber. Molten glass flows by gravity froma furnace through numerous small orifices to create threads that are attenunted (stretched nearly to the breaking point) using high velocity, hot air, and/or a flame (sce Figure ). Thisprocess results in more agglomeration of the glass, producing as much as 30 weight percent of unusable small beads or lobules Glass wool can alsa be made using steam or air blowing. Inthis process, sircamsof molten glass flow through platinum alloy bushings, and are subjected to jets of steam or air which attenunte the glass into fibers. ‘The length and conrseness of fibers can be adjusted by regulating the jet pressure or glass temperature (see Figure 5-12) Regardless of the method of forming, wool fibers are sprayed with a chemical binder as they arc being formed. Binder compositions vary, but are typically composed of asolution of phenol- formaldehyde resin, water, urea, lignin, silane, and ammonia. Insome cases colorants may be added to the binder solution. After wool fibers are created they are again sprayed with a binding solution before being collected on a conveyor belt to forma mat ‘Wool fibers are produced in a wide range of thicknesses, from 0.3 to 10 microns’ in diameter, with most fibers produced being about 3 to 10 microns in diameter. Fibers are generally a little ‘more than an inch in length, " me microm i 1,008,000 ofa meer. or 1725-400 of an inch. ”Motten Glass + Glass Fibers Pe — OOO © © the Conveyor and Mat by Fans Figure $-10. Rotary Spin Glass Fiber Manufacture [EPA 1885] Summary of Key Energy and Environmental Facts - Container Glass Forming Energy Air Emissions effivents Byproducts/Wastes ‘Energy use parton of glass: | Particulates, organic Waste olf ang saivents, | Sac residues from 0.410 Buuton condensibie paricviates wets water (may pollution contre! volatile organics, resin and | contain dissolved equipment binder droplets. solids, suspended formaicehyde (al contrtted) salkis, heavy metals) 8‘Guss Baten Melting Furnace Figure §-11. Flame Attenuation Glass Fiber Manufacture [EPA 1885) ‘Textile fibers (continuous filaments) are formed by foreing low alkali-content molten glass (E-gass) through multitude of small orifictes in heated platinum alloy bushings containing a number of very small holes. The continuous fibers coming through the holes are drawn over aroller which applies a coating of water-soluble sizing and/or coupling agents ‘The coated fibers are then wound onto a spindle before being conveyed to finishing operations [Fiber Forming Descriptions: NAIMA 1998, EPA 1994, ET 1988, EPRI 1988, EPA 1985] Optical fibers used in the production of fiber ‘optic cable are manufactured and formed ‘according to very strict specifications for purity Optical fibers must be free of bubbles, ripples or other defects that could interfere with the passage or bending of light. All six basic types ‘of glass can be manufactured into optical fibers, ‘and there are also unique compositions designed especially for fiber optic applications. The glass used for optical fibers is commonly ultra-pure, ultra-transparent silicon dioxide or fused quartz. Impurities are added to the gass te achieve a specified index of refraction. Elements suchas ‘Germanium or phasphorus, for example, increase the index, while baron or fluorine decrease the index In 1970, the first optical fibers with losses under 20 dB/km (decibelsktlometer) were produced at Corning Glass Works, making fiber optics a practical option for the transmission of information through light sources. Today losses in the best fibers are less than 0.2 dBkm [Corning 2000, Sterling 1987] Optical glass fibers consist of two concentric: layers calledthe core and cladding. Light is transmitted through the inner core. The outer cladding creates adifference in refractive index that permits total internal reftection of light through the core material. This difference must be controlled during manufacture to ensure that itdoes not exceed 1%, For example,a typical core index might he 1.47, while the cladding index is 1.46, 76Moiting Tank « 100 Tons of Giaes Bins of Raw Materials Fibers Deposited on Convey Balt Sievertike Platinum Bushings High Pressure Stoam Jets Attenuate ‘Nitan Streams into Fine Fibers Figure 5.12. Steam or Alr Injection Process for Glass Wool Manufacture [E! 1982] Most optical fibers also have a polymer coating around the cladding to protect both cladding and ccore materials from shocks that could affect, optical properties (sce Figure $-13). The polymer serves as abuffer or shock absorber and has no optical properties. Fibers are produced in-very small diameters, which means that the forming process must be exceedingly exact to ‘maintam proper tolerances (see Table 5-1). To understand how small these diameters are, by ‘comparison a human hair is about 100qm [Sterling 1987] 5.2 Summary of Inputs and ‘Outputs for Glass Forming Inputs ‘Outputs MoltenGlass Formed Glass Glass Marbles Cullet Electricity Contaminated Glass Tin (float glass) Spent Cooling Water Lubricants Particulates Ait Organic Condensable Cooling Water Particulates Nitrogen Volatile Organics «V0Cs) ”Jacket core (n,) cladsing (n,) Glass cladding | Glass coro t ‘ Glass cladding i Lg at ss nate of Angle of arermeat inctenes fection oon Veer wove eset Ligh i propogsta by total internal reflection Figure 5-13. Optical Fibers [Stering 1987] 5.3 Energy Requirements Forming operations are very diverse among the glass segments, and can uxe anywhere from 12 percent (e.g. lat glass} to M percent (fiber forming) ef total energy (consideringelectricity losses) [EI 1988]. The enerzy consumed in forming operations across the industry is shown, in Table 5-2. In most cases forming processes do not require much heat. Most of the energy used is electricity for machinery operation, fins, blowers, compressors, conveyors, and other equipment. In flat glass production electricity isused for heating tin [CMP 1990] Jn container glass production, enengy ‘consumption depends on the weight of the ‘container being produced and the efficiency of the formingoperation, Lighter containers ‘generally require less enerey toproduce per ‘container Production efficiency (referred to as the pack- ‘o-melt ratio), which is actually the ratio of saleable product to gross production volume, also has an impact on eneray use. The greater ‘the pack-to-melt ratio, the lower the energy required to produce that product. 78Table 54. Diameters of Commonly Used Optical Fibers (um) Gore Gladding 8 128 50 125, es 128. 00 140 seuce Seng ee? Table 5-2. Energy Use in Glass Forming Net Annual | Netindustry | Electricity | Total Energy | Etectrieity* Productio | use Energy Sour (kwhiton) | (10° Btuiton) | n(tons) | (10"etuy (10 Btu) Flat Glas 440 15 5,000,621 75 156 zat ‘Container 105 oa 9.586.500 40 To 7a 1853 53 26,182 132 214 408 211g 72 acagoacr | 218 488 er Total - 20111203 [ 486 885 1385 Industry © Excludes ebetnsty Imses © Losses aayotiaiad wih generation and ransmiasion of elactety, based on a everson factor of 10,500 BaukWh of secnety 4 Estmated based on G2 Cansun Oia snd 2% pravth betwen 1952 and 1087 2 Inelides glass wool tele fibers and optical ere Sources: GIC 7001 (container, DOC 1967, Cr ind 1896, Cer ind 1967, Brown 1996, 1882006, El 1988, lass forming, additional fuel is required ‘marbles or small rods Production efficiency for container forming In fiber ranges from % to 96 percent. The bulk of used in container forming is electricity and is used mostly for generating compressed air. Forming accounts for an average 27 percent of energy consumption in the pressed and blown glass segment [EL 1988] fr the process wh must be reheated. Otherwise, fuel requirements vary widely for different fibrous glass forming operations. Overall, flame attenuation requires the least energy, while mechanical drawis requires the most [El 1988]5.4 Emissions Forming Can Generate Emissions of Particulates, Volatile Organics, and ‘Some Hazardous Air Pollutants ‘The primary emissions from the forming of container and pressed and blown glass cesult from the gob coming into contact with mold lubricants, which may result in flash ‘vaporization of hydrocarbon greases. In many cases these lubricants have been replaced by silicone emulsions and waler soluble oils(otl- graphite, water-graphite), which eliminate emissions of volatile arganics (VOCS) (emissions are particulates). Emissions from forming of flat glass are virtually non-existent ‘Table 5-3 provides emission factors for glass forming processes by segment [Gridley 2001, EPA 1995, EPA 1986] ‘The primary emissions from forming of wool fibers are solid particles of glass and binder resin, droplets of binder, and components of the binder that have wolatilized. Glass particles may be entrained in the exhaust gas stream from forming, curing, or cooling, but 99 percent come from forming, Droplets of organic binder may also result from condensation of gasecus pollutants as the gas stream is cooled. Uncontrolled emissions from fibrous glass manufacturing are shown in Table $-4 Particulate matter is the major pollutant that has been identified and measured at insulation manufacturing facilities, primarily fom rotary spin operations. Building insulation (R-1 1 and R19), duetboard, and heavy-density insulation account for about 90 percent of the output from rotary spin processes. Ducthoard manufacture exhibits the highest emission rate of particulates. Particulate standards for rotary spin manufacturing are 11.0 pounds per ton of lass pulled [40 CFR 60 PPP, EPA 1997, EPA 1983] A variety of methods are used to control ‘emissions in glass wool manufacture, and ‘emissions fiom forming, curing and cooling may be controlled separately or in combination ‘Control technologies include wet electrostatic precipitators, wet scrubbers, thermal incinerators, high velocity air filters, and process modifications. Process madifications are usually proprietary and information on specifics is not available, although they are used to control both particulates and volatile orgmics (phenols, formaldehyde). The most effective add-on control technology is the wet ‘electrostatic precipitator ‘Controlled emissions of formaldehyde from rotary spin and flame attenuation fiber manufacture arc shown in Tables 5-5 and 5-6 Emissions of formaldehyde from all fibrous slass manufacture are regulated under National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants. Current limits, which were set in 1999, are shown in Table 5-7. Emissions from textile fiber manufacturing include particles of glass fiber, resin, and hydrocarbons (phenols and aldehydes). Textile fiber manufacture usually creates less emissions than the manufacture of glass wool, primarily due to less turbulence in the formingstep, and the user af rollers for adding coatings [EPA 1997, EPA 1995, EPA 1985] 5.5 Effluents Oil used in forming machines may contaminate the water used to keep the machines cool, creating a waste oil siream that must be disposed of [EPA 1995]. The amount of contaminants in waste water from glass operations is subject to limitations under the Clean Water Act Efluent guidelines specifically geared toward glass manufacturing are shown in Table 5-8 [40 CFR 426}. In addition to waste solvents and lubricants, these regulations limit the amount of suspended solid, heavy metals, and biological entities that may be present in effluents 80