White Paper

Digital label
printing technologies:
No one size fits all

These days label printers are spoilt for choice. On the analogue side of the fence are flexography,
gravure, letterpress, offset, and screen printing, each with their own characteristics to help create
labels that stand out on the shelves. Similarly, the digital side offers several technology options, all
with specific attributes and features, making them more or less suitable for particular applications.

Perhaps because digital technologies are relatively new, compared with their analogue counterparts,
their specificities are less well understood, and label producers and print buyers sometimes fail to
see the wood for the trees, with all the dpi and picoliter specifications being used to convince them
of the superior quality of this or that particular process. But dpi and picoliters do not tell the entire
story. In a world with ever-shorter product life cycles, a proliferation of SKUs and a demand for in-
creasingly eye-catching and sophisticated labels to win customers and fight counterfeiting, digital
label production is arguably the best way forward to secure a profitable business. So it is important
to understand the intricacies of the different digital technologies in order to choose the right one for
each application.

The technologies discussed include those that are commercially available for professional label pro-
duction: Dry toner and liquid toner electrophotography, and UV-curable inkjet, which are the most
commonly used, and, for the sake of completeness, water-based inkjet.

1 Digital imaging technologies

1.1 Electrophotography

Electrophotography is the most mature and, with a market share of 85%, still the most popular digital
printing technology used in de label market.

In the electrophotographic process, first, for each process color and spot color, a latent or invisible
electrostatic image made up of dots is created onto the surface of a uniformly negatively charged
photoconductor drum: The print head “writes” the image by shining light onto those areas where the
image should be, leaving the areas that should remain empty, unexposed. In areas where the drum
is exposed to light, the photoconductor layer becomes conductive, and the negative surface charge
of the drum is reduced, depending on the amount of light used. The light source in the print head can
be a laser, which is either on or off, or an LED array with a fixed number of LEDs, the light intensity
of which can be modulated (see also Box 1). Lasers and LEDs provide extreme precision targeting.

In a subsequent step, the latent electrostatic image is developed by depositing negatively charged
toner particles of the appropriate color onto the drum. These particles are only attracted to the
exposed areas where the negative surface charge has been reduced (see above) and as a result,
the latent image becomes visible. Note: The higher the amount of light used, the more the negative
surface charge of the drum is reduced, and the more toner is deposited.

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 Finally, the image formed by the toner particles on the photoconductor drum is transferred to the
substrate, directly or via an intermediate blanket.

The toner particle can be a dry powder particle or a solid particle dispersed in a liquid (see 2.2).
In a dry toner electrophotographic process, once the image is electrostatically transferred to the
substrate, the toner is fused by applying heat and pressure to fix the image. Heat causes the toner
particles to melt and coagulate, forming a homogeneous, solid film adhered to the substrate. In a
liquid toner electrophotographic system, the toner image is transferred by the carrier liquid to an
intermediate heated blanket, where the toner particles coagulate and the carrier liquid evaporates,
leaving a homogeneous film, which is then transferred to the substrate by transfusion.

Figure 1a Figure 1b
Dry toner Liquid toner
Substrate Substrate

Imaging
Blanket
Photoconductor
drumc Photoconductor
drumc

Toner

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 1.2 inkjet

Of the digital imaging processes used for label printing, inkjet, with a market share of 15%, is the less
established one.

The inkjet printing process essentially comes down to a print head ejecting droplets of ink of differ-
ent colors directly onto the substrate to form the desired image, which sounds deceivingly simple.

The two main inkjet technologies are continuous inkjet, which forms the image by deflecting selected
drops from a continuous flow of ink, and drop-on-demand (DOD) inkjet, which produces ink drops
as needed to construct the image. Depending on the technology used to eject the ink, DOD inkjet is
further divided into thermal and piezoelectric systems.

In this paper we will only consider the technology most commonly used for high-end label printing,
i.e. DOD inkjet based on piezoelectric drop formation (UV-curable inkjet systems never use thermal
print heads as the chemistry of the UV-curable ink is not stable at the temperatures required to
operate these heads). We will further limit ourselves to the discussion of single-pass systems: In
single-pass DOD inkjet presses, the print head remains in a fixed position and the image is built up
in a single pass as the substrate is being transported underneath, in a direction perpendicular to the
print head.

a print head is made up of an array of nozzles, each connected to small ink chambers that are in turn
connected to an ink reservoir. These nozzles are typically arranged in several staggered rows, to ac-
commodate the minimum required size of the ink chambers, while ensuring sufficient resolution (see
Figure 2). The number of staggered nozzle rows depends on the print head architecture. In addition
to these staggered nozzle rows, most single-pass systems also have separate rows of different print
heads for each color.
Figure 2
A native resolution of In piezoelectric DOD inkjet systems, the ink droplets are ejected through the nozzles by a pressure
600 dpi (see Box 1) pulse generated by piezoelectric crystals in contact with the ink. When an electric field is applied,
implies a nozzle distance a piezoelectric crystal is deformed, which creates a pressure pulse in the ink chamber behind the
of 40 µm, which is too nozzle, which in turn causes an ink droplet to be ejected from the nozzle onto the substrate. as the
small to accommodate crystal returns to its original state, capillary action causes the ink to flow back into the nozzle, ready
the size of ink chambers to produce the next drop. Without pressure pulse, the ink stays in the ink chamber, retained at the
capable of holding the open nozzle by surface tension forces. Greyscale or multi-level print heads can generate ink drops
volume of ink required of different sizes (see Box 1).
to produce ink droplets
of the desired size. By The inks used for label printing are UV-curable or water-based. In UV-curable inkjet systems, the
staggering different rows, printed image is cured by means of UV light, produced by a metal-doped (e.g. iron or gallium iodide)
the desired resolution Mercury lamp or UV-LED. In water-based inkjet systems the image is dried by passing the substrate
can be achieved. over heated plates or rolls and/or by blowing hot air. as a result, the water in the ink evaporates.

Figure 2 A Figure 2 B Figure 2 C

A nozzle A row of nozzles Array of nozzles

Electronic pulse

Ink drop

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 1.3 electrophotography and inkjet imaging technologies compared

The outline of the different imaging technologies enables us to derive some of their strengths and
weaknesses. While there are many, we limit the discussion to accurate dot placement, substrate
conductivity and process reliability. While the text may seem skewed towards inkjet, this does not
entail any value judgement. as inkjet is still the less established process in label printing, we felt it
useful to discuss it in more detail.

1.3.1 Dot positioning and dot size control

all digital printing systems print lines of dots, toner dots or ink dots, in a grid determined by the sys-
tem’s resolution and addressability (see Box 1). The more accurate these dots are generated, the
more control you have over the reproduction of the original image. Ideally, the bitmap pixels sent to
the press are printed exactly as intended (see Box 2). as far as dot positioning and dot size are con-
cerned, the electrophotographic imaging process offers inherently better control than inkjet does.

1.3.1.1 Electrophotography: Accurate targeting, accurate transfer

By nature, lasers and LED arrays enable extremely precise placement of dots, the size of which can
be derived from the resolution of the system (see Box 1). Moreover, these dots, making up the latent
image, are also accurately developed as minuscule toner particles are attracted by a strong high-
voltage electric field over a very short distance, of the order of a few microns, i.e. in virtually direct
contact. and because there is also no speed difference between the photoconductor and the toner
dispenser, there is no turbulence, which could otherwise cause the toner particles to deflect. re-
gardless of the specific technology used, the developed toner image is transferred to the substrate,
again through direct contact, and again without any difference in speed between the components
involved: In a dry toner electrophotographic process, the image is electrostatically transferred to the
substrate in direct contact with the photoconductor, by applying an additional electrical field between
the photoconductor and the substrate. In a liquid toner electrophotographic system, the image is
first electrostatically transferred to a heated blanket, from where the molten image is transferred by
transfusion.

Figure 3 Imaging

LED dots on drum

Photoconductor
drumc

Toner

21 µm

No gap

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 1.3.1.2 Inkjet: Prone to dot positioning error

For inkjet printing, the accuracy with which drops are jetted onto the substrate depends on several
factors, including jet straightness and throw distance (the distance between the nozzle and the
substrate), which is, depending on substrate thickness, about 200 times the distance traveled by
toner particles in any electrophotographic system (i.e. 1000 µm on average). Obviously, the larger
the distance, the larger the possible positioning error. Besides, as the head is fixed and the substrate
moves, the air is dragged along with the substrate, which may result in turbulence, which in turn may
deflect the ink drops, depending on their size and velocity (smaller or slower drops are more likely
to be deflected than larger or faster ones). This effect is more pronounced the higher the speed of
the substrate.

Figure 4

Ink drops
on substrate

1000 µm

Substrate
21 µm target
21 µm

also, the print head architecture with staggered nozzle rows (see 1.2) complicates accurate dot posi-
tioning. For example, in order to print a straight, uninterrupted line perpendicular to the substrate feed
direction, the ink dots making up this single line are not jetted at the same time. rather, the nozzles
of the first nozzle row eject their drops, after which the nozzles in the second row eject theirs when
the substrate has traveled the minute distance between the two rows, and so on for the other rows
making up the print head. The position of the substrate is tracked by encoders, mounted at a certain
distance from the print head, i.e. the locations of the encoder measurement and the nozzles do not
coincide. In theory, these encoders could compensate for this distance, but in practice encoder er-
rors are unavoidable: Label substrates are somewhat flexible. Fluctuations in tension control, which
are inherent in motorized systems, inevitably lead to positioning errors as the stretch of the substrate
at the location of the encoder measurement may differ from that at the location of the nozzle. and as
this difference in stretch is unknown, it cannot be compensated. This encoder error has the effect
illustrated in Figure 5.

ok encoder error
Figure 5

Web Web
direction direction

Substrate Substrate

Page 5
Figure 6

Ink drops on substrate

21 µm

as a result of the above factors, the inkjet imaging process is inherently vulnerable to variations be-
tween the target location of a drop and its actual landing spot.

a common issue with inkjet printing, which further impacts dot positioning accuracy, is the forma-
tion of satellites. When an ink drop is ejected by a nozzle, it breaks off from the ink remaining in the
ink chamber behind the nozzle. Ideally it moves towards the substrate as a single spherical drop.
Looking in detail you will see that quite often the jet is made up of a head, containing the bulk of
the ink, and a smaller tail. Depending on the surface tension of the drop, its viscosity and its inertia,
the tail either merges with the head or breaks off, forming a satellite that drifts away from the main
drop. Because these tails are small, they can be easily caught up in airflows, causing them to land
elsewhere on the substrate, which is less of a problem in solids, but may be quite a quality issue in
other areas (e.g. fine lines, small text). Drifting tails may also contaminate the nozzle plate or other
parts of the system.

1.3.1.3 Dot sizes: The numbers tell the tale

In the electrophotographic process, there is very little dot gain, i.e. the size (and shape) of the printed
dots remains constant, due to the high viscosity and chemical characteristics of the toner (see be-
low, chapter 2). For a dry toner electrophotographic press with a resolution of 1200 dpi, i.e. a device
dot size of 21 µm, this device dot is typically made up of 10 to 15 toner particles with a median size
of 8 µm. On a liquid toner press with the same resolution and a median toner particle size of 2 µm,
completely filling a device dot of 21 µm takes 60 to 80 toner particles.

Figure 7 before fusing after fusing

Dry toner

21 µm 21 µm

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 as for inkjet, depending on ink composition and substrate characteristics, the size of the wetted
surface of a dot generated by an ink drop may double or triple in time, e.g. on a paper substrate, a
drop diameter of approximately 10 µm generated by a theoretical ink drop of 0.5 pL, at a resolution
1200 dpi, becomes about 15-20 µm. Note that today, however, no commercially available inkjet label
press can jet drops as small as 0.5 pL. For water-based inkjet presses, the minimum drop size is
2 pL, for UV-curable inkjet presses the smallest possible drop has a volume of 5 pL (1 picoliter = 1 pL
= 10-12 liter, i.e. one trillionth of a liter).

Figure 8 Drop size on substrate

inkjet

21 µm 21 µm

Table 1

ball diameter of calculated volume of Diameter of

particle or drop (µm) particle or drop[1] (pl) dot on substrate[2] (µm)
Liquid toner [3] 2 0.004 2-2.2
Dry toner [4] 8 0.268 8-10
Inkjet 2 pL 16 2.1 40-55
Inkjet 3 pL 18 3.1 50-65
Inkjet 5 pL 22 5.6 60-80
Inkjet 10 pL 26 9.2 75-100
Inkjet 20 pL 34 21 90-120

[1] Volume derived from perfect ball diameter (see column to the left)
[2] The final size on the substrate in case of inkjet is very much dependent upon the spreading of the drop when hitting the substrate.
This spreading is influenced by the surface energy, the viscosity of the ink, the drop speed and the absorption capabilities of the material.
[3] Liquid toner particles have sizes in the range of 1.5-2 µm, which corresponds to a volume of 0.0005-0.004 pL.
[4] Dry toner particles have sizes in the range of 6-9 µm, which corresponds to a volume of 0.1-0.25 pL.

Table 1 shows how toner particle size, drop size and dot size on a substrate compare. as you can
see, the ball diameter of the smallest possible ink drop is still 2 to 4 times bigger than that of the aver-
age dry toner particle and more than 10 times bigger than that of the average liquid toner particle.
The volume of the smallest possible ink drop is even 500 times bigger than the volume of a liquid
toner particle. The size of individual toner particles is not only smaller than that of a single ink drop,
but of an altogether different order of magnitude.

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1.3.2 Substrate conductivity

Dry toner electrophotographic processes are sensitive to the conductivity of the substrates used. For
inkjet systems and for liquid toner electrophotographic processes relying on transfer to the substrate
by transfusion, substrate conductivity is no issue whatsoever.

In electrostatic printing systems where the developed toner image is transferred directly from the
photoconductor to the substrate, the transfer relies on electrostatic forces, in which case the electri-
cal conductivity of the substrate is a crucial parameter. This electrostatic transfer is fast and should
be homogeneous, i.e. the toner should be attracted with the same electrostatic force across the
entire width of the substrate. Interference of the substrate with this electrical field should be minimal,
which means the substrate should have homogeneous conductivity – not too high, not too low.

For paper substrates, the electrical conductivity is influenced by both the moisture content and thick-
ness of the substrate, whereas for synthetic substrates only the thickness has an impact. To ensure
optimal print quality, the substrate must hold the proper charge throughout the toner transfer phase.
Controlling the moisture content is particularly important for paper substrates.

Note that the issue of substrate conductivity is not limited to dry toner digital electrophotography.
Some gravure printing techniques use electrostatically charged ink to improve the transfer from the
cylinder to the substrate. But as far as digital technologies are concerned, inkjet printing processes
and liquid toner electrophotographic processes relying on transfer to the substrate by transfusion, do
not have to control or monitor the conductivity of substrates, which is a plus.

1.3.3 Process reliability

It is fair to say that, for the time being, the electrophotographic printing process is the more stable
and intrinsically reliable of the two.

Although electrophotographic systems do have more components involved in the imaging, the pro-
cess can be controlled to a greater extent, provided all components receive proper maintenance
and servicing. Inkjet may seem simpler as far as the number of components involved, but almost the
entire imaging process is concentrated in the print head. Any malfunction of this head has a direct
impact on print quality. Let us have a brief look at one of the most important potential issues: Failing
or deflecting nozzles.

If the ink does not leave the nozzle when instructed, no drop is formed where there should be one.
Nozzles can fail for several reasons: As the nozzles are exposed to the environment, the more vola-
tile components may evaporate at the nozzle opening, increasing the viscosity of the ink up to the
point where it can no longer be ejected. A similar issue can arise due to sedimentation of heavy ink
pigments (e.g. TiO2 for white), clogging up the nozzle opening. Also, air bubbles in the ink may ac-
cumulate in the ink chamber behind the nozzle. Entrapped air bubbles lower the compressibility of
the ink. The pressure pulse generated by the piezoelectric crystal will then fail to eject the ink from the
nozzle. In order to prevent clogging and air bubble build-up, some print heads are equipped with a
circulation system that keeps the ink in motion. To remove dissolved air, ink is also treated ultrasoni-
cally before it is sent to the print head.

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The nozzle plate can also become contaminated by small drops of ink around the nozzle openings
(e.g. from small satellites), which may affect the straightness of the jets. Deflected ink drops or “side
shooters” are also caused by partial obstruction of the nozzle, internally or externally (e.g. by dust
from the environment).

Figure 9

Precisely because DOD inkjets do not eject drops unless actuated, they are vulnerable to evapora-
tion, especially of fast-drying inks, and nozzle clogging. The “open time” is the time that nozzles can
be uncovered and idle before they will no longer print. This is an important parameter of both the print
head and the inks, and should be taken into account. There are several ways to prevent clogging of
idle nozzles, but the most effective ones require operator intervention, as does cleaning the nozzle
plate, which is a very delicate procedure that should be carried out with the utmost care to avoid
damage. Unfortunately, operator intervention means halting the production.

To prevent the risk of nozzles clogging by particles released from the substrate (e.g. paper fibers), it
is recommended to use a substrate cleaning device. Electrophotographic systems are more forgiving
in this respect, at least when printing on label stock.

While inkjet press manufacturers have developed several systems to detect and remediate or com-
pensate for failing or deflecting nozzles, these systems have their limits. For the time being, inkjet is
an inherently more vulnerable system.

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2 Toner and inkjet composition and characteristics

2.1 Dry toner

Dry toner is typically composed of:

• Pigment(s), the colorant(s) used to achieve the desired color
• Resin, mostly polyester, a high molecular weight organic polymer that is solid and brittle at room
temperature. This resin surrounds the pigment particles and makes up the bulk of the toner.
• Filler(s), charge-controlling agents dispersed in the resin to either speed up or, if necessary, slow
down the charging rate and maintain the charging properties of the toner and fusing aids
• Surface additives or external additives, to further improve the toner’s properties
• Application-specific additives to achieve special properties and characteristics

Dry toner particles are relatively fine, in the range of 6 to 9 µm, with a median size of 8 µm.

As explained in 1.1, once the image is transferred to the substrate, heat is applied to fuse the toner
to the substrate: Heat causes the toner particles to coagulate (i.e. the resin melts), forming a homo-
geneous, solid polyester film.

A single layer printed with dry toner has an average thickness of approximately 4 µm, but thicker lay-
ers can be achieved by adapting the amount of light to create the latent image (see 1.1), without any
impact on productivity. This is typically done for opaque white layers.

2.2 Liquid toner

The liquid toner used in commercially available label presses is composed as follows:
• Pigment(s), the colorant(s) used to achieve the desired color
• Modified polyethylene resin with a low glass transition temperature, which makes it rubber-like
at room temperature. During manufacturing, pigment is kneaded into the resin and the particles
are reduced in size by tearing them apart, which causes the characteristic star shape of the toner
particles.
• Carrier liquid, a mineral oil that is highly chemically compatible with the polyethylene resin, as a
result of which it is partly dissolved inside the pigment-resin system, changing the viscoelastic
properties of the resin so that it can be transferred/transfused in a molten phase to the final sub-
strate
• Organic dispersants deposited onto the surface of the liquid toner particles in order to stabilize
them and also to charge them (due to the incorporated metal salt complexes)
• Additives, additional molecules that are added to the carrier liquid to ensure the electrical neutral-
ity of the toner system when a charged toner particle moves to the photoconductor drum

The toner particles in a liquid toner system are approximately 2 µm, i.e. much smaller than in dry
toner.

As explained in 1.1, in the final step of the printing process, prior to the transfer of the image to the
substrate, heat is applied. The toner melts and most of the carrier liquid evaporates. The toner par-
ticles coagulate, forming a homogeneous, flexible film on the substrate. After the image transfer, the
evaporation process continues. Any residual carrier liquid should have evaporated within a few days,
which brings the polyethylene polymer back to its normal state at room temperature.

A single layer printed with liquid toner has a thickness of about 1.5 µm.

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2.3 UV-curable ink

The typical UV-curable inkjet ink composition is as follows:

• Pigments milled down below 150 nm, stabilized with dispersing agents to keep the dispersion
stable for a long time
• Carrier liquid, a reactive solvent, typically an acrylate, containing monomers (chemicals with a
simple molecular structure that can combine with other similar molecules to form a polymer) and
a cocktail of photoinitiators and synergists:
- Monomers with monofunctional reactive vinyl groups, chosen from an extensive range of can-
didates to ensure good adhesion, flexibility, weatherability, smell, shrinkage etc.
- Monomers with bifunctional reactive vinyl groups (acrylic or enol ether functions) to ensure ef-
fective curing
- Photoinitiators and synergists to provide sensitivity to a range of wavelengths and to ensure
good curing throughout the ink layer: At the substrate surface, in the bulk of the layer, and at
the ink surface, where competition with oxygen is always a challenge as oxygen in the air slows
the curing at the surface.
• Surfactants to control the static and dynamic surface tension of the inks, ensuring homogeneous
drop formation (without the formation of satellites) and a good, fast and controlled wetting when
the ink drop hits the substrate surface

As explained in 1.2, under the influence of UV light, the ink is cured, i.e. the photoinitiators form free
radicals that react, i.e. cross-link with other ink components, the monomers, to form a polymerized
or cured film. The ink is dry when the cross-linking reaction is complete, i.e. when all components
have been cross-linked.

Figure 10

UV light exposure

Step 1 - Unexposed ink (the lines symbolize Step 2 - The UV light hits the ink: the
the monomers where the red part is the photoinitiators split in 2 free radical parts
reactive functional group, the blue parts (the orange and red parts). Note that not
are photoinitiator molecules) all photoinitiators did split in radicals.

Step 3 - After UV light exposure, one of the radical parts started a cross-link reaction
with the monomers resulting in a polymer where the red parts of the monomers are
linked to each other. Unused photoinitiator (blue part), unlinked photoinitiator residus
(red parts) and unreacted monomers are all potential candidates for migration.

High-frequency jetting requires low-viscosity inks. Water-based inks offer the lowest viscosity
possible (see 2.4). UV-curable inks have a higher viscosity, due to the chemical composition required
for the curing. These inks, however, do have a 6 times lower viscosity than UV offset or UV flexo
inks, which has several consequences as we will discuss further below (see 2.5).

A single layer printed with UV-curable ink has a thickness of 4 to 6 µm.

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 2.4 Water-based ink

The water-based inkjet inks used in commercially available label presses are generally composed
as follows:
• An aqueous carrier medium, making up the bulk of the ink (60-90%)
• Pigment(s), the colorant(s) used to achieve the desired color, dispersed in the carrier
• Dispersing agents to stabilize the pigment dispersion over a long period of time
• Humectants to prevent the water from evaporating when the inkjet head is not covered or idle
• Surfactants to facilitate drop formation (without formation of satellites) and to improve the wetting
of non-paper substrates
• Biocides to prevent biological growth
• Buffers to control the pH of the ink (CO2 from the surrounding air dissolved in the ink affects the ph)
• Other additives, such as chelating agents, defoamers, and solublizers

Water-based inks offer the lowest viscosity possible and they are therefore best suited for high-fre-
quency jetting. Low viscosity has, however, one drawback: adequate dispersion of heavy particles,
such as TiO2 for white inks, is difficult to achieve.

after complete drying, a single layer printed with water-based ink typically has a thickness of 0.2
to 0.4 µm.

2.5 Different marking materials compared

Different marking materials, i.e. toner and ink, have different compositions and characteristics. For
the sake of brevity, our discussion is limited to their interaction with label substrates, the look and feel
and durability of printed matter, and the sustainability of the respective technologies.

2.5.1 interaction with substrates

In our evaluation of the interaction of toner and inkjet with different substrates, we consider adhe-
sion and pigment penetration. adhesion determines if and how well the printed image stays fixed
to the substrate. Pigment penetration indicates whether or not the toner or ink pigments penetrate
the substrate. While adhesion should be maximized, pigment penetration is to be avoided as much
as possible, for two reasons: (1) it has a negative impact on color depth, dot shape and size and (2)
leads to inefficient use of pigments, i.e. more ink or toner is required to achieve the same color depth.

Table 2

Dry toner ep liquid toner ep UV-curable ij Water-based ij

paper substrate
OK,
Adhesion OK OK, primer needed OK
depending on porosity
Pigment penetration none none yes, primer needed yes, primer needed

synthetic substrate
OK, if substrate surface OK,
Adhesion OK OK, primer needed energy OK if polymer system present

Pigment penetration none none none none

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Paper substrates
Due to the chemical affinity of dry toner systems for paper or paper coating, adhesion is good, no
primer is needed. In dry and liquid toner, the pigment molecules are encapsulated in a high molecu-
lar weight polymer. These particles are too large to penetrate into the fibers of uncoated paper, let
alone in those of coated paper. However, the polyethylene phase of liquid toner is less compatible
with the chemical properties of paper or paper coating. Also, because the carrier liquid dissolved
inside the resin system still needs to evaporate, adhesion is compromised. As a result, liquid toner,
in contrast to dry toner, does require a primer, not to prevent pigment penetration, but to improve
adhesion. (Note that, on natural papers, applying a uniform primer layer to ensure uniform adhesion
is a challenge).

In order to ensure reliable jetting, inkjet inks have a low viscosity and the print heads are kept at a
temperature of 45°C to maintain low viscosity (typically 4-17 mPa.s). The viscosity of UV-curable
inkjet inks is about 6 times lower than that of commonly used UV flexo inks, so they can more readily
penetrate the paper fiber, which is why a primer is needed to avoid pigment penetration. As far as
adhesion is concerned, water-based inks can be applied without a primer: The components encap-
sulating the pigment particles are compatible with the chemical properties of paper or paper coating,
but as said, to avoid penetration of the pigment (and dot gain) you would need a primer after all. For
UV-curable inkjet the argumentation is somewhat different: For the ink to cure, the entire ink system
needs to remain at the surface. Any ink penetrated into the substrate cannot be exposed to the UV
light and therefore cannot be cured effectively. Releasing prints containing uncured substances is
dangerous. Therefore, when printing on porous paper substrates, a primer should be used to ensure
proper curing and adhesion.

Synthetic substrates
No pigments can penetrate synthetic substrates, so pigment penetration is not an issue for any of the
marking materials discussed here.

Due to the chemical affinity of dry toner systems for synthetic substrates, adhesion is not an issue
either. For liquid toner systems, however, adhesion is compromised as the carrier liquid dissolved
inside the resin system still needs to evaporate. Therefore, a primer is needed.

The adhesion of UV-curable inkjet inks depends on the relative surface energy levels of the ink and
the substrate. The higher the substrate’s surface energy relative to that of the ink, the better the wet-
tability. Good wettability is necessary to achieve good adhesion. Synthetic substrates typically have
low surface energy levels so, for certain substrate-ink combinations, a primer or corona treatment
increasing the substrate’s surface energy is required to improve adhesion, which has an impact on
gloss uniformity and image quality.

Synthetic substrates are impermeable to water. Water-based inks should adhere after evaporation
of the water, which can be achieved in two ways: (1) By using inks containing polymers, so that the
polymer film formed after evaporation of the water adheres well, or (2) by applying a polymer-based
primer compatible with the ink pigments.

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 2.5.2 look and feel

Depending on the application, functional or aesthetic considerations prevail. Without wanting to

oversimplify things, we limit our overview to image quality, gloss impression, tactility and opacity.

Table 3

Dry toner ep liquid toner ep UV-curable ij Water-based ij

Image quality (resolution) 1200 dpi 812 dpi 360 or 600 dpi 600 - 1200 dpi
Gloss impression on matte substrates satin satin glossy[*] matte
Tactility (3D texture) medium none medium-high none
opacity
White (single pass) +++ ++ ++++ +
Other colors + ++ +++ +++
[*]: Depending on the process, it is possible to achieve a more matte look.

Image quality
Image quality is a comprehensive concept and it would lead us too far to elaborate on all its aspects.
From our discussion of accurate dot positioning and dot size control, it should be clear that dry and
liquid toner electrophotography enable you to produce finer details than single-pass UV-curable and
water-based inkjet for the same (native) resolution (see Boxes 1 and 2), in a more consistent and
controllable process.

Gloss impression on matte substrates

The high viscosity of dry and liquid toner results in an average gloss (satin). The viscosity of UV-
curable inkjet ink is such that the ink flows spontaneously, creating an extremely smooth surface with
a high gloss. With or without a primer, water-based inks take on the gloss level of the substrate as
the amount of ink remaining on the surface is insufficient to affect the gloss level.

Tactility (3D texture)

Whether or not you can achieve a 3D texture depends essentially on the thickness of the printed
layer. UV-curable inkjet produces layers of on average 6 µm, offering medium to high texture. Dry
toner layers are on average 4 µm thick, which is thick enough to offer some texture, albeit less than
that of UV-curable inkjet inks (Note that white layers are often much thicker). Layers produced by
liquid toner and water-based inkjet inks are too thin to feel any 3D effect.

Opacity
For white, the higher the opacity, the better. The opacity of a color is determined by (1) the concentra-
tion of pigments (pigment load) and (2) pigment particle size. Dry toner scores well on both accounts.
White dry toner combines the highest pigment load with the largest particle size, offering white layers
of an opacity that is generally higher than that of flexo white, in a single pass. The pigment particles in
white liquid toner are of a similar size, but their concentration is lower, which results in a less opaque
single layer (Note that, depending on the machine architecture, multiple layers of liquid toner can be
laid down, one on top of the other, in order to achieve a better opacity. This does, however, reduce
productivity).

For UV-curable inks used in single-pass high-frequency jetting systems, the pigment particle size
should be small enough to avoid nozzle clogging. also, the required viscosity of the inks does limit the
maximum possible pigment load. however, inkjet inks are capable of achieving an opacity compara-
ble to that of screen printing, (1) provided the print head features a low native resolution, producing a
large-sized droplet (see Box 1), which is a disadvantage for design elements other than solids, and
(2) at low printing speeds. Note that UV flexo inks tolerate a higher load because, as discussed, for
these inks, low viscosity is not an issue. The viscosity of water-based inkjet inks being lower than that
of UV-curable inks, the opacity achievable with a single layer of white ink is arguably lower as well.

Page 14
 For colors other than white, in contrast, the opacity should be as low as possible. The smaller the
pigment particles and the lower the pigment load, the more transparent a color. Transparency also
improves with layer thickness: the thinner the layer, the better.

2.5.3 Durability of the prints

Ideally, labels last as long as possible, on the shelves and in use. Depending on their intended use,
prints should therefore be able to withstand scuffing and scratching, heat, water and chemicals.

Table 4

Dry toner ep liquid toner ep UV-curable ij Water-based ij

moderate, moderate, OK,
Scuff and scratch resistance OK
UV varnish needed UV varnish needed less than UV-curable
Heat resistance NOK, lamination needed NOK, lamination needed OK OK

Water resistance OK OK OK primer-dependent

vulnerable, vulnerable,
Chemical resistance not vulnerable not vulnerable
lamination needed lamination needed

Scuff and scratch resistance

The lower the surface energy of a material, the higher its scuff and scratch resistance. The thicker
a layer, the lower its scuff and scratch resistance. Based on layer thickness, you would expect dry
toner and UV-curable inkjet ink to have the same score, but because layers of UV-curable inkjet ink
have a lower surface energy than both dry and liquid toner layers, the latter two are more vulnerable
to scratching. adding a UV varnish to toner prints makes them as scuff and scratch resistant as UV-
curable inkjet prints. Based on layer thickness, water-based inkjet are expected to have the highest
score, but its layers are so thin that the scuff and scratch resistance of the underlying substrates
comes into play.

Heat resistance
Dry toner and liquid toner images are polymers fused to the substrate, so when heated, they can melt
again. applying heat-resistant lamination remedies this issue. UV-curable and water-based inkjet
inks are heat resistant: The polymers formed after the complete curing of UV-curable inkjet ink have
a high melting point. In water-based inks, the concentration of polymers on the substrate surface is
too low for the ink to melt and become sticky.

Water resistance
Water has no chemical affinity for the components in toners or UV-curable inkjet inks, hence their
good water resistance. For water-based inkjet inks, the situation is as follows: In order to ensure
proper dispersion of the pigments in the water-based carrier, these pigment particles are made hy-
drophilic by the adhesion of specially designed polymer molecules (dispersion agents), one side of
which has a high affinity for the pigment, while the other is hydrophilic (e.g. deprotonated carboxylic
groups increasing the polarity of the pigment particles and therefore their affinity for water). Making
water-based ink labels water-resistant requires the use of a primer that reduces or suppresses the
hydrophilic character of the pigments, e.g. a primer containing calcium salts.

Chemical resistance
Cross-linked systems are generally highly resistant to chemicals, which explains the performance of
UV-curable inkjet inks compared to that of toner: The resins in toner are mostly not cross-linked. ap-
plying chemically-resistant lamination remedies this issue. The chemical resistance of water-based
inks is due to the fact that these inks do not contain any components with an affinity for chemical
solvents.

Page 15
 2.5.4 sustainability

The printing business, like any other industry, is under pressure to operate as sustainably as possi-
ble. how do the different technologies compare when it comes to the production of chemical waste,
operator-friendliness and food compliancy?

Table 5

Dry toner ep liquid toner ep UV-curable ij Water-based ij

packaging, rinsing and

Chemical waste none excess mineral oils none
flushing waste
OK,
strong ozone filter
OK, VOCs from carrier liquid, VOCs from some
Operator-friendliness required and UV light
ozone filter required ozone filter required humectants
shielding (unless
UV-LED)
OK after full evaporation
Food compliancy OK, depending on type
OK and with specific barrier difficult of humectants
materials

Chemical waste
Dry toner electrophotography and water-based inkjet have one thing in common: They do not pro-
duce any dangerous chemical waste. By contrast, the bottles with ink residues, and the rinsings
and flushings of the UV-curable inkjet process must be discarded safely, as indicated on the safety
datasheets. as for liquid toner electrophotography: During the printing process, most of the carrier
liquid is collected in the press and is disposed of as chemical waste, part of it evaporates into the pro-
duction environment and part remains in the printed material from which it will eventually evaporate.

Operator-friendliness
all toner and UV-curable inkjet processes produce ozone during electrical discharge and curing,
respectively. Ozone is a potentially toxic material, but it can be detected by smell at levels significantly
below the safety threshold. Proper ozone filters mitigate any problem of smell or intoxication.
During operation of UV-curable inkjet systems, operators have to make sure they are shielded from
UV exposure.
as far as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are concerned: Unlike dry toner, liquid toner elec-
trophotography produces VOCs as the carrier liquid evaporates. Water-based inkjet inks contain
humectants, some of which qualify as VOCs.

Food compliancy
In a previous white paper we have discussed food compliancy at length, comparing dry toner and
liquid toner electrophotography, and UV-curable inkjet. We have argued why, as far as migration (the
transfer of substances from the packaging to the food) is concerned, dry toner electrophotography
has an advantage over the other two technologies.

Water-based inkjet has a good starting position as the ink consists mainly of pigments that have
no tendency to migrate and neither have the dispersing agents – very high molecular weight com-
pounds. The only potential migrants present in water-based inkjet prints are humectants residing in
the substrate prior to full evaporation.

In contrast to UV flexo and UV offset inks, it is difficult to formulate UV-curable inkjet inks in such
a way that they too are food compliant. To ensure sufficiently low viscosity, the molecules used in
UV-curable inkjet inks are smaller than those in UV flexo and UV offset inks, for which low viscosity
is not a necessary requirement. The smaller the molecule, the more likely it will migrate. Moreover,
for several reasons it is almost impossible to guarantee a 100% curing: The UV not reaching all the
photoinitiator molecules because the layer is too thick, the pigment absorbing UV light and thus in-
terfering with the curing, older lamps producing insufficient UV light, oxygen inhibition etc.

Page 16
As a result, there are potential migrants present: Unreacted monomers, excess photoinitiator and
photoinitiator fragments. UV flexo and UV offset inks typically include higher molecular weight oli-
gomers or prepolymers with sufficient reactive groups to reduce the migration potential. Unfortu-
nately, these increase the viscosity of the ink, which makes them unsuitable for use in high-frequency
jetting systems. So far, only one molecule has been found fit for purpose: VEEA or 2-vinyloxyethoxy-
ethylacrylate, which features two reactive groups and low viscosity. Most of the UV-curable inks for
high-speed single-pass inkjet printing use this component. The presence of this component is, how-
ever, not sufficient for the ink to qualify as a low-migration ink. Working with polymeric photoinitiators
is also an option, but this is more complex and expensive.

3 Conclusion

From this discussion it should be clear that there is no one-size-fits-all digital technology for label
printing. Wine labels do not necessarily have to be chemically resistant, whereas for industrial and
health & beauty labels it is a must. Pharmaceutical labels require extra fine print and food labels
should be ... food safe. In short: The technology that fits best depends on the application.

With ever-shorter print runs, there are productivity gains to be had from automated workflows, which
is exactly where digital printing comes into its own. As each technology has its own merits, ideally
you should combine several, or all of them, in order to be able to make the most of their respective
advantages and features. And the good news is: There are digital front-ends on the market that can
control different press technologies, supporting customized and integrated workflows, thereby offer-
ing you a fully integrated production set-up.

Page 17
BOX 1

resolUtion, aDDressabilitY anD bit Depth

In an earlier white paper discussing the impact of device param- For single-pass inkjet, addressability is determined by the print
eters on image quality, we have explained the concepts of resolu- head’s jetting frequency, drop size and (maximum) substrate
tion, addressability and bit depth for electrophotographic digital speed.
printing, concepts that we assume most readers are familiar with.
Below we briefly discuss their inkjet equivalents. as there are no
Figure 11
real industry standards, the meaning of these terms may differ
slightly from one manufacturer to another. So, the definitions we 1200 x 1200 dpi 1200 x 2400 dpi
provide here are for the sake of this paper only.

resolution

We use the term resolution to refer to the number of discrete dots

a print head can print within a fixed area, expressed in dpi (dots
per inch).

For electrophotography, this number depends on the dot size. a

system with a resolution of 1200 dpi places 1200 dots per inch
21 µm 21 µm
with a size of 1/1200 inch, i.e. 21 µm. resolution as we have de-
fined it, is a hardware specification. For inkjet systems, this then
corresponds to native or natural resolution, which is determined, bit depth
not by the dot size, but by the number of nozzles per inch in a
print head and, depending on the print head architecture, the po- The bit depth determines the number of output levels or grey
sition of the nozzle rows relative to each other. Native resolution is levels that can be printed.
sometimes expressed in npi (nozzles per inch), but mostly in dpi. Binary systems produce two grey levels. They print either “a dot”
(ink or toner is deposited) or “no dot” (no ink or toner is depos-
The higher the resolution, the higher the level of detail that can be ited). Such systems are said to have a bit depth of one (21=2 grey
reproduced, e.g. fine text, guilloches and hairlines. levels, i.e. black or white). Systems with a bit depth of four, i.e. four
bits per spot, bring the number of grey levels to 24=16.
Example: an inkjet print head with 360 nozzles per inch, and two
staggered rows in each print head, would have a native resolution Laser-based electrophotography and inkjet systems generating a
of 2 x 360 dpi = 720 dpi. The highest native resolution currently single size of drop are examples of binary systems. In LED-based
available for single-pass inkjet label presses is 1200 dpi, but most electrophotography systems, the light intensity can be modu-
inkjet printers typically have native resolutions lower than the res- lated, producing more than one bit per spot and therefore more
olution of electrophotographic systems. than two grey levels.

For inkjet, the number of grey levels is defined as the number of

addressability different drop sizes the print head can generate (incl. no drop).
So, a print head producing 4 different drop sizes, e.g. 5 pL, 7 pL,
We have defined addressability as the number of dots that can be 12 pL, and 18 pL, can generate 5 grey levels 1. Inkjet print heads
printed within a specific grid. These dots can overlap. capable of generating variable drop sizes are called multi-level
heads or greyscale heads. Nowadays, most high-end inkjet
addressability is defined in two directions: (1) The direction per- presses feature this type of print heads.
pendicular to the travel direction of the substrate and (2) the travel
direction of the substrate. For LED-based electrophotography a higher number of grey levels can, to a certain extent, com-
and for inkjet, addressability in the direction perpendicular to pensate for a lower native resolution, when it comes down to
the substrate’s feed direction is fixed, being determined by the producing smooth tone transitions. as far as the reproduction of
number of LEDs and nozzles, respectively, and therefore equal fine detail is concerned, however, there is no substitute for native
to the resolution. In the other direction, the number of dots can resolution.
be higher. For LED-based electrophotography, it depends on
the pulse frequency of the LEDs. an addressability of 1200 x
3600 dpi means the LEDs pulse 3 times in the time required to
process a line of 21 µm dots, i.e. each dot is being oversampled. 1
Note that, in practice, high-speed single-pass inkjet presses mostly use
For laser-based electrophotography, this oversampling can occur only up to 3 different drop sizes, i.e. 4 grey levels, even if more sizes are
in both directions. available.

Page 18
BOX 2

screening

The outline of the working principles behind electrophotography The aM screening is the “conventional” halftoning process, which
and inkjet explain how marking material is deposited onto a sub- arranges dots of different sizes in a grid, i.e. lines of equidistant
strate, but before the latent image can be developed by toner or dots. These screens are characterized by their screen ruling or
any ink can be sprayed, several image processing steps have line frequency, i.e. the distance between the lines, which is meas-
to be performed (calibration, color management, rIPping, ...). ured in lines per inch (lpi). To avoid image distortion caused by
at least one step is common for all the technologies discussed: interference between screens, the screens of the different colors
Screening. are rotated over a certain angle relative to each other, which re-
sults in the typical rosette pattern. The size of the dots is var-
ied according to the tonal values that need to be represented,
Why screening? hence the name “amplitude modified”. Smaller dots are used for
the lighter tones, while larger overlapping ones represent darker
Most printing systems cannot print continuous tone images as areas.
they can only deposit dots with a limited number of grey levels an FM screen, or stochastic screen, uses dots of the same size
(see Box 1). The commonly accepted industry standard for high- and places them in a pseudo random pattern 2, which may vary
quality reproduction of continuous tone images, offering suffi- from one type of FM screen to another. FM screens change the
ciently smooth gradations between any process color and white, number of dots according to the desired tonal value, hence the
is 28 = 256 grey levels (256 grey levels are indeed sufficient as name “frequency modulated”. Darker tones are represented with
the standard human observer cannot distinguish more than 200 more dots, lighter tones with fewer dots. Depending on the type
shades). of FM screen, the shape of the dots may differ and the halftone
dots may be woven together in worm-like shapes.
This is why the rIP converts contone images to a bitmap with
dots or pixels of 8 bits per process color. as the amount of in-
formation in such a bitmap is too large to handle, it is converted ep mostly uses am
to a bitmap containing dots or pixels with fewer bits per color,
i.e. 1 or 4, depending on the technology. This re-sampled bit- For historical reasons, electrophotography mainly uses aM
map is printed. The process used for the conversion is screen- screening, which was originally developed for conventional print-
ing or halftoning, which basically transforms a continuous tone ing technologies and therefore widespread. It was translated
image into a series of halftone dots placed in a pattern. For a to its digital equivalent, maintaining the same look and feel. as
continuous tone color image, all colors are broken down into the resolution of the first digital printing technologies was insuf-
the four process colors (CMYK) and any spot colors, after ficient for FM screening, electrophotography started off using aM
which the screening process is applied to each. Screening relies screening.
on the limitations of the human eye, i.e. it cannot easily distin-
guish small dots that are closely spaced. The goal is to find a When printing an aM halftone screen, the press will compose
dot size such that, at normal reading distance, the human eye each halftone dot of multiple device dots, the size of which is de-
is being tricked into seeing these dots as a continuous tone. termined by the print head’s resolution (see Box 1). These device
dots in turn are filled with many more toner particles (see 1.3.1.3).

am versus Fm screening
ij mostly uses Fm
There are several different types of screening, but we will limit our
discussion to two of them: amplitude Modified (aM) screening as explained in 1.3.1, inkjet, especially at high speeds, offers in-
and Frequency Modulated (FM) screening. herently less control over accurate dot positioning and dot size,

am screening Fm screening
random distribution eliminates patterns/artefacts, giving
especially suited for the reproduction of solids images a more natural look
+ achieves an offset look (some print buyers like the typical
+
no moiré, even when using more than four process colors
rosettes)
vulnerable to moiré effects vulnerable to graininess in flat tints
- requires accurate control of the positioning of the individual
-
more vulnerable to noise
imaging pixels

Page 19
two parameters that are essential for the reproduction of the rigid Note: At lower speeds, dot positioning accuracy can be better
geometric pattern and fixed dot sizes of an AM screen. controlled, opening up the possibility for AM screening. But these
low speeds are not used for high-end label printing.
Because it is difficult to control the exact landing spot and size of
an ink drop on the substrate, it is difficult to accurately build up
the AM halftone dots from multiple ink drops as these halftone
dots, by definition, should have a defined (shape and) size at a
precise location in the grid. Also, the staggered nozzle arrays
in the print head may induce a pattern of their own, interfering
with that of the AM screen. It is clear that FM screens, with their 2
Truly random patterns might actually produce unwanted ones, so FM
randomized halftone dots are much more forgiving. algorithms are specially developed to avoid this.

Page 20
aboUt Xeikon

Xeikon, a division of Flint Group, is a long- In 2015, Xeikon joined Flint Group to create a
standing leader and innovator in digital printing new “Digital Printing Solutions” division for the
technology. Grounded in the principles of qual- leading global print consumables and solution
ity, flexibility and sustainability, Xeikon designs, provider to the packaging and print media in-
develops and delivers web-fed digital color dustries. Flint Group develops and manufactures
presses for label and packaging applications, an extensive portfolio of printing consumables.
document printing, and commercial printing. These include a vast range of conventional and
These presses utilise LED-array-based electro- energy-curable inks and coatings, pressroom
photography, open workflow software and chemicals, printing plates and equipment, print-
application-specific toners. ing blankets and sleeves, and pigments and
additives for use in inks and other colorant
as an OEM supplier, Xeikon also designs and applications. headquartered in Luxembourg,
produces plate makers for newspaper printing Flint Group employs some 7900 people. On a
applications. In addition, Xeikon manufactures worldwide basis, the company is the number
basysPrint computer-to-conventional plate one or number two supplier in every major
(CtCP) solutions for the commercial offset print- market segment it serves.
ing market. For the flexographic market, Xeikon
offers digital platemaking systems under the
ThermoFlexX brand name. ThermoFlexX sys- For more information about Xeikon, visit
tems provide high-resolution plate exposure www.xeikon.com
combined with unique plate handling, flexibility and for Flint Group, visit
and unmatched productivity . www.flintgrp.com

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Lode Deprez which may appear in this White Paper.
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Digital Printing Solutions
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