Unit 5 Animal Feeds and Feeding Practices

5.1. Feed Resources in Ethiopia

 Animal nutrition is the science of feed preparation and feeding. Feed is the most important factor that determines animal
performance and profitability in many cases.
 The largest operating cost in a livestock production enterprise is the feed cost.
 Farmers must supply the right amount of feed to the animals.
 Overfeeding is wasteful and costly.
 Underfeeding will decrease animal performance and profitability.
 The feasibility of livestock enterprises always depends on proper animal feeding and nutrition.
 Livestock feed resources available in Ethiopia are natural pastures, crop residues, improved forages and agro-industrial
by-products.
5.1.1. Natural Pasture
 Natural pastures are naturally occurring grasses, shrubs and tree forages.
Natural pastures usually provide more than 60% of livestock feed.
Grazing is the least expensive way to deliver feed to animals.
Natural pasture is of good quality in the wet season and so animals have plenty to feed in order to maintain their
productivity. Pasture usually diminishes in dry seasons.
Some common management practices in pasture to ensure continuous supply of grasses and legumes to livestock include
grazing land management, fertilizer application, over sowing legumes, etc.
Application of fertilizers (e.g., urea and DAP) in the pasture ensures rapid and succulent growth of pasture because of
increase in the fertility of the soil.
Weeds, pests and diseases should be prevented to ensure rapid growth of pasture crops.
The correct number of animals should be placed on a pasture to graze.
 Overgrazing does not ensure increased productivity of pasture.
5.1.2. Crop Residues
 Crop residues are the remaining portion of the crops after harvesting the main crop for human consumption.
 Several forms of crop residues provide the majority (greater volume) of livestock feed. These include straws, stovers, cobs,
hulls, chaffs, etc.
 Crop residues are generally low in crude protein, energy and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals).
 They are fibrous and of low palatability and digestibility.
 Supplementing them with improved forages (forage legumes and browse species), grains and other concentrates is often
recommended to maximize animal productivity.
 Their quality can also be improved by physically (e.g., chopping) or chemical methods such as treating with ordinary urea
fertilizer.
 Crop residues generally are not suitable for pig and poultry feeding.
5.1.3. Forage Crops
Forage crops are plants cultivated for their edible vegetative portions and used in fresh or preserved forms of feeding livestock.
There are two basic types of forage crops. These are grasses and legumes.
Grasses serve as the best and cheapest bulk feed for ruminants.
Grasses produce more yield per unit area than legumes.
Grasses are higher in fiber than legumes. E.g. Rhodes grass, Sudan grass and Elephant grass
Legumes contain protein, vitamins and minerals than grasses.
Legumes are usually used as a cheap source of supplement when feeding crop residues and natural pastures, for improved
productivity of animals.
Examples of legumes used for feed are Alfalfa, Vetch and Sesbania sesban.
The nutritive value and digestibility of forage crops generally declines as they mature.
Cultivated forage crops can be cut and fed fresh or they can be conserved for the dry season.
5.1.4. Agro-industrial By-products
 These feed resources are by-products obtained from various agro-industries.
 They usually supplement crop residues such as straw. E.g. Flour milling by-products, oil seed cakes, molasses and brewery
by-products. They are rich either in energy or protein, compared to pastures and crop residues.
 Flour milling by-products: are generally very palatable and are readily consumed by all classes of farm animals.
 Wheat bran, wheat middling and rice bran are some examples of milling by-products used as animal feed.

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  Brans: are pleasant-tasting feed to animals. They are also laxative animal feed. They can be used to supplement low quality
feeds such as crop residues.
 Brans are especially good sources of thiamine and niacin vitamins. They supply fair amounts of protein and energy.
 Cereal middlings and rice polish are lower in fiber and higher in energy than brans.
Oilseed cakes or meals: Oilseed cakes are the residues obtained after the extraction of oil from oilseeds. The oilseed cakes
have high protein, carbohydrate, mineral and nitrogen contents.
 Soybean meal, noug seed cake, cotton seed cake, peanut cake and ground nut cake are examples of oil by-products used as
animal feed.
Molasses: is a by-product of sugar industry. It is a good source of energy (54% TDN). It is low in protein (3%) and
minerals. It is an appetizer and dust settler.
Brewery by-products: The main by-products of breweries are spent grain and spent yeast. Brewer’s spent grain contain
good protein, fiber, and energy that can be used as animal feed.
 They are higher in fiber, protein, and minerals than are the initial grains. Brewer’s spent yeast is also a cheap source of protein,
minerals and vitamin B-complexes.
5.2. Classification of Feed Resources
5.2.1. Roughages: are bulky feeds. They are high in fibrous carbohydrates. The digestible energy content of roughages is low.
The digestibility of their nutrients is also low.
 Roughages are feed stuff which contain more than 18% crude fiber and less than 60% Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN).
 TDN is the sum of the digestible fiber, protein, lipid (fat), and carbohydrate components of an animal feedstuff.
 The high crude fiber content makes roughages less digestible than concentrates.
 Roughages: are natural feed for herbivore animals. They constitute over 50% of the feedstuff fed to livestock.
 There are two main forms of roughages:
 Dry roughage and green or succulent roughage.
 Dry roughages include hay, straw, stover, husks and sugarcane bagasse. They contain about 80 to 90% of dry matter.
 Green, growing pastures provide roughage that has high water content and low dry matter (10 to 30%). This is called green
or succulent roughage. Silage is produced from green roughage.
5.2.2. Concentrates
 Concentrates are rich source of nutrients.
 They have a higher nutritive value than roughages.
 Concentrates have a high energy content.
 Concentrates contain less than 18% crude fibre and more than 60% TDN.
 They are highly digestible.
 Concentrates are classified into energy-rich and protein-rich concentrates.
 Energy-rich concentrates: these are an excellent source of energy.
 They are high in carbohydrate, medium in protein (<18% crude protein, CP) and low in fat content.
 These concentrates have low fiber and moisture content.
 All cereal grains, roots and tubers are examples of energy-rich concentrates.
 Agro-industrial by-products such as bran, middlings, and molasses are also types of energy-rich concentrates.
 Protein-rich concentrates: Protein-rich concentrates contain more than 18% CP.
 They can be derived from either plant or animal origins.
 Oilseed cakes and meals are the most common plant protein concentrates.
 Soybean meal and cottonseed cake are examples of protein-rich concentrates.
 There are also animal source protein concentrates. Meat meal, dried blood meal and fish meal are examples of animal
source protein concentrates.
5.3. Nutrient Requirements of Farm Animals
 Feed consumed by animals gets digested and nutrients absorbed.
 Nutrients are elements, compounds or groups of compounds that are required and/ or used for animal nourishment and
performance.
 Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water are the basic animal nutrients.
 Nutrient requirement refers to the minimum amount of nutrients necessary to meet an animal’s needs for maintenance
(neither gain nor loss), growth, reproduction, lactation (milk production), work and good health.
 Water: constitutes more than one-half of the animals’ body. It is vital for all processes such as digestion, blood circulation
and waste elimination.

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  Water is the medium in which all the nutrients are dissolved. It regulates body temperature. Fresh and clean water is
important to animals. Farm animals need access to an adequate supply of fresh drinking water.
 Carbohydrates: are energy-rich organic compounds. They are the main source of energy in animal feed.
 The main source of carbohydrates in livestock feed are grains.
 These include wheat, maize and sorghum.
 Crop residues, molasses, forages and hay are also important sources of carbohydrates.
 Fats: in small amounts are important in the animal diet. Fats act as storehouses of energy.
 They also insulate the body.
 Normal roughages such as grazing pasture contain very little fat.
 Oilseeds cakes such as soybean meal or cottonseed cake are the main source of fats in livestock feeds.
 The energy needed for growth and activity is basically derived from carbohydrates and fats, though proteins also supply
some energy to the body.
 Proteins: are polymers that are formed through the combination of amino acid molecules.
 Protein is essential for animals’ healthy growth, maintenance and reproduction.
 Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. They are essential for the formation of animal tissues.
 Protein can be of plant or animal origin.
 Plant proteins in livestock feed can come from oil seed cakes/meals, pulse and legumes. Fish meal, meat scraps, etc.
are sources of animal protein for livestock.
 There is no storage of protein in the body.
 This makes it necessary to provide animals with the amount of protein needed each day.
 Excess protein is deaminated and converted into fat and is stored in the body as a source of energy.
 Minerals: are inorganic elements required in small amounts but are important components of the animal feed.
 They ensure normal and proper functions of the body. Such as good health of bones, teeth and tissues.
 They also regulate the body’s chemical processes.
 Minerals are subdivided into macro- and micro-elements based on the quantity required by the animal’s metabolism.
Macro minerals are required in larger amounts by the body. Examples are calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium
(Mg), potassium (K) and sodium (Na).
 Micro or trace minerals are required in small amounts. Copper (Cu), iodine (I), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and zink
(Zn) are some examples of micro-minerals.
 Although mineral intake accounts for a smaller proportion of the diet, any deficiency can lead to major metabolic
disorders and their excess intake causes toxicity.
 Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts. They contribute to functions like metabolism, growth and
reproduction. Red blood cell maturation, digestion, bone and teeth formation also require vitamins.
Vitamins can either be fat-soluble (vitamin A, D, E and K) or water-soluble (vitamin B and C). Water-soluble vitamins cannot
be stored in the body and must be taken in daily.
5.4. Feed Formulation Practices
 Feed formulation is the process of quantifying the amounts of feed ingredients to be combined to form a single uniform
mixture for a particular animal. The formulated feed should meet animals’ nutrient requirements.
 Formulating a ration requires having information about the cost and availability of ingredients, nutrient content of feed,
and nutrient requirements of animals.
5.4.1. Types of Rations
 Generally, there are two types of rations: maintenance and the production rations.
 Maintenance ration: The minimum quantity of feed required to maintain an animal is called a maintenance ration.
 Maintenance ration depends on the body mass and type of animal. When an animal receives maintenance ration, the body
mass will remain constant. Roughly, half of the feed an animal takes is required for maintenance.
 Production ration: In addition to the feed required for maintenance, certain nutrients are required for the production of
products like milk, eggs and meat. The feed that is beyond the maintenance ration is used for production purposes. This
additional feed is known as the production ration.
5.4.2. Characteristics of a Good Ration
 Ration should
 Satisfy the total dry matter requirement of an animal based on weight
 Provide highly digestible nutrients, including enough minerals and vitamins
 Be palatable to the target animal
 Be fairly bulky, to satisfy hunger and expel undigested material
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  Be digestible - this can be improved by grinding, crushing, etc.
 Be fresh and free from undesirable weeds and dust
5.4.3. Method of Balancing Ration
 Using the basic information on preparation of a good ration, there are many ways to ensure a balanced diet. These include:
 The Trial and Error method,
 The Pearson Square method,
 Substitution formulation and
 Computer-assisted formulation.
 The Pearson Square Method is the most well-known method of balancing animal diets.
 The Pearson Square Method: is a common method of balancing a ration for all classes and types of livestock.
 The method is used to calculate the portion of two feeds needed to meet either the protein or energy requirements of an animal.
 To make this tool work, one of the feeds used must be higher in Metabolisable energy (ME) or CP than the desired level and
the other feed must be below the desired level.
 The following steps show how to calculate for CP using the Pearson Square method.
 Step 1: Draw a square. Insert the % of CP desired in the final ration in the middle of the square.
 Step 2: Place the name of the first feed and its % of CP in the upper left corner. Place the name of the second feed and
its % of CP in the lower left corner.
 Step 3: Subtract the desired % of CP (middle of the square) from the feed CP % (on the left of the square) across the
diagonal and add the results to the right side of the square. • top left – middle = bottom right • bottom left – middle =
top right
 Note: disregard the negative or positive value of the numbers.
 Step 4: Calculate the weight of each feed by adding the two figures on the right and then dividing each number on the
right by this total and multiplying by the weight of feed required.
 The results of the calculation show the amount of each of the two feeds that should be combined to produce a
balanced ration. Repeat for ME as required.
Example 1: A farmer has home-grown maize (CP = 9.5%) and purchases Soybean meal (SBM) as a protein supplement (CP
= 42%). The desired CP for the feed is 16%. The farmer uses the Pearson Square method.
 If the farmer aims at preparing 100 kg of the ration in the above proportion, how many kgs of maize and Soybean meal should
be mixed?
• Maize: (26 ÷ 32.5) x 100 = 80.0 kg
• SBM: (6.5 ÷ 32.5) x 100 = 20.0 kg
5.5. Feed Conservation and Compound Feed Manufacturing
5.5.1. Feed Conservation
 Livestock must be fed all year round. Green or succulent feed is only available at certain times of the year. Forage
production decreases during dry periods.
 Forage can be conserved to feed livestock during periods of shortage.
 Conservation enhances animal productivity by overcoming seasonal nutritional deficits.
 The common methods of forage conservation are hay and silage making.
5.5.1.1. Hay making
 Hay is forage harvested during the growing period and preserved by drying. The aim of hay making is to reduce the
moisture contents of green crops from 70 - 90% to 15 - 20%.
 This process of reducing moisture is called curing.
 Curing is normally accomplished with energy provided by the sun and wind.
 It is a method to preserve grasses, legumes and fodders for feeding at a later stage.
 Hay can be stored satisfactorily in a bale or tripod system.
 Various options exist for storing hay bales, be they small squares, large squares, rectangular bales, or round bales. The
baling process makes the compact cubical bundles of the forages.
 This reduces the requirement of space in comparison to loose or chopped hay.
 Tripod system a three-legged stand of hay. It helps to drain rainy water.
 Hay is the oldest and still the most important way of conserving feed.
 It can be made with little cost other than labor,
 Hay can be made with simple equipment.
 Hay is easy to transport and store.
 It can be fed with little or no wastage.

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  Hay is often marketed as a cash crop, usually baled.
 Hay has also some shortcomings.
 It varies in nutrient content and palatability more than any feed.
 It is very dependent on the weather condition.
 Late crop harvest also affects hay quality because it decreases the nutrient content of the feed.
5.5.1.2. Silage making
 Silage is the preserved material produced by the controlled fermentation of green crops under anaerobic conditions.
 The process of silage making is also known as ensilage.
 The main purpose of silage making is to preserve succulent feeds for usage at times of scarcity. Very good silage can be
made from grasses or grass-legume mixtures or fodders.
 Grasses should be harvested at head forming stage, while legumes at early blooming. Fodders at dough (milky) stage. The
crop should be wilted, chopped and stored in a silo. The process takes 2 to 4 weeks for the best production and feed intake.
5.5.2. Compound Feed Manufacturing
 Manufacturing animal feed involves blending several raw feed ingredients of different physical, chemical and
nutritional composition into a homogenous mixture.
 Cereals and agro-industrial by-products are the main ingredients of commercial feeds in Ethiopia.
 Compound feed may also contain salt, limestone and premixes.
Excersise 5.1. Calculate a balanced ration for broilers using the Pearson Square method
Selam is a poultry farmer around Hawassa. She has maize grain and soybean meal to prepare a balanced ration for her broiler
chickens. The maize has a CP of 10.5% and the soybean meal has a CP of 37.4%. Broilers need 23% CP for their starter phase
of two weeks. How much of each feed should Selam use to prepare 2000 kgs of ration?
Key terms:
 Bran: consists of the outer layers (cuticle, pericarp and seed coat) combined with small amounts of starchy endosperm of
the kernel.
 It is one of the major agro-industrial by-products used in animal feeding. Examples are wheat bran, maize bran and rice bran.
 Cereal middling are the product of the flour milling process that is not flour. Examples are wheat middling and maize
middling.
 Rice polish is a by-product of rice obtained in the milling operation of brushing the grain to polish the kernel.
 Laxative is a feed which ferment quickly in the stomach and therefore stimulates elimination of the bowels (wastes).
 Ration the amount of feed given to an animal to meet its needs during a twenty-four hour period.
 Balanced ration has all the nutrients the animal needs in the right proportion and amount.