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Psycholinguistic screening test for Tamil children with reading difficulties in

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Psycholinguistic screening test for Tamil children with

reading difficulties in Sri Lanka

Naina Mohamed Mohamed Safeek, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka

Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Reading development forms the cornerstone of every child's educational journey,

yet not all naturally acquire proficient reading skills, necessitating early
identification and intervention. Sri Lanka currently lacks a comprehensive
national programme to address reading difficulties. This study aims to create and
validate a Psycholinguistic Screening Test (PST) tailored for Grade 6 (junior
secondary) Tamil-speaking students (N=78) in Sri Lanka who struggle with
reading. Grounded in the Simple View of Reading (SVR), the PST evaluates
crucial dimensions of reading proficiency, including phonological awareness,
sound-symbol association, syllable knowledge, word morphology, word syntax,
semantic skills, and reading comprehension. The PST demonstrates robust face
and content validity, with an I-FVI score of 0.88 and I-CVI scores of 0.89 for all
items among all raters, confirming its validity. Test-retest reliability analysis
indicates improved scores from pre-test (M=33.0, SD=14.5) to post-test (M=39.1,
SD=14.5), with a strong positive correlation (r = 0.919, p < .01, 2-tailed) between
the measures. Overall, the PST exhibits promising validity and reliability. Its
development and validation offer significant potential for addressing reading
difficulties among Grade 6 Tamil-speaking students in Sri Lanka. Practical
implications encompass early identification and intervention strategies, tailored
instruction methods, increased awareness, inclusive educational practices,
research avenues, multilingual adaptation, policy implementation, parental
involvement, and longitudinal studies.

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Keywords

Psycholinguistic screening test, Tamil children, reading difficulties, simple view

of reading

Link to article

Introduction

Reading is a sophisticated cognitive process that requires a number of fundamental

abilities such as comprehension, phonological awareness, memory, visual
recognition, and vocabulary (Handler and Fierson, 2017). It involves both decoding
written symbols and comprehending the textual content (Franchi et al., 2023).
Proficiency in reading fluency and comprehension is paramount for extracting meaning
from written language (Carretti et al., 2019), highlighting the central role of these skills
in education. The Simple View of Reading supports the idea that reading
comprehension in Tamil relies on two essential components: decoding and linguistic
comprehension, both of which are vital for understanding written Tamil text. However,
not all children naturally acquire proficient reading abilities, and some encounter
challenges on their path to becoming skilled readers, necessitating additional support
(Poulsen, 2018).

Early identification and intervention play a pivotal role in preventing and addressing
learning challenges, ensuring uninterrupted educational progress for children. The
availability of effective screening tests is crucial for identifying a diverse range of
learning difficulties and tailoring customised interventions accordingly. This study is
dedicated to the development of a screening test explicitly crafted for Tamil-speaking
children who face reading difficulties in Sri Lanka. The development and validation of
such a screening test constitute a significant and indispensable endeavour within the
Sri Lankan educational landscape. To provide a comprehensive foundation for this
study, the researcher reviewed relevant literature encompassing previous research on
early identification, existing screening tests, and the application of the Simple View of

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Reading (SVR) theoretical framework in developing the Psycholinguistic Screening

Test (PST).

Related works

Early identification of children with reading difficulties

Early identification of reading difficulties is paramount for ensuring the academic

success and well-being of students. Several studies underscore the significance of
timely recognition and intervention for children who face challenges in developing
adequate reading skills. Kim et al. (2020) highlight how students' acquisition of reading
skills varies, with some making significant progress and others having significant
difficulties. Colenbrander et al. (2018) stress that, while early identification is a
complex process, it is essential for optimizing outcomes in children with reading
difficulties.

Pulkkinen et al. (2022) provide insight into the timing of identification, highlighting that
the majority of children with arithmetic and comorbid fluency problems in Grade 3 were
already identifiable by Grade 1. In contrast, children with low reading fluency could be
reliably identified as early as the beginning of second grade. Rahman and Ismail
(2019) emphasise the importance of early diagnosis, as an inability to read or write
simple words or sentences during primary school can signal the need for continuous
support from teachers and parents to ensure normal learning progress. Schmitterer
and Brod (2021) emphasise the critical role of accurate identification as the first step
toward providing necessary interventions for struggling students.

Poulsen (2018) highlights the benefits of early identification, as it enables timely

support and, ideally, the prevention or mitigation of reading difficulties. Kaye et al.
(2022) stress that early interventions, when implemented during the early schooling
years, can significantly alter the trajectory of students' learning, emphasising the
transformative potential of expert teaching. Colenbrander et al. (2018) assert that
intervention is essential, regardless of the underlying causes of difficulties, be they
related to neurodevelopmental issues, socioeconomic factors, inadequate early
instruction, or other relevant factors.

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Moreover, Valdois et al. (2020) draw attention to a substantial portion of secondary

school children who fail to reach expected reading competence levels, highlighting the
need for more efficient intervention strategies that consider the cognitive weaknesses
and deficits specific to each individual. In conclusion, early identification of reading
difficulties is a vital step in ensuring that students receive the necessary support and
interventions to overcome these challenges and succeed academically.

Screening tests for children with reading difficulties

The assessment and screening of reading abilities are intricate processes, given the
diverse origins and manifestations of reading difficulties. These tasks necessitate the
consideration of several factors, including the range of potential causes, various
reader profiles, assessment materials, and emerging evaluation techniques.

A multitude of factors can contribute to poor reading skills, complicating attempts to

generalise findings from cross-sectional and correlational research studies that
encompass cognitive and neuropsychological dimensions (Miciak et al., 2018).
Reading challenges within a school environment presents substantial complexities for
educators, as classrooms often contain a diverse mix of reader subtypes. Even among
typically developing children, some may encounter reading difficulties despite the
absence of discernible impairments (Auphan et al., 2018).

The evaluation of reading proficiency can employ diverse materials, encompassing

both non-words and full texts. Unlike reading individual words or non-words, reading
a complete text integrates reading comprehension as an essential component (Carretti
et al., 2019). Surprisingly, there is no prevailing consensus regarding standardised
tests that specifically assess reading comprehension or the integration of such data
with other assessment metrics (Franchi et al., 2023). Reading screening assessments
help educators identify students who are at risk of reading and determine the need for
intervention and support (VanMeveren et al., 2018)

Innovative approaches have emerged in reading assessment. These encompass web-

based assessments of phonological awareness (PA) (Carson, 2017), the
measurement of readers' comprehension utilising probabilistic test theory models
(Støle et al., 2020), cognitive diagnostic assessment (CDA) (Toprak and Çakır, 2020),

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computerised game-based assessment (GBA) systems (Hautala et al., 2020), the

computer-administered Multiple-Choice Online Causal Comprehension Assessment
(MOCCA) (Davison et al., 2017), oral language tasks grounded in the Simple View of
Reading (Kelso et al., 2020), comprehensive screening tests evaluating phonemic
awareness, rapid naming, letter knowledge, paired associate learning, and reading
proficiency (Poulsen et al., 2017), experimental word reading list (Vaughn et al., 2018),
curriculum-based oral reading fluency (ORF) assessments, including one-minute
fluency measures (Martins and Capellini, 2021), eye-tracking technology (Bingel et al.,
2018), Arabic psycholinguistic screening Tool (Aziz et al., 2012), Response to
Intervention (RtI) model (Siegel, 2020; Gutiérrez et al., 2019), fine motor movements
screening e-Tool (Bai et al., 2016), and neuroimaging techniques (Ozernov-Palchik
and Gabrieli, 2018).

These assessments gauge specific skills or groups of skills associated with reading
proficiency. However, the existing PST is designed to evaluate various aspects of
reading proficiency skills. This test aims to assess an individual's linguistic and
cognitive abilities, including aspects encompassing phonological awareness, sound-
symbol association, syllable knowledge, word morphology, word syntax, semantic
skills, and reading comprehension skills. This test can be used to identify potential
language and cognitive difficulties in individuals, especially children, which may impact
their reading and overall language skills. They help in early detection and intervention.

Nonetheless, the implementation of this screening test may not adequately address
the requirements for screening in the context of the Tamil language. Tamil possesses
distinctive characteristics that distinguish it from other languages. Notably, Tamil is a
language rich in morphology, and its agglutinative nature sets it apart of particular
significance is the complexity inherent in the structural and functional aspects of verbs,
which serve as the repository for essential grammatical functions within the language
(Sarma, 2013). The learning task here is therefore quite different from the learning
task in other akshara systems where diacritics are ligatured or connected to a point in
a base consonant. In Tamil, novice readers should learn to gather up the right number
of unconnected elements and not treat each as separate akshara. The number of
symbols in Tamil can be expected to take time to learn. The sheer number of symbols
also implies a potential for confusion when selecting the appropriate akshara for

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spelling, and this confusion may be at the level of closely similar sounds (phonological
confusion) or similar-looking symbols (visual confusion) (Nag and Narayanan, 2019).

Furthermore, it's important to note that this PST is designed for junior-secondary
children who have completed the elementary level. They were not diagnosed with
reading difficulties, attending regular classes, appearing with normal IQ, and mixed
with garden variety poor readers (Farukh et al., 2020). They are not typically targeted
for reading instruction because, beyond the elementary grades, the emphasis shifts
from basic word reading and foundational skills to reading for content acquisition and
literary analysis (Vaughn et al., 2018). Nevertheless, it remains crucial to identify
junior-secondary students using an appropriate screening test and provide timely
interventions to foster the development of their reading proficiency.

Psycho-linguistic screening test based on the simple view of reading

theory

The development of the Psycholinguistic Screening Test (PST) for Tamil-reading

children is firmly rooted in the Simple View of Reading (SVR) theory. SVR offers a
valuable framework for understanding the challenges children face in reading
comprehension (Colenbrander et al., 2018). It aids speech-language pathologists
(SLPs) in evaluating school-age children with language difficulties and offers insights
into different subgroups of struggling readers based on their listening comprehension
and word recognition abilities (Ebert and Scott, 2016).

At its core, the Simple View of Reading (SVR) posits that reading comprehension is a
product of two fundamental components: decoding and language comprehension.
Decoding refers to the ability to recognise words in print, while language
comprehension pertains to the understanding of spoken language (Gough and
Tunmer, 1986). Challenges in either component can lead to difficulties in reading
comprehension, resulting in distinct subtypes of readers (Auphan et al., 2018).
Research by Ebert and Scott (2016), grounded in the SVR framework, identifies four
specific groups based on different language dimensions: listening comprehension,
word recognition, oral expression, and reading comprehension. A practical approach
to screening, as suggested by Kelso et al. (2020), involves beginning with linguistic
comprehension tasks, followed by a reading assessment. This method effectively
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identifies poor comprehenders and streamlines the testing process by focusing on at-
risk children. Thus, the SVR framework provides a comprehensive and efficient
structure for diagnosing and addressing reading difficulties.

The rationale for embracing the Simple View of Reading is clear: both decoding and
linguistic comprehension are indispensable for reading comprehension, and neither is
sufficient in isolation. According to the SVR model introduced by Gough and Tunmer
in 1986, successful reading comprehension arises from the interplay between
decoding and linguistic comprehension. Decoding allows readers to translate printed
words into their spoken equivalents, while linguistic comprehension enables them to
make sense of these words within a broader context of spoken language. If either
process is absent or impaired, reading comprehension will falter, even if decoding is
flawless (Nation, 2019). Given that the goal of screening is to identify children in need
of specialized instructional attention, evaluating the effectiveness of an SVR-based
screening tool is invaluable (Poulsen, 2018).

This SVR-based psycholinguistic screening test is a valuable tool for identifying

potential language and cognitive challenges in children. Its primary purpose is early
detection and intervention, aiming to pinpoint areas where individuals may require
additional support in their language and reading development, ultimately contributing
to improved reading and overall language proficiency.

While early diagnosis and intervention are crucial, this study targets grade six students
to fill a gap in current practices. In the Sri Lankan education system, Grade 6 marks
the onset of junior secondary education for students typically aged 11. The curriculum
emphasises achieving reading fluency by grades 2-4 (ages 7-9), with primary class
teachers focusing on early reading development activities during these formative
years.

However, attention shifts in grade four towards preparing students for the Grade 5
scholarship exam, which they take in Grade5. This exam becomes a priority, leading
teachers to prioritise training students to pass it. As the saying goes, ‘’the rich get
richer, the poor get poorer’,’ students who have developed strong reading skills tend
to excel not only in reading but also in other academic areas. Conversely, poor readers

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may fall behind in class due to their lack of reading ability, resulting in lower academic
performance.

After the grade five scholarship exam, there is often no specific focus on improving
reading fluency. Since struggling readers are often left behind in primary classes, they
are promoted to Grade 6 without adequate support. Therefore, the Psycho-linguistic
Screening Test (PST) was developed to identify poor readers and implement remedial
programs to enhance their reading skills.

Most current screening tools target younger children, often neglecting older students
who may still struggle with reading. Screening at Grade 6 is significant because it
coincides with a crucial academic transition where reading demands increase.
Identifying and supporting students at this stage can prevent further academic
difficulties and provide timely interventions that complement early screening efforts.

Additionally, reading development in Tamil presents unique challenges and features

that differ from those in other languages. Tamil, a Dravidian language, has an
alphasyllabary script where each character represents a syllable rather than a single
phoneme. This orthographic complexity can influence the development of decoding
skills. Additionally, Tamil's diglossic nature, with distinct literary and colloquial forms,
can impact language comprehension. Recent research by Verhoeven and Perfetti
(2020) on cross-language reading highlights the importance of understanding these
orthographic and linguistic particularities. Comparing Tamil with other orthographies
helps to contextualise the specific challenges faced by Tamil-speaking children and
underscores the need for tailored screening tools.

Research problem

Sri Lanka currently lacks a comprehensive national program dedicated to identifying

and addressing reading difficulties among its students, with a particular gap in
understanding and managing specific learning disorders like dyslexia (Hettiarachchi,
2021). This deficiency is exacerbated by limited awareness among healthcare
professionals, preschool educators, and primary school teachers, resulting in delayed
identification of struggling students (Kasturiarachchi, 2020). Shockingly, a significant

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portion of educators lack a clear understanding of dyslexia, contributing to the late

identification of students facing reading challenges (Indrarathne, 2019).

Recognizing the urgent need for a screening tool that can be used in both Sinhala and
Tamil languages, Hettiaarachi et al. (2018) recommended its development and
validation. This tool would facilitate early identification and treatment of reading
difficulties, raising awareness among healthcare workers and teachers. While
Kariyawasam et al. (2019) made efforts to screen children with specific learning
disabilities and provide interventions through a mobile game, their studies were limited
to children aged six and seven, and their long-term effectiveness remains uncertain.
Furthermore, existing screening tests in Sri Lanka primarily target Sinhala-speaking
children, leaving a significant gap in identifying and assisting poor readers, particularly
among Tamil-speaking children. The absence of research-based instruments for
identification and intervention poses a substantial challenge.

In light of these circumstances, the development and validation of a culturally and

linguistically adapted psycholinguistic screening test tailored to local settings become
imperative. Such a test has the potential to accurately identify children facing reading
difficulties, particularly among junior secondary Tamil-speaking students, and guide
effective reading instruction practices in Sri Lanka.

Aim of the study

The aim of this study is to develop and validate a culturally and linguistically adapted
psycholinguistic screening test designed specifically for junior secondary students in
Sri Lanka who speak Tamil and struggle with reading. The objectives are to develop
a psycholinguistic screening test to identify the reading level of the junior secondary
Tamil children with reading difficulties, and to validate the psycholinguistic screening
test.

Hypothesis

The newly developed screening test will effectively differentiate between Grade 6
students with and without reading difficulties.

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Methodology

This pilot study aims to evaluate the Psycholinguistic Screening Test (PST) for junior
secondary Tamil-speaking students in Sri Lanka who experience reading difficulties.
The sample includes 78 Grade 6 students from schools in the Puttalam South
Educational Division, aged 11 years, with five years of formal primary education.
These students, identified by their teachers as having reading difficulties, are low-
achieving students who had taken the Grade 5 scholarship exam. In Sri Lanka, Grade
6 students are focused due to early reading instruction in primary classes and
preparation for the Grade 5 scholarship exam. After this, they're promoted to junior
secondary school, where they learn 12 subjects, including languages, science,
mathematics, and social sciences, but not reading. Some schools provide
unstructured remedial programs to address this gap.

The sample size of 78 participants was due to practical constraints and the preliminary
nature of the research. Despite this, the study provided valuable insights into the test's
feasibility and initial validity. Future studies will involve larger samples to further
validate the PST and ensure its robustness and generalizability.

The PST is designed specifically for Grade 6 students due to their unique
developmental and educational characteristics. At this stage, students are
transitioning from learning to read to reading to learn, with increased reading
demands. Early identification of reading difficulties at this grade can prevent further
academic challenges and facilitate timely interventions. While the current focus is on
sixth graders, future research will involve comparative analysis to validate these
findings and refine the test for different grade levels.

The primary instrument used in this study is the Psycholinguistic Screening Test
(PST), developed based on the Simple View of Reading (SVR) theoretical framework.
The PST is a criterion-based test is designed to measure a student's performance
against a set of specific skills of decoding and linguistic comprehension. The PST
assesses various dimensions critical for reading proficiency, including phonological
awareness, sound-symbol association, syllable knowledge, word morphology, word
syntax, semantic skills, and reading comprehension.

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The PST was developed based on the Simple View of Reading (SVR) theoretical
framework. It is a criterion-based test designed to measure specific skills in decoding
and linguistic comprehension. The development process involved consultation with a
panel of experts in reading development and language assessment to ensure the test
items were culturally and linguistically appropriate for Tamil-speaking students in Sri
Lanka.

The PST is subjected to evaluation by a panel of experts consisting of professionals

in special education, and language assessment. Each expert assesses the PST items
based on criteria such as grammar, clarity, spelling accuracy, appropriateness of
content, format, and difficulty level. To assess the internal consistency of the PST,
Cronbach's alpha was calculated. The correlation value of +.958 indicates good
internal consistency of the PST at p<0.5. The Item-Level Face Validity Index (I-FVI) is
calculated to determine the level of agreement among raters. Content validity is
assessed through expert judgment to ensure that the PST adequately measures the
intended dimensions of reading proficiency. A Content Validity Index (I-CVI) is
computed for each item to assess the degree of agreement among the panel of
experts.

To establish test-retest reliability, the PST was administered to a subgroup of

participants on two occasions, with a two-week interval between tests. Pearson's
correlation coefficient (r) was calculated to determine the stability of the test over time.
SPSS version 28 was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics summarized
participant characteristics, while inferential statistics examined the relationships
between variables. Item-level reliability data were presented to highlight the
consistency of individual test items. The study adhered to ethical guidelines, including
obtaining informed consent from participants and ensuring the confidentiality and
anonymity of their data. Moreover, institutional ethical clearance also obtained.

The study strictly followed ethical guidelines to ensure the protection and well-being
of participants. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, including parental
consent for children, ensuring that they fully understood the purpose, procedures, and
potential risks of the study. Additionally, the confidentiality and anonymity of
participants' data were safeguarded, with all personal information securely stored and

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accessible only to authorized researchers. Institutional ethical clearance was secured

prior to conducting the research.

To further strengthen ethical compliance, child assent was also obtained, ensuring
that the children willingly participated in the study. Participants were informed of their
right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty, and procedures were in
place to honor this right.

These ethical standards were carefully adapted to the Sri Lankan context by
considering cultural sensitivities, linguistic diversity, and community expectations.
Special care was taken to explain the study’s purpose and procedures in the
participants’ native language to ensure comprehension. Culturally appropriate
methods were used to build trust with parents, teachers, and children, fostering a
supportive environment for ethical research practices.

Results

Development of the Psycholinguistic Screening Test

Diagnostic tests are designed to identify particular strengths, weaknesses, and

problems in the aspect with which they are concerned (Cohen et al., 2018). Tests can
be used to compare a student to whether s/he has achieved a particular fixed criterion
or not. Psycholinguistic methods are especially useful for studying the cognitive
processes of language learning and use, from phonetics and phonology to discourse-
level pragmatics (Grey and Tagarelli, 2018). The PST is developed with the Simple
View of Reading theoretical background to identify the reading level of children with
reading difficulties in junior secondary levels.

The SVR-based psycho-linguistic skills, as evaluated by the existing PST, encompass

a comprehensive range of abilities that are crucial for reading proficiency and overall
language development. This assessment targets clusters of skills associated with the
mastery of reading. The test is meticulously designed to assess an individual's
linguistic and cognitive capacities, particularly in the context of language and reading.
It delves into various critical dimensions, including:

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Phonological Awareness: This skill involves the ability to recognize and manipulate
the individual sounds (phonemes) within words. It's essential for decoding words and
understanding their phonetic structure.

Sound-Symbol Association: Assessments in this area focus on the connection

between spoken sounds and written symbols (letters or graphemes), which is
fundamental for effective reading and word recognition.

Syllable Knowledge: Syllables are the building blocks of words, and understanding
syllable structure aids in word decoding and pronunciation.

Word Morphology: Morphology pertains to the structure and formation of words.

Evaluations in this domain examine an individual's grasp of word roots, prefixes, and
suffixes, which play a vital role in vocabulary development.

Word Syntax: Word syntax involves the rules governing word order and sentence
structure within a language. Proficiency in this area contributes to sentence
comprehension and construction.

Semantic Skills: Semantic skills encompass an individual's ability to comprehend word

meanings, understand word relationships, and interpret the overall meaning of texts.

Reading Comprehension Skills: The ability to understand and extract meaning from
written text is central to reading comprehension. This skill evaluates an individual's
capacity to comprehend and interpret written material.

As the study primarily focused on Tamil children, the test paper is prepared in Tamil
in eight pages with 40 items. 1-30 questions were structured with selective-type-
multiple-choice questions and 30-40 were structured with probing questions to assess
reading skills. Questions 1- 6 based on phonemic and phonological awareness, 7-12
sound-symbol association, 13-16 syllable knowledge, 17-23 morphology of words, 24-
26 syntax, 27-30 semantic skills, and 30-40 reading comprehension skills. Please refer
to Appendix A for the Psycho-linguistic Screening Test. Much of the text is in Tamil
script, but hopefully the reader will be able to see the format of the test. Table 1 shows
the SVR based psycho-linguistic screening test.

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Questions Skills assessed Question type

1-6 Phonemic and phonological awareness Selective type- MCQ

7 - 12 Sound-symbol association Selective type- MCQ
13 - 16 Syllable knowledge Selective type- MCQ
17 - 23 Morphology of words Selective type- MCQ
24 - 26 Syntax Selective type- MCQ
27 - 30 Semantic skills Selective type- MCQ
30 - 40 Reading comprehension and writing ability Probing questions

Table 1: VR-based psycho-linguistic screening test

Validation of the Psycholinguistic Screening Test

The PST has undergone a validation process following its development which includes
assessments for both face validity and content validity. Subsequently, the test was
piloted during a two-week remedy teaching intervention, serving as both a pre-test and
a post-test to evaluate its effectiveness.

Face validity and content validity of the test were assessed by a panel of experts
consisting of professionals in special education and Tamil language teaching (N=5). A
face validity checklist consisting of 10 questions with binary (yes or no) responses was
utilised. These questions pertained to various aspects of the test, including the
appropriateness of grammar, clarity of items, spelling accuracy, sentence structure,
font size, and spacing, legibility of printouts, adequacy of instructions provided, format,
difficulty level, and reasonableness of test items. Please refer to Appendix B for the
detailed face validity checklist. Based on these ratings, necessary modifications and
restructuring of the questionnaire were carried out.

I-FVI = (agreed item) / (number of experts)

No agreed raters per question

Total number of raters per question

Content validity was assessed by consulting experts in the fields of special education
and Tamil language teaching to confirm that the reading skills addressed in the test
align with the desired objectives. The expert panel utilised a 12-item Likert rating scale,
accompanied by a section for suggestions. This comprehensive evaluation aimed to
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ascertain the alignment of the test questions with the skills being assessed, relevance
to the field, appropriateness of content, depth of coverage, construct stability, clarity,
absence of contradictions, optimal length, cultural suitability, layout or format, extent
of variation, allotted answer time, and the ability to sustain participants' interest. Please
refer to Appendix C for the detailed content validation rating scale.

The ratings were compiled using MS Excel to compute the Content Validity Index
(CVI). The CVI is determined by considering the number of experts (N=5) who
provided ratings ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’ for each item,
divided by the total number of experts. Items that achieved a CVI value of at least 0.80
were retained in the questionnaire, while numerical values for non-essential items
were removed.

Following the completion of face and content validation, a pilot study was carried out
using the Psycholinguistic Screening Test. The study involved 18 low-achieving
students who had taken the Grade 5 scholarship examination in 2022 and were
attending junior secondary schools in the Tamil medium schools within the Puttalam
South Education Division. The two-week remedial teaching intervention commenced
with the administration of a pre-test, which took place one day before the start of the
pilot intervention. Subsequently, a post-test was administered immediately upon the
conclusion of the pilot intervention.

The test-retest method is employed to ensure the reliability of results obtained from
the psycholinguistic screening test. This method involves administering the test to the
same group of participants on multiple occasions to evaluate the extent of score
changes over time (Kurtz, 2017). Test-retest reliability serves as a means to gauge
the degree to which a measurement method remains consistent across different time
points. Smaller differences between the two sets of results indicate higher test-retest
reliability, as noted by Middleton (2023).

To analyse the data, the scores from both the pre-test and post-test were collected
and computed using SPSS version 28. Additionally, the internal consistency of the
pre-test and post-test scores was assessed, and the reliability correlation coefficient
was determined using Pearson's two-tailed correlation coefficient. The Cronbach's

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Vol.16(1) June 2025 Psycholinguistic screening test for Tamil children with reading difficulties in Sri Lanka

alpha correlation coefficient value of +.80 or greater at p<0.5 was considered the
reliable item.

Face validity of Psycholinguistic Screening Test

The expert ratings for the face validity of the psycholinguistic screening test were
calculated using MS Excel. Table 2 shows the face validity expert ratings on the
psycholinguistic screening test items, as well as the calculation of the Item Face
Validity Index (I-FVI). The I-FVI is a measure of the proportion of agreement among
the expert raters on the relevance of each item.

Expert Expert Expert Expert Expert Number of Item

1 2 3 4 5 Agreement FVI
Item 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1.00
Item 2 1 1 1 1 1 5 1.00
Item 3 0 1 1 1 1 4 0.80
Item 4 0 1 1 1 1 4 0.80
Item 5 1 1 1 1 1 5 1.00
Item 6 1 0 1 1 1 4 0.80
Item 7 1 1 0 1 1 4 0.80
Item 8 1 1 1 0 1 4 0.80
Item 9 1 1 1 1 0 4 0.80
Item 10 1 1 1 1 1 5 1.00
Proportion 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.88
Relevant

Table 2: Face validity expert rating on the psycholinguistic screening test

I-FVI = (agreed item) / (number of raters)

44
50
= 0.88

Based on the above calculation the researcher concludes that the I-FVI scores for all
the items judged by all raters 0.88 meet a satisfactory level and the psycholinguistic
screening test has achieved a satisfactory level of face validity.

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Content validity of Psycholinguistic Screening Test

The Psycholinguistic Screening Test was checked for content validity with five experts'
ratings. Table 3 shows the experts’ ratings on the items.

Expert Expert Expert Expert Expert Number Of Item

1 2 3 4 5 Agreement CVI

Item 1 5 4 4 5 4 22 0.88
Item 2 5 4 4 4 4 21 0.84
Item 3 4 4 5 5 4 22 0.88
Item 4 5 4 4 4 4 21 0.84
Item 5 5 4 4 3 5 21 0.84
Item 6 5 5 4 5 4 23 0.92
Item 7 5 4 5 5 4 23 0.92
Item 8 5 4 4 4 5 22 0.88
Item 9 5 4 5 5 4 23 0.92
Item 10 5 4 4 5 5 23 0.92
Item 11 5 5 5 5 5 25 1.00
Item 12 5 5 4 5 4 23 0.92
Proportion
Relevant 0.98 0.85 0.86 0.91 0.86 269 0.89

Table 3: The experts’ ratings on the items of content validity for the psycholinguistic
screening test

I-CVI = (agreed item) / (number of raters)

269
300
= 0.89

Following the aforementioned calculation, it can be deduced that the I-CVI scores,
which reached a consensus of 0.89 for all items as assessed by every rater, indicate
a commendable level of content validity. Consequently, the psycholinguistic screening
test successfully attained a satisfactory degree of content validity.

Test-retest reliability of Psycholinguistic Screening Test

To ensure the internal consistency of the pre-test and post-test scores obtained in the
pilot study, the researcher looked at test-retest reliability. The reliability correlation
coefficient of the two sets of marks was calculated using Pearson's two-tailed

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correlation coefficient. The test-retest reliability of the pre-test and post-test scores
obtained in the pilot study is displayed in Tables 4 and 5.

Mean Std. Deviation N

Pre-test 33.0897 14.56039 78
Post-test 39.1026 14.57501 78

Table 4: The descriptive statistics of the pre-test and post-test marks obtained in the pilot
study

The descriptive statistics of the pre-test and post-test results are shown in Table 4.
The post-test score (M=39.1, SD=14.5) is higher than the pre-test score (M=33.0,
SD=14.5). Furthermore, the test-retest reliability of the Pearson 2-tailed correlations
coefficient is shown in Table 5.

Pre-test Post-test

Pre-test Pearson Correlation 1 .919**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 78 78
Post-test Pearson Correlation .919** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 78 78

Table 5: The correlation of the pre-test and post-test marks obtained in the pilot study

Referring to Table 5, the correlation analysis between pre-test and post-test scores
reveals a strong and statistically significant positive correlation of r = 0.919 (p < .01,
2-tailed) between the two measures. This indicates a robust relationship between
participants' performance on the pre-test and post-test assessments. The correlation
coefficient of 0.919 suggests a very high degree of association, implying that
individuals who scored higher on the pre-test tended to also score higher on the post-
test, and vice versa. With a sample size of 78 participants for both measures, these
findings provide compelling evidence of the stability and consistency of individual
performance across the two testing occasions.

In conclusion, the psycholinguistic screening test demonstrates favourable face

validity, as indicated by a high I-FVI score of 0.88, signifying strong agreement among
raters. Similarly, the content validity, gauged through I-CVI scores of 0.89 for all items
across raters, underscores its robust validity. The test-retest reliability analysis reveals
an improvement in scores from pre-test (M=33.0, SD=14.5) to post-test (M=39.1,
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Vol.16(1) June 2025 Psycholinguistic screening test for Tamil children with reading difficulties in Sri Lanka

SD=14.5). Furthermore, the correlation analysis between pre-test and post-test scores
reveals a strong and statistically significant positive correlation of r = 0.919 (p < .01,
2-tailed) between the two measures. Given the promising validity and reliability
demonstrated by the psycholinguistic screening test, we accept the hypothesis (H01)
that the newly developed screening test effectively distinguishes between grade six
students with and without reading difficulties.

Conclusion

This study underscores the urgent need for early detection and intervention in
addressing reading difficulties, particularly within the Sri Lankan educational
landscape. With the absence of a comprehensive national programme and limited
awareness among educators regarding specific learning disorders like dyslexia, timely
identification of struggling students is hindered. Hence, the development and
validation of a culturally and linguistically tailored psycholinguistic screening test
become paramount.

This study highlights the relevance of the Simple View of Reading theory as a
framework for comprehending reading difficulties, stressing the significance of both
decoding and linguistic comprehension in reading proficiency. Grounded in this theory,
the newly devised psycholinguistic screening test evaluates a spectrum of crucial skills
associated with reading, offering a comprehensive assessment tool.

The test exhibits robust face and content validity, evident in its high I-FVI and I-CVI
scores. Moreover, the test-retest reliability analysis indicates an improvement in
scores from pre-test to post-test. Additionally, a strong positive correlation between
pre-test and post-test scores further validates the test's consistency over time.

Overall, the psycholinguistic screening test shows promise in effectively distinguishing

between Grade 6 students with and without reading difficulties, aligning with the
accepted hypothesis. In essence, it represents a valuable resource for identifying
reading challenges among junior secondary Tamil-speaking students in Sri Lanka. Its
development and validation mark a significant stride toward addressing the critical
need for early intervention and support within the education system, ultimately
fostering enhanced reading proficiency and language skills among struggling learners.

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Vol.16(1) June 2025 Psycholinguistic screening test for Tamil children with reading difficulties in Sri Lanka

Practical implications for Sri Lankan education and future directions

The development and validation of the Psycholinguistic Screening Test tailored to

junior secondary Tamil-speaking children in Sri Lanka facing reading difficulties hold
significant practical implications for Sri Lankan education. This tool addresses a crucial
gap in the educational landscape and can pave the way for more effective reading
interventions and support systems. This study provides some practical implications
and future directions as follows

The Psycholinguistic Screening Test enables early identification of students with

reading difficulties. This is critical because early intervention is often more effective in
addressing these challenges. Schools and educators can use this tool to pinpoint
struggling students and provide them with targeted support.

Once students with reading difficulties are identified, educators can tailor their
instruction to meet the specific needs of these students. This could involve specialised
reading programmes, additional resources, or one-on-one tutoring to address their
weaknesses in phonological awareness, sound-symbol association, syllable
knowledge, word morphology, syntax, semantics, and reading comprehension.

The study is adaptable for various age groups, making it a versatile educational
resource. For younger students, it uses games, animations, and visual aids to boost
engagement. Older students benefit from critical thinking exercises and advanced
tasks tailored to their cognitive levels. Practical applications include teaching
foundational literacy in primary grades through interactive word games, facilitating
discussions and projects at junior levels, and implementing flipped classroom models
for senior classes. Teacher-training workshops focus on integrating the tool into
curricula, addressing diverse learning needs, and fostering inclusive environments,
ensuring its full educational potential is realised.

The introduction of this screening test can also help raise awareness among
educators and healthcare professionals in Sri Lanka about the existence and nature
of reading difficulties, including dyslexia. Training programmes can be developed to
equip teachers and healthcare workers with the knowledge and skills to identify and
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Vol.16(1) June 2025 Psycholinguistic screening test for Tamil children with reading difficulties in Sri Lanka

support students with reading challenges. The test can contribute to making education
in Sri Lanka more inclusive. By identifying students who may require additional
support, schools can work towards accommodating their needs and ensuring that
every child has an equal opportunity to succeed in their education.

The development of this screening test opens avenues for further research and
development. Continuous refinement and validation of the test can lead to
improvements in its accuracy and effectiveness. Additionally, research can explore the
long-term impact of interventions guided by the test results. Given Sri Lanka's linguistic
diversity, efforts should be made to adapt and translate the screening test into other
languages spoken in the country, such as Sinhala, to ensure that it can be used
effectively across different regions.

The government and educational authorities in Sri Lanka should consider integrating
this screening tool into their educational policies and initiatives. This would require a
commitment to allocate resources for training, dissemination, and implementation at
the national level. Parents play a crucial role in supporting their children's reading
development. Schools can use the results from this test to engage parents and provide
them with guidance on how to support their children's literacy skills at home.

To assess the long-term impact of interventions guided by the screening test,

longitudinal studies can be conducted to track the progress of identified students as
they move through their educational journey. Collaboration between educational
institutions, government agencies, NGOs, and researchers is essential for the
successful implementation of the screening test and related interventions.
Partnerships can help in resource-sharing, training, and advocacy efforts.

In conclusion, the development and validation of the Psycholinguistic Screening Test

offer a significant step forward in addressing reading difficulties among junior
secondary Tamil-speaking students in Sri Lanka. By identifying these difficulties early
and providing targeted interventions, Sri Lanka can work towards a more inclusive and
equitable education system, ensuring that all students have the opportunity to develop
strong reading skills and succeed academically. However, it is crucial to continue
refining and expanding the use of this tool to maximize its impact on the educational
landscape of Sri Lanka.
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Data availability: The author confirms that the supplementary materials available at
https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/7XNORE

Funding: The author did not receive any funding for this study.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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