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FUNDAMENTALS OF
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
FIFTH EDITION
This page intentionally left blank
FUNDAMENTALS OF
AIR TRAFFIC
CONTROL
FIFTH EDITION
Michael S. Nolan
Purdue University
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
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Fundamentals of Air Traffic Control, 5th Edition © 2011 International Code Council
Michael S. Nolan
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1 2 3 4 5 XX 12 11 10
CONTENTS
Preface xv
Chapter 1
History of Air Traffic Control 1
1903–1925 2
Early Aviation Developments 2
Development of Airmail Service 2
The Morrow Report 3
1925–1934 3
Air Commerce Act 3
Evolution of Air Traffic Control 4
1934–1945 10
Establishment of the Bureau of Air Commerce 10
En route Air Traffic Control 11
Copeland Committee 14
Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 15
1940 Reorganization of the CAA 16
The War Years 17
Civilian versus Military Air Traffic Control 18
1945–1955 19
RTCA Special Committee 31 Report 19
Air Traffic Congestion 20
1955–1965 22
Implementation of Radar 22
Budget Cutbacks 23
The Question of Airway Safety 24
Creation of the Federal Aviation Agency 25
vi / Contents
The New York City Disaster 27
Project Beacon 28
Controller Unionization 30
1965–1981 31
Department of Transportation 31
Continued Labor Unrest 32
Airline Deregulation 33
Controllers’ Strike of 1981 34
1981–2001 36
September 11, 2001 37
ATC Privatization 39
ATC Modernization 39
En route Automation Modernization 40
Air Traffic Controller Staffing 40
Chapter 2
Navigation Systems 44
Visual Navigation 46
Pilotage 46
Aeronautical Charts 46
Dead Reckoning 49
Flight Planning 49
Aircraft Instrumentation 49
Magnetic Compass 49
Heading Indicator 52
VFR Navigation 53
Instrument Flying 55
Electronic Navigation 56
Four-Course Radio Range 56
Introduction of Marker Beacons 57
Nondirectional Beacons 58
Automatic Direction Finder 58
Compass Locators 59
Visual Aural Range 59
VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) 60
Airway Altitudes 66
Airway Designators 67
Aircraft Positioning Methods 67
DME Position Determination 70
Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN) 72
VORTAC 73
Contents / vii
Area Navigation 75
Doppler Radar 75
Course-Line Computers 77
LORAN 79
LORAN-C 80
Global Navigation Satellite System 84
Global Positioning System 84
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring 86
GNSS Augmentation 87
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) 87
Ground-Based Augmentation System 87
Inertial Navigation System 89
Performance-Based Navigation 90
Required Navigation Performance 90
Special Aircraft and Aircrew Authorization Required 92
Instrument Approach Procedures 92
Segments of an Instrument Approach Procedure 93
Approach Navigation Aid Classifications 101
Terminal VOR 101
Instrument Landing System 102
Simplified Directional Facility 119
GPS-Based Instrument Approaches 120
GPS Approach Waypoints 120
Approach and Landing procedures 121
Lateral Navigation (LNAV) 122
Approaches with Vertical Guidance 122
Lateral Navigation/Vertical Navigation (LNAV/VNAV) 122
Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance (LPV) 122
Runway and Approach Lighting 123
Runway Lighting 123
Approach Lighting Systems 126
VFR Approach Lighting Systems 131
Chapter 3
Air Traffic Control System Structure 138
Airspace Classification 139
General Categories of Airspace 139
Controlled versus Uncontrolled Airspace 140
Airspace Review 140
IFR Flight in Controlled Airspace (Class A, B, C, D, and E) 141
Air Traffic Control Clearance 144
viii / Contents
IFR Flight in Uncontrolled Airspace 153
VFR Flight in Controlled Airspace 153
VFR Flight in Uncontrolled Airspace 155
Airspace Classes 155
Class A Airspace 163
Class B Airspace 165
Class C Airspace 169
Class D Airspace 172
Special VFR 174
Class E Airspace 174
Federal Airways 176
Flight Levels 176
Airway Dimensions 180
High-Altitude Redesign Project 180
Navigation Reference System 181
Tango Routes 182
Class F Airspace 182
Class G Airspace 182
Special Use Airspace 184
Nonregulatory Special Use Airspace 186
Airport Advisory Areas 187
Military Training Routes 187
Chapter 4
Airport Air Traffic Control Communications:
Procedures and Phraseology 190
Radio Communication 191
Simplex versus Duplex 191
Frequency Assignments 193
Radio Operation 194
Standard Phraseology for Verbal Communications 195
ATC Communications Procedures 204
Clearance 205
Aircraft Identification 206
Destination Airport or Intermediate Fix 210
Departure Instructions 210
Route of Flight 211
Altitude Assignment 211
Required Reports 214
Holding Instructions 215
Additional Communications Phraseology 217
Contents / ix
Chapter 5
Air Traffic Control Procedures and Organization 220
Separation Responsibilities in Controlled Airspace 221
Air Traffic Control Procedures 224
Military Use of Civilian Airspace 224
Air Defense Identification Zones 225
Foreign Air Traffic Control Services 228
Privately Operated ATC Facilities 228
Delegation of Responsibility 229
Handoff Procedures 230
Preferential Routes 234
Approval Requests and Coordination 234
Controller Duties in an Air Route Traffic Control Center 237
Flight Data Controllers 237
Radar Controllers 237
Radar Associate/Nonradar Controller 237
Air Traffic Control Tower Responsibilities 237
Ground Control 238
Local Control 239
Approach and Departure Control 239
Chapter 6
Control Tower Procedures 241
Control Towers 242
Flight Data Controller Duties 242
Receiving and Relaying IFR Departure Clearances 243
Operating the Flight Data Processing Equipment 246
Relaying Weather and NOTAM Information 248
Clearance Delivery Controller Duties 250
Ground Controller Duties 252
Preventing Runway Incursions 252
Protecting Critical Areas 255
Local Controller Duties 256
Runway Separation 256
Arriving Aircraft 260
Land and Hold Short Operations 265
Spacing Aircraft 266
Spacing Instructions 267
Runway Selection 270
Runway Use Programs 270
x / Contents
Helicopter Operations 271
Wake Turbulence 272
Chapter 7
Nonradar En Route and Terminal Separation 279
Design of Separation Procedures 280
Airspace Dimensions 283
Separation Procedures 285
Vertical Separation 285
Lateral Separation 290
Holding Patterns 294
Longitudinal Separation 300
Initial Separation of Aircraft 308
Visual Separation 315
Chapter 8
Theory and Fundamentals of Radar Operation 318
History of Radar 319
Development of Pulse Radar 320
Components of Radar Systems 322
Ground Clutter 328
Transmitter Frequency 328
Receiver Controls 329
Receiver Gain 329
Moving Target Indicator 330
Moving Target Detection 336
Merge/Tracking 337
Sensitivity Time Control 337
Transmitter Controls 338
Display Controls 339
Range Select 339
Range Mark Interval and Intensity 339
Receiver Gain 339
Video Map 340
Sweep Decenter 341
Types of Air Traffic Control Radar 342
Precision Approach Radar 342
Airport Surveillance Radar 344
Contents / xi
ASR-9 345
ASR-11 346
FPS-20 347
ARSR-1 347
ARSR-2 347
ARSR-3 347
ARSR-4 348
Airport Surface Detection Equipment 348
ASDE-X 348
Precision Runway Monitor 350
Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System 351
Development of ATCRBS 352
ATCRBS Display 354
Secondary Radar System Deficiencies 355
Mode-S 357
Traffic Collision and Avoidance System 358
Traffic Information Service 359
Computerized Radar Systems 360
Automated Radar Terminal System 361
ARTS-III 363
ARTS-IIIA Operational Characteristics 366
Versions of ARTS-III 369
ARTS-II 370
Common ARTS 371
STARS 372
Radar Data Processing 373
Display System Replacement 375
User Request Evaluation Tool 376
ERAM 377
Enhanced Backup Surveillance 379
Center Radar ARTS Presentation 379
Chapter 9
Radar Separation 381
Aircraft Identification 382
Primary Radar Identification 382
Secondary Surveillance Radar Identification 383
Transfer of Radar Identification 386
Handoff Procedures 387
Point Out Procedures 389
Basic Radar Separation 390
Separation Standards 391
xii / Contents
Radar-Assisted Navigation 399
Radar Arrivals and Approaches 401
Approach Gate 403
Arrival Instructions 403
ASR Approach 405
Radar Traffic Information 408
Use of Automation Tools 412
User Request Evaluation Tool 412
Chapter 10
Operation in the National Airspace System 417
Overview of an IFR Flight 418
Flight Planning and IFR Clearances 418
Coded Departure Routes 418
Traffic Flow Management Programs 420
Alternative Routes 424
Clearance Delivery 424
Phoenix Airspace 429
Ground Control Coded Departure Routes 431
Local Control 433
Departure Control 435
En route Separation 438
Miles in Trail Restrictions 443
Metering 443
Delay Techniques 443
Approach Control 445
Indianapolis Approach Control 445
Local Control 451
Example of a VFR Flight 453
Lafayette to Champaign 453
Overdue Aircraft 460
Chapter 11
Oceanic and International Air Traffic Control 463
International Air Traffic Control 464
Canadian Air Traffic Control 465
International Airspace 466
Airport Identifiers 467
Contents / xiii
European Air Traffic Control 469
Atlantic Ocean Air Traffic Control 470
North Atlantic Separation 471
MNPS Airspace Operations 472
MNPS Airspace Separation 477
ATOPS/Ocean 21 480
Trans-Polar Flights 480
Alternate Airports and Fuel Temperature 481
Communication and Navigation 482
Chapter 12
The Future of the National Airspace System 485
Automated Air Traffic Control 486
Procedural Separation Standards 487
ATC Modernization 488
Current ATC Initiatives 489
Departure Delay Program 489
En route Metering Program 489
En route Sector Loading Program 490
Procedural Changes 491
National Route Program 491
CNS Improvements 491
Communications System Changes 492
Required Navigation Performance 494
Navigation Security 495
Surveillance Systems 496
Air Traffic Management 497
Hardware 498
Next Generation Air Traffic Control (NextGen) 498
Major Components of NextGen 499
Trajectory-Based Operations 499
Flexible Airspace Management 500
Collaborative Air Traffic Management 500
Negotiated Routes 503
Improved Aircraft Separation 504
Additional ADS Functions 504
En route Automation Modernization 505
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