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Covalent organic framework

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are a class of porous polymers that form two- or three-dimensional
structures through reactions between organic precursors resulting in strong, covalent bonds to afford porous, stable,
and crystalline materials. COFs emerged as a field from the overarching domain of organic materials as researchers
optimized both synthetic control and precursor selection.[1] These improvements to coordination chemistry enabled
non-porous and amorphous organic materials such as organic polymers to advance into the construction of porous,
crystalline materials with rigid structures that granted exceptional material stability in a wide range of solvents and
conditions.[1][2] Through the development of reticular chemistry, precise synthetic control was achieved and resulted in
ordered, nano-porous structures with highly preferential structural orientation and properties which could be
synergistically enhanced and amplified.[3] With judicious selection of COF secondary building units (SBUs), or
precursors, the final structure could be predetermined, and modified with exceptional control enabling fine-tuning of
emergent properties.[4] This level of control facilitates the COF material to be designed, synthesized, and utilized in
various applications, many times with metrics on scale or surpassing that of the current state-of-the-art approaches.
COFs are classified as reticular materials.

History
While at University of Michigan, Omar M. Yaghi (currently at UCBerkeley) and Adrien P Cote published the first paper
of COFs in 2005, reporting a series of 2D COFs.[5] They reported the design and successful synthesis of COFs by
condensation reactions of phenyl diboronic acid (C6H4[B(OH)2]2) and hexahydroxytriphenylene (C18H6(OH)6).
Powder X-ray diffraction studies of the highly crystalline products having empirical formulas (C3H2BO)6·(C9H12)1
(COF-1) and C9H4BO2 (COF-5) revealed 2-dimensional expanded porous graphitic layers that have either staggered
conformation (COF-1) or eclipsed conformation (COF-5). Their crystal structures are entirely held by strong bonds
between B, C, and O atoms to form rigid porous architectures with pore sizes ranging from 7 to 27 Angstroms. COF-1
and COF-5 exhibit high thermal stability (to temperatures up to 500 to 600 °C), permanent porosity, and high surface
areas (711 and 1590 square meters per gram, respectively).[5]

The synthesis of 3D COFs has been hindered by longstanding practical and conceptual challenges until it was first
achieved in 2007 by Omar M. Yaghi and colleagues, which received the Newcomb Cleveland Prize.[6] The research team
synthesized and designed the first 3D-COF ever; COF-103 and COF-108, helping unleash this new field. Unlike 0D and
1D systems, which are soluble, the insolubility of 2D and 3D structures precludes the use of stepwise synthesis, making
their isolation in crystalline form very difficult. This first challenge, however, was overcome by judiciously choosing
building blocks and using reversible condensation reactions to crystallize COFs.

Structure
Porous crystalline solids consist of secondary building units (SBUs) which assemble to form a periodic and porous
framework. An almost infinite number of frameworks can be formed through various SBU combinations leading to
unique material properties for applications in separations, storage, and heterogeneous catalysis.[7]

Types of porous crystalline solids include zeolites, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and covalent organic frameworks
(COFs). Zeolites are microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial adsorbents. MOFs are a
class of porous polymeric material, consisting of metal ions linked together by organic bridging ligands and are a new
development on the interface between molecular coordination chemistry and materials science.[8]

COFs are another class of porous polymeric materials, consisting of porous, crystalline, covalent bonds that usually
have rigid structures, exceptional thermal stabilities (to temperatures up to 600 °C), are stable in water and low
densities. They exhibit permanent porosity with specific surface areas surpassing those of well-known zeolites and
porous silicates.[5]

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Secondary building units

The term ‘secondary building unit’ has been used for some time to
describe conceptual fragments which can be compared as bricks used to
build a house of zeolites; in the context of this page it refers to the
geometry of the units defined by the points of extension.[9]

Reticular synthesis
Reticular synthesis enables facile bottom-up synthesis of the framework
materials to introduce precise perturbations in chemical composition,
resulting in the highly controlled tunability of framework
properties.[4][10][11] Through a bottom-up approach, a material is built
from atomic or molecular components synthetically as opposed to a top-
down approach, which forms a material from the bulk through Schematic Figure of Reticular Chemistry.
approaches such as exfoliation, lithography, or other varieties of post-
synthetic modification.[3][12] The bottom-up approach is especially
advantageous with respect to materials such as COFs because the synthetic methods are designed to directly result in an
extended, highly crosslinked framework that can be tuned with exceptional control at the nanoscale level.[3][13][14]
Geometrical and dimensional principles govern the framework's resulting topology as the SBUs combine to form
predetermined structures.[15][16] This level of synthetic control has also been termed "molecular engineering", abiding
by the concept termed by Arthur R. von Hippel in 1956.[17]

It has been established in the literature that, when integrated into an isoreticular
framework, such as a COF, properties from monomeric compounds can be
synergistically enhanced and amplified.[3] COF materials possess the unique ability
for bottom-up reticular synthesis to afford robust, tunable frameworks that
synergistically enhance the properties of the precursors, which, in turn, offers many
advantages in terms of improved performance in different applications. As a result,
the COF material is highly modular and tuned efficiently by varying the SBUs’
identity, length, and functionality depending on the desired property change on the
framework scale. Ergo, there exists the ability to introduce diverse functionality
directly into the framework scaffold to allow for a variety of functions which would
be cumbersome, if not impossible, to achieve through a top-down method, such as
lithographic approaches or chemical-based nanofabrication. Through reticular COF topological control through
synthesis, it is possible to molecularly engineer modular, framework materials with judicious selection of precursors that
result in bonding directionality in the
highly porous scaffolds that exhibit unique electronic, optical, and magnetic
final resulting network. Adapted from
properties while simultaneously integrating desired functionality into the COF Jiang and coworkers' Two- and
skeleton. Three-dimensional Covalent
Organic Frameworks (COFs).[15]
Reticular synthesis is different from retrosynthesis of organic compounds, because
the structural integrity and rigidity of the building blocks in reticular synthesis
remain unaltered throughout the construction process—an important aspect that could help to fully realize the benefits
of design in crystalline solid-state frameworks. Similarly, reticular synthesis should be distinguished from
supramolecular assembly, because in the former, building blocks are linked by strong bonds throughout the crystal.[9]

Synthetic chemistry
Reticular synthesis was used by Yaghi and coworkers in 2005 to construct the first two COFs reported in the literature:
COF-1, using a dehydration reaction of benzenediboronic acid (BDBA), and COF-5, via a condensation reaction between
hexahydroxytriphenylene (HHTP) and BDBA.[18] These framework scaffolds were interconnected through the
formation of boroxine and boronate linkages, respectively, using solvothermal synthetic methods.[18]

COF linkages
Since Yaghi and coworkers’ seminal work in 2005, COF synthesis has expanded to include a wide range of organic
connectivity such as boron-, nitrogen-, other atom-containing linkages.[2][19][20][21] The linkages in the figures shown
are not comprehensive as other COF linkages exist in the literature, especially for the formation of 3D COFs.

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Boron condensation
The most popular COF synthesis route is a boron condensation reaction which is a
molecular dehydration reaction between boronic acids. In case of COF-1, three boronic
acid molecules converge to form a planar six-membered B3O3 (boroxine) ring with the
elimination of three water molecules.[5]

Triazine based trimerization Reversible reactions for COF

Another class of high performance polymer frameworks with regular porosity and high formation featuring boron to
form a variety of linkages
surface area is based on triazine materials which can be achieved by dynamic
(boronate, boroxine, and
trimerization reaction of simple, cheap, and abundant aromatic nitriles in ionothermal borazine).
conditions (molten zinc chloride at high temperature (400 °C)). CTF-1 is a good example
of this chemistry.[22]

Imine condensation
The imine condensation reaction which eliminates water (exemplified by reacting
aniline with benzaldehyde using an acid catalyst) can be used as a synthetic route to
reach a new class of COFs. The 3D COF called COF-300[23] and the 2D COF named
TpOMe-DAQ[24] are good examples of this chemistry. When 1,3,5-
triformylphloroglucinol (TFP) is used as one of the SBUs, two complementary
tautomerizations occur (an enol to keto and an imine to enamine) which result in a β- Skeletal structure of COF-1
consisting of phenyl rings
ketoenamine moiety[25] as depicted in the DAAQ-TFP[26] framework. Both DAAQ-TFP
joined by boroxine rings,
and TpOMe-DAQ COFs are stable in acidic aqueous conditions and contain the redox synthesized by a condensation
active linker 2,6-diaminoanthroquinone which enables these materials to reversibly reaction of phenyldiboronic
store and release electrons within a characteristic potential window.[24][26] acid.
Consequently, both of these COFs have been investigated as electrode materials for
potential use in supercapacitors.[24][26]

Solvothermal synthesis
The solvothermal approach is the most common used in the literature but typically
requires long reaction times due to the insolubility of the organic SBUs in nonorganic
media and the time necessary to reach thermodynamic COF products.[27]

Templated synthesis
Morphological control on the nanoscale is still limited as COFs lack synthetic control in
higher dimensions due to the lack of dynamic chemistry during synthesis. To date,
researchers have attempted to establish better control through different synthetic Reversible reactions for COF
methods such as solvothermal synthesis, interface-assisted synthesis, solid templation as formation featuring nitrogen
well as seeded growth.[28][29] First one of the precursors is deposited onto the solid to form a variety of linkages
(imine, hydrazone, azine,
support followed by the introduction of the second precursor in vapor form. This results in
squaraine, phenazine, imide,
the deposition of the COF as a thin film on the solid support.[30] triazine).

Properties

Porosity
A defining advantage of COFs is the exceptional porosity that results from the
substitution of analogous SBUs of varying sizes. Pore sizes range from 7-23 Å and
feature a diverse range of shapes and dimensionalities that remain stable during the
evacuation of solvent.[14] The rigid scaffold of the COF structure enables the material to Formation of CTF-1 COF
be evacuated of solvent and retain its structure, resulting in high surface areas as seen featuring triazine linkages.
by the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller analysis.[31] This high surface area to volume ratio
and incredible stability enables the COF structure to serve as exceptional materials for
gas storage and separation.
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Crystallinity
There are several COF single crystals synthesized
to date.[32] There are a variety of techniques
employed to improve crystallinity of COFs. The
use of modulators, monofunctional version of
precursors, serve to slow the COF formation to
allow for more favorable balance between kinetic
Reversible reactions for COF formation
and thermodynamic control, hereby enabling
featuring a variety of atoms to form
different linkages (a double stage crystalline growth. This was employed by Yaghi
connecting boronate ester and imine and coworkers for 3D imine-based COFs (COF- A structural representation of
linkages, alkene, silicate, nitroso). 300, COF 303, LZU-79, and LZU-111).[32] the TpOMe-DAQ COF

However, the vast majority of COFs are not able to

crystallize into single crystals but instead are
insoluble powders. The improvement of crystallinity of these polycrystalline materials
can be improved through tuning the reversibility of the linkage formation to allow for
corrective particle growth and self-healing of defects that arise during COF formation.[33]

Conductivity
Integration of SBUs into a covalent framework results in the synergistic emergence of
conductivities much greater than the monomeric values. The nature of the SBUs can
improve conductivity. Through the use of highly conjugated linkers throughout the COF
scaffold, the material can be engineered to be fully conjugated, enabling high charge A structural representation of
the DAAQ-TFP COF
carrier density as well as through- and in-plane charge transport. For instance, Mirica
and coworkers synthesized a COF material (NiPc-Pyr COF) from nickel
phthalocyanine (NiPc) and pyrene organic linkers that had a conductivity of 2.51 x
10−3 S/m, which was several orders of magnitude larger than the undoped
molecular NiPc, 10−11 S/m.[34] A similar COF structure made by Jiang and
coworkers, CoPc-Pyr COF, exhibited a conductivity of 3.69 x 10−3 S/m.[35] In both
previously mentioned COFs, the 2D lattice allows for full π-conjugation in the x and
y directions as well as π-conduction along the z axis due to the fully conjugated,
aromatic scaffold and π-π stacking, respectively.[34][35] Emergent electrical
conductivity in COF structures is especially important for applications such as
catalysis and energy storage where quick and efficient charge transport is required
for optimal performance.
In a fully conjugated 2D COF
material such as those synthesized
from metallophthalocyanines and
Characterization highly conjugated organic linkers,
charge transport is increased both
There exists a wide range of characterization methods for COF materials. There are in-plane, as well as through the
several COF single crystals synthesized to date. For these highly crystalline stacks, resulting in increased
materials, X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a powerful tool capable of determining COF conductivity.
crystal structure.[36] The majority of COF materials suffer from decreased
crystallinity so powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) is used. In conjunction with
simulated powder packing models, PXRD can determine COF crystal structure.

In order to verify and analyze COF linkage formation, various techniques can be employed such as infrared (IR)
spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.[36] Precursor and COF IR spectra enables
comparison between vibrational peaks to ascertain that certain key bonds present in the COF linkages appear and that
peaks of precursor functional groups disappear. In addition, solid-state NMR enables probing of linkage formation as
well and is well suited for large, insoluble materials like COFs. Gas adsorption-desorption studies quantify the porosity
of the material via calculation of the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area and pore diameter from gas
adsorption isotherms.[36] Electron imagine techniques such as scanning electron microscope (SEM), and transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) can resolve surface structure and morphology, and microstructural information,
respectively.[36] Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) have also been used to
characterize COF microstructural information as well.[36] Additionally, methods like X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
(XPS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and combustion analysis can be used to identify
elemental composition and ratios.[36]

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Applications

Gas storage and separation

Due to the exceptional porosity of COFs, they have been used extensively in the storage and separation of gases such as
hydrogen, methane, etc.

Hydrogen storage
Omar M. Yaghi and William A. Goddard III reported COFs as exceptional hydrogen storage materials. They predicted
the highest excess H2 uptakes at 77 K are 10.0 wt % at 80 bar for COF-105, and 10.0 wt % at 100 bar for COF-108, which
have higher surface area and free volume, by grand canonical Monte Carlo (GCMC) simulations as a function of
temperature and pressure. This is the highest value reported for associative H2 storage of any material. Thus 3D COFs
are most promising new candidates in the quest for practical H2 storage materials.[37] In 2012, the lab of William A.
Goddard III reported the uptake for COF102, COF103, and COF202 at 298 K and they also proposed new strategies to
obtain higher interaction with H2. Such strategy consists of metalating the COF with alkali metals such as Li.[38] These
complexes composed of Li, Na and K with benzene ligands (such as 1,3,5-benzenetribenzoate, the ligand used in MOF-
177) have been synthesized by Krieck et al.[39] and Goddard showed that the THF is important to their stability. If the
metalation with alkali meals is performed in the COFs, Goddard et al. calculated that some COFs can reach 2010 DOE
gravimetric target in delivery units at 298 K of 4.5 wt %: COF102-Li (5.16 wt %), COF103-Li (4.75 wt %), COF102-Na
(4.75 wt %) and COF103-Na (4.72 wt %). COFs also perform better in delivery units than MOFs because the best
volumetric performance is for COF102-Na (24.9), COF102-Li (23.8), COF103-Na (22.8), and COF103-Li (21.7), all using
delivery g H2/L units for 1–100 bar. These are the highest gravimetric molecular hydrogen uptakes for a porous
material under these thermodynamic conditions.

Methane storage
Omar M. Yaghi and William A. Goddard III also reported COFs as exceptional methane storage materials. The best COF
in terms of total volume of CH4 per unit volume COF adsorbent is COF-1, which can store 195 v/v at 298 K and 30 bar,
exceeding the U.S. Department of Energy target for CH4 storage of 180 v/v at 298 K and 35 bar. The best COFs on a
delivery amount basis (volume adsorbed from 5 to 100 bar) are COF-102 and COF-103 with values of 230 and 234
v(STP: 298 K, 1.01 bar)/v, respectively, making these promising materials for practical methane storage. More recently,
new COFs with better delivery amount have been designed in the lab of William A. Goddard III, and they have been
shown to be stable and overcome the DOE target in delivery basis. COF-103-Eth-trans and COF-102-Ant, are found to
exceed the DOE target of 180 v(STP)/v at 35 bar for methane storage. They reported that using thin vinyl bridging
groups aids performance by minimizing the interaction methane-COF at low pressure.

Gas separation
In addition to storage, COF materials are exceptional at gas separation. For instance, COFs like imine-linked COF LZU1
and azine-linked COF ACOF-1 were used as a bilayer membrane for the selective separation of the following mixtures:
H2/CO2, H2/N2, and H2/CH4.[40] The COFs outperformed molecular sieves due to the inherent thermal and
operational stability of the structures.[40] It has also been shown that COFs inherently act as adsorbents, adhering to
the gaseous molecules to enable storage and separation.[41]

Optical properties
A highly ordered π-conjugation TP-COF, consisting of pyrene and triphenylene functionalities alternately linked in a
mesoporous hexagonal skeleton, is highly luminescent, harvests a wide wavelength range of photons, and allows energy
transfer and migration. Furthermore, TP-COF is electrically conductive and capable of repetitive on–off current
switching at room temperature.[42]

Porosity/surface-area effects
Most studies to date have focused on the development of synthetic methodologies with the aim of maximizing pore size
and surface area for gas storage. That means the functions of COFs have not yet been well explored, but COFs can be
used as catalysts,[43] or for gas separation, etc.[5]

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Carbon capture
In 2015 the use of highly porous, catalyst-decorated COFs for converting carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide was
reported.[44] MOF under solvent-free conditions can also be used for catalytic activity in the cycloaddition of CO2 and
epoxides into cyclic organic carbonates with enhanced catalyst recyclability.[45]

Sensing
Due to defining molecule-framework interactions, COFs can be used as chemical sensors in a wide range of
environments and applications. Properties of the COF change when their functionalities interact with various analytes
enabling the materials to serve as devices in various conditions: as chemiresistive sensors,[34] as well as electrochemical
sensors for small molecules.[46]

Catalysis
Due to the ability to introduce diverse functionality into COFs’ structure, catalytic sites can be fine-tuned in conjunction
with other advantageous properties like conductivity and stability to afford efficient and selective catalysts. COFs have
been used as heterogeneous catalysts in organic,[47] electrochemical,[35][48] as well as photochemical reactions.[27]

Electrocatalysis
COFs have been studied as non-metallic electrocatalysts for energy-related catalysis, including carbon dioxide electro-
reduction and water splitting reaction.[49] However, such researches are still in the very early stage. Most of the efforts
have been focusing on solving the key issues, such as conductivity,[50] stability in electrochemical processes.[51]

Energy storage
A few COFs possess the stability and conductivity necessary to perform well in energy storage applications like lithium-
ion batteries,[52][53] and various different metal-ion batteries and cathodes.[54][55]

Water filtration
A prototype 2 nanometer thick COF layer on a graphene substrate was used to filter dye from industrial wastewater.
Once full, the COF can be cleaned and reused.[56]

Pharmaceutical drug delivery

A 3D COF was created, characterised by an interconnected mesoporous scaffold that showed effective drug loading and
release in a simulated body fluid environment, making it useful as a nanocarrier for pharmaceutical drugs. [57]

See also
Jose L. Mendoza-Cortes
Reticular chemistry
Conjugated microporous polymer
Omar M. Yaghi
Metal-organic framework
Zeolite
Hydrogen-bonded organic framework

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