Mariama Barry, Ken Bugul, Calixthe Beyala, and the Politics of Female Homoeroticism in

Sub-Saharan Francophone African Literature

Author(s): Nathalie Etoke
Source: Research in African Literatures, Vol. 40, No. 2 (Summer, 2009), pp. 173-189
Published by: Indiana University Press
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MariamaBarry, KenBugul,Calixthe
Beyala,and thePoliticsofFemale
Homoeroticism in Sub-Saharan
Francophone AfricanLiterature
NATHALIE ETOKE
Brown University
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
TheemergenceofAfricanfeminismand womanismhas elucidatedpivotal
issues thatAfricanwomenfacein a patriarchalsocietythatundermines
theirexistence.However,suchmovements reinforcethedominantpresence
ofheterosexualstandardsin denyingtherealityofitsmostmarginalized
subset,same-sexlove interactions. This articleexploresthe relationship
betweenculture,society,law,gender,freewill,and sexuality.I unravelthe
strategiesof writingfemalehomoeroticdesire,displayingthe ingenious
literarydevices,adroittechniques,and skills that allow threeAfrican
womenwriters - Mariama
Barry,Ken Bugul,and CalixtheBeyala- to cre-
ate a narrativespace in whichfemalesexualityis viewedthroughcomplex
lenses thatalternate,combine,or contradictheterosexuality, bisexuality,
and homosexuality.

Our bestpoets
Writepoetryfullofholes:
Thewomen,wholovewomen,nevertell.
Themenwholovemenwriteofwombs
Thegeniuswholovesbothis rendered
mute
- Alice Walker,In Search of Our Mothers' Garden206

stigmatization,denial, and denigration of nonheterosexualityhave

recentlybecome partofpoliticaland social discourse in Africa,a continent
where homosexuality is criminalized in several countries.1In Namibia,

* RESEARCHIN AFRICANLITERATURES,
Vol.40,No.2 (Spring ©2009*
2009).

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174 * RESEARCHIN AFRICANLITERATURES
Φ VOLUME40 NUMBER2

Zimbabwe,and Somalia,forinstance,homosexualsare subjectto extremely

repressive legislationand trackeddownbystatepolice.In Uganda,thepractice
ofhomosexuality is referred to as "carnalknowledgeofanotheragainstnature,"
whileZimbabwe's president Robert Mugabeclaimedhomosexuals are"worsethan
pigsand dogs."2Followingin Mugabe'sfootsteps, severalAfrican presidents are
nowopenlyexpressing theirviewsonhomosexuality. YoweriMuseveniasserted,
"Homosexuality is not onlyagainstthebiblicalteachings.It goes againstthe
Africancultureand theorderofnature."3 In 2004,theNigerianpresident Oluse-
gunObasanjocondemned homosexuality and same-sexmarriages as un-Biblical,
unnatural, andun-Af rican.4InCameroon, PaulBiyafaceda defamation campaign
whenprominent figures ofhisgovernment wereaccusedina newspaperofbeing
Biyadidnotcondonenorexpressdisapprovalofhomosexuality.
gay.5 Instead,he
"cautionedjournalists tolookawayfromtheprivatelivesofindividuals. Observ-
ersweresurprisedthateventhoughhomosexuality is a criminaloffense, pun-
ishablebytheCameroonian penalCode,thePresident nevercondemnedtheill
beforegoingon to launcha virulentattackon themedia."6 Museveni,Obasanjo,
and Mugabeseemto sharetheidea thathomosexuality is un-Africanand partof
thedestructive and pervasivelegacyofcolonialism. Furthermore, Biyais more
interested
inprotecting hisquestionable government thanadvocating gayrights.
In responseto politicalAfrocentric discourseand to thecriminalization of
homosexuality, manygayrightsactivists strivetoprovethathomosexuality is an
African practice.Thebisexualgordjiguenes andtheWoubi7arebecomingincreas-
inglyvisibleand vocal in Senegal and Côte d'Ivoire.American scholarshavealso
decidedto tackletheissue.In 2001,Boys-Wives and FemaleHusband:Studiesof
African Homosexualities, a groundbreaking workbyStephenO. Murrayand Will
Roscoe,was published.Thebookdocumented theexistence ofsame-sexrelation-
shipsin Africafromtheprecolonial to thepostcolonial era.Threeyearslater,in
2004,MarcEpprecht publishedHungochani, theHistory ofa Dissident Sexuality in
Southern LikeMurrayandRoscoe,Epprecht
Africa. offers approachof
a historical
homosexuality in whichhe exploreshowtraditional Africansocietiesdealtwith
homosexuality. He claimsthathomophobia is a byproduct oftheWesternization
ofAfricathrough colonialism:

Themostoutspoken homophobesintheregionoftenusebiblical,
publichealth,
thatappeartobeborrowed
values"arguments
or"family wholesalefrom social
intheWest,
conservatives lawsarea direct
whilerepressive legacy ofcolonial
rule.Eventheclaimthatsame-sexbehaviour appearstohave
is un-African
thanAfrica
intheWestrather
originated itself.
(6)

BetweenAfrocentric politicaldiscoursecharacterizedby gaybashingand

thecommitment ofsomeWesternacademicsto provetheprecolonialexistence
ofsame-sexrelationship oftraditional
in Africa,theintricacies woman-woman
marriages,8prisonsex,and mine marriages(Epprecht 84), needtokeepin
critics
perspectivethatwhatis atstakeis neither discourseontheAfrican
an essentialist
originsofsame-sexrelationship
originsor un-African northeso-calledimporta-
tionofhomophobia fromtheWest.Instead,itis theneedtobuilda specificdis-
courseon theincreasing visibility thatareneither
ofsexualidentities exclusively
heterosexualnorpartofsomecomplexancientsocialpractices.

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 NATHALIE ETOKE M 175

Whetherthey are jumping on the bandwagon of Afrocentricdiscourse or

settingAfrica'spriorities,prominentvoices of Africanfeminismor womanism
choose not to discuss same-sex love or even acknowledge its existence.IfiAma-
diume is adamant in her disapproval ofthe existenceofhomosexualityin Africa.
She asserts:"These prioritiesofthe Westare of course totallyremovedfrom,and
alien to theconcernsofthemass ofAfricanwomen" (19).ChikwenyeOkonjo Ogu-
nyemiargues thatherAfricanwomanism9does notaddress femalehomosexuality
because ofthe"[African]silenceor intoleranceoflesbianism"(133).And according
to Mary E. Modupe Kolawole:

Tothemajority ofordinary
Africans lesbianism
is a non-existent
issuebecause
itis a modeofself-expression
thatis completely
strangetotheirworldview.
Itis
notevenan optiontomillionsofAfrican womenand can thereforenotbe the
solutionas ... manyWesternorwesternized womenpropose.(15)

Africanfeminismand womanism exclude Africanwomen who happen to be les-

bian orbisexual fromtheiractivistagenda. Blindedbytheirdesireforself-naming
and theirwillingnessto distinguishthemselvesfromWesternfeminismand Black
feminism,10 they eradicate "un-African realities"In so doing, African feminist
theoriesare in denial ofa possible componentofAfricanwomen'ssexuality.They
silencea "minority"ofAfricanwomenby notgivingthemthe rightto experience
a sexualitythatdoes not fitthe norm.JulianaMakuchi Nfah-Abbenyi,one ofthe
rareAfricanfeministscholarswho has triedto theorizesame-sexrelationshipsin
the Africancontext,believes thatliterarycriticsare also at fault:

MostAfrican critics
literary arenotconcerned
withlesbianorgayissuesbecause
thistopicis verysensitiveand oftencontroversial,
orbecausetheyviewother
issuesas morepressing. Or,theyfallbackon theexcusethathomosexualityis
shunnedorrepressed bytheircultureandthoughtbymanynottoexist.(29-30)
In GenderinAfricanWomen'sWriting, Identity, Sexualityand Difference
(1997),Nfah-
Abbenyiargues thatnonheterosexualrelationshipsbetweenwomencould be seen
as a means of rebellionthatchallenges patriarchy.Against the Africanfeminist
backgroundpreviouslymentioned,she addresses lesbian issues froman empa-
theticviewpoint. She also urges Africanscholars to look at the ways in which
francophonewomen writerssuch as Calixthe Beyala "are creatinga space for
themselvesby questioninga combinationof oppressive conditionsthatare both
traditionaland specificto theircolonial and postcolonialcontext"(30).
Confrontedwith criticaland political discourse drivenby narrowagendas,
I decided to focus on the work of three francophoneAfricanwomen writers,
Mariama Barryof Guinea-Conakry,Ken Bugul of Senegal, and Calixthe
Beyala
ofCameroon.11 FollowingtheframeworkofNfah-Abbenyi, I examined how these
writers'portrayalof atypical female characterscould be read as a theorization
of an Africansexualitythat is neitherexclusivelyheterosexualnor
openly gay
or bisexual. Because theybelong to societies thatdo not permitnonheterosexual
behaviors,theirexplorationsofsame-sexdesirecould help problematizethemain-
streamand Westernuse of categoriessuch as "heterosexuals,""gays,""lesbians,"
and "bisexuals." In myattemptto analyze homoeroticpatternsin Barry's,Bugul's,
and Beyala's novels,I will notexamine the literalapplicabilityofthese categories.

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176 * RESEARCH IN AFRICAN LITERATURES(#VOLUME 40 NUMBER 2

Rather,I will use themas "excavatorytools ofcontradictions,denial and reversal

to examine the tropes" (Pincheon39) of homoeroticismin the Africancontext.It
is myaim to unravelthe politicsofwritingfemalehomoeroticdesire.By politics,
I mean the method,tactics,and strategiesinvolved in writingsabout same-sex
relationships.This workaims at displayingthe ingenious literarydevices,adroit
techniques,and skills thatallow Barry,Bugul, and Beyala to create a narrative
space- one in which female sexuality is viewed throughcomplex lenses that
alternate,combine,or contradictheterosexuality,bisexuality,and homosexuality.
In choosingsuch an approach,I questionwhether

[t]hecategory"homosexual" includeseveryone whohas historically,

whether
sociallyorbiologically
constructed, insame-sexactivity?
participated [Or]isthe
natureofthecategory of"homosexual" inlightofsimultaneous,
be rearticulated
multiple,crossingidentifications[thatare inescapabledue to thesocial contextin
whichhomosexualityis experienced]?
(Pincheon53; emphasis added)

I chose not to engage in any rhetoricalargumentover the literalmeaning

or the origins of homosexuality,lesbianism, and bisexuality.As a criticand
because of the specificityof the Africancontext,I must dispossess myselffrom
thehabitualdualisticmodes ofreasoning:homosexualityvs. heterosexuality, the
West vs. Africa.My argumentis grounded in complexnotions of sexualitythat
are fundamentallyambiguous,contradictory, fluid,and flexible.My use ofwords
such as gay,lesbian,bisexual, and heterosexualis purelyheuristicin myattempt
to finda language thatwill help theorizesexualityin Barry'sLa petitePeule,Bugul's
Riwanou le chemindesableand Beyala's C'estle soleilqui m'abrûlée.I will also invoke
theoreticaland methodologicaltools fromblack feministtheory,which,unlike
Africanfeminismor womanism, addresses female homosexuality.While grap-
pling with the complexitiesof these threenovels,I will eventuallyexamine how
JudithButler'stheoryon themelancholicnatureofsame-sexlove- a theorydeeply
embedded withina heterosexualsociety- can be relevantto the Africancontext.
In refusingto adopt a particularterminologyand by deconstructingthecommon
boundariesbetweenhomosexualityand heterosexuality, I would like to reflecton
the interplaybetween culture,society,law, gender,freewill, and sexuality.
In a social milieu in which homosexualityis a neitherlegal nor culturally
accepted,literarywritingsabout homosexualityby Africanwomen undermine
the preexistingorder.They are transgressivebecause they voice a prohibited
desire. However,theydo not lead to the disappearance of the social prohibition
against homosexuality.Accordingto Michel Foucault,transgressionrepresents
"the still silent and groping apparition of formof thoughtin which the inter-
rogationof the limitreplaces the search fortotalityand the act of transgression
replacesthemovementofcontradiction"(50).Indeed, thehiatus existingbetween
the acknowledgmentof femalehomosexuality(a forbiddensexual practice)and
thewill to openly live itonly shows a theoreticalviolationof the social code. In a
book devotedto femalewriting,BeatriceDidier writes,"La femmequi écritlibère
des fantasmeshomosexuelsqui sans l'écritureseraientpeut-êtretoujoursdemeu-
rés refoulés"'The femalewriterfreeshomosexual fantasies,which would have
remained repressed' (27).12The narrativeapproaches in the novels studied here
do not necessarilyimplythe liberationof repressed fantasies.They mentionthe

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 NATHALIEETOKE * 177

possibilityofanotherkindofsexuality, questioning a dominantsocialdiscourse

thatadvocatescompulsory Despitethefactthattheyunveilthe
heterosexuality.
idea oflesbiandesire,theomnipresence of theliteraryschemeofhomosexual
fantasy same-sex
restricts to
relationships the realm oftaboo.
In an articleentitled"UsesoftheErotic:TheEroticas Power,"AudreLorde
defineseroticism as one oftheessentialcomponents ofthefemalebeing,which
leadstoan existential fulfillment:
Fortheeroticis nota questiononlyofwhatwe do;itis a questionofhowacutely
and fullywe can feelin thedoing.Oncewe knowtheextenttowhichwe are
capableoffeelingthatsenseofsatisfaction
andcompletion, wecanthenobserve
whichofourvariouslifeendeavors bringus closesttothatfullness.(55)

Barry'sLa petitePeuledoes notdisplayeroticism in termsofphysicalencounters

throughwhichwomen'ssexualagencyand autonomy can exist.Thetextnever
portrays a lovescenebetweena manand a woman.However,Barry'spublicdis-
avowalofheterosexuality is obviouswhenshewrites"C'étaitune corvéeque de
fairel'amour"'Lovemaking was sucha chore'(254).Femaledesireonlyappears
whentheyounggirlfindsherselfstaringand observing nakedwomenwhoare
bathingin a river.Thenarration ofwomenbathingbecomesan eroticscene.The
younggirldwellson descriptive detailsthatshowtheintoxicating beautyofthe
femalebodiesthatsheobserves.Theviewofthosenakedwomenculminates in
thewriting ofphysicalattractionand auto-erotic
behaviors:
Mon regard envieux fixa,pour ne plus s'en détacher,les beaux seins pointus
. . . j'aurais voulu m'attarderdevant ces nudités,toucherleurs seins, voir
quel
effetcela feraitdans mes petitesmains ... la vue de cettenuditéme fittoucher
et caresser les miens, inexistants.Je passais la main de l'un à l'autre en
m'y
attardant,comme pour les implorerde venir.J'entiraiune agréable sensation.
Surprises par notre passage, les baigneuses portèrentmachinalementleurs
mains sur leur sexe, en croisantles jambes et en se cambrant Elles m'adres-
sèrentun grand sourire.

My eyes filledof lust stared at the beautifulpointed breasts ... I would have
loved to linger on those nudities,to touch theirbreasts,to see what effectit
would have on my small hands ... the view of this nakedness made me touch
myselfand caress myundeveloped breasts.Slowly,I moved myhand fromone
to the other,as ifto implorethe women to come. I felta pleasant sensation.
Surprised by our arrival; the bathers crossed their legs, arched their back
and mechanicallyput theirhands on theirprivateparts . . . theysmiled at me.
(198-99)

LookingatthoseAfrican naiads,theyounggirlnotonlyexperiences masturbation,

butalso revealsherwilltohavea realsexualencounter withthem.Thispassage
focuseson thesexualarousalstirredup bythesightofnakedwomen.However,
it onlyportrayslesbiandesireas a fantasy.
Thereare twolevelsofnarration at
work.On theonehand,thetextis an accountofa captivating sceneobservedby
theyounggirl.On theotherhand,itis an imaginary oflesbian
representation
yearnings markedbytheinternalization ofsensationsthattheyounggirlwould
feelif giventhe chanceto experienceforbidden sexuality.The consistent
use

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178 X RESEARCH IN AFRICAN LITERATURES® VOLUME 40 NUMBER 2

of the conditionaltense emphasizes the unrealizable aspect of her homosexual

tendencies.The chimericalexplorationof lesbianism also appears in passages
thatexpress women's sex appeal as well as the impossibilityto fullyenjoy same
sex love. The narrativescheme of the bath is at the core of the lesbian thematic:
"J'auraipréféréaller me laverà la rivière.J'yaurai peut-êtrerencontréces beautés
"
qui m'avaientdoucementenivréeset continuaientà m'occuperl'esprit Ί would
have preferred to go to theriverand bathe.Maybe I would have metthosebeauties
who slowlyintoxicatedme and were stillin mymind' (201).The bath is an initia-
toryritualthroughwhichtheyounggirlbecomes conscious ofhersexual identity
and her abilityto feel and give pleasure: "Avec ces danses me revenaitl'image
des femmesde la rivière,qui avaientrévélémon désir non assouvi de palper des
seins,des vrais,de passer ma main dans une chevelure"'Those dances reminded
me of the image of the women in the river,who revealed myunquenched desire
to touch breasts,real breasts,to put my hand in women's hair' (207). However,
Barry'snovel simultaneouslyexpressesand repressesherhomoerotictendencies:
"A regretdit la narratrice, jamais je ne verraiune chose aussi belle que la nudité
d'une femme"'Reluctantlysays thenarrator;I will neversee somethingas beauti-
fulas the nakedness ofa woman' (201).In Mariama Barry'swriting,thewoman's
body becomes a workofart:

Quand,plustard,je visdesexpositions de tableauxetde sculptures, mesdoigts

medémangeaient
j'avaisenviede toucher
lescontours,de m'attarder surlesformes. J'aitoujours eu
un contact sensuelavecl'art[. . .] dansles musées,je jetteun coupd'oeil
tactile,
furtifautourde moietlaisseglisser,
encachette, mesdoigtssurcesbeautés,tout
enayantunepenséepourlesnymphes de monenfance. C'estsûrement pourdes
personnescommemoiqu'ona inventé l'écriteau"Ne pas toucher. . . ."

Lateron,whenI saw paintingsexhibitionsand sculptures,myfingers were

itching
I wantedto touchthecurves.I havealwayswantedto havea tactile,sensual
contact
withart
In museums,I furtively
glancearoundmeand secretly letmyfingers slideon
aboutthenymphs
thesebeautieswhilethinking ofmychildhood.Itis certainly
forpeoplelikemethattheyinvented thenotice:"Do nottouch " (208)

The narratorplays with the mythologicaland anatomicacceptationsof the word

nymphs. In French,the mythologicalacceptationrefersto Zeus's daughterswho
live in therivers.In anatomy,thepluraluse ofthisword refersto thelabia minora
and the vulva. Same sex desire is indeed part of the narrativeprocess. However,
"the tactile contact"between the narratorand the nymphis described through
the distortedlenses of culturaltaboo and constraint:"Ne pas toucher"'Do not
by a social
touch' is a clear indicationthatthe discourse on desire is infiltrated
discourse,whichopposes femalehomosexuality.Throughsuggestivewritingthat
playswiththecorrespondencebetweentheblackwoman'sbody and a workofart,
the Guinean novelistrelies on an allusive sexual vocabulary.Same-sex love can-
notbe claimed in a milieu where compulsoryheterosexualityprevails.Same-sex
love is encaged in prohibitionistrhetoric.Therefore,La petitePeuledoes not allow
envisioningfemalehomosexualityas a real eroticexperiencebecause itchallenges

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 NATHALIEETOKE * 179

and Africanculturalvalues.In theend,thisnoveldepictsa kindof

patriarchy
whichaccording
sexuality, toGeorgeBastide

estcontrôlée,quirencontre desobstacles, qui se heurteà descontraintes, cen'est

pas le du
principe plaisir,c'estla sexualitésocialisée,cellequi estrepenséepar
l'âmecollective,cellequi estdevenueun riteagrégation, et où les sentiments
sous-jacents moinsvoluptueux
sont que la reconnaissance de la solidarité
entre
des groupes.

is controlled,
whichencounters obstacles, whichcomesup againstrestraints,it
is notthepleasureprinciple,
itis a socializedsexuality,onewhichis rethought
bythecollective soul,onewhichis a collectiveritual,and whereinternalfeel-
ingsare less voluptuousthantherecognition of solidarity
betweengroups.
(233-34)

Thewriting ofa "socializedsexuality"leadsto thenarrative repression ofsame-

sexeroticism. Forthisreason,in thenovelwoman'slifeexperiences appeartobe
an act ofself-denial. Femalehomosexuality is confinedto therealmoffantasy
and endsup sinkingin thechaosofinterdiction. Theissueofsexualfreedom is
unresolvedand thefemalenarrator does notexercisehereroticpower.She con-
cedestoherfrustration, renderingherself resolute.Thisattitudecouldbe seenas
problematic, disconcerting and pessimistic becauseitdoesnotoffer anyperspec-
tiveofsexualsatisfaction. However,becauseofthesocial,culturaland political
environment in whichthenarrative takesplace,fantasy couldbe seenas a form
ofcamouflage. Itis an ingeniousliterary trickthatcombinesa longingtotelland
experiencesame-sexlove withthe omnipresence of compulsory heterosexual-
ity,something that has been internalized by the writingsubject.Whatmatters
themostarethewaysin whichBarry'swriting engagetheidea oflesbiandesire
through a carefuldisplayofthetension betweentheindividual andthecollectivity.
Whilethesightofnakedwomen'sbodiesinBarry'snovelinitiates same-sex
desire,in Bugul'sRiwanou le chemin desable(1999)homoeroticism resultsfrom
a situationof lack and frustration createdby a polygamousmarriage.Female
homosexuality/bisexuality is atfirst
a palliativetotheabsenceofphallus.Itis not
mentioned froman advocating orsympathetic viewpoint. TheSerigne's13spouses
areforcedtoexercisetheirsexualdrivesby"se nourrissant de plaisanteriesero-
tiquesqui attisaientencoreleurattente" 'feedingthemselveswith eroticjokesthat
fueltheirwait'(207)andbyobserving BoussoNiang'slasciviousdances:
CetteBoussoNiangn'étant nila filleduSerigne,nisonépouse,étaitainsilibérée
de l'appartenance à une structure familialecodéeet codifiéepardes attitudes
rigideset figées Quand les épousesdu Serigne. . . s'adonnaient aveccan-
deurà la broderie à la main,elleexécutaitdes danseserotiquesqui arrachaient
à celles-cides exclamationsfaussement indignéesetdes tortillementsexcités.

SinceBoussoNiangwas neitherthedaughteroftheSerignenorhis spouse,

shewas freedfroma familystructure encodedand codifiedbyrigidand fos-
silizedattitudes WhenthespousesoftheSerignewereembroidering, she
performed eroticdancesthatevokedfakeindignant
exclamationsandaroused
wrigglesoutofthem.(88-89)

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180 * RESEARCHIN AFRICANLITERATURES
Φ VOLUME40 NUMBER2

This characteris solelydescribedfroma sexual perspective. She is an erotic

outlet.Thesightofherbodyin motionproducesa cathartic Itwakensand
effect.
freesa femaledesireleftin fallow:"Ces attitudes
... les menaientaux confinsde
l'excitation"
'Hermanners. . . tookthemtotheconfines ofsexualexcitement'(89).
Adoptinga sensualbodylanguage,shedancesfortheotherwomen:
BoussoNiangappuyaitses mainssurses cuissespleinesetle pagneretroussé
jusqu'àl'aine,ellejetaitses fessesen arrièreetimitaitles mouvements
de rota-
tiondu ventilateur Ellefinissait sa danseparunesecoussequi imitaitl'acte
sexuelets'enallaitcommesi de rienn'était.

BoussoNiangpressedherhandsonherfullthighsandwithherloinclothrolled
up tohergroin,shethrewherbuttbackmimicking ofa fan. . . she
therotation
endedherdancewitha jerkthatmimickedthesexualactandleftas ifnothing
happened.(88-89)

Thechoreography performed bythischaracter

is an imitation
ofthesexualact.The
mimesissucceedsinsofar as theviewersrelatetotheperformance. Theillusionof
sexualintercourseprovokesemotional andphysicalreactions. KenBugul'sdepic-
tionofa lusciousdancesetsup a narrative
dynamicthatunveilsthepossibility of
a sexualexchangebetweenwomen.Although same-sexdesireservesatfirst as a
meansto fillthevoidleftbyan absenthusband,Riwanou le chemin desabledoes
notsuccumbto thediscoursethatenvisionsfemalehomosexuality in termsof
LikeMariamaBarry,
frustration. KenBuguluses a rhetoric ofphysicalattraction
thatis subsumedwithintherhetoric ofprohibition. Therefore,
fantasybecomes
theonlynarrative escape:
Ah,cettefemme ! Elleétaitmagnifique Femmejusqu'auboutdes
etmystérieuse,
orteils. . . Xudiam'attirait dansla têtelebruissement
aussi.Jegardaislongtemps
serréde sesrangéesde perles,etparfois je m'enservaisaussipourfabriquer
des
colliersde fantasmes.

Oh my,thatwoman! Shewas beautiful and mysterious,Womanfromheadto

toXudia.Fora longtimeI kepttherustleofherbeads
toe... I was alsoattracted
inmyhead,and sometimes I usedittomakeup necklacesoffantasies.(108)

Quandje discutaisavecellesde toutescesbonneschosesde l'amour,ellesriaient

en battantdes mains,en soulevantun pan de leurpagne,se tortillant avec
malice,découvrant en unefractionde secondeun sexevibrant qui medonnait
desenviessecrètesetinavouables.

WhenI discussedall thosegood thingsaboutlove withthem,theylaughed

up theirpagnes,
clappingtheirhands,lifting uncov-
mischievously,
wriggling
eringfor a fraction
ofseconda sex
vibrant thatgivesme and
secret shameful
desires.(109)

Whilevoicingthepossibility ofa sexualitythatchallengestheheterosexual law,

thetextstillabidesbyit.Knowingthattheportrayal ofa forbidden
sexuality could
leadtoretaliationsorsocialbacklash,KenBugul'snovelcannotgobeyondfantasy.
In suchcontext,theimaginary approachtofemalehomosexuality is a convenient

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 NATHALIEETOKE * 181

narrative device,a self-defense systemthatonlyviews femalehomoeroticism

froma Utopianperspective bytakingintoaccountsocialcensorship. According
toGloriaWekker, "Sexuality cannotbe considered independently fromthesocial
orderinwhichitexists. . . thebiologicalbasisofsexualityis alwaysexperienced
and interpreted according to culturalvalues"(156).Indeed,in La petite
Peuleand
RiwanouleChemin deSablethenarrative desireofhomoeroticism is contaminated
bysocialand culturaltaboos.Thenovelbecomesa dialecticalspacewhereMar-
iamaBarryand KenBugulvoicelesbian/bisexual fantasies
without freeingtheir
femalecharacters fromthebodyofsocialnormsrelatingto sexualityand their
attendant ideologicalapparatus.
UnlikeMariamaBarryandKenBugul,CalixtheBeyaladoesnotexplorethe
possibilityofsame-sexlovethrough thepattern offantasyexclusively.In C'estle
soleilquim'abrûlée whichwas translated
(1987), intoEnglishunderthetitleTheSun
HathLooked uponMe (1996),Beyalahas a subtleapproachto femalehomosexual-
which
ity, is symptomatic ofwomen'swritings ofhomoerotic desire.Suchworks
constantly negotiateboundaries between what can
they openlyclaimand what
needstobe nuancedordisguisedin respecttoculturalcustomsand legalstatus.
Beyalasetsup an ambivalent plotthatblurstheopposition betweenheterosexual-
ityand femalehomosexuality. SomecriticsbelievetheCameroonian novelist has
used thelesbianthematic Irène
figuratively. Assiba d'Almeida writes: "Romantic
relationships betweenwomenarerareinAfrican women'sfiction. Theymayexist
inan ambiguous, metaphorical mannerinBeyalaC'estlesoleilquim'abrûlée andTu
Tanga"(95).ForRichardBjornson"Beyala's C'estle soleilqui m'abrûléeis
t'appelleras
thesurrealisticaccountofa youngwoman'slesbianyearnings in a big-city
slum"
(416).D'AlmeidaandBjornson bothemphasizeBeyala'senigmatic andproblematic
writing oflesbiandesire.
The SunHathLookeduponMe is characterized by an abundanceoffemale
protagonists whohavecomplexrelationships basedon feelings
ofbelonging toa
community ofwomen,andthestruggle forwomen'srights tocontroltheirbodies.
Sucha narrative couldbe linkedtoAudreLorde'sZamia NewSpelling ofMyName
(1982)and AliceWalker'sTheColorPurple(1982),whichportray emotionaland
sexualinteractionsbetweenfemalecharacters. ThetwoAfrican American writers
andpoetstrytotranscend a definition
ofblackfemalesexuality
thatfocusessolely
on sexualbehavior. AudreLordesays:
Itis nothavinggenitalintercoursewitha womanthatis thecriterion.
Thereare
lesbianwomenwhohaveneverhadgenitaloranyotherformofsexualcontact
withanother woman,whiletherearealsowomenwhohavehadsexwithother
womanbutarenotlesbian.A lesbianis a womanwhoidentifies fundamentally
withwomenas herfirst fieldofstrength,ofvulnerability,
ofcomfortlies in a
network ofwomen,(qtd.inWekker157)

Alice Walkerproposesthe conceptof "womanist"thatdoes notrejecthetero-

butalso envisionsplatonicfriendships
sexuality orlovingrelationships
between
women:

Womanist[. . .]
1.Also:A womanwholovesotherwomen,sexuallyand/ornonsexually.Appre-
ciatesandpreferswomen'sculture,
women'semotional (valuestears
flexibility

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182 * RESEARCH IN AFRICAN LITERATURES9 VOLUME 40 NUMBER 2

as naturalcounter-balance and women'sstrength.

of laughter), Sometimes
Committed
loves individualmen,sexuallyand/ornonsexually. to survival
and wholenessof entirepeople,male and female.Not a separatist,
except
forhealth xi
periodically,

Contrary toLordewhoshifts from sexualdefinition

a strictly ofthelesbianwoman
to a psychological one focusingon woman'sidentity and femalecommunity,
Walkercreatestheneologism"womanist" thatkeepsorerasesthesexualdimen-
sionwhileintegrating a racialreference infemalehomosexuality, bisexuality, and
heterosexuality. Without or the
beinginterchangeableabsolute, terminology used
byLordeand Walkershowsthecomplexity offemalesexuality, as itappearsin
TheSunHathLooked uponMe.The depictionofthemaincharacter's tribulations
preparesthegroundwork foran Africanwriting offemaledesirethatquestions
"theassumption thatsexualcontact is theonlyfactor thatdetermines whether one
shouldbe considered as homosexual"(Njambiand O'Brien149).
Ateba,theheroine, belongstoa community ofwomenmadeup ofhermother
Betty, herauntAda,herpeerEkassi,and herbestfriendIrene.ExceptforAteba,
all thesewomenexpresstheirdependence onmen."Weneeda maninthehouse,"
claimsAda (80).Betty"tooused to thinka householdcouldn'tcarryon without
theother"(81).Ireneexpressesherwillingness tobelongto a patriarchal family:
"I wouldso muchhavelikedtohavea houseofmyown,youknow?A realhouse
witha manandchildren ... heis theonewhogiveslife.It'shewhomakesmereal
and true.Without himI don'texist,I'mnothingbutan illusionand nobodywill
comeafterme"(111-12). Ada,Betty, andIreneremainprisoners ofa tradition that
subordinates therealization oftheirindividualfateto a paterfamilias. Theyneed
a malefiguretovalidatetheirbeing.In his absence,theirexistence is emptyand
meaningless. Although she loves women, Ateba has a different
totally attitude
towardsmen:"Malebodieshavemanagedtobringhumanity to itsknees.They
areoftheilkthatdestroys pillages,mutilates, butmanagesto washitshandsof
itall in thewinkofan eye,"she says(23).Atebais openlyagainstheterosexual
love.In herview,itis a submissive ideologythatkeepswomenundertheyokeof
patriarchy. Theheroine prefers women's company. Shehasstrong friendships and
emotional connections withBetty, Ekassi,andIrene.Shewritesa letter towomen
as a tokenofheraffection:
tothewomen.
Shetakesouta sheetofpaperanda pen.Shewrites
'Woman. Youfulfillmy needfor To
love. you canI saycertain
alone I
things;
don'thavetobemeanymore, I canmeltawayinyou,forI saythem to
better
youthantomyself.(41)

Atebauses the word womanin its genericand absolutesense. The "Woman"

becomestheessentialotherthatmeanstheworldto her:"I loveto imagineyou
bymyside,guidingmystepsand mydreams,mydesiresburieddeepinsidethe
desertofthisincoherent world"(41).The "Woman"is theone whohelpsAteba
grow and achieve personalfulfillment:"Youhavetaughtmepassion,thejoyofliv-
ing.Without you, I wouldbe but theshadow oflifethatapologizesforliving"(41).
TheSunHathLooked novelthatcontainsthecharacteristic
uponMe is an intimate
of"'a lesbiannovel'notbecausewomenare'lovers'butbecausetheyare
criteria

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 NATHALIE ETOKE * 183

the centralfigures,are positivelyportrayedand have pivotal relationshipswith

one another"(Smith8).
Beyala's storydoes not focus on the sexual aspect. Nevertheless,the lack of
sexual contactdoes not stop Ateba fromdeclaringher love: "Woman,I love you"
(41).Her mottois:

RULENO 1.FIND WOMANAGAIN.

RULENO 2. FIND WOMANAGAIN.
RULENO 3. FIND WOMANAGAINAND ANNIHILATECHAOS.(67)

The inscriptionin capital lettersof those three rules is a typographicsign that

operates as a psychologicalmarker.In Beyala's novel, the woman is the central
narrativefigure.She is also the object of a spiritualquest thatwould lead to the
woman's liberationand to the creationof a social structurecleared of masculine
oppression.Beyala's novel escapes all categorizations.The quest to figureout if
Ateba is a "lesbian"/"womanist"or a closeted bisexual is neithersuccessfulnor
useful.Due to theconditionsunderwhichthewriterproduces a nonheterosexual
discourse,traditionallabels used in theWestare notapplicableverbatim.I would
like to stress theirusefulness as excavatingtools of denial and contradictions
in orderto unravel Beyala's literarytacticsof writingsame-sex desire within a
social contextthatforbidsit.In the finalscene,thenovelistdefinitely blurssexual
boundariesand references. Therefore, thepreviouslymentionedlabels- "lesbian,"
womanist,homosexuality,bisexuality,and heterosexuality - collide:

Shehascrouched down,grabbedtheman'sheadandwithtwohandssheisbeat-
ingitagainstthestonefloor. Thebloodgushesout,splatters,sullies.Shestrikes,
shegivesa beattoherblows,scanning'Irene,Irene'and shestillnoticessigns
oflifeunderherhands,shepicksup a knifeandovercome withjoy,shebegins
tostrike,tostrikewithall hermight. Atlastthefinalspasm.Herkidneysgive
away,pissfloodthecorpsebeneathher.Withhaggardeyes,sheslumpson top
ofhim,outofbreath.
Trene,mylove Youshouldn't
havedonethistome.. . . Youreallygaveme
terriblescare!. . . Youhavenoidea Comeintomyarms Comeclose,close
tome... I loveyou '
Shekisseshim,littlekisses,shedrawsoutofhisblood,shekisseshimendlessly
murmuring hername,and dawnfindsherin thecourseofherlongkisswith
Irene.(118-119)

Ateba is the victimof an attemptedrape. She kills her assailant. By killing the
man she meetsthewoman again. Ateba'skissingofthedead man's body becomes
the celebrationof a woman's resurrection.In her delirium,a transmutationand
a transfiguration occur. The dead man turnsinto a woman while the maleficent
tone of the scene disappears. It is replaced by a beautifulfinal scene in which
friendshipand love reach theirclimax: "She kisses him, littlekisses; she draws
out of his blood." The vocabulary of violence- "She strikes,she gives a beat to
herblows"- is intertwinedwithone oftendernessand affection:"Irene,mylove,
come into my arms,come close, close to me, I love you." The heterosexualinter-
course is violent;it is a strugglebetween man and woman. The metamorphosis
of the man into a woman on the otherhand leads to a peaceful love scene. How

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184 * RESEARCH IN AFRICAN LITERATURESΦ VOLUME 40 NUMBER 2

can one read Ateba's "long kiss withIrene/'which seems to be the firstsymbolic
display of affectionbetween two women in Beyala's novel, knowing thatAteba
actuallykisses a dead man? Paradoxicallyher woman quest is achieved through
a man. In the lettershe writesto women,she says:

Therehavebeen timeswhenI havereproached youforyourdesireforman.

Today,I amrunningtowardshimwiththeflameofyoureyesandso I amlearn-
ingthatmyloveforyouwillbe mademoreserenethrough
mycontact withhim.
Woman,I loveyou.(41)

Male and femalegenders are confused.The textproduces a referentialblurring

thatpreventsthe readerfromlabelingherheroine,even ifa clusterofclues could
allow a "womanist" or "lesbian" reading. Commentingon the murder scene,
RichardBjornsonstates:"By her violentact,Ateba achieves the union forwhich
she has been yearningall her life,forafterembracingthe corpse as itwere Irene;
she regains the sense ofbeing at one with the stars,and the seas thatsymbolize
womanhood" (418). Two women kissing each other does not necessarilyrepre-
sentlesbianism.Accordingto Beyala's narrativelogic,however,thekiss between
Ateba and Irene seals theirlove. Strangelyenough,Beyala who is well known for
her stance against afrocentricdiscourse- which she considersto be a dangerous
ideologyaimed at perpetuatingwomen's oppression- hides behind itto refutea
lesbian readingofherwork:

je penseque ceuxqui voientdu lesbianisme dans mesécritssonttoutsimple-

mentdes pervertis carla tendresseentrefemmes n'impliquepas forcément le
lesbianisme.
Comment expliquer auxOccidentaux qu'enAfrique traditionnelle,
les rapportsintimesentrepersonnesdu mêmesexene se définissent pas en
termesd'homosexualité ? D'ailleurs,le mot"lesbienne"n'existepas dans le
lexiqueafricain.Jene connaispas d'équivalent au mothomosexueldans ma
langue maternelle.

I thinkthosewhosee lesbianismin mywritings because

are simplyperverts
betweenwomendoesnotnecessarily
tenderness implylesbianism.Howcanone
thatintraditional
explaintoWesterners intimate
Africa, samesexrelationships
arenotdefinedintermsofhomosexuality? Moreover, theword"lesbian"does
notexistin theAfricanlexicon.I do notknowofanyequivalentoftheword
"homosexual" inmynativelanguage.(Gallimore 1999)

In her contestationof a lesbian reading ofher novel,Beyala draws a distinc-

tionbetween"tendernessbetweenwomen" and "same sex intimaterelationships."
The semanticboundaries allow her to negotiatean ideological tensionbetween
the inscriptionof her Africanidentityand the assertionof the non-existenceof
femalehomosexualityin her native society.Such tensionclashes with a platonic
relationshipthatprogressivelybecomes an amorousone. Beyala's culturalcontext
preventsher fromopenly advocating homosexualityin Africa.Contraryto her
assertions,the subtext14fora homosexual relationshipbetween Ateba and Irene
exists.

Sheseesherbraidedblacksandals,herslenderlegscomingoutfrom underneath
white
whichis slitat thesides,herbreastsinsidea tight-fitting
herpinkskirt,

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 NATHALIE ETOKE * 185

herneck,hermouth.Shewantsthatmouth. . . shewantstogivehera
tee-shirt,
longkiss Shemovesonehandforward, shewantstoputiton Irene'sknee,
herbodytellsherthisis a sin,herbloodtellsherthisis a sin,
sheis trembling,
herentirebeingtellsherthisis a sin.And shestaystherewithhertrembling
bodytrying tocrushtheinnerthingthat'sdevouring her.Womanandwoman.
Nobody written
has it;nobodyhas said it.Neverforeseen.She is committing
a sinandnothing and nobodyexplainswhysheis committing a sin.Everyone
hassomething tosayaboutthesubject.Shesays:'It'sbecauseofAdamandEve?
A myth. A continuation
ofchildhood.'(107)

The acuteness of the description highlightsIrene's attractivephysique (legs,

breasts,neck,and mouth)and Ateba's sexual excitement:"She is trembling."The
recurrenceofthe verb"to want" and the objectofherquest, "thatmouth,"shows
lesbian yearningsat work in the narrativeprocess. The woman's body is a real
objectofdesire.Contraryto Mariama Barryand Ken Bugul,CalixtheBeyala does
not portraysame-sex relationshipas a wish-fulfilling fantasy.She writesabout
a loving union between "women and women." However, the discourse on this
union is alteredby thereligiousdiscoursethatittriesto challenge.The antibiblical
rhetoricfailsin its attemptto demystifythe idea of "sin."Ateba is not freedfrom
the Judeo-Christiandiscourse thatcondemns thatkind of sexuality:"She stays
therewithhertremblingbody tryingto crushtheinnerthingthat'sdevouringher."
Commentingon the ambivalence of the depiction of female relationships
in Beyala's novels,Makuchi Nfa-Abbenyialso emphasizes the equivocal attitude
of the critics:"Some critics. . . have condemned a writerlike Beyala forcreating
characterwith 'homosexual tendencies/while othersclaim thatwhat she writes
about is not really homosexualitybut strongfriendshipbetween women" (30).
Condemning the novelist or reading the ties between her main characterand
Irène as platonicpreventsthe criticfromrealizing thatin Beyala's work,female
- whether
friendship activelyhomosexual or not- stilldisplaysthepossibilityof
same-sex love. Nfa-Abbenyiasserts: "Beyala uses the characterof Ateba to ques-
tionthesilences(specificallywomen'ssilences)and prohibitionsthatformillennia
have repressedand suppressed homosexualityin language,beliefs,customsand
cultureofherpeople" (29).On the contrary, I do notthinkthatBeyala challenges
the silent and social repression that characterizesthe lesbian issue in Africa.
Same-sex relationscould, according to Ateba, end up in "tragicrealms of hap-
piness" (77). In otherwords,the cost of lesbian love is death. The ambiguitiesof
women'srelationshipsin TheSun HathLookeduponMe "do not see homosexuality
as incompatibleor excludingheterosexuality.This observationis key forunder-
standingAfricanpatternsofsexuality"(Murrayand Roscoe 98).However,itis also
emblematicof a desire to express anotherkind of femalesexualitythatremains
a prisonerofthenorm.
Beyala's approachto homoeroticismis complexand problematic.The gender
blurringat the end of her novel thickensthe understandingof the plot. Female
homosexualityresultsfroma gruesome scene,the depictionof a dead man who
becomes a beautifulwoman. Barryand Bugul confinefemalehomosexualityto
the realm of fantasydue to the interpénétration of discourse on lesbian desire
and social heterosexualdiscourse that forbidsit. This observationcompels me
to followJudithButler'sanalyses in "MelancholyGender/RefusedIdentification."

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186 * RESEARCH IN AFRICAN LITERATURESΦ VOLUME 40 NUMBER 2

Based on SigmundFreud'sworkson mourningand melancholia,Butlerdevelops a

theoryaboutthemelancholicnatureofhomosexualdesirewithina predominantly
heterosexualsociety:

If we acceptthatthenotionthattheprohibition on homosexuality operates

throughout a largely
heterosexualcultureas oneofitsdefining then
operations,
thelossofhomosexual objectsandaims. . . wouldappeartobe foreclosed from
thestart.I say"foreclosed"tosuggestthatthisis a preemptive loss,mourning
forunlivedpossibilities.Ifthisloveis fromthestartoutofthequestion,then
itcannothappen,andifitdoes,itcertainly didnot.Ifitdoes,ithappensunder
theofficialsignofitsprohibitions,
we mightexpecta culturally prevalentform
ofmelancholia, onewhichsignalstheinternalization oftheungrieved andthe
ungrievable homosexualcathexis.(139)

In Africansocieties,the lesbian desire is a still-borndesire thatonly exists

throughitsnegationand itsprohibition.Female charactersare mourninga desire
thatis alreadycondemnedat theverybeginningofitsinception,fromthemoment
of its utterance.Therefore,"the act of renouncinghomosexualitythus paradoxi-
cally strengthenshomosexuality,but it strengthenshomosexualitypreciselyas
the power of renunciation.Renunciationthus becomes the aim of satisfaction"
(Butler143).The taboo is liftedon voicinghomosexual tendenciesand fantasies.
Yet,thetaboo oftheact remainsbecause thewriteravoids thenarrationofexplicit
sexual acts between two women. Under these circumstances,sayingis notdoing.
Because "homosexualitymust never exclude heterosexuality"(Murrayand Ros-
coe 99),thewoman's eroticsubjectivityis the locus ofa tensionbetweenthe wish
to writea lesbian desire and the internalizationof compulsoryheterosexuality.
Henceforththeomnipresenceofan oneiricapproachto femalehomosexualitythat
underminesthe non-realizationof forbiddensexual behavior.
Accordingto Audre Lorde,a woman's selfawareness about hereroticpower
should lead to a definitiveassertionofthe self:"In touchwiththeerotic,I become
less willingto acceptpowerlessness,or those othersupplied statesofbeing which
are notnativeto me,such as resignation,despair,self-effacement, depression,self-
denial" (58). However,in the novels studied here,the literaryattemptsto portray
homosexualityor bisexuality,which at firstshow the freeingpower of eroticism,
eventually express frustration, self-denialand renunciation.Such an interpre-
tationis understandableas well as misleading. Indeed, in Barry's,Bugul's and
-
Beyala'swork,traditionalWesternand mainstreamterminology heterosexuality,
lesbianism,bisexuality- do not describe sexual identitiesbut it ratherdescribes
the transitorystatesof being thatthe woman subjecthas to undergo in orderto
negotiatehereroticpower withina heterosexualsociety.In such a context,female
homosexualityis notan "actbut a psychologicaldriveor predisposition"(Gáudio
117).The woman'sbodybecomes thebattlegroundoftwo conflicting discourseson
sexuality:individual sexualityechoing same-sex love versus collectivesexuality
advocatingheterosexuality. Therefore,thegenreofthenoveloperatesas a complex
narrativespace,whichtriesto advocatefemalesexual agencywhilebendingunder
theburdenofcustomsand traditionsobstructingthefulfillment ofa lesbiandesire.

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 NATHALIE ETOKE # 187

NOTES
1. Homosexualactsare illegalin all countriesexceptforBurkinaFaso,Bostwana,
Gabon, Côte d'Ivoire,Congo Brazzaville,Chad, CentralAfricanRepublic,Eritrea,
Guinea,Bissau,Lesotho,Mali, Madagascar,Niger,Rwanda,Sao Toméand Principe,
SouthAfrica.BehindtheMask (2006),http://www.mask.ore.za/,
2. BBC NEWS Africalive, "Homosexualityin Africa"(2002) http://news.bbc
.co.uk/l/hi/in_depth/africa/2002/africalive/2072057.stm
3. "Churchbacks MuseveniAgainstHomosexuality",Daily Nation,November
1999,http://www.sodomylaws.ore/world/ueanda/uenews05.htm
4. http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/africa/3955145.stm. More repressivelegislationis
now beingconsideredin Nigeria.
5. In 2006,a numberoftabloidspublishedthenamesofat leastfifty verypromi-
nentpeopletheyclaimedwerehomosexual,condemningthemfortheirbehavior.The
storiesboostednewspapercirculation, butwerecriticizedbythestatecommunication
councilforinvadingpeople'sprivacy.Thecampaignprovokeda nationaldebateabout
gayrightsand privacy.
6. http://www.postnewsline.com/2006/07/biya fuels anti.html
7. The terms"Woubi"and "Yossi" come fromtheCôte d'Ivoire.A "Woubi"is a
man who takeson the "female"rolein a male/malerelationship; a "Yossi" takesthe
"male" role.WoubiCheriis a documentary, whichgivesvoice to thelesbian,gay and
transgendercommunityin Côte d'Ivoireby displayingtheirwillingnessto define
themselves.
8. In 2005,Njambiand O'Brienpublishedan articleentitled"Revisiting "Woman-
WomanMarriage": Noteson GikuyuWomen". Theyfocuson thesocial and economical
aspectsofsuchunionsbuttheydo notaddressitssexualcomponent:"Whilethesexu-
alityof thewomeninvolvedin woman-womanmarriagesis clearlyone of themost
interestingunresolvedissueon thetopic,theHumanSubjectsReviewBoardreviewing
theresearchproposaldecidedthatthetopicwas too sensitive,and therefore declare
suchquestionsofflimits"(163).
9. AccordingtoOgunyemi,"Asa womanwithherown peculiarburden,knowing
thatshe is deprivedofherrightsbysexistattitudesin theblackdomesticdomainand
byEuro-American patriarchy inthepublicsphere;as a memberofa racethatfeelspow-
erlessand undersiege,withlittleesteemin theworld-the blackfemalenovelistcannot
wholeheartedly joinforceswithwhitefeminists tofighta battleagainstpatriarchy that,
givenherunderstanding and experience,is absurd.So she is a womanistbecause of
herracialand sexual predicament"(1985/86:79)
10. Accordingto PatriciaHill-Collins,"Black women constitutean oppressed
group.As a collectivity,US Blackwomenparticipate in dialecticalrelationship linking
African-American women'soppressionand activism.... As long as Blackwomen's
subordinationwithinintersecting oppressionsof race,class, gender,sexuality,and
nationspersists,Blackfeminism as an activistresponsetothatoppressionwillremain
needed" (22).Froma Blackfeministstandpoint:"Because African-American women
expressa rangeofsexualities,includingcelibate,heterosexual,lesbian,and bisexual,
withvaryingformsofsexualexpressionchangingthroughan individual'slifecourse,
Blackwomen'sself-definitions becomeessential"(131).
11. Translations ofquotesand otherFrenchmaterialaremyown,unlessotherwise
indicated.
12. "Serigne"is a Woloftermwithseveralmeanings.Theprimarymeaningis Mus-
lim teacher,and thewordis theequivalentof "malam"(Hausa), "modibo"(Malinke),
or"Tierno/Alf a" (Pulaar).A "serigne"is a personwho teachesin the"daara"(Qu'ranic
school).An examplewould be Thiernoin C. H. Kane's L'aventure ambiguë(1961).By
extension,the termcame to mean Muslim spiritualguide. In this case, he usually

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188 * RESEARCH IN AFRICAN LITERATURESΦ VOLUME 40 NUMBER 2

belongsto a "religiousfamily"and is notnecessarilya teacher.His titleis something

he inheritsfromhisparents.SomeofsuchreligiousfamiliesinSenegalaretheMbacke-
Mbacke(fromTouba),theSy (Tivaouone),theKunta,etc.Theytendmoreand moreto
playpoliticalroles,and are veryactivein thebusinessfield.However,"serigne"also
meanssomeonewho is believedto have spiritualpowersthathe uses to cure,make
talismans,practicesoothsaying, etc.In thiscase he mightuse exclusivelyknowledge
thatis based orbelievedtobe based on Islamorcombineitwith"traditional" African
methods.Such a personwould be also called "serignutariyakh." Thisis thetypethat
youwould oftensee in SembeneOusmane'sworks.
13. Accordingto Michael Riffaterre, a subtextis "a textwithina text.Fromthe
viewpointofthetextin whichitappears,a subtextis a unitofsignificance. Fromthe
viewpoint ofthereaders whom it to
helps perceive and decode thesignificanceoflong
narratives, thesubtextis a unitofreadingthatis a hermeneutic model"(131).

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