MARIN COUNTY FREE LIBRARY

31111008532366

TERM
PAPER STEP BY STEP
Al! ou need to know about ► choosing a
^ject ► using the library ► taking notes
► making an outline ► preparing
■ notes and a bibliography ► developing
J presenting an oral report
Doi iald J. D. Mulkerne
0£
°^d Donald J. D. Mulkerne, Jr.
w Revised Edition
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2011

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Donald J. D. Mulkerne received his B.S. and Ed.M. degrees
from Boston University and his Ed.D. from Columbia University.
He has taught at Rockland (Massachusetts) High School, Catho-
lic University of America, Boston University, Russell Sage Col-
lege, College of St. Rose, and since 1950 at State University of
New York at Albany.
He is the author of eight texts and reference books and more
than twenty articles and research papers. Dr. Mulkerne has been
the principal speaker at more than 100 high school commence-
ment exercises, teachers' conventions and at management and
service club meetings. He conducts many workshops on written
and oral communications.

Donald J. D. Mulkerne, Jr., received his B.A. from Pitts-

burgh State University College, New York, his M.Ed, degree from
Bowling Green State University, Ohio, and his Ph.D. from the
University of Florida at Gainesville. He has taught at Sante Fe
Community College, has been a counselor in the Alachua County
Public School system, Gainesville, and was in private practice as
a psychologist.
He currently is with the State of Alabama, Department of Men-
tal Health, Division of Mental Retardation, as a psychologist.
Dr. Mulkerne has written numerous articles that have appeared in
professional journals and has been a speaker at workshops and
conventions.
THE TERM PAPER
Step by Step
DONALD J. D. MULKERNE, ED.D.
DONALD J. D. MULKERNE, JR., PH.D.

Anchor Books
ANCHOR PRESS/DOUBLEDAY
GARDEN CITY, NEW YORK
1983
Copyright © 1983 by Donald J. D. Mulkerne and Donald J. D. Mulkerne, Jr.
Copyright © 1977 by Donald J. D. Mulkerne
Copyright © 1964 by Gilbert Kahn and Donald Mulkerne
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Mulkerne, Donald J. D.
The term paper.
Includes index.
1. Report writing — Handbooks, manuals, etc.
I. Mulkerne, Donald J. D., 1951- . II. Title.
LB2369.M84 1983 808'.02 82-45487
isbn: 0-385-18231-7
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
THIRD REVISED EDITION
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1
CHAPTER 2 Choosing and Limiting the Subject 6
CHAPTER 3 Using the Library
CHAPTER 4 Preparing the Bibliography 12
39
CHAPTER 5 Taking Notes 49
44
CHAPTER 6 Making the Outline
CHAPTER Writing the Paper 55
CHAPTER . 78 Footnoting 61
69
CHAPTER 9 Typing the Paper 76
CHAPTER 10
Developing the Oral Report
Oral Report Checklist 95
A Sample Term Paper: Lincoln's 99
Assassination — A Murder Mystery
Term Paper Checklist 117
Abbreviations Commonly Used in
Reference Books 119
Index 123
THE TERM PAPER
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The Purpose of This Manual

This book is designed to help you write your term paper — indeed
any research paper for which you must plan carefully to find, or-
ganize, and present information from a number of sources —
whether this paper is your first or your twentieth.
It is a basic source of reference which will:
Help you choose a subject.
Show you how to get the most out of library resources.
Explain the purpose of the bibliography and footnotes as
well as the mechanics of presenting them.
Suggest notetaking techniques.
Guide you in developing an outline.
Assist you in writing a paper from your outline so it will be
prepared in acceptable style.
Show you how to set up simple tables.
Provide you with step-by-step procedures for typing the final
copy from your draft in the proper form.
Include a finished term paper to illustrate the various proce-
dures covered in this manual.
In addition to helping you write your term paper, Chapter 10 has
a very complete listing of ideas on how to prepare and give an
oral report.

Why Write Term Papers?

Why do college students have to prepare term papers? Skills in
English usage and experience in expressing ideas on paper in a
readable and interesting manner can be acquired by writing origi-
nal expository themes. The preparation of a research paper, how-
2 The Term Paper
ever, offers further challenges to you. It demands that you use
your library skills to gather, interpret, and report on facts and
ideas impartially, honestly, and clearly.
Preparing a term paper will:
Give you experience in locating information quickly and
choosing among available sources as well as acquainting
you with the library resources from which information can
be drawn.
Give you a broad and thorough grasp of the subject area you
have researched.
Teach you selectivity, for you will do much more reading
than writing for your paper. You must not only choose
from your reading what should be included in your paper,
but also judge the relative importance of that information
to your context.
Develop your writing skills and vocabulary so you can com-
municate more effectively.

What the Term Paper Is Not

The term paper is not a thesis or a dissertation. These two gradu-

ate papers go much more deeply into a particular subject and
require a great deal of time, effort, research, and an extensive bib-
liography. Inmany cases, statistical interpretations are made. The
term paper is less formal, shorter, shows evidence of some read-
ing background, contains a bibliography and rarely makes use of
statistical procedures or includes graphs and charts.
However, the term paper is not a popular novel. It should keep
to facts, treat pro and con data fairly, and present its evidence in
a scholarly manner that is interesting to read.
Neither is a term paper a mere listing of what several sources
have to say about its topic. This kind of writing is lifeless, boring,
and adds nothing to the knowledge already available on the sub-
ject. A worthwhile paper has form, its own introduction and con-
clusions.
Finally, a term paper is not:
A pseudoscholarly collection of footnotes which require the
reader to break his or her span of concentration by shifting
 Introduction 3

the eyes back and forth from context to footnote to con-

text.
A summary of one book or of what one person has to say
about your topic.
A carelessly written composition containing many errors of
grammar, logic, mechanics, and omissions of facts.
An attempt at original research of the laboratory-experimen-
tation type commonly employed in doctoral dissertations.

What the Term Paper Is

Your term paper should be an unbiased account of a topic

documented with pertinent and valid information in support of
whatever statements you make.
Your paper may be of the argumentative or of the storytelling
type. The argumentative paper attempts to prove that something
is right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or undesirable. The
storytelling type surveys a subject by drawing upon pertinent ref-
erences bearing upon a particular point, and then is written about
the highlights of what has been read, without attempting to prove
or disprove anything. The sample paper illustrated at the end of
this manual is of the storytelling type.
Documentation — the use of quotations — is a distinguishing fea-
ture of term papers. Each quotation must carry a footnote which
identifies its source since it is important in this type of paper to
know who said what. These quotations must be carefully selected
and used only when really necessary to bring out a point you are
trying to make. Too many quotations make for a choppy paper,
and your instructor will note that he or she is reading what many
other people think rather than what you think as illustrated by
your choice of quotations. Failure to identify quoted matter and
passing it off as one's own is dishonest and may well result in a
failing mark.
The term paper, while its content is drawn from numerous
sources, has the style of a well-written composition. Simply ex-
pressed, your paper will contain a short statement of its purpose,
followed by your evidence presented in a logical manner and ar-
ranged for smooth reading. The paper will be completed with a
4 The Term Paper
few appropriate remarks which summarize the highlights of your
research. Any conclusions you draw must be based upon your ev-
idence.
Furthermore, the language of the paper will be related to its
purpose. Are you trying to persuade, explain, relate, or entertain?
Once you have decided this, you will know the degree of formal-
ity your paper should assume and the kind of vocabulary you
should use. Using big words having many syllables without fully
understanding their meaning may result in wrong word choices.
Avoid trying to lengthen your paper by adding extra words just to
reach a minimum set by your instructor. Conciseness, rather than
wordiness, and simplicity, rather than floweriness, should be your
stylistic goals.
Finally, the term paper reflects you and the quality of your
thinking. It should be factual and at the same time fair, including
all evidence you find in your readings even though some of it may
weaken your original position about your subject. Remember that
progress is also made by discovering that what you once thought
to be true is, in fact, false. What would you think of a pharma-
ceutical firm that put a drug on the market, guaranteed it to cure
the common cold but failed to inform the public that severe head-
aches would result from its use? It is just as dishonest to mislead
your reader by failing to include evidence contrary to your view-
point and in so doing commit a serious error of omission. Such
"slanting" is not likely to go unnoticed.
The most difficult job in writing is to get started. Begin where it
is easiest for you: sit down and write all you now know about
your subject — if you have one. If you have yet to select a subject,
turn to Chapter 2.

How Is This Book to Be Used?

This manual provides key ideas to show you — as closely as any

book can — exactly how to go about writing your paper. These
key ideas are expressed in short simple sentences, each of which
is numbered consecutively by chapter. Thus, beginning with Chap-
ter 2, suggestions for writing an effective term paper appear as
numbered items such as 2.1, 2.2, and so forth. In many instances,
these numbers have been noted on the sample term paper at the
 Introduction 5
end of the book. For example, look in Chapter 5 and locate 5.27.
Read the item. Note that an example is provided in the term
paper, page 3. Turn to that page in the term paper and you will
find 5.27. This coding system enables you to easily look up the
explanation or the reason for the use of a particular form.
Some users of this book prefer to read Chapter 1 and then go
directly to the sample term paper and read it carefully, paying
special attention to all items in bold face. Each of these refers
them back to a particular chapter in the book. For example, 5.27
refers to Chapter 5, item 27 or 5.27. Then with that introduction
of reading the term paper, they go back to Chapter 2 and proceed
through the book systematically.
 CHAPTER 2
CHOOSING AND LIMITING THE SUBJECT

Choosing a subject is deceptively difficult and should not be

treated lightly. While it may seem to require less physical effort
than the other parts of preparing a paper, deciding on an appro-
priate subject and limiting it to a degree where you can give it the
attention it needs will in the long run result in a completed paper
of which you can be proud. Don't jump into choosing a topic.
Selecting a topic impulsively or intuitively may cause you to
regret your haste, for your paper may later bog down to a dis-
couraging halt. Reflect upon each of the following suggestions,
for they will help you get off to a good start.
2.1. Understand your assignment.
Listen to your instructor as he or she describes your
term paper assignment. Understand its purpose, the
length of the paper, the due date, the limits within
which you must confine your subject, the type of paper
you are to prepare — argumentative or storytelling. Keep
your instructor's comments on file and refer to them fre-
quently.
2.2. Your subject may be assigned, you may choose your own,
or you may choose a subject within a certain area defined
by your instructor.
If your instructor assigns you a subject, your task is
simplified because you are now ready to make your
plans for collecting the data. If you must choose your
own subject, read items 2.3 through 2.17. If your sub-
ject must be confined within a certain area, such as En-
glish, History, or Geology, examine book and periodical
indexes for ideas. Read Chapter 3 of this manual and
 Choosing and Limiting the Subject 7
then if you have questions, consult with your college,
school, or local librarian.
2.3. Think about your assignment and if your instructor has
invited discussion, go to him or her with your ideas.
Develop a tentative plan of attack by listing reference
books, indexes, periodicals, and other aids which may
be of assistance to you. If term papers are on file for
student examination, read several of them. Make a list
of questions to ask your instructor. You are now ready
for your initial interview with him or her.
2.4. The title of your subject may be in the form of a question
or a positive statement.
Subjects for term papers expressed in question form:
Of What Value Are Term Papers to College Stu-
dents?
What Are the Requisites for Success in Business?
What Can Be Done to Help Reduce Water Pollution
and Acid Rain?
What Compelled Booth to Kill Lincoln?
Subjects for term papers expressed as positive state-
ments:
The Influence of Unions on the Safety of Workers
Color and Lighting for Office Illumination
A Suggested Plan for Utilizing Television as a Learn-
ing Aid
Booth and His Motives for Killing Lincoln
2.5. Select a subject in line with the basic purposes of your
course.
If you are completing a term paper for an English
course, consider the advisability of writing about a sub-
ject in the English area. Determine the purpose of your
term paper. Consider the reason that motivated your in-
structor to request such an assignment from you. As a
result of writing your paper, are you supposed to be a
better writer, a better thinker, a better researcher, or
better informed about your subject? Knowing the reason
8 The Term Paper

for your assignment will help you write a paper in keep-

ing with the requirements of your course.
2.6. Select a subject in which you have a strong interest,
curiosity, experience, or competency.
When interest and curiosity are present, your writing
task becomes a delightful experience rather than a
chore. Prior experience and competency in your subject
reduce the danger of making unwise statements in your
paper or failing to report the basic facts.
2.7. Select a subject in which information is readily available.
The subject should not be so new that information is
difficult to obtain. Generally speaking, your school or
college library or the local library should be well
equipped, so that you can do all your reading in the
local area. Consult your librarian and ask his or her
opinion about the availability of data on your chosen
subject. Choose a subject in which adequate and reli-
able information is available.
Examples of subjects having limited or unreliable
data:
Aircraft Stations in Outer Space
U.S.A.— a.d. 3000
The Inside Story of Security Measures Taken at the
John F. Kennedy Space Center
Booth's Private Conversations with His Conspirators
The Secret Thoughts of John Wilkes Booth
The Genealogy of the Conspirators of Lincoln
2.8. Select a subject with your audience in mind.
Consider that another human being will read your
paper. If you know the viewpoint and the interest level
of your instructor about your chosen subject, your
paper will be more to the point and more interesting for
him or her to read. If you know how informed your
reader already is about your topic, it will be to your ad-
vantage to write a paper that goes beyond the reader's
present range of knowledge. The reader should learn
something by reading your paper.
 Choosing and Limiting the Subject 9
2.9. Select a subject important enough to warrant your atten-
tion, and if possible, one that correlates with other courses
you are taking. In so doing you will then work with infor-
mation that will help you improve in history or whatever.
Choose a subject that is intellectually respectable, offers
practical value, and is capable of being developed fully
into a thesis or a dissertation at some future time.
Examples of subjects lacking intellectual respectability
or practical value:
Penguins of the South Pole (for a non-zoologist
and a paper which has a travelogue flavor)
Fun at a Fair
The Manufacture of Christmas Candles
The Pizza Pie
2.10. Select a subject that can be researched within the time
limits set by your instructor.
Determine how much time you have to complete your
paper. Set deadlines for each phase of your research
and writing task. Don't take on too ambitious a topic.
Choose a broad subject area and then limit it.
Examples of subjects too ambitious for term papers:
Lincoln: The Full Story of the Assassination and
Trial
The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire
The Conquests of Napoleon
The World's Great Musicians
U.S. Presidents
The above topics might be used if they cover a
smaller area:
Lincoln — the Last Year of His Life
The Rise of the Roman Empire
Napoleon Wins a Battle
American Composers of Jazz in the 1 920s
U.S. Presidents of the Twentieth Century
2.1 1. Select a subject that is not too narrow.
Examples of subjects that are too narrow:
Hazardous Waste Damage in Lake Erie for August
1983
10 The Term Paper
Diseases of Fleas
High School Economics for First-semester Seniors in
Alaska
Lincoln — His Service as a Postmaster
2.12. Select a subject that does not involve technical informa-
tion beyond your comprehension.
Examples of subjects that might be too technical:
The Thermonuclear Bomb Ingredients
Drugs for Arthritis
Xerography — How It Works
Flights of Trajectories and Their Geometric Patterns
2.13. Select a subject suitable for student investigation and in
good taste. A sensational subject appears more often to be
a childish choice rather than a clever one. Someone is
going to read your paper — make his or her time worth-
while.
Examples of subjects not in good taste:
The Heroic Qualities of Dillinger
A Positive Look at Hedonism
Earning a Living by Gambling
2.14. Select a subject that is not too neutral.
Examples of subjects too neutral:
Insurance Mortality Tables
Filing Cases
Advantages of Electricity over Gaslight
2.15. Select a subject that is clear.
Examples of subjects that may not be clear:
Quakers and Friends
Running for the Office
Banks
2. 1 6. Select a subject that does not have a universal acceptance.
Examples of subjects that have universal acceptance:
Pollution Control Laws are Needed
AA — Does It Serve a Useful Purpose?
Did John Wilkes Booth Kill Lincoln?
 Choosing and Limiting the Subject 11
2.17. If none of the suggestions in Nos. 2.3 to 2.16 help, and
you are still searching for an idea for a paper, turn to
Chapter 3 and pay particular attention to Nos. 3.44(a) to
(v). An idea for a topic might come to mind merely by
reading titles and content coverage of books and periodi-
cals.
 CHAPTER 3

USING THE LIBRARY

Libraries have become very sophisticated in recent years and

have added many features and services to the science of storing
and finding data and information. While most libraries still use
the word library to identify their function, other terms may be
used such as Information Science Center and Information Re-
sources Center. The word library is used throughout this manual
because it is the more common term.
The library is an educational tool. To get the greatest benefit
from it, you must use it wisely. When you consider how often you
will need the services of the library, you can appreciate the value
of becoming skilled in library procedure. The benefits to be
gained from wise use of the library facilities are numerous, but
two override all others: pertinent references are easily located
and time is saved when you "know your way around" in the li-
brary.
3.1. Most libraries prepare a set of instructions on how to use
the facilities most effectively. Obtain a copy from the main
desk or in the lobby and study it. Do this in advance of
your actual research in the library.
3.2. Material found in the library usually is of three types:
general information
reference materials
periodicals
3.3. Most books "on reserve" must remain in the library dur-
ing the day and are charged out only with permission at
night, weekends, and holidays.
3.4. A Circulation or Loan Department charges out books
(except those on reserve) for approximately two weeks.
 Using the Library 13
3.5. Government publications and periodicals are usually not
charged out but may be loaned for use in the Reading
Room.
3.6. The Reference Librarian is a specialist in locating infor-
mation and is available to help you when help is needed,
or at any other time.
3.7. The Reference Room contains encyclopedias, handbooks,
magazines, newspapers, and dictionaries of various types.
Materials in this room are not available for overnight use.
3.8. The Periodicals Department is where you will find current
newspapers and magazines. Usually, these materials are
not available on a loan basis.
3.9. Many libraries have divisional reading rooms where books,
periodicals, and other printed and audiovisual materials
are gathered in special areas and grouped by subject mat-
ter. Such divisions often include Humanities, Social Stud-
ies, Sciences, Government Publications, Record Collec-
tion, and Newspapers. You may want to visit a divisional
reading room to collect data for your paper.
3.10. An interlibrary loan service may be available whereby you
may be able to borrow books, other printed matter,
microfilms, and other audiovisuals for a modest charge.
However, such service is usually slow — perhaps even
weeks before you receive what you have requested. Allow
enough time in your research plan in case you need to use
this interlibrary loan service.
3.11. The library may have an Information Retrieval Section
which can prepare computer-produced bibliographies
using the ERIC, MEDLARS, Psychological Abstracts, and
Biological Abstracts data bases. It may edit and distribute
manually produced bibliographies and library guides.
3.12. Some university libraries are able to search by computer
for information on many topics. References to journal ar-
ticles, books, research reports, and other types of mate-
rials have been combined to form databases, many of
which correspond to printed indexes and abstracts cover-
ing abroad range of disciplines.
14 The Term Paper

3.13. The result of a computer search is a bibliography or list-

ing of citations to journal articles, serials, monographs,
government publications, etc., related to your topic. Each
citation includes full bibliographic information to help you
locate items identified by the search. In some cases, ab-
stracts or short summaries of the citations may also be
printed if you request them. Not all libraries are equipped
to conduct computer searches.
3.14. Consult your librarian to determine if a computer search
is part of the library's service. If it is, the usual procedure
is to complete a search request, defining your problem
carefully in a concise narrative statement. Also, arrange
for an appointment with the librarian who is trained to
search the database (s) you need. During your appoint-
ment, your request will be reviewed with you by the li-
brarian, who, with your assistance, will formulate a search
strategy.

3.15. (a) For example, ERIC is your major source for locating
information on education topics. You need to become
familiar with ERIC terminology in order to do your
search. Using the Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors,
identify key descriptors (subject terms) relevant to
your search, such as "Grading." You might also want
to expand your search to include some of the nar-
rower terms (NT), broader terms (BT), or related
terms (RT) listed under the descriptor heading as
shown in the example below.

SN (scope note) denotes a term's usage in ERIC.

UF (used for) is a cross-reference and should not
be used for your search.
GRADING Jul. 1966
CUE: 716 RIE: 499

SN Process of rating an individual's or

group's performance, achievement, or
less frequently, behavior, using specifi-
cally established scales of values
UF Contract Grading $
Marking (Scholastic)
 Using the Library 15
NT Credit No Credit Grading
Pass Fail Grading
BT Achievement Rating
RT Academic Achievement
Educational Testing
Grade Inflation
Grade Prediction
Grades (Scholastic)
Informal Assessment
Report Cards
Scoring

Student Evaluation
Student Teacher Relationship
Summative Evaluation

(b) Consult the monthly issues of Resources in Educa-

tion (RIE). Check the Subject Index sections un-
der the descriptor "Grading" and other applicable
descriptors you have chosen to identify titles of cur-
rent documents on the subject.
Check the semiannual and annual indexes to Re-
sources in Education for relevant documents using
the same descriptors.
Grade 8
Report on the Intermediate Evaluation Project.
ED 164 622
Report on the Intermediate Evaluation Project-
Phase II.
ED 164 588
Grading
Institutional Research, Fiscal Year 1977: Percep-
tions of Mastery Grading. Research Monograph
VIII.
ED 164 061

Each document is identified by an accession number

(ED plus six digits).
(c) Extend your search to the periodical literature by
consulting the monthly indexes of Current Index to
Journals in Education (CUE).
Check the monthly, semiannual, and annual subject
indexes of Current Index to Journals in Education,
using the same descriptors.
16 The Term Paper
Grading
A Contractual Examination: Another Alternative,
College English v39 n3, pp3 68-70, Nov 77
EJ 169 448
"Sign Now, Pay Later": Further Experiments in
Student Grading, Exercise Exchange v21 nl,
pp9-12, F 76 EJ 169 477
Reporting Pupil Progress in Reading — Parents vs.
Teachers, Reading Teacher v31 n3, pp294-6,
Dec 77 EJ 169 510
Computer-Graded Homework in Introductory
Physics, American Journal of Physics v45 nlO,
pp896-8, Oct 77 EJ 170 425
An Alternative Scoring Formula for Multiple-
Choice and True-False Tests, Journal of
Educational Research v70 n6, pp335-9, Jul/
Aug 77 EJ 170 686
The identifying numbers for journal articles in CUE
are labeled EJ.
(d) From the Subject Indexes, go to the Document Re-
sume section of RIE or the Main Entry section of
CUE to read the abstract of the document or journal
article. These sections are clearly marked, and the
identifying numbers (ED or EJ) are listed consecu-
tively. You can then determine whether you want to
obtain the full text of the document or article. Avail-
ability information is given in each resume.
EJ 169 477 CS 710 521
"Sign Now, Pay Later": Further Experiments in
Student Grading Klein, Julie Thompson, Exercise
Exchange, v21 nl, pp9-12, F 76
♦English Instruction, *Grading, *Teaching
Techniques, * Contracts, Secondary Education,
Higher Education
Presents an eight-point plan, with illustrations, for
assigning student grades. (JM)
Reprint Available (See p. vii): UMI
Locate the journal articles (EJ accession numbers)
in your library, or consult the introduction to CUE
for reprint ordering information.
(e) Notice how a full description of the title, source,
publication date, number of pages, price, descriptors,
and a summary of the research article is shown.
 Using the Library 17
ED 164 061 JC 790 070
Institutional Research, Fiscal Year 1977: Percep-
tions of Mastery Grading. Research Monograph
VIII.
South Oklahoma City Junior Coll., Okla.
Pub Date— 77
Note— 53p.
EDRS Price MF-$0.83 HC-$3.50 plus Postage.
Descriptors — *Academic Records, Administrator
Attitudes, *Attitudes, Community Colleges,
Counselor Attitudes, Employer Attitudes, Grades
(Scholastic), *Grading, Higher Education, Insti-
tutional Research, *Junior Colleges, *Mastery
Learning, School Funds, Secondary Education,
Student Attitudes, Student Evaluation, Student
Financial Aid, *Surveys, Teacher Attitudes,
Transfer Policy, Transfer Students
The grading policy at South Oklahoma City Jun-
ior College (SOCJC) allows a student to master a
course by doing a specified amount of work to a
pre-determined standard (80% mastery). When this
is accomplished, the student receives an "M" in-
dicating mastery; otherwise, nothing appears on the
official record. No A, B, C, grades are awarded. This
document compiles six studies dealing with the per-
ceptions ofthe "M" grade by different SOCJC con-
stituencies. The first survey examined employers of
the college's students. Employers preferred a tradi-
tional transcript though about two-thirds would ac-
cept a list of student competencies. Next studied
were other institutions of higher education, which
also preferred transcripts allowing student compari-
sons; however, no SOCJC students had been denied
entrance to these transfer schools. A third study of
financial aid offices examined effects on both stu-
dent aid at transfer institutions as well as on
SOCJC's ability to obtain student aid funds. It ap-
peared students may have had trouble getting schol-
arships, though the college itself had no problem
getting funds. A need was seen for added informa-
tion and explanation about the system in the next
survey of high school counselors. The fifth survey
concerned student attitudes. About 40-45% saw the
"M" as an advantage, while 23-30% saw it as a
disadvantage. The final report studied faculty and
staff perceptions. The majority felt the system was
an advantage to students but the problems in trans-
ferring and the fact that there is no reward for ex-
cellence were disadvantages. (MB)
18 The Term Paper
3.16. The Microfilm Department, if your library has one, has
reduced thousands of printed and written matter to micro-
scopic size. Film copies of the New York Times and other
major newspapers are usually available for viewing on
special machines that magnify the print.
Microcard, microcopy, microfiche, microfilm, and micro-
print refer to the manner in which data are stored. The
generic word for this is microform which is a process of re-
producing printed and written matter in a much-reduced
size. Some type of film reader is required. A Microform
Room stores newspapers, periodicals, and books on micro-
film, microfiche, and microcards.
While only the most modern libraries have all this
equipment, there is a good chance that some of it is
available. Check with the librarian.
3.17. Automation is becoming more and more important and
visible in library services. Long Distance Xerography (re-
ferred to as LDX) where available, allows you to get
Xerox copies of printed matter in minutes. However, this
service is currently available only to librarians rather than
to library users.
3.18. Many libraries have copying machines such as Xerox. A
modest fee is charged for their use. Rather than copying a
page from a book, you might want to make a Xerox copy
of it as this will save you writing time. A microprinter may
also be available.

3.19. Librarians are available to answer intelligent questions —

even questions that are not clearly thought out. Under-
stand clearly the nature of your problem before asking for
help. But if you need help, your librarian is waiting to as-
sist you.

3.20. If you have a "dial access" system in the library, you may
be able to get special and unusual help from a master com-
puter console. This console stores great quantities of
data and information. Ask your librarian for help.
3.21. Many libraries have audiovisual equipment available for
 Using the Library 19
use in the library including movie projectors, overhead
projectors, tape recorders, record players, slide and
filmstrip projectors. A Learning Resources Center, if one
is available, usually includes the Curriculum Library col-
lection, non-print media, and the phonograph record col-
lection. Record players and earphones are usually avail-
able.
3.22. If the library is equipped with electronic carrels, ask your
librarian for assistance. Typical carrels are equipped with
TV, earphones, radios, motion picture projectors, and
screen, slide viewers, typewriters, and other A-V aids.
3.23. If the library has a Special Collections Section, it will
probably contain materials that require special treatment
such as manuscripts, rare books, reprint series, and spe-
cialized subject collections.
3.24. Rotary files have inserts with typed or printed headings
listing the periodicals subscribed to and available in the
Periodical Room.
3.25. Some libraries have moved away from having a card
catalog to a computer printout and/or terminal where all
books, periodicals, and other matter in that particular li-
brary are listed.
3.26. Use 5-inch by 3-inch white lined cards to record your
notes as you gather data for your paper. Hold the cards
horizontally and write on the lines.
3.27. Do some preliminary research to be sure you can locate
information and data easily on your chosen subject. Pro-
ceed as follows:
Develop a preliminary bibliography, placing one refer-
ence only on each of your cards. These references relate
to the subject you will develop in your paper. One of
the following general references may give you an over-
view of your subject as a basis for further development:
Academic American Encyclopedia
Collier's Encyclopedia
Encyclopedia Americana
20 The Term Paper
. Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia
Harper World Encyclopedia
New American Encyclopedia
New Caxton Encyclopedia
New Columbia Encyclopedia
*The Encyclopaedia Britannica
New Lincoln Library Encyclopedia
New Standard Dictionary
Pears Cyclopaedia
Random House Encyclopedia
University Desk Encyclopedia
Volume Library
The World Book Encyclopedia
3.28. Other sources in the library that will help you locate infor-
mation include the following tools:
card catalog, periodical indexes, rotary files, vertical
files, or all three. See Nos. 3.31, 3.32-.34 for examples
of the card catalog and periodical index. Vertical files
are file cases in which are stored various and sundry
matter such as booklets and catalogs received by the li-
brary. Consult the Vertical File Index for a listing of
such material from 1935.
3.29. The card catalog generally lists books and periodicals that
are bound. Some libraries list audiovisual materials ex-
cept films. The card catalog is made up of 5-inch by
3-inch unlined white cards either in type or print listing all
books, reference books, and other contents of the library.
See Nos. 3.31 and 3.32.
3.30. The card catalog lists each book three ways:
author, title, and subject
See No. 3.31.

3.31. The card catalog includes typed cards prepared by the

local library.
* A, An, and The appearing as the first word in a title of a general reference
arc generally ignored in alphabetizing those references. The first letter of the
next word determines the alphabetical order.
 Using the Library
21
Call or Classification James Alonzo
number The day Lincoln was shot. With illus.
lec ted and arr. by Stefan Lorant. New York,
c1955
308p. illus.
Includes bibliography*

The day Lincoln was shot. c1955

921
L Hishc p, Jaiaes Alonzo

Title Card

921 Lincoln, Abraham, pres. U.S. Assassina-

L tion
Bisho
p, James Alonzo
The day Lincoln was shot. With illus.
selec
Subject Card ted and arr. by Stefan Lorant. New York,
Harpe r c 1955
308p. illus.
Includes bibliography.

3.32. The card catalog also has printed cards obtained from the
Library of Congress. These cards provide the same gen-
eral information as the local library cards shown in No.
3.31.
22 The Term Paper

lishop, James Alonzo, 1907-

The day Lincoln was shot. With illus. selected and arr.
.by Stefan Lorant^Ost ed.) New York, Harper_(1955)-

,308p. illus. 22 cm
Luding bibliography

1. Lincoln, Abraham-Assassination 2. Title

E457.5B63 923.173 54-12170
Library of Congress (59p+10)
11
1 Call or Classification No. 12 Book is illustrated
2 Author Size of type
3 Date of birth of author Book has bibliography
4 Title of book 13 Information for librarian
5 Name of illustrator 14
15 Information for librarian
6 Edition Library of Congress Catalog
no.
7 16
Place of publication
8 Publisher 17 Dewey Decimal Classification
no.
9 Copyright date
10 No. of pages in book 18 Library of Congress information
19 Card order no.

3.33. If several books are listed for the same author and have
the same title, examine the most recent one first, as it is
assumed to be the most nearly correct and up to date in its
treatment of the subject matter.
3.34. If references are not listed under your subject title, you
may be referred by "See" and "See also" cards to similar
topics.
 Using the Library
23

Manslaughter
Assas sinatioa
HoraicLde
Murder
"See" Card

Assassination see also

Anarchism and anarchists
Murd( r
Regi< ides
Terrorism
•"See also" Card

3.35. All books have author, subject, and title cards. For some
books, such as a collection of poems or biographies, an-
other type of card may be prepared, known as an analytic
card. This card serves to call your attention to a small
portion of another book which carries information on
your subject.
For example, if you wished to write a term paper on the
assassination of Abraham Lincoln, you might note the
following reference on an analytic card if you were to
check the card catalog under Lincoln:
24 The Term Paper

An* lytic card

920 Lincoln, Abraham, pres. U.S.
Call or Classification ■ I, Gamaliel
number
his Portraits and personalities.)
Author.
Copyright data
Oue ss to where to p. 40-56
look for information-
on Lincoln

3.36. (a) The Dewey Decimal System classifies books numeri-

cally:
000 General Works 500 Pure Science
100 600
Philosophy and Related Technology (Applied
Science)
Disciplines
200 Religion 700 The Arts
300 The Social Sciences 800 Literature and Rhetoric
400 Language 900 General Geography and
History

Note that the call or classification number of the book shown on

the analytic card above is 920. Also note that the Dewey Decimal
System reserves the 900 section for books on history.
(b) The Library of Congress System (often used in large
university libraries) classifies books according to the
alphabet:
A General Works, Polygraphy, H Social Sciences
and Bibliography J Political Science
B Philosophy, Psychology, and KF Law of the United States
Religion L Education
C Auxiliary Sciences of History M Music and Books on Music
D General and Old World His- N Fine Arts
tory (except America) P Language and Literature
E-F American History
G Geography, Anthropology, QR Science
Medicine
Manners and Customs, S Agriculture, Plant and Ani-
Folklore, Recreation mal Industry, Fish Cul-
 25
Using the Library
hire, and Fisheries, V Naval Science
Hunting Sports Z Bibliography and Library
T Technology Science
U Military Science

3.37. To ascertain whether any information on your topic is

available in periodicals and newspapers, you would con-
sult the many periodical and newspaper indexes available.
3.38. While periodical indexes may vary in style and arrange-
ment, the following illustration shows the data usually
given:
Readers? Guide to Periodical Literature.1 General periodicals by author
and subject from 1900.

Education In cooperation: new venture* ir> LIGHTNING

See also
ported. Lib J 100:1763 0 1*75
See also Golf- Lightning hazard*
Library institutes and workshop* LIGHTNING suppression (weather control) Sec
LIBRARY science Weather control
^,»- CataTB-See also LIGHTS. Traffic See Traffic signals
gwg^^
LILIES
Lilies are for everyone. E. A. McRae. Q
LIBRARY jemlnaTT-See Library institutes
and workshops
Horticulture 53:26-8* S *75
LIBRARY standards. See College libraries- LIMBS. Artificial
Standards
See also
LIBRARY workshops. See Library institutes Hands, Artificial
and workshops. LIMITATION OF ACTIONS
LIBYA Statutes of limitation: an or
Expropriation policy Kornblut. Archil Rec 158:49
LIN, C. C. and Van De Sand*. J. H.
Blows at Hammer; Occidental petroleum**
Differential fluorescent staining of human
subsidiary, por Time
Politics 106:62 0 13 *75
and government chromosomes with daunomydn and adria-
Why Kaddafi piped down. B. Came, pot mycin-the D-bands. bibl Q Science 190:
Newsweek 86:36* S 22 "75
LICENSES 61-3 0 3 *75
See also LINCOLN. Abraham-
Radio operators, Amateur-Licenses p„n~.^rr .v- /^ttY^1|nj n1f Jrrr M j
LIDS, Canning jar. See Canning and preserving Adler and W. Gorman.
-Equipment and supplies
LIE ckTtecTOr™«Lrj£«ctlon
Right way to useaBrar^eaor^P/T. Lyk- True history of the assassination or Abraham
4*8 8-7*-.
Lincoln and the ~TTin*Y"n fifty hy lr
ken. il por Psychol Today Oo"*"0"t-bibl (p98)
Mr *75: Discussion. 9-12-13 Ag *7S Welchmann. Review—
(c* to lie detector tests for private em-
New Repub 4 /-.HUM .11 2U li.l>A>.
pToTws-il Nations Bus 63:16 Ag *75 Lssj

1 "See" and "See also" references 8 Subheading

2 Article contains bibliography 9 Title of article
3 Article is illustrated 10 Article is continued in
4 Volume number of periodical back of periodical
5 Date of periodical 11 Review of book
6 Page number of periodical 12 Name of periodical
7 Main heading 13 Author of article

3.39. The Nineteenth Century Readers' Guide to Periodical Lit-

erature, 1890-99 includes author, subject, and illustrator
W.
l Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature Copyright © 1975 by The H.
Wilson Company. Material reproduced by permission of the publisher.
26 The Term Paper
entries for short stories, novels, plays, and poems. Book
reviews are also indexed.
3.40. Book indexes usually list most books published. These in-
dexes are arranged by author, subject, and title. This
index differs from the library card catalog which lists only
books found in that particular library.
3.41. General periodical indexes are excellent starting points for
locating information not generally found in books. The
more common indexes are:
Christian Science Monitor Index, from 1960
Directory of Newspapers and Periodicals, from 1880
New York Times Index, from 1913
Poole's Index to Periodical Literature, 1802-1907
Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature, from 1900
Times Index, from 1906
3.42. Guide to Reference Books lists reference books basic to
research. General and specific books and other printed
matter are listed. It is extremely helpful in making a sys-
tematic study of reference books available, classified by
subject matter.
3.43. In addition to the above, No. 3.42, you should consult In-
troduction to Reference Work by Katz (McGraw-Hill
Book Company). Volume I provides basic information
sources, and Volume II explains the various reference ser-
vices available in the library.
3.44. Another important source for gathering information for
your paper is to refer to specialized reference books. The
following list, arranged by subject matter, should help you
get started:
(a) Accounting, Banking, Business, Economics, Finance
Accountants Digest, from 1935. Subject index.
Applied Science and Technology Index, from
1958. Subject index.
Business Information: How to Find and Use It
Business Periodicals Index, from 1958. Account-
ing, advertising, automation, banking, finance,
general business, insurance, labor and manage-
 Using the Library 27

ment, taxation, transportation, specific busi-

nesses, industries, trade. Subject index.
Commercial Atlas and Marketing Guide
Dictionary of Data Processing
Dictionary of Economics
Encyclopedia of Accounting Systems
Encyclopedia of Banking and Finance
Encyclopedia of Management
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Systems and Proce-
dures
Financial Handbook
How to Use the Business Library
Industrial Arts Index, 1913-57. Changed to Ap-
plied Science and Technology Index, and Busi-
ness Periodicals Index in 1958.
Insurance Periodical Index
Journal of Economic Literature
Predicasfs F&S Index United States
Wall Street Journal Index, from 1957
(b) Agriculture, Biology, Chemistry, Medicine
Agriculture Engineer's Handbook, from 1961
Applied Science and Technology Index, from
1958. Geology, metallurgy, physics. Subject in-
dex. Formerly, Industrial A rts Index.
Bibliography of the History of Medicine
Biological Abstracts, from 1926
Biological and Agricultural Index, from 1964.
Agriculture, biology, forestry, home economics,
veterinary medicine. Subject index. Until 1964,
listed as Agricultural Index.
Biology Data Book
Biology and Medicine
Blakiston's New Gould Medical Dictionary
Chemical Abstracts, from 1907
Cumulated Index Medicus, from 1960. Author and
subject index.
Current List of Medical Literature, from 1941
Drug Interaction: An Annotated Bibliography
with Selected Excerpts, 1967-70
Encyclopedia of Chemistry
28 The Term Paper
Encyclopedia of Food
Environmental Abstracts, 1971-73
Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia
Handbook of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
Index Medicus, 1879-1927. Author and subject
index.
Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary
(c) Anthropology
Abstracts in Anthropology
Abstracts of Folklore Studies
American Negro Reference Book
Dictionary of Anthropology
Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic
Groups
International Bibliography of Social and Cultural
Anthropology
The Negro A Imanac
Peoples of All Nations
A Study in Race & Culture Contacts
When Peoples Meet
(d) Art, Music
Art Index, from 1929. Archaeology, architecture,
arts and crafts, ceramics, decoration and orna-
ment graphic arts, industrial design, interior
decoration, landscape architecture, painting,
sculpture. Author and subject index.
Catalog of Museum Publications and Media, from
1980
Complete Opera Book
Dictionary of Modern Sculpture
Dictionary of Musical Terms
Encyclopedia of the Arts
Encyclopedia of World A rt
Guide to Art Reference Books
Guide to the Performing Arts, from 1957
Harvard Dictionary of Music
Music Index, from 1949. Author and subject
index.
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
 Using the Library 29

The New Kobbe's Complete Opera Book

The Oxford Companion to Art
A Standard History of Music
(e) Biography
American Men and Women of Science
Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography
Biography Index, from 1947. Indexed by pro-
fession and occupation.
Chambers's Biographical Dictionary
Contemporary Authors
Current Biography Yearbook, from 1940
Dictionary of American Biography, 1928-37. Im-
portant people in American history no longer
living.
Dictionary of American Scholars; a biographical
directory
Dictionary of International Biography
Dictionary of National Biography, 1882-1967.
Important people in English history.
The International Who's Who
Leaders in Education
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography
Webster's American Biographies
Webster's Biographical Dictionary
Who Was Who in America
Who's Who, from 1849. Important living English
persons.
Who's Who in America, from 1899
Who's Who in American Education
Who's Who in the East
The Writer's Directory
(f) Education
American Library Directory
Bibliographic Guide to Educational Research
Business Education Index
Canadian Education Index
Current Index to Journals in Education (CUE)
Dictionary of Education
Dissertation Abstracts International
Education Abstracts, 1949-65
30 The Term Paper
Educational Administration Abstracts
Education Index, from 1929. Child study, com-
parative education, curriculum development, ed-
ucational psychology, educational research,
elementary education, higher education, school
administration, secondary education, statistical
methods, teacher education, and related sub-
jects. Subject index.
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)
Encyclopedia of Education
Encyclopedia of Educational Research
How to Locate Educational Information and Data
Research in Education (ERIC), from 1966
Resources in Education /ERIC
Review of Educational Research
Statistical Yearbook, from 1963
Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors
(g) Energy and the Environment
The Energy Index
The Environmental Index
International Aerospace Abstracts
Nuclear Science A bstracts
Oceanic Abstracts, from 1978
Pollution Abstracts, from 1971
(h) Engineering, Science, Technology
Abstracts & Indexes in Science & Technology: A
Descriptive Guide
Aerospace Yearbook
American Men and Women of Science
Applied Science and Technology Index, from
1958. Aeronautics, automation, chemistry, con-
struction, electricity, electrical communication,
engineering, geology, metallurgy, industrial and
related subjects. Replaces the Industrial Arts
Index.
Engineer's Year-Book, from 1894
A Guide to Information in Space Science and
Technology
Industrial Arts Index, Engineering,
1913-57.
trade, business. Ceased publication in 1957; re-
 Using the Library 31
placed by Applied Science and Technology
Index and the Business Periodicals Index. Sub-
ject index.
International Aerospace Abstracts, from 1961
McGraw-Hill
nology Encyclopedia of Science and Tech-

Nuclear Science Abstracts, from 1948

Sources of Engineering Information
Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia
(i) Geology, Geography
Aids to Geographical Research
Annotated Bibliography of Economic Geology
Bibliography and Index of Geology Exclusive of
North America, from 1934. Subject index.
Bibliography of North American Geology
Encyclopedia of World Regional Geology, from
1975
Geological Abstracts
Geological Dictionary
Guide to Geologic Literature
Social Sciences and Humanities Index, from 1916.
Formerly International Index. Author and sub-
ject index.
Webster's New Geographical Dictionary
(j) History
America: History and Life
American Historical Documents
The Beards' New Basic History of the United
States
Current Digest of the Soviet Press
Dictionary of American History
Dictionary of Dates
Encyclopedia of American History
A n Encyclopedia of World History
Guide to Historical Literature
Guide to Historical Reading
Harvard Guide to American History
Historical A bstracts
Historical A tlas
Webster's Guide to American History
32 The Term Paper

(k) Language, Acronyms, Synonyms, Proverbs, Quo-

tations
nary
Acronyms, lnitialisms, and Abbreviations Dictio-

Allen's Synonyms and Antonyms

Dictionary of Acronyms and Abbreviations
Dictionary of American Proverbs and Proverbial
Phrases, 1820-80
Dictionary of American Slang
Dictionary of Contemporary American Usage
Early American Proverbs & Proverbial Phrases
Familiar Quotations by Bartlett
FPA Book of Quotations
The Home Book of Bible Quotations
Hoyt's New Cyclopedia of Practical Quotations
Language and Language Behavioral Abstracts
The Modern Dictionary of Quotations
Oxford Dictionary of Quotations
The Quotation Dictionary
Quotations for All Occasions
Quotations for Speakers
Racial Proverbs
Roget's International Thesaurus
Rogefs Thesaurus of Synonyms and Antonyms
Speech Index, 1935-61. Author, subject and type
of speech index.
Standard Handbook of Synonyms, Antonyms, and
Prepositions
Stevenson's Home Book of Quotations
Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms
(1) Literature
Articles on American Literature, 1900-1950
Book Review Digest, from 1905
Book Review Index
Cambridge History of American Literature
Cass ell's Encyclopedia of World Literature
Contemporary Literary Criticism
Essay and General Literature Index
A Glosswy of Literary Terms
 Using the Library 33
Grangers Index to Poetry
Guide to American Literature and Its Background,
since 1890
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Drama
The Oxford Companion to American Literature
Play Index
The Reader's Companion to World Literature
The Reader's Encyclopedia
Short Story Index
(m) Mathematics, Physics
CRCogy Handbook of Mathematical Sciences
Encyclopedia of Computer Sciences and Technol-

Encyclopedic Dictionary of Mathematics

Guide to the Literature of Mathematics and
Physics
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
Mathematics Dictionary
Physics Abstracts
World of Mathematics
(n) Folklore, Mythology
A Bibliography of North American Folklore and
Folksong
A bstracts of Folklore Studies
Folklore Index
Folklore of the American Negro Mythologies
Folksong Style & Culture
Mythology of All Races
Religions, Mythologies, Folklore
Religions of the World
Treasury of American Folklore
A Treasury of American Superstitions
(o) Nations, Political Science
A Guide to the Use of United States Documents
Handbook of Latin A merican Studies
Index to Latin American Periodical Literature,
1929-60. Economics, politics, government.
Author and subject index.
International Bibliography of Political Science
34 The Term Paper
International Political Science Abstracts
Public Affairs Information Service Bulletin
(PAIS), from 1915
Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations
(p) Philosophy
Bibliography of Philosophical Bibliographies
Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Handbook in the History of Philosophy
(q) Psychology
American Men and Women of Science
Dictionary of Behavioral Science
Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology
Dictionary of Psychology
Encyclopedia of Psychology
Encyclopedia of Sexual Behavior
Harvard List of Books in Psychology
Psychological Abstracts, from 1927
Psychological Index, 1895-1931. Author index.
Thesaurus of Psychological Index Terms
(r) Radio, Television
Educational Media Index, 1964. Master title
index.
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Electronics and Nu-
clear Engineering
Guides to Newer Educational Media
International Television Almanac, from 1956
Radio Amateur's Handbook
Radio-Television-Electronic Dictionary
Sources of Information on Educational Media
Television Almanac
Television Manual
What's the Right Word?
(s) Recreation, Sports
Bibliography of Swimming
The Dictionary of Sports
Early American Sports
Encyclopedia of Sports
How-to-Do-it Book
 Using the Library 35

Hunter's Encyclopedia
Index to Handicrafts, Model-making, and Work-
shop Projects. Subject index.
Official Encyclopedia of Baseball
Traditional Games of England, Scotland, and
Ireland
(t) Religion
The American Book of Days
Catholic Periodical and Literature Index, from
1930
Dictionary of the Bible
Encyclopedia Judaica
Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics
A Guide to A merican Catholic History
The Home Book of Bible Quotations
Index to Jewish Periodicals, from 1963. Selected
American and Anglo- Jewish journals. Author
and subject index.
Index to Religious Periodical Literature, from
1960. Basically Protestant with some Jewish and
Roman Catholic listings. Author and subject
index.
Jewish Encyclopedia
New Catholic Encyclopedia
Religions, Mythologies, Folklore
(u) Social Science
A bstracts for Social Workers
Abstracts on Criminology and Penology
British Humanities Index
Crime and Delinquency A bstracts
Criminology Index (1945-72)
Current Contents: Social and Behavioral Sciences
Demographic Yearbook
Dissertational A bstracts International
Encyclopedia of Social Work
Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
A Guide to Periodical Literature in the Social Sci-
ences and the Humanities, 1955-65. Renamed
Social Sciences Citation Index, from 1973
36 The Term Paper
Humanities Index, from 1974. Supersedes in part
Social Sciences and Humanities Index. Archae-
ology, classics, folklore, history, language, liter-
ature, performing arts, philosophy, religion, and
related subjects. Author and subject index.
Human Resources Index
International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
International Index, 1907-52. Renamed Social
Sciences Index, 1953-64. Renamed Social Sci-
ences and Humanities Index, from 1966. Author
and subject index.
Psychological A bstracts
Public Affairs Information Service Bulletin
(PAIS), from 1915
Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature
Social Sciences and Humanities Index
Social Sciences Citation Index
Sources of Information in the Social Sciences
Women's Studies Abstracts
(v) United States, Public Documents
The Book of the States, from 1935
Dictionary of American History, 1940-44
Documents of American History, 1962
Monthly Catalog of United States Government
Publications, from 1895
Official Congressional Record
A Popular Guide to Government Publications,
1951-62. Subject index.
Public Affairs Information Service Bulletin
(PAIS)
Readex Microprint, from 1953. Author and sub-
ject index.
Statistical Abstract of the United States, from
1878

3.45. Almanac, and general yearbooks, provide valuable infor-

mation for developing a paper. Some of the more impor-
tant ones are listed below:
Almanack, from 1869 (British)
 Using the Library 37
Americana Annual, from 1923
American Yearbook, from 1910
Collier's Encyclopedia Year Book, from 1939
Demographic Yearbook, from 1948
Economic Almanac, from 1940
Facts on File, Weekly News Digest with Cumulative
Index, from 1940
Guinness Book of World Records, from 1964
Information Please Almanac, from 1947
Public Affairs Information Service Bulletin (PAIS),
from 1915
Reader's Digest Almanac
Statesman's Year-book, from 1864
Statistical Abstract of the United States, from 1878
World Almanac and Book of Facts, from 1868
World Book Year Book, from 1962
Yearbook of Agriculture, from 1894
Yearbook of the United Nations, from 1946
3.46. Atlases contain maps and economic information. Some of
the most recent include:
Encyclopaedia Britannica World Atlas
Goode's World Atlas
Oxford World Atlas
Rand McNally Commercial Atlas and Marketing Guide
Rand McNally New Cosmopolitan World Atlas
Rand McNally Premier World Atlas
3A7. Word dictionaries are essential for developing a paper.
The following dictionaries are up to date and extremely
helpful:
The American Heritage Dictionary
Funk & W agnail's New Standard Dictionary
The Oxford English Dictionary
Random House Dictionary of the English Language
Thorndike Barnhardt Dictionary
Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary
Webster's New International Dictionary
Webster's Third New International Dictionary
38 The Term Paper

Italian, French, German, Russian, and Spanish dic-

tionaries are also in print
3.48. Microforms have added tremendously to the storehouse of
knowledge contained in the library and offer great promise
for providing information for your paper. You will need
the librarian's help to locate:
Guide to Microforms in Print
Newspapers on Microfilm
Readex Microprint
Subject Guide to Microforms in Print
Union List of Microforms
A Union List of Publications in Opaque Microforms
3.49. To determine if a particular book is in print, consult:
Book Review Digest, from 1905. "See" and "See also"
references included.
Books in Print, from 1948. Author and subject index.
Cumulative Book Index, from 1929. Monthly supple-
ments to the United States Catalogue. Includes all
books published in the United States except textbooks
and also includes books published and printed in the
English language anywhere in the world. Listed by
author, subject, and title. Useful in reading about a
subject when the book is not found in the local li-
brary.
Paperbound Books in Print, from 1955. Author and
subject index.
United States Catalog: Books in Print
United States Catalogue, from 1928. Books published in
the United States on a particular subject.
 CHAPTER 4

PREPARING THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Do not become overwhelmed by the abundance of material that

may be available on your subject. Select your bibliography with
care, so that it is not cluttered with references of little, if any,
value to you. Spend considerable time on this bibliography be-
cause itwill pay you dividends, not only in the opportunity it pro-
vides you to broaden your understanding and knowledge of your
subject but also in the clues and ideas it offers which will help
you develop your paper.
4.1. A working bibliography is a list of the sources of informa-
tion selected by you.
4.2. The final bibliography appears at the end of the term
paper and lists only those references that you use from
your working bibliography.
4.3. Each reference in your working bibliography is recorded
in ink on separate 3 by 5 cards.

Author's name.
Title of Reference /fly. £c***C+£r<J
Facts of Reference
Edition
Volume number
I9S7
Place of publication
Name of publisher*
Date of publication •
Comments (optional)-

4.4. A typical term paper usually requires as many as 50 bibli-

ographic references even though all are not included in
the writing of the paper.
40 The Term Paper

4.5. As you prepare your working bibliography, you will con-

stantly be adding new cards and eliminating others.
4.6. By pruning, screening, adding, and dropping cards, your
working bibliography develops into your final bibliog-
raphy, which is a selected list of references far fewer in
number than you originally had.
4.7. Examine appropriate books for information on your sub-
ject, quickly checking the table of contents, chapter head-
ings, and index. Check for a bibliography at ends of chap-
ters and at the end of the book.
4.8. After completing your first bibliography, prune or screen
it by removing and placing in a separate pack the refer-
ences that hold little promise of information about your
subject. Save all cards in case you need the references
later.
4.9. If a book reference holds promise, go to the card catalog
and write the classification number in the upper left-hand
corner of your 5 by 3 card.
See Nos. 3.31-32.
4.10. If a periodical reference holds promise for you, check with
your librarian to see if the library carries that particular
magazine or newspaper.
note: In the bibliographic and footnote listings
throughout the text of this book italic type is used for
those items that should be underlined in your paper,
since you are not expected to reproduce this type. You
will see also that certain abbreviations and foreign ex-
pressions customarily appear in italics, both in this book
and in your reading. Whenever you include such words
in a paper, they should be underlined.
4.11. If the bibliographic citation is more than one line long, in-
dent each line (other than the first) five spaces from the
left margin. Notice how this differs from typing footnotes.
Compare footnotes on Term Paper Page 3 with Bibliog-
raphy.
4.12. A proper form for listing references both for the working
bibliographic cards and for the final bibliography for the
 Preparing the Bibliography 41
term paper is illustrated below. The bibliography appears
in alphabetical order with family name first at the end of
the term paper. For each bibliography sample shown, the
way it appears as a footnote is explained in Chapter 8.
Italicized words, when typed, are underscored, as are the
spaces between the words.
See 8.25 a-z.

Book

a. Anonymous works
Textbooks Are Indispensable! New York: The American
Textbook Publishers Institute [n.d.].
b. One author
Buckley, William F. Jr. Atlantic High. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1982.
c. Two or three authors
Greenberg, S. F. and Valletutti, Paul J. Stress and the
Helping Professions. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1980.
d. More than three authors
Aberbach, Joel, and others. Bureaucrats and Politicians
in Western Democracies. Boston: Harvard University
Press, 1981.
e. Editor as author
Peck, William T., ed. Washington's Farewell Address
and Webster's Bunker Hill Orations. New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1909.
f. Edited by a person other than the author
Colburn, William, and Weinberg, Sanford. An Orienta-
tion to Listening and Audience Analysis. Edited by
Ronald Applebaum and Roderick Hart. Chicago: Sci-
ence Research Associates, 1980.
g. Edition other than the first
Taber, Clarence Wilbur. Taber's Cyclopedia Medical
Dictionary. 14th ed. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Com-
pany, 1981.
h. Review
Schedler, N. Review of Environmental Ethics, by K. A.
Shrader-Prechette. Defenders, August 1982, pp. 33-34.
42 The Term Paper
i. Citing work in more than one volume
Hoy, Cyrus. Introductions, Notes, and Commentaries to
Texts in the Dramatic Works of Thomas Dekker. Vol. 1.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980.

Encyclopedia article
j. Author listed
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology,
1977 ed., Vol. 12, s.v. "Sensory Learning," by Kao L.
Chow.
k. No author listed
Encyclopedia Americana, 1980 ed. S.v. "Navajo Moun-

tain."
Government document
1. Author listed
Blehar, Mary C. "Families and Public Policy." National
Institute on Mental Health Monographs. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare, 1979.
m. No author listed
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
Statistical Abstract of the United States. Washington,
DC: Government Printing Office, 1979.

Newspaper article
n. Author listed
Montgomery, Paul L. "Garden Plot Is at Center of West
Side Fight," New York Times, 9 August 1982, Sec. A,
o. p. 1. listed
No author
"Unemployment Soars to Record 9.8 Percent," Mobile
(AL) Press-Register, 7 August 1982.
p. Editorial
"Confusion over Taiwan." Editorial. Albany (NY)
Times Union, 23 August 1982, p. 7.
 Preparing the Bibliography 43
Periodical or magazine article
q. Author listed
Findley, Rowe. ''Our National Forests: Problems in Par-
adise." National Geographic, 162, September 1982, pp.
306-25; 332-39.
r. No author listed
"ERA Dies." Time, 5 July 1982, pp. 28-32.
Miscellaneous
s. Collected works
Cohen, Morton N., ed. The Selected Letters of Lewis
Carroll New York: Pantheon Books, 1982.
t. Interview
James, Fob, Governor of Alabama, Interview at the Ex-
ecutive Mansion, Montgomery, 1 July 1982.
u. Letter
Letter by George A. Custer on file in the National Ar-
chives, Washington, DC [n.d.].
v. Pamphlet or Bulletin in a series
United Cerebral Palsy Association. What Everyone
Should Know About Cerebral Palsy. New York: UCP
Inc., 1977.
w. Quarterly
Burns, Arthur F. "U.S. Relations with West Germany."
The Atlantic Community Quarterly, 20 (Summer 1982) :
153-57.
x. Unpublished doctoral dissertation
Roberts, Anne F. "Library Instruction for Librarians."
D.A. Dissertation, State University of New York at
Albany, 1982.
y. Translation
Yalouris, Nicholas. Alexander the Great and His Heri-
tage. Translated by David Hardy. Boston: New York
Graphic Society, 1980.
z. Yearbook article
Watson, Marjorie. "Mainstreaming the Educable Men-
tally Retarded." Yearbook of Special Education, 1978-
79. Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, Inc., 1978.
 CHAPTER 5
TAKING NOTES

Once you have developed an adequate bibliography, you are

ready to take notes. Here is the heart of your research, so do not
hurry it. Be sure to write plainly in order to avoid transcription
errors later, and include a source reference on each card to sim-
plify your footnoting job {see Chapter 8). Remember that the ac-
curacy of the facts in your paper depends on the accuracy of your
notes.

5.1. In the process of using your working bibliography, you

make note of any information of value to your term paper.
5.2. Develop an orderly, systematic, and scholarly routine for
notetaking.
It is important that you include all pertinent informa-
tion such as complete reference to the source. Before
you leave the source, double-check the reference and
content for accuracy. This will save time looking it up
later.
5.3. You will take more notes than you need to complete your
paper. It is better to have too much information, which
can be pruned for basic essentials, than to have so little
that you must search for more at the last minute.
5.4. Be critical of what you read, and write sparingly, keeping
your notes to a minimum.
5.5. The use of white lined cards for notetaking makes it easy
to sort, eliminate, and arrange data into logical sequence.
It is not always possible to tell what is relevant as you
take notes.
Even though some of your notes may seem to have little
 Taking Notes 45
value, do not dispose of them. Put them in a separate
pack and label HOLD just in case you need them later.
5.6. Use a larger size card for notetaking to avoid mix-up with
the smaller bibliographic cards.
5.7. Carry spare cards with you at all times, as evidence some-
times presents itself in strange places.
5.8. Avoid unusual abbreviations as a form of shorthand in
notetaking, for you run the risk of failing to transcribe ac-
curately, particularly when a quotation is involved.
5.9. Write on one side of the card. If you must continue onto a
second card, write "continued" at the top and number
each card such as 1A, IB.
5.10. Place only one idea on each card.
See No. 5.11.

5.11. Notes may be of the following types: quotation, para-

phrase, personal comment.
5.12. At the top center of each card, on the red line, write the
type of note you are making.
See No. 5.11.
5.13. Each card should have a descriptive label consisting of a
main heading and subheading.
See No. 5.11.
5.14. Each card contains three essential items of information:
Reference to the source
Descriptive
Body label

See No. 5.11.

5.15. Read the reference thoroughly before writing your note

and then digest what you have read into one key idea.
5.16. Notes which summarize, comment upon the text, and/or
evaluate what you have read are superior to quotation
notes because more of YOU is put into the paper and that
is what your instructor desires.
5.17. Recording essential information when you are reading a
reference for the purpose of taking notes will save you
46 The Term Paper

\Outline
Placement
i£^*
(See 6.3J
Code

Short

sb»J. fiUoL Xt*>~ Reference

Body

M?s*-* /& fitUtoUCfin^ Bop

time later. Then you will not have to go back in the final
stages of your work when you are writing or typing the
paper to obtain facts which are so easily obtainable during
notetaking.
Identify sources of information in the short form (see
No. 5.11 paraphrase card) by including the author's last
name unless your bibliography lists more than one book
by the same name, or more than one person with the
same name.
 Taking Notes 47
5.18. Identify facts and opinions in your notes.
If the author expresses a personal opinion, record it as
such in your notes and preface his opinion with the
phrase, "according to the author," or some similar
phrase.
5.19. Facts of common knowledge need not be documented.
Such statements as "John Wilkes Booth killed the Presi-
dent" and "Abraham Lincoln was President during the
American Civil War" are common knowledge and need
not be documented or carry a footnote reference.
5.20. Statements (a) which have questionable validity and/or
(b) are controversial in nature, and/or (c) which contain
little-known facts must be documented.
a. Statements open to question should be documented.
For example, if you were to use the statement, "Al-
cohol consumption during pregnancy causes birth
defects," it would be necessary and important to
know who said it, since the medical profession is
divided on the subject.
b. A controversial statement, such as "Smoking causes
stunted growth," needs to be documented.
c. A little-known fact, such as "Contrary to popular
belief, the Indians who massacred General Custer
and his 7th Cavalry were armed for the most part
with bows and arrows while only a few Indians were
equipped with repeater rifles," should be docu-
mented.
5.21. Laws and formulas should appear as quotations.
5.22. Copy quotations exactly including punctuation, spelling,
capitalization, paragraphing, and errors.
5.23. Use quotations only when you wish to retain the exact
wording of the author because his statement is not clear, is
of great significance, or is of a challenging nature.
5.24. Ellipses are used to indicate the omission of a few words
from a quotation when such omissions are irrelevant to
your subject.
48 The Term Paper
a. Use three spaced dots when the omission is at the
■ beginning or in the middle of a sentence.
b. Use three spaced dots plus a period (four spaced
dots) when the omission occurs at the end of a sen-
tence.
See Term Paper Page 8.
5.25. When ellipses end a quotation, place the ellipses inside the
quotation mark.
5.26. Indicate the omission of an entire paragraph or more by a
full line of doubled spaced periods (ellipses).
See Term Paper Page 8,11.
5.27. When you wish to insert your own words within a quota-
tion, place brackets [ ] around your words.
See Term Paper Page 3.
5.28. If you note an error in your reference and you wish to call
this error to the attention of your reader, copy the quota-
tion exactly as it appears in the original, follow the error
with the word sic placed in brackets, and then make the
correction.
5.29. Keep your completed notes on file until your term paper
has been returned by your instructor.
 CHAPTER 6

MAKING THE OUTLINE

After you have prepared your note cards, you are ready to make
your first outline. It may be necessary to revise this outline sev-
eral times. Work it out with great care, for you are only one step
away from writing the first draft of your paper.
6.1. An outline enumerates important ideas to be developed in
the paper.
6.2. An outline keeps you from wandering by forcing you to
clarify your thinking about your subject.
As your outline begins to develop, gaps in your research
(note card information) will be apparent and you will
then see where additional research is needed.
6.3. There is a relationship between the outline and the note
cards.
The usual procedure is to base the outline on the note
cards. It is better to prepare the outline after the notes
have been completed, even though it is possible to
prepare the outline before taking your notes. Refer to
the three note cards in No. 5.11. The outline placement
code appearing in the upper right-hand corner of each
card was placed there as a result of having arranged the
note cards in some order. The quotation card was as-
signed the code IIA, the paraphrase card was given the
outline code IIB, and the personal comment card was
assigned TIC.
See No. 5.1 1 and the topic and sentence outline in No.
6.13.
50 The Term Paper

6.4. If you prepare your outline from your notes, you may
want to spread your note cards on the floor and put them
back together again in logical order.
6.5. An outline should provide a guide for writing a term
paper. It may list items in their order of time occurrence.
If the term paper is on Lincoln's assassination, your first
outline might appear as follows:
Lincoln's Assassination
I. Before the assassination
II. The assassination
III. After the assassination
6.6. An outline may also develop by expanding the main
thought without regard to chronological arrangement.
Lincoln's Assassination — An Unsolved Mystery
I. The act itself
II. Grant's strange behavior
III. Mrs. Lincoln's unfortunate choice of bodyguard
IV. The President's premonition
V. Booth's strange revelations
6.7. Your outline can change to suit your purpose. You are not
shackled to the first one you prepare. Constant revision of
your outline will develop it to full maturity.
Note how the outlines on Lincoln's assassination in
Nos. 6.5, 6.6, 6.11, and the topic and sentence outline
in 6.13 change as they mature.
6.8. The outline must indicate a reason for your paper. It must
show relationships between facts, and it must come to a
logical conclusion.
Avoid words like Introduction, Body, and Summary in
your outline. They are vague and do not contribute to
the development of your paper. Specific headings are
needed.
6.9. Avoid too many main headings but have at least three.
The following outline form illustrates too fine a break-
down:
 Making the Outline 51

I.

a.

b.
(1)
(2)
(a)
(b)
((D)
((2))
B.

6.10. If you list a I, you must also have a II. This is true for all
subdivisions.

6.11. All main headings such as I, II, and III should be of the
same value.

Unequal headings Equal headings

Lincoln's Assassination Lincoln's Assassination
I. Events leading to the I. Events leading to the
murder murder
II. The murder II. The murder
III. Confusing news reports III. Booth's escape
IV. Sgt. Cobb IV. Booth's accomplices
V. Patrolman Parker

6.12. Have all periods in main heading numbers line up. This
also applies to all subdivisions.

6.13. Although a topic outline is easier to prepare, a sentence

outline is preferred because it makes the writer really
think about his or her subject and will result in an easier
task and a superior paper.
Notice in the following partial outlines how the sentence
outline brings the student closer to the point of writing
his or her paper.
52 The Term Paper

TOPIC OUTLINE

Lincoln's Assassination — A Murder Mystery

I. Purpose of the paper
II. Lincoln — before the assassination
A. His premonition of approaching death
1. Dreams
2. Philosophy
3. Conversations
B. His lack of security protection
1 . Unreliable personal bodyguard
2. Lock on theater presidential box broken
3. Peephole bored through box door unde-
tected
C. His difficulty in obtaining guests for the per-
formance
1. Grant to be honored with Lincoln at the-
ater
2. Grant accepts President's invitation
3. Grant declines invitation
4. Lincoln finds himself without guests
III. The assassination
A. A look at the assassin
B. Motives for murder
C. The shooting
D. Stanton's famous last words
IV. After the assassination
A. Booth's escape into Maryland
1. Passed through guard post
2. Received medical aid from physician
3. Hidden by southern sympathizers
B. Stanton's lack of co-operation
1. Refused to give Booth's name to press
2. Disinterested in capture of John Surrat
C. The accomplices
D. The trial
Trie final outline appears in sentence form. Every
heading and subdivision is a complete statement.
 Making the Outline 53

SENTENCE OUTLINE*
Lincoln's Assassination — A Murder Mystery
I. The purpose of this paper is to identify unexplained
events in connection with the death of Abraham
Lincoln.
A. Records of the assassination reveal gaps and
inconsistencies of the events leading up to and
following the murder.
B. John Wilkes Booth killed Lincoln, but why he
did it and the full details of his diabolical plan
leave many questions unanswered.
II. Lincoln had been marked for death by several peo-
ple during his term in office, but efforts to protect
his life went unnoticed.
A. Before his death, Lincoln had suspected that
he would be killed at the hands of an assassin.
1. He was extremely melancholy on the day
of the shooting, having been troubled by
bad dreams.
2. His philosophy on his own safety re-
flected afatalistic attitude.
3. He said "good-bye" rather than "good
night" as he left the White House for the
theater.
B. The President was not provided with adequate
security measures.
1. The regular guard was dismissed and a
discredited police officer was assigned to
guard his life.
a. Patrolman Parker had been offi-
cially reprimanded for drunkenness
on several occasions.
b. Parker had been found guilty of
conduct unbecoming an officer on
several occasions.

* See Term Paper pages 1, 2, 3 and note how this sentence outline develops into
paragraphs to become a term paper.
54 The Term Paper
c. Parker had been known to leave his
post without proper leave on sev-
eral occasions.
2. The lock on the door leading to the
presidential box was broken.
3. A peephole that had been bored in the
door leading to the presidential box went
unnoticed.
6.14. If asked, submit your outline to your instructor for his or
her approval. You may save yourself time and heartache.
 CHAPTER 7
WRITING THE PAPER

Very few people are naturally gifted writers. For most of us, writ-
ing is a difficult task. To do a creditable job it will be necessary
for you to rework paragraphs and labor over some of your sen-
tences as you try to find the word that expresses the precise
thought you have in mind. Above all, do not get discouraged
now. Other students are going through the same experience and
those who persevere and rise above their discouragements will
finally achieve their goal, a term paper of which they can be
proud.
7.1. Do not delay writing until the last possible moment. You
cannot do a good job if you rush it. Allow yourself ample
time.

7.2. Keep within the number of words set for your paper by
your instructor.
A minimum of 2,000 words is usually required.
7.3. Choose a final title that is interesting, clear, and brief.
See Term Paper Title Page.
1A. Your instructor will probably be influenced by your open-
ing and closing paragraphs, so make them especially good.
7.5. Not even the most experienced writer can hope that his or
her first draft will be the best draft.
Prepare yourself to write several drafts before your
paper is in its final form.
7.6. During your first draft, start writing and do not be con-
cerned with grammar or sentence construction. You can
correct this later. The important thing is to get started.
56 The Term Paper
7.7. Avoid merely copying your notes. This makes the reading
dull, choppy, and lacks the most essential element, YOU.
7.8. Avoid colloquialisms and slang expressions.
7.9. If you have a choice between using a simple word or a
technical one, choose the simpler word your reader will
understand.
His remuneration for the week was in excess of $200.
His pay for the week was more than $200.
7.10. Try to avoid making any personal references to yourself
such as /, me, mine, or the writer. Keep personal pro-
nouns out of the paper if possible.
7.11. Have a dictionary and a thesaurus handy and consult
them.
7.12. Write the first draft with your notes and outline before
you. Use the outline as your writing guide and your notes
to recall the facts. Do not write your paper by copying
your notes.
7.13. Use wide margins and triple space your first draft to allow
room for corrections.
7.14. Use separate sheets of paper for each paragraph in your
draft. This will allow you to add to your paragraphs dur-
ing your revision and to insert footnotes without fear of
crowding your work.
7.15. Write or type on one side of 8V4- by 11-inch paper which
is of quality good enough to take erasing and editing.
7.16. Prepare a carbon copy in case your instructor wishes to
see your draft. Term papers have been lost.
7.17. If asked, submit a clean copy of your revised draft to your
instructor. Type it if possible.
7. 1 8. Allow one-half inch (three lines) for each footnote.
7.19. Documenting and footnoting are closely related. To docu-
ment means to cite quotations in the text; to footnote
means to list the exact reference of the quotation.
See Term Paper Page 8.
 Writing the Paper 57
7.20. Document and footnote as you write your draft. You
might forget one or the other if you hold off doing this
until your final copy is being prepared. (See Chapter 8 for
the form and content of footnotes.)
7.21. When using a quotation, work it into the text smoothly
with a transitional sentence.
See Term Paper Page 9.
7.22. Quoted matter should not take up more than one fifth of
your paper. The remainder of your text comes from your
own ideas.
7.23. Long quotations do not have quotation marks, are single
spaced and indented five spaces from the left and right
margins of the context.
See Term Paper Page 11.
7.24. Rather than copy a quotation, staple or clip the quotation
note card to your draft. This saves time and ensures
against an error during the copying.
7.25. Avoid using quoted matter unless it is absolutely essential
that the words of another be included.
7.26. Acknowledge all paraphrases by using a superscript after
the material and then listing it in the footnotes. Don't pass
someone else's ideas off as your own.
See Term Paper Page 6.
7.27. Determine whether the paragraphs of your first draft are
in logical order. If not, change them.
7.28. Every paragraph should have a key, or topic sentence —
usually at its beginning.
See Term Paper Page 6.
7.29. Have medium and short paragraphs for interest.
7.30. If you include a summary paragraph, it should be short
and concise and should answer the question in your open-
ing paragraph, if that is the way your paper begins.
7.31. After your first writing, lay the paper aside for at least a
day. Then when your outlook is fresh, pick it up and criti-
58 The Term Paper
cize it ruthlessly. It is far better for you to do this than to
have- the criticisms come from your instructor.
See No. 7.34.
7.32. Internally examine the paper for unity, coherence, and
structure. Ask yourself:
Does the central theme hold together well?
Does the paper express itself clearly?
Is the paper well put together grammatically?
Other questions which will help you evaluate your paper
can be found in the term paper checklist following the
sample term paper on pages 1 17 and 118.
7.33. It may be necessary for you to clip and paste your first
draft in different order for a more logical arrangement.
From your pasted draft, prepare your final copy.
7.34. Review and edit the final draft before typing the copy
which you will submit to your instructor. This means that
you may need to correct grammar, switch paragraphs,
change words, delete irrelevant material, sharpen sen-
tences to pinpoint thoughts, and add appropriate tables.
7.35. Check all footnotes and bibliographic entries for consis-
tency of form and to see that all essential information is
included.
7.36. Through constant pruning of irrelevant material, you may
find your final copy shorter than your draft.
7.37. If the final copy sounds like a learned academician rather
than like you, this difference will also be noted by your in-
structor. Now is the time to make changes that will reflect
your own personality rather than to submit a paper that
sounds like someone who possesses a number of college
degrees.
7.38. The finished paper should include a title page, table of
contents (optional), text, and a bibliography, in that
order.
See Term Paper.
7.39. If a table of contents is needed, your outline, slightly re-
vised, will serve the purpose.
 Writing the Paper 59

7.40. Place your completed paper in a folder with a typed label

attached giving the title of your paper, your name, name
and number of the course, the instructor's name, and the
date.
See No. 9.58.
7.41. Remove from your note cards material you do not use in
the paper and keep these extra notes securely bound in a
separate pack.
7.42. Save your note cards, since your instructor may wish to
examine them.

7.43. If you mount illustrations in your paper, use rubber ce-

ment to prevent wrinkling.
7.44. If tables are to be included in your paper, remember that
their only purpose is to communicate ideas, so make them
brief and simple.
See No. 7.46.
7.45. Each table should present only one idea.
See No. 7.46.

Table I
VIEWING HOURS PER WEEK OF TELEVISION PROGRAMS BY TYPE

Type Hours Per Week

Audience participation contests 3
Music 5
Panel shows 2
Sports 1
Variety 10
Western movies 3

7.46. Make each table so simple that its meaning is immediately

clear to the reader.
See No. 7.45.
7.47. Introduce each table with a brief transitional sentence.
7.48. Number each table consecutively throughout the paper.
Use capital roman numerals.
See No. 7.45.

7.49. Every table must have a simple title which appears in cap-
ital letters two spaces under the table number. Do not in-
60 The Term Paper

elude as part of the table title words such as 'Table Show-

See No. 7.45.

ing."
7.50. If numbers in the table are rounded off, be sure to inform
your reader.
7.51. If you draw lines in your table, use a ruler with a steel
edge, a pen with a fine point, and black ink for greater
contrast.
See No. 7.45.
7.52. Avoid splitting a long table onto two pages. It is better to
place it on one page and insert it as close to the contextual
matter as possible.
 CHAPTER 8

FOOTNOTING

Footnotes add authority to what you say and are a vital part of
your paper's documentation. Where they are used, accuracy,
completeness, and consistency should prevail.
You will want to refer to Chapter 4 to see how footnote form
differs from bibliographic form.
8.1. Footnotes have two purposes:
a. To provide additional interesting information which is
pertinent but not of primary importance.
b. To cite exact page references for quoted matter.
See Sample Term Paper Page 4.
8.2. Footnotes may be simple or formal, depending upon the
wishes of your instructor, the style followed by your col-
lege, and the level of research undertaken in the paper.
See Nos. 8.3 and 8.4.
8.3. The simplified footnote style merely lists (a) the last
name of the author, the title, and the exact page reference,
or (b) the title, the reference, and page if the work is
anonymous.
Examples of simple style:
a. Current, Mr. Lincoln, p. 382.
b. 2The World Book Encyclopedia, 1982 ed., s.v. Lin-
coln 12:285-86.
See Term Paper Page 5.
8.4. The formal footnote style lists the full name (in proper
order with family name last), title, place of publication,
publisher, date, volume number, and the exact page to
which reference is made.
62 The Term Paper
Example of formal footnote style:
Richard N. Current, Mr. Lincoln (New York: Dodd,
Mead and Co., 1957), p. 382.
See Term Paper Page 2.
See No. 8.15.
8.5. The major purpose of a footnote is to refer the reader to
the exact page reference. If your reader is satisfied with
this and is content to get more detailed information in the
bibliography at the end of the term paper, use the
simplified style. If this style is annoying to the reader, use
the formal type of footnote. Check with your instructor
first.

8.6. A footnote cites the exact page reference, but the bibliog-
raphy provides complete information about the reference.
Every footnote must also have a bibliographic reference.
See Term Paper Page 3 and Bibliography.
8.7. Footnotes are punctuated like sentences. Phrases within
them are separated by commas and they end with periods.
See Term Paper Page 3.
8.8. Use formal footnote style when first referring to a work.
Later references to the same work may use simplified
style.
See Term Paper Pages 3 and 7.
8.9. There are three acceptable methods for numbering foot-
notes:
a. Continuous numbering throughout the paper
b. Continuous numbering within each chapter
c. Continuous numbering by page with each page start-
ing with number 1 .
The sample term paper at the end of this manual fol-
lows the style of (a) for footnoting.
Consult your instructor concerning which method to use.
8.10. Place the footnote on the same page as the material being
cited.
See Term Paper Page 4.
8.11. If a footnote must be carried over to the next page, break
 Footnoting 63
the footnote in the middle of the sentence and complete it
at the bottom of the next page in the footnote position.
Avoid breaking footnotes.
8.12. The number appearing at the beginning of the footnote is
called a footnote number. Although it may be typed on
the line, most style manuals suggest its being placed one-
half space above the line.
See Term Paper Page 5.
8.13. The footnote number appearing at the end of the matter in
the context appears one-half space above the line. This
number is the same as the number of the footnote to
which it refers at the bottom of the page.
See Term Paper Page 5.
8.14. The first line of the footnote is indented one-half inch
from the left margin. All other lines for that footnote are
even with the margin.
See Term Paper Page 4.
8.15. Footnotes are single spaced and separated by one blank
line.
See Term Paper Page 9.
8.16. There are two ways of separating the text from the foot-
notes:
a. A solid line of underscores \l/i inches long extend-
ing from the left margin.
See Term Paper Page 6.
b. A solid line of underscores extending from the left
margin to the right margin.
The sample term paper uses the style described in
(a).
8.17. Type the line of underscores either for (a) or (b) above,
one or two spaces below the last line of context on the
page but be consistent. Use the shift and figure 6 keys for
making the underscores.
See Term Paper Page 6.
8.18. Allow a minimum of one-half inch (3 lines) for every
footnote. This allowance provides for the material as well
as for the blank line above and below it.
64 The Term Paper
8.19. Short cuts may be used to save time when more than one
footnote refers to the same work.
The use of the Latin terms, ibid., loc. cit., op. cit., and
idem help abbreviate the footnoting task. Such footnotes
are used primarily by experienced research writers.
Although there is a trend away from the use of Latin
terms in footnoting, you will come upon such terms in
your readings, and you should know what they mean.
The use of "op. cit." and "loc. cit." is now obsolete.
Avoid the over-use of Latin footnotes.
See Abbreviations Section Page 120.
8.20. Ibid, refers to the immediately preceding footnote. It re-
places the author's name and the title when both are the
same as in the preceding footnote.
See 8.24 Footnotes 5, 6.
See Term Paper Pages 6, 8, 12.
8.21. Loc. cit. refers to the same reference. It is used when
other footnotes intervene. Loc. cit. is preceded by the au-
thor's name. The page number is not given when using
loc. cit.
See 8.24 Footnote 9.
8.22. Op. cit. refers to the work cited earlier. It eliminates the
need for the title of the work. The author's name precedes
op. cit., and the page reference follows it. Op. cit. is used
when there are intervening footnotes. Op. cit. cites the
same work but refers to a different page.
See 8.24 Footnote 8.
8.23. Idem sometimes replaces loc. cit. and op. cit. and means a
name previously mentioned. It is used without an under-
score or period. Use idem to refer to a previously men-
tioned name and when a footnote intervenes. However,
the use of English rather than Latin is still preferred.
See 8.24 Footnote 10.
8.24.
4 John Cottrell, Anatomy of an Assassination (New
York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1966), p. 92.
 Footnoting 65
5Ibid.

(Refers to the immediately preceding title and to the

same page.)
See Term Paper Page 6.
clbid., p. 115.
(Refers to the immediately preceding title but to a
different page.)
See Term Paper Page 8.
7Peter Farb, Word Play (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1974), p. 79.
tSCottrell, Anatomy, p. 118. (Simplified footnote style
using last name, short title, and page of work cited in
footnote 4 but to a different page.) Or:
8Cottrell, op. cit., p. 118. (Op. cit. may be used when
there are intervening footnotes.) The use of op. cit. is
discouraged for two reasons:
a) The name of the work is not given, thus forcing
the reader to check back for the title
b) No space is saved
9Farb, Word Play, p. 79. (Simplified footnote style in-
stead of loc. cit.) Note that this footnote refers to the
work cited in footnote 7 and to the same page. Or
(but not preferred) :
9Farb, loc. cit. (Loc. cit. refers to the same work cited
in footnote 7 and to the same page.) The use of loc.
cit. is discouraged for the same reasons given in 8a
and b above.
10Cottrell, Anatomy, p. 121. (Simplified footnote style
shown here refers to Cottrell's book cited in footnote
4 but to a different page.) This is the preferred style,
but idem may be used when intervening footnotes
occur. Or:
10Idem, Anatomy, p. 121. (Refers to work cited in foot-
note 4 but to a different page.) Note how idem dupli-
cates what op. cit. and loc. cit. do. However, the
simplified footnote style shown immediately above is
preferred.
66 The Term Paper

8.25. Common types of footnotes include the following (Itali-

cized words, when typed, are underscored, as are the
spaces between the words):

Book
a. Anonymous works
1 Textbooks Are Indispensable! (New York: The Amer-
ican Textbook Publishers Institute, [n.d.]), p. 32.
b. One author
William F. Buckley, Jr., Atlantic High (Garden City,
NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1982), p. 41.
c. Two or three authors
Steven F. Greenberg and Paul J. Valletutti, Stress and
the Helping Professions (Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes,
1980), p. 12.
d. More than three authors
Joe Aberach and others, Bureaucrats and Politicians in
Western Democracies (Boston: Harvard University
Press, 1981), p. 75.
e. Editor as author
William T. Peck, ed., Washington's Farewell Address
(New York: The Macmillan Company, 1909), pp.
17-26.
f. Edited by a person other than the author
William Colburn and Sanford Weinberg, An Orientation
to Listening and Audience Analysis, ed. by Ronald
Applebaum and Roderick Hart (Chicago: Science Re-
search Associates, 1980), p. 288.
g. Edition other than the first
Clarence Wilbur Taber, Taber's Cyclopedic Medical
Dictionary, 14th ed. (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Com-
pany, 1981), p. 105.
h. Review
N. Schedler, review of Environmental Ethics, by K. A.
Shrader-Prechette, in Defenders, August 1982, p. 33.
i. Citing work in more than one volume
Cyrus Hoy, Introductions, Notes, and Commentaries to
Texts in the Dramatic Works of Thomas Dekker, vol. 1,
 Footnoting 67
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980), pp.
36-39.

Encyclopedia article
j. Author listed
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology,
1977 ed., vol. 12, s.v. "Sensory Learning," by Kao L.
Chow.
k. No author listed
Encyclopedia Americana, 1980 ed., s.v. "Navajo Moun-

tain."
Government document

1. Mary C. Blehar, "Families and Public Policy," National

Institute on Mental Health Monographs. U.S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare. (Washington,
DC: Government Printing Office, 1979), p. 26.
m. No author listed
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,
Statistical Abstract of the United States. (Washington,
DC: Government Printing Office, 1979), p. 321-23.

Newspaper article
n. Author listed
Paul L. Montgomery, "Garden Plot Is at Center of West
Side Fight," New York Times, 9 August 1982, Sec. A,
o. No aup. 1. listed
thor
"Unemployment Soars to Record 9.8 Percent," Mobile
(AL) Press-Register, 7 August 1982, p. 5.
p. Editorial
"Confusion over Taiwan," Editorial, Albany (NY)
Times Union, 23 August 1982, p. 7.

Periodical or magazine article

q. Author listed
Rowe Findley, "Our National Forests: Problems in
68 The Term Paper

Paradise," National Geographic, 162, September 1982,

p. 307.
r. No author listed
"ERA Dies," Time, 5 July 1982, p. 29.

Miscellaneous
s. Collected works
Morton N. Cohen, ed., The Selected Letters of Lewis
Carroll (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982), p. 15.
t. Interview
Interview with Fob James, Governor of Alabama at the
Executive Mansion, Montgomery, 1 July 1982.
u. Letter
Letter written by George A. Custer and on file in the
National Archives, Washington, DC [n.d.].
v. Pamphlet or Bulletin in a series
United Cerebral Palsy Association, What Everyone
Should Know About Cerebral Palsy (New York: UCP,
Inc., 1977), p. 4.
w. Quarterly
Arthur Burns, "U.S. Relations with West Germany,"
The Atlantic Community Quarterly, 20 (Summer
1982): 153-57.
x. Unpublished doctoral dissertation
Anne F. Roberts, "Library Instruction for Librarians"
(D.A. Dissertation, State University of New York at
Albany, 1982), p. 15.
y. Translation
Nicholas Yalouris, Alexander the Great and His Heri-
tage, trans. David Hardy (Boston: New York Graphic
Society, 1980), p. 22.
z. Yearbook article
Marjorie Watson, "Mainstreaming the Educable Men-
tally Retarded," Yearbook of Special Education,
1978-79 (Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, Inc., 1978),
p. 55.
 CHAPTER 9

TYPING THE PAPER

The end is in sight, but don't spoil all you have done by passing
in your paper prematurely. Although you may have a very legible
handwriting, it is always easier to read from type than from long-
hand. Besides, the extra effort you exert at this time by getting
your paper typed may be reflected in the grade you receive from
the person who reads it. Put yourself in the reader's position:
Wouldn't you react favorably to a typed paper after "wading"
through a number of other papers, many of which may be written
in longhand? Do yourself a special favor and submit a clean,
neatly set up, typed paper.
9.1. Unless your instructor specifies otherwise, follow the
general style suggestions offered in this manual.
9.2. If you plan to bind your paper in a folder, purchase the
folder before typing your paper because it will influence
the margins you will have.
9.3. Type on white, W2- by 11-inch bond, of good quality
such as a 20-pound weight and a high rag content. This
will give you an attractive, typed copy.
9.4. Type or write on one side of the paper.
9.5. If you handwrite your paper, use white paper with ruled
lines approximately one-half inch apart.
9.6. Black ink is preferred when handwriting your paper and
when making corrections on the final copy. Make correc-
tions in small print above the line.
9.7. If your final copy has more than two or three errors a
70 The Term Paper
page, write or type the page over to create a more
finished effect.
9.8. If someone else is going to type your term paper, go over
the handwritten draft with the typist to clear up the
spellings of words where your writing may be indistin-
guishable. This is especially important for quoted matter
and footnotes.
9.9. Lend this manual to your typist to use as a guide in typing
your paper, paying particular attention to this chapter and
also to the sample term paper.
9.10. Retain a carbon copy for your files.
9.11. After inserting the pack (first sheet, carbon, and second
sheet) into your typewriter, check to see that it is in
proper order.
Peel back the first page. If you see the dull side of the
carbon, your pack is inserted correctly. Do this every
time you insert a new pack.
9.12. After inserting your pack, be sure to remove wrinkles in
the carbon paper before typing.
Release the paper release lever by pulling it toward you.
The lever is on the right side of the typewriter next to
the cylinder knob. Avoid disturbing the pack. Gently
run your thumbnail across the paper over the cylinder.
Move your paper release back to its original position
away from you.
9.13. If you type your paper, use a fresh black ribbon to give
your paper the best possible appearance.
9.14. Use a cleaning agent (fluid, special putty, or blotters) to
clean your typewriter keys. No one likes to read a typed
paper in which the individual letters such as a, o, d, b, c,
p, or e are clogged or completely filled because of dirty
typewriter bars.
9.15. It makes little difference whether you use an elite- or a
pica-style type for your paper. Avoid using script or
micro, since they are more difficult to read.
9.16. A typewriter with elite type has a scale just below the cyl-
 Typing the Paper 71

inder which usually reads from 0 to 130. A pica scale usu-

ally reads from 0 to 102. Both machines have 6 lines to
the vertical inch. Therefore, a paper 1 1 inches long has 66
lines.
9.17. If your paper is not going to be enclosed in a folder, use a
left margin of \Vi inches and a right margin of one inch.
Measure this with a ruler. Place dots at the top of the
paper for the left and right margins. Insert your paper into
the typewriter and move your marginal stops to the dots.
9.18. If your paper will have a cover, you may need a left mar-
gin of two inches.
9.19. To be sure you have enough room for footnotes on your
page, follow this procedure:
Immediately after typing the footnote number in your
contextual matter, roll down to the one-inch mark at the
bottom of your paper. Then roll up three spaces and
place a new mark at this point to indicate your last line
of contextual matter. Roll up to the contextual matter
and continue typing until you come to your second foot-
note. Follow the same procedure of marking your paper
at the bottom by spacing up three more lines from the
highest pencil mark.
9.20. On all pages, other than page 1, have a top margin of one
inch (six lines). Start typing on the seventh line.
See Term Taper Page 2.
9.21. Set your machine for double spacing. Double spacing
means that you have one blank line between every typed
line.

9.22. The body of the term paper is double-spaced, but quota-

tions longer than three or four lines, footnotes, and the
bibliography are single-spaced. Long quotations and foot-
notes are indented 5 spaces from the left margin of the
contextual matter. Long quotations are also indented 5
spaces from the right contextual margin.
See Term Paper Page 3.
9.23. If a long quotation takes more than one paragraph,
double-space between paragraphs.
72 The Term Paper
9.24. Underscore words and spaces in book titles.
See Term Paper Page 13.
9.25. Titles of articles in periodicals are not underscored but are
enclosed in quotation marks.
See No. 8.25 q and r.
9.26. Double-space between each footnote.
See Term Paper Page 8.

9.27 '. Double-space between each bibliographic entry. If the bib-

liographic entry requires more than one line, all lines after
the first are indented 5 spaces.
See Term Paper Bibliography.
9.28. It is all right to be one line over or under your bottom
margin but any more of a variance will result in a "short"
page or a crowded page.
9.29. Avoid the use of thesis paper for an undergraduate written
assignment. The use of such papers may be interpreted as
putting on airs. Use plain bond paper.
9.30. Make underscores according to one of the methods ex-
plained in number 8.17. Use the shift and the number 6
keys.
9.31. Type the line of underscoring either one or two spaces
below the last line of context on the page but be consis-
tent.
See Term Paper Page 8.
9.32. Use the small / key for making a figure 1 as in 1983. Your
typewriter may have a figure 1 key on the top row. If so,
use it. Do not use the capital I for the figure 1.

9.33. The title page gives the title of your paper, the word "by,"
your name, the name of the course, and/or the course
number, your instructor's name, and the date you submit
the report, in that order.
See Term Paper, Title Page.
9.34. The title is usually typed in capitals on your title page.
See Term Paper, Title Page.
 Typing the Paper 73
9.35. Avoid any decorative designs on the title page.
9.36. If an outline is to be submitted with the paper, it conies
immediately after the title page.
See Chapter 6.
9.37. The outline is numbered with a small i at the bottom cen-
ter exactly one inch (6 lines) from the bottom.
9.38. If your outline requires two pages, the second page is
numbered ii at the bottom.
9.39. The first page of your contextual matter is not numbered,
although it does count as page 1. All succeeding pages are
numbered in the upper right corner in the same position
so that if you were to flip all your numbered pages rap-
idly, you would see them dance before your eyes. Num-
bers should appear one inch from the right margin, and 3
lines from the top of the paper.
See Term Paper Page 2.
9.40. If the title of your term paper is also to appear on page 1,
place it three inches (18 lines) from the top and center it.
If you write your paper, the title appears without under-
scoring and in small letters. If your paper is typed, the title
appears in capitalized form.
See Term Paper Page 1.
9.41. Space down three lines after the title to begin the first line
of your paper.
See Term Paper Page 1.
9.42. If your paper has paragraph headings, underline the words
and spaces.
See Term Paper Page 2.
9.43. A footnote is preceded by a raised number. This number
is the same as the footnote number in the contextual matter
on the same page.
See Term Paper Page 1 1 .
9.44. Footnotes must be double-checked for accuracy because
the reader may want to read the exact references you cite.
74 The Term Paper

9.45. There are three acceptable methods for numbering foot-

notes.
See No. 8.9.

9.46. Although it is possible to complete a footnote at the bot-

tom of the next page, it is better to retype the page and get
the complete footnote on the page where it belongs.
9.47. Indent 5 spaces for the first line of paragraphs and foot-
notes.
9.48. If you quote poetry, separate it from your text matter by
indenting and single spacing it.
9.49. If you include a quotation within a quotation, the inside
quotation has single quotation marks while the outside
quotation has double quotes.
9.50. Commas and periods appear inside the quotation marks.
See Term Paper Page 9.
9.51. The bibliography constitutes the last page, or pages, of
your term paper.
See Term Paper Bibliography.
9.52. Only references that you use in your paper may be in-
cluded in your bibliography.
9.53. Type the word BIBLIOGRAPHY in capital letters at the
top center of the first page on which the bibliography ap-
pears.
See Term Paper Bibliography.

9.54. While footnotes have the author's name in signature order,

the name is reversed in the bibliography.
See Term Paper Page 2 and Bibliography.
9.55. Arrange your bibliography in alphabetic order.
See Term Paper Bibliography.
9.56. Proofread your final copy.
9.57. If you submit your paper in loose form, without staples or
clips, type your name (last name fust) in the upper right
corner, followed by the page number on each page. Avoid
submitting your paper in this form.
 Typing the Paper 75
9.58. If you submit your paper in a folder, be sure your folder
carries a label on the outside.
See No. 7.40.

After completing your term paper, and before submitting it to

your instructor, take a few moments to give it a final inspection
by using the term paper checklist shown on pages 117-18.
 CHAPTER 10

DEVELOPING THE ORAL REPORT

The Purpose of This Chapter

This chapter explains how to give an oral report. For reasons of

simplicity, the terms oral report, speech, talk, and presentation
are used interchangeably even though differences exist. For exam-
ple, an oral report is the least formal of the three mentioned. A
speech is an expression of thoughts in spoken words with little
audience participation. A presentation is usually lengthy (one
hour or more) and frequently involves the use of audiovisual
aids, demonstrations, and audience participation. The key ideas in
this chapter should help you prepare and give a short talk,
speech, oral report, or presentation. Before giving your talk, eval-
uate itby using the Oral Report Checklist on pages 95-98.

Oral Reporting Is an Important Skill

10.1. It is important for you to be able to speak to groups of
people because you will have to do that in whatever ca-
reer you choose.
10.2. If you can speak effectively before an audience, large or
small, your oral communication skills will help you ad-
vance in your career.
10.3. Good oral communication skills are in great demand;
they are also poorly developed.

Differences Between the Term Paper and

the Oral Report
10.4. The term paper and the oral report have important
differences:
•A term paper transmits the message by written or
 Developing (he Oral Report 77

typed words. It is read by someone without your

being present. Interaction is delayed and when it oc-
curs involves only the reader and the writer.
•An oral report is given to a "live" audience. In-
teraction isimmediate. Rather than one receiver,
there may be several or hundreds. Your voice is the
communication medium.
10.5. Unlike the term paper, your audience will not know if
you can spell the words you are using. Most likely, they
will know if you are pronouncing them correctly.
Grammar, word usage, organization, preparation, and
rehearsal are still essential.

Why Give a Speech?

10.6. Every speech must have a purpose or there is no reason

to give it.
10.7. A speech is usually given to persuade, motivate, in-
struct, inform, discuss, and recognize (national holiday,
important event, etc.).
10.8. Oral reports are given when it is believed that talking to
an audience is a better way of transmitting a message
than by submitting a written or typed report to be read
at a later date and without an immediate exchange of
ideas between the sender and the receiver.

Why Speeches Fail

10.9. Speeches fail because they are poorly organized and

lack adequate rehearsal. If you hear a speaker make
such statements as "Oh, that reminds me . . ." or "I
forgot to mention . . . ," it indicates a weakness in or-
ganization and rehearsal eilort.

Select a Topic with Care

10.10. You may be assigned a topic or may have the option of

choosing one.
See Chapter 2.
10.11. If you choose a topic, select one that is not offensive, in
78 The Term Paper
good taste, worthy of your time, and makes a positive
contribution to the audience.
See Chapter 2.
10.12. Select a topic familiar to you to reduce the time you
will need to collect your data.
See Chapter 2.
10.13. If your topic is noncontroversial, use a direct approach.
Here, you first explain your point of view, follow with
facts,
mary. provide a rationale, and conclude with a sum-

10.14. If your topic is controversial, organize your speech by

beginning with facts, followed by a rationale, and con-
cluding with your value judgments and/or recom-
mendations, ifappropriate.
See No. 10.96.
10.15. It is better to discuss only one or two points in a speech
than to try to cover the entire topic.

How Much Should a Speaker Know About

the Topic?
10.16. A good speaker should be as knowledgeable as possible
about the topic. This does not mean one is expected to
know all there is to know about the subject to be
discussed. There are many subjects about which little is
known; however, these topics can still be developed
into oral reports with some research effort.
10.17. The most difficult thing to do when given an assignment
is to get started. Do not procrastinate.
10.1 8. Establish target dates for the following:
Month Day
Identify the topic
Write a clear statement of the purpose of
the talk
Research the topic
Develop an outline
Write the draft
Edit and type the draft
 Developing the Oral Report 79
_ Edit and type the final copy
_ Rehearse the oral report
_ Give the oral report
10.19. The following chart should help you complete your as-
signment:

Choose a topic

Analyze the audience

\
Gather the data

Prepare your outline

I
Write the draft
4
Edit your draft
*
Type your second draft or final copy
I
Tape your edited final copy
*
Decide whether to read your speech or use note cards
*
Rehearse your oral report
*
Visit the room where you will give your talk
I
Determine your equipment needs
*
Decide on audio-visuals and demonstrations
\
Give your presentation
80 The Term Paper

Analyze the Audience

10.20. Try to get the answers to these important questions:

• Who is my audience?
• How much do they know about the topic?
• If they do not have much knowledge about the
topic, what words shall I use that will clearly ex-
press my thoughts (avoiding difficult and technical
terms)?
• If they have expressed an opinion about the topic,
what is it?
• Why
is!) should the audience be interested in my topic?
(A vested interest, perhaps? If so, discover what it

• What is the size of the group? (Large, small, under

25?, etc.)
• What is their age range? (16-18; 25-60, etc.)
• What are their attitudes about the topic? Friendly?
Hostile? Apathetic? Empathetic?
• What will be the mix of males and females?
• What is the audience's educational level? (high
school, etc.)
• What effect do I want my talk to have on the audi-
ence?
• What strategy will I need to follow to accomplish
the purpose of my talk?
• Will a question and answer period be appropriate?

Gather Your Data

10.21. Review Chapters 3 and 5 on using the library and tak-

ing notes.
10.22. Collect more data than you need. This will help you if
you have a question and answer period following your
talk.
SeeNos. 10.111-10.116.
10.23. Use 5- by 3-inch index cards or paper cut to size to
collect your data, holding them horizontally.
See Nos. 5.5, 5.6, 5.7.
 Developing the Oral Report 81
10.24. Place only one fact on each card or paper, using one
side only. If you need more writing space, go to a sec-
ond card or paper and use a numbering system to link
both such as 1A, IB.
See No. 5.10.
10.25. Use the reverse side to cite the data source in case you
need to verify some fact.
See No. 5.2.

10.26. Save all note cards for possible future referral.

Prepare Your Outline

10.27. Prepare an outline from your note cards by arranging

them in some logical order.
See Chapter 6.
10.28. The arrangement of your outline is determined by the
strategy you will use in presenting your topic to the au-
dience.
See Nos. 10.20, 10.29, 10.30, 10.31, 10.32.

The Typical Speech Has Three Parts

10.29. Speeches usually include introductory comments that

set the theme for the talk, followed by the body where
the main points are developed, and concluding with a
summary and/or recommendations, if appropriate.

The Opening and Closing Should Be Dynamic

10.30. Your opening remarks need to gain immediate audience

attention; otherwise, they will listen for a short while
and then turn their attention elsewhere. A good way to
attract attention is to ask a question or display some
object for their viewing.

10.31. Gain the audience's attention but avoid startling dra-

matics that may frighten or alarm them.
10.32. The opening and closing must support each other and
both must capture the interest of the audience.
82 The Term Paper

Write the Draft

10.33. Be generous in your use of action verbs for they are

more interesting than are the passive type.
See Nos. 7.8, 7.9.

10.34. Avoid passive verbs. (Example: "It is appreciated

. . ."—Say, "I appreciate . . .")
10.35. The simple sentence having a subject, verb, and object
is easy to write and easy to understand.
10.36. Use adjectives and adverbs carefully as they may be in-
terpreted differently.
10.37. Give special attention to grammar, sentence structure,
and transitional devices. (Examples of transitions: "On
the other hand . . .", "My second point is . . .", "But
. . .") Transitions help achieve forward movement by
keeping your audience with you on the point you are
discussing.

10.38. Avoid unnecessary words. (Example: "I would like to

take this opportunity to thank you for . . ." when
"Thank you for . . ." is more to the point.)
10.39. Use paragraph headings and underline them. When
reading a typed speech from %Vi- by 11-inch white
paper, the paragraph headings may be all you need to
discuss the content of the paragraph without having to
read every word.
See Sample Term Paper Page 2.

Edit Your Draft

10.40. After putting your draft aside for a day or two, edit it.
In the editing process, you will do some or all of the
following:
• Underline words you want to emphasize.
• Write reminders to yourself at appropriate places.
(Examples: Pause here, look at audience, display
object.)
 Developing the Oral Report 83

• Delete Latin terms and trite expressions. (Exam-

ples: modus operandi, "Be that as it may.") They
are not always understood or appreciated.
• Avoid slang expressions.
• Refrain from using words that may convey different
meanings. (Examples: bread — money, food; pad —
writing tablet, bed.)
• Eliminate duplication of thoughts.
• Reduce the use of "which" and "that."
•Maintain an average sentence length of 15-19
words.
•Avoid sexist language (Example: The manager
spoke to his staff.") Some managers are women!
• Put people into your speech by using names.
•Avoid stilted and impersonal language. (Example:
"It behooves me to say . . ." and "It has been said
. . ." when "I would like to say . . ." and "We
often hear it said that . . ." is better.)

Type Your Second Draft or Final Copy

10.41. Review Chapter 9, especially Nos. 9.3, 9.4, 9.13, 9.14,

9.56.

10.42. Use the largest type size available. If only elite or pica
size is available, type the speech using all capital letters
for easy reading.
See No. 9.16.

10.43. Have P/i-inch left and right margins.

10.44. Have one-inch top and bottom margins.
10.45. Triple-space throughout but leave four single spaces be-
tween paragraphs.
10.46. Type page numbers on all pages.
See No. 9.39.

10.47. End a paragraph on a page rather than continuing onto

another page and thus avoid the need to carry over a
thought.
84 The Term Paper

Tape Your Edited Final Copy

10.48. After your speech has been edited, dictate it into a tape
recorder.
See No. 10.49 before doing this.
10.49. Speak at about 120 words a minute. Here is how you
can do this:
With your typed speech in front of you, mark off 30
words and place a diagonal mark at that place; do the
same after every 30 words. Now, using a watch with
a second hand, begin dictating (practice first) your
speech to arrive at the first diagonal in 15 seconds.
Continue dictating to arrive at the second diagonal
mark in another 15 seconds. Do the same for each
group of 30 words. At this rate, you will be speak-
ing at 120 words a minute. Note this example of in-
serting diagonal marks:

Lincoln's Assassination — A Murder Mystery

The purpose of this presentation is to point out
some of the mysteries surrounding the tragic death of
President Abraham Lincoln. The murder of this great
man is considered to/be one of the greatest tragedies
befalling the American people. Another tragedy stem-
ming from the murder is the apparent breakdown of
jurisprudence which took place following the killing.
With each/passing year, the murder plot and subse-
quent assassination become more dimmed and the
circumstances of the conspiracy, the act itself, and
the trial are now hidden among a maze of/abstrac-
tions and generalities with each writer's interpretation
of the tragedy connected with the President.

This marking method will also help you estimate with

some accuracy the length of your talk. Determine the
total number of words in your speech and divide by 120.
If your speech, for example, contains 1,200 words, and
you speak at 120 words a minute, your speech is 10
minutes long.
 Developing the Oral Report 85

10.50. Now that you know the length of your talk, in its pres-
ent form, you may have to shorten or lengthen it to
keep within the time allowance given you. If shortening
is needed, look for ways of removing parts of your
speech that may be interesting but not necessary. If
lengthening is needed, go back to your research note
cards. See Nos. 5.5, 10.26. Look for additional data
you have not used and see where it might be inserted
into your talk.
10.51. With your final edited copy before you, repeat No.
10.48.
10.52. Listen to the tape recording, paying close attention to
diction, pronunciations, voice emphasis, tonal qualities,
and speed. The way you use your voice (strategic
pauses and higher and lower tones) provides the punc-
tuation for your speech.
10.53. Pronounce all word endings and syllables. (Examples:
say swimming instead of swimmin; say particu/arly in-
stead of particuly.)
10.54. Avoid regional accents. Emulate news commentators
you hear on the radio and TV for their speech is free of
regional accents. A listener usually cannot get a clue as
to their
the country
United States.or origin or where they call "home" in
10.55. Determine if there is a sincere and confident quality to
your speech. Does it sound like you? Does it carry con-
viction?
10.56. If you have stumbled over the pronunciations of words,
substitute easier ones. A thesaurus will help.
10.57. Have someone listen to your tape and evaluate it.
10.58. As you listen to the tape, follow along in your typed
speech and underline words you want to emphasize.

Decide Whether to Read Your Speech or

Use Note Cards

10.59. Do not attempt to memorize your speech. The most ex-

86 The Term Paper

- perienced speakers are sometimes at a loss for words

because of a memory gap.
10.60. If you are a novice at giving speeches, follow the advice
of professional speakers. They recommend that you
read your speech, making sure it is done in a way that
maintains interest and eye-to-eye contact with the audi-
ence.
10.61. Whether you plan to read your speech or use note
cards, rehearse, rehearse, rehearse!
See No. 10.64.

10.62. If you decide to use note cards, use either the 3- by 5-

or 5- by 8-inch size. Print the key ideas using a black
felt marking pen. Do not use complete sentences. Print
is more legible than handwriting. Hold the cards ver-
tically.

10.63. Number each card in the upper right-hand corner. Sta-

ple all cards in the upper left corner. If the cards are
accidentally dropped during your talk, they can be
recovered without having to be put back into their
proper order. Do the same if using a typed speech.

Rehearse Your Oral Report

10.64. Get enthused about giving your talk. Getting "psyched
up" helps reduce tension, stress, and anxiety concerning
your attitudes toward your talk. Consider this:
• You have researched your topic.
• You know more about your topic than does the au-
dience.
• You are prepared to answer questions because you
have collected more data than you need.
• You have rehearsed so much that you are com-
pletely familiar with your speech.
10.65. When you rehearse, do all of the following:
• Have an audience even if it is only a vacant chair or
one person.
• Stand in front of a full-length mirror to observe
your body movements (keep them to a minimum).
 Developing the Oral Report 87

• Have a platform for your typed speech or note

cards (table, stack of books, box, etc.).
• Keep one finger on the line of your typed speech as
you read it to avoid losing your place.
• Look at your audience as much as possible.
• Use a pleasant, nonthreatening voice with strategic
pauses, proper emphasis, and changes in speed.
• Rehearse enough times to become thoroughly ac-
quainted with your speech and thus increase your
ability to maintain eye contact with the audience.

Visit the Room Where You Will Give Your Talk

10.66. The physical setting where you will give your talk is im-
portant and you should visit it and make note of the
following:
• Does the room have windows? Try to get a room
with windows and chairs that face away from the
outside light.
• Where are the wall electrical outlets located? Are
they where you need them if using equipment pow-
ered by electricity (slide or film projector)?
• Can the outlets receive a three-prong plug? If not,
you will probably need an adapter as most electri-
cally operated viewing machines have a three-prong
plug. A hardware store sells adapters.
• What are the seating arrangements? Are they tab-
let-arm chairs? Auditorium type seats? Are the
seats fixed or movable? Are they facing the direc-
tion you desire? Will someone rearrange them for
you if you wish?
• Are the windows equipped with curtains or shades?
Do the windows open? Do the curtains and shades
work?
•What instructional (audiovisuals, chalkboard, easel,
etc.) equipment is in the room? Does the room
have a screen for viewing slides or films? Do you
know how to operate the equipment you will use
88 The Term Paper
in your presentation? If not, have someone instruct

• Does the room have light switches? Where, and

you.
how many? Is it possible to turn off some but not
all of the lights? (Avoid showing an image on a
screen in total darkness because people cannot take
notes, and might trip over electrical wires or people
if they do not remain in their chairs.)
• Will there be noises or distractions over which you
have no control such as road repairs, building con-
struction? Ifso, this may influence the way you
want the seats to face or your choice of room.

Determine Your Equipment Needs

10.67. Now that you have visited the room where you will
give your presentation, you know what equipment is
available or what you will need:
(Check what you need)
Chalkboard
Eraser
Chalk
Screen
Easel and pad
Film projector (35 mm?)
Slide projector (carousel type?)
Adapter for a three-prong plug
Lectern equipped with lighting device
Pointer
Microphone
Extension cord
Marking pen (felt tip)
10.68. Arrange to have whatever equipment and supplies you
need available when you give your presentation.

Prepare Your Audiovisuals and Demonstrations

10.69. When properly used, slides, films, drawings, illus-

 Developing the Oral Report 89
trations, chalkboard notes, and easel pad sketches can
be effective.

10.70. Avoid freehand drawings. Prepare beforehand, if possi-

ble.
10.71. Visuals should be simple, few in number, carefully and
accurately made, easy to understand, and large enough
for all to see.
10.72. Each visual on a screen should be supported by a
prepared text written on an index card.
10.73. Charts are best prepared on one-inch grid paper. A 27-
by 3 2 Vi -inch easel pad sheet (50 sheets to a pad) and
marked off in light blue square inches is ideal. The grid
allows you to draw straight lines and helps achieve pro-
portional accuracy in charts such as column diagrams
and graphs.
10.74. Demonstrations are more effective when there is audi-
ence participation. Arrange for a "volunteer" before-
hand.
10.75. If using an easel, put penciled notes, lightly printed, on
the left side of the easel pad sheet. This is your script
and it cannot be seen by the audience and thus frees
you from referring to notes that are hand-held.
10.76. A pointer, rather than a finger, is preferred when calling
attention to something being projected on a screen or
written on an easel pad sheet and does not get in the
way of the audience's view.
Your Appearance Is Important
10.77. Before entering the room where you will give your talk,
view yourself in a mirror. Hair combed? Face, hands,
and fingernails clean? Tie straight? Trousers arranged
properly? Makeup on as it should be?
10.78. Whatever you wear should be clean, without rips or
missing buttons.
10.79. Minimize wearing jewelry. A simple necklace, bracelet,
90 The Term Paper
earrings, ring, and watch are suitable for female
speakers. Male speakers may properly wear a ring and
watch. Anything more might distract the audience.
10.80. Avoid being over or under dressed. If you know the au-
dience, dress appropriately.

Your Rapport with the Audience Must Be Positive

10.81. Avoid trying to flatter your audience. (Examples: "I'm

honored to be your speaker" or "I feel humble talking
to this group.") It does not sound sincere.
10.82. Never apologize to your audience. (Example: "I haven't
had time to properly prepare my talk" or "I'm not
the best qualified to speak on this subject" or "A coin
was tossed as to who would be your speaker and you
got me — sorry about that.")
10.83. Do not end your presentation by thanking the audience.
When your presentation has ended, pick up your notes
and return to your seat.

Give the Presentation

10.84. If your voice is soft, speak louder than usual.
10.85. If you need to remind yourself to speak to be heard,
write the word LOUD on an index card and keep it
alongside your notes or typed speech as you address the
audience.
10.86. If you use a microphone, speak from 6 to 12 inches
away from it. Practice beforehand and learn how to
turn it on and off and how to raise and lower it.
10.87. Hold your body movements to a minimum and stand in
a relaxed posture.
10.88. Avoid finger pointing and table pounding as a form of
emphasis as these are threatening and upsetting ges-
tures.
10.89. Place both hands on the lectern and leave them there.
10.90. Refrain from running your hands through your hair,
 Developing the Oral Report 91
tossing your hair to keep it out of your eyes (use pins),
scratching, rubbing your nose, or clearing your throat,
as these are signs of tension and stress.
10.91. Tension and stress are normal and serve to remind
speakers to be prepared. Thus, both tension and stress
can be viewed as helpful. Adequate rehearsal reduces
tension and stress.
10.92. Avoid the use of crude, vulgar, and obscene language.
10.93. If a noise (passing motorist, airplane, etc.) occurs while
you are speaking, remain silent until the noise stops. Do
not compete with it by shouting to be heard. (This also
gives you a little rest break.)
10.94. Observe the audience as you talk. If they look confused
about something you have said, rephrase it for better
understanding.
10.95. Have a contingency (backup) plan ready in case you
are unable to be heard (outside noises) or seen (eve-
ning power failure). Plan what to do in such an eventu-
ality.

10.96. If your topic is controversial or one in which you have

an unpopular opinion, keep your emotions under con-
trol and do not try to tell your audience anything. Plan
your strategy for getting them to accept your viewpoint.
See No. 10.14.
10.97. Be yourself. The audience will know if you are putting
on "airs."
10.98. Avoid the common tendency to use such expressions as
"You know," "Okay," and "Uh-huh."
10.99. Inform the audience of how long you will speak. If they
don't wonder, their attention may not wander!
10.100. To prevent exceeding your time allowance, arrange be-
forehand for someone in the front row to give you a
two-minute warning signal indicating that you have two
minutes left in your speech.
10.101. A short talk does not require a rest break — longer ones
92 The Term Paper

do. A one-hour presentation (or longer) will generate

audience restlessness and a rest break will be needed.
Either have them stand for a stretch (without leaving
their seating area) or give them a ten-minute break.
Letting them leave the room is risky; some people will
not return, others will delay their return and arrive back
in the room when you are speaking and be a distrac-
tion. Use good judgment.
10.102. During your talk, watch the audience for signs of bore-
dom, confusion, inattentiveness, etc. If you feel you are
losing their interest, you can regain it by asking direct
and indirect questions:
•Direct — (Select someone from the audience). Look
at that person and ask a nonthreatening, easy-to-
answer question that has some relationship to
your immediate statements. (Example: "Alice, if
you have heard of the term acid rain, please tell us
what that term means to you" — where the subject
being discussed deals with pollution.)
• Indirect — (Look at audience but at no one in par-
ticular). Ask a question designed to regain their at-
tention. (Example: "What do you think of the idea
of rinding water with a forked stick?" — where the
subject is water dowsing.)

Telling Jokes and Funny Stories Can Be Risky

1 0. 1 03. In general, avoid telling jokes and funny stories.

10.104. A joke is appropriate only when it has some rela-
tionship to the topic.
10.105. If you plan to tell a joke, do not preface it by saying
"This reminds me of a story . . ." Use an opening state-
ment that leads normally into the joke.
10.106. Some stories and jokes are always inappropriate be-
cause they are insulting, crude, offensive, and without
merit. Use good judgment.
10.107. A serious topic need not be deadly serious. Humor,
properly used, can keep the speech from being dull.
 Developing the Oral Report 93
10.108. Long presentations should be supported by some
change in activity such as looking at an object, asking
questions, etc., to maintain interest and reduce audience
fatigue.

Use Handout Materials Judiciously

10.109. Handout materials, if used, should be few in number,
simple in design, and easy to understand.
10.110. Have someone distribute your handout materials and let
them know when you want them to do this.

Prepare for a Question and Answer Period

10.111. If you know the answer to a question, give a simple,
brief response to avoid using up valuable time for other
questions.
10.112. Avoid asking questions that can be answered with
"Yes" or "No," or "I don't know."
See No. 10.102.
10.113. Reduce the risk of not being able to answer questions
by adequately researching your topic.
10.114. If the audience asks questions, consider it a compliment
because it means they have been listening.
10.115. If you don't know the answer to a question, admit it.
Don't fake an answer. The most experienced speakers
get questions they cannot answer. Either say, "I don't
know," or promise to get the answer to them as soon as
possible.
10.116. Have several blank index cards with you for writing
questions for which you don't have immediate answers.
Note who asked the question. Obtain the answer as
soon as possible and give it to that person.

Keep Speech, Evaluate and Revise It

10.117. Retain your typed speech or notes and your research
94 The Term Paper

cards; you may be asked to present it to another audi-

ence.

10.118. At the top left corner of the first page, indicate the fol-
lowing:
• Date on which you gave the presentation
• The audience (identify by name and city)
• The number of minutes you spoke
• Number of words in your typed speech
• The questions, if any, asked by the audience
• Your own evaluation of the effectiveness of your
speech (good, fair)
10.119. While your oral report is fresh in your mind, write
suggestions about how it could be improved, if given
again.
10.120. Locate the sections in your speech where challenges
came from the audience. Review your data to eliminate
future challenges.
10.121. Review the Oral Report Checklist on pages 95-98 and
evaluate your speech.
10.122. Use this checklist before and after your oral presen-
tation.
 ORAL REPORT CHECKLIST
Yes No

1. Have I examined the term paper checklist on

pages 117-18 as a means of improving the
quality of my typed speech (not all items
are appropriate)?
2. If speaking from note cards, are my key words
underlined and in large print for easy read-
ing?
3. Are my note cards or typed speech numbered
and stapled to prevent a "disaster" if they
are accidentally dropped during my presen-
tation?
4. Have I used a new black ribbon on the type-
writer, and are the type bars clean?
5. Have I typed on white SV2- by 11 -inch paper
of heavy weight (20- or 24-pound)?
6. Is my speech typed in all capitals for easy
reading?
7. Have I used triple spacing in the body of the
speech and left four single lines between
paragraphs?
8. Have I analyzed my audience — their interests,
points of view, knowledge of the topic, edu-
cational level, etc.?
9. Does my speech have a definite purpose or
message?
10. Have I planned my strategy for making an
effective presentation?
11. Have I identified what I want my audience to
gain from my oral report?
12. Do I maintain good eye contact with my au-
dience?
continued on next page
96 The Term Paper
Yes No
13. Do I keep their attention from wandering by
asking direct and/or indirect (overhead)
questions?
14. Am I watching for signals from my audience
such as confusion and, if so, am I prepared
to rephrase for better understanding?
15. Do I feel that my talk will be favorably re-
ceived?
16. During my editing, did I weed out unnecessary
words and jargon, and refrain from using
words that have unclear meanings?
17. Does my voice sound convincing, interesting,
and sincere as I listen to it on the tape re-
corder?
18. Do I project my voice in a way to show en-
thusiasm and confidence?
19. Is my voice loud enough for all to hear?
20. Does my opening statement capture the atten-
tion of the audience?
21. Have I waited until I have my audience's at-
tention before speaking?
22. Is my talk interesting?
23. Do I begin with an interesting opening, move
to the main points, and close with a logical
conclusion that supports my facts?
24. Can my talk be given within the time allow-
ance set for it?
25. Am I speaking at about 120 words a minute?
26. Have I done enough research on the topic to
be able to handle questions from the au-
dience with ease?
27. Do I use transitional terms such as "My sec-
ond point . . .", "On the other hand . . .",
and "To summarize . . ." to keep my au-
dience thinking along with me?
28. Have I rehearsed enough times so that I can
continued on next page
 Oral Report Checklist 97
Yes No
give the talk with minimum reliance on my
notes or typed speech?
29. Have I tape-recorded my talk and listened
carefully to my voice, word choice, usage,
volume, and inflection? .
30. Have I changed words I stumbled over during
rehearsal to words that convey the same
meaning but are easier to pronounce?
31. Do I keep my hands motionless and on the
lectern?
32. Do I keep my body movements to a mini-
mum?
33. Do I refrain from distracting the audience by
not picking lint off my clothing, by not
clearing my throat, by not rubbing my nose,
etc.?
34. Do I use correct grammar and is it free of
slang and trite expressions? .
35. Have I checked my appearance in a mirror
just prior to addressing the audience?
36. Do I appear poised and confident in front of
the audience?
37. Do I remember to smile occasionally while I
am speaking?
38. Do I remember to look around the room as I
talk, focusing my eyes first on one person
for awhile and then on another as a way
of keeping their attention and showing in-
terest in them?
39. Am I familiar with the operation of the equip-
ment Iplan to use in my presentation?
40. Are my visual aids well made, simple in de-
sign, large enough to see, and clearly visible
to all in the room?
41. Do I have a contingency (backup) plan ready
in case something unexpected happens dur-
ing my talk (power failure, no lights, etc.)?
continued on next page
98 The Term Paper

Each of the above questions should be answered with a "Yes." If

you have answered "No" to any of them, go back to that partic-
ular section of your presentation because it may need improve-
ment.
 HOW TO USE THIS SAMPLE
TERM PAPER

As you will see, the numbers of the key ideas that appear in the
text have been noted on the sample term paper. You may easily
look up the explanation or the reason for the use of a particular
form by turning back from the sample paper to the specific item
in the text.
For example, 7.3 on the sample title page of the term paper refers
you back to Chapter 7, Item 3 or 7.3.
100 The Term Paper by

9.34 9.33
LINCOLN'S ASSASSINATION— A MURDER MYSTERY
7.3
7.38

Leave one blank line here »

Gerald Driscoll

English 100A

Dr. Susan M. Boone

May 1, A 19—

11/2 inches
 A Sample Term Paper 101
9.40

LINCOLN'S ASSASSINATION— A MURDER MYSTERY

9.41
The purpose of this paper is to point up some of

the mysteries surrounding the tragic death of President

Abraham Lincoln. The murder of this great man Is con-

sidered to be one of the greatest tragedies befalling the

American people. Another tragedy stemming from the murder

Is the apparent breakdown of jurisprudence and American

Justice which took place following the killing. With

each passing year, the murder plot and subsequent

assassination become more dimmed and the circumstances

of the conspiracy, the act itself, and the trial are now

hidden among a maze of abstractions and generalities with

each writer's interpretation of the tragedy connected

with the President. In fact, a perusal of any number of

books on the subject reveals inconsistencies, gaps,

confusions, and widely differing opinions on the events

leading up to and following the killing. This term paper

will include official government evidence and will attempt

to present facts rather than fiction about Lincoln's murder.

It is common knowledge that John Wilkes Booth killed

Lincoln, but the part played by those who went on trial

for their lives as accomplices in the atrocious crime is

still clouded in a veil of mystery.

102 The Term Paper

9.20 9.39 2
This paper will pinpoint certain events connected

with the assassination — events that to this day contribute

to the fact that President Lincoln's assassination is

indeed a murder mystery.

9.42 Lincoln's premonition of death

The years have not unfolded the reason why Lincoln

acted so strangely on the day he was shot. He appeared

to be extremely melancholy and expressed the fear that

men were attempting to do him harm. In fact, when leaving

the White House for Ford's Theatre, he said "good-bye"

rather than his customary "good night" to his servant.

This attitude of impending disaster and other statements

made by Lincoln lead one to v/onder from what source his

fears originated. He tooK a fatalistic view of a possible

assassination, however, when he said, "No use worrying.

What is to be, must be. If anyone is really determined to

kill me, I shall be killed!"1

10.39 Lack of adequate protection provided for the President

It would almost appear that Lincoln never had a chance

to escape from death the night of April \k. Four instances

will illustrate this. First, Mrs. Lincoln dismissed the

regular guard and had requested that the President's life

be protected by a metropolitan policeman by the name of

Parker. It must be assumed that Mrs. Lincoln did not know

9.54 iRichard N. Current, Mr. Lincoln (New York: Dodd,

8.4 Mead and Co., 1957), p. 382.
 A Sample Term Paper 103
3

that Parker had a reputation for drunkenness while on

duty, of conduct unbecoming an officer, and of leaving

2
his post without proper authority. In fact, protective

measures to guard the life of the President were

criminally negligent. Second, the armed guard Parker,

whom Mrs. Lincoln had requested and whose duty it was to

stand outside the presidential box and "screen" all passers-

by, was mysteriously absent from his post at the time Booth

made his fateful entry. Third, no one had bothered to

notice the peephole in the door that Booth had bored on

the morning of the murder. Fourth, the broken lock on the

door of the presidential box had not been repaired. Into

all these errors, omissions, and faulty security measures

did the President of the United States walk.

On the night of April 14, 1865, he [Lincoln] 5.27

9.22 attended a performance of Our American Cous in at
Ford's Theatre in Washington. A few minutes
after 10 o'clock, a shot rang through the crowded
house. John Wilkes Booth, one of the best-known
actors of the day, had shot the President in the
head from the back of the Presidential box. 3

This tragedy gave rise to even more tragedies and set off

one of the most mixed-up manhunts and criminal trials ever

to be conducted anywhere.
8.6 8-8
2
Otto Eisenschiml, Why Was Lincoln Murdered? (New
8.7york: Grosset and Duniap, 1937), pp. 12, \k.

4«11 The World Book Encyclopedia, 1982 ed., s.v. Lincoln

1 2 : 285^5
 104 The Term Paper
k
After shooting Lincoln, Booth jumped from the

presidential box onto the stage, catching his right spur

In the U. S. Treasury flag. This unforeseen accident was

to implicate and ruin the life of one Dr. Samuel Mudd,

physician, who at this moment may very well have been

completely unaware of Booth's intentions or activities.^

We will speak more of Dr. Mudd later.

Booth's change of plans from kidnaping to murder

John Wilkes Booth was a nationally known actor and

the grandson of a man who helped runaway slaves escape.

John Wilkes was unlike his grandfather in that he (John)

was a strong southern sympathizer. Kelly makes an

interesting statement regarding Booth's motives in the

crime when he says:

Which of the shadows hid the demoniacal

movements of the man who cast himself in the
role of the villain in the arch tragedy of his 8.10
own authorship that night, remains a mystery.

Booth, the idol of the American stage, was a strange

and vain man indeed. His income amounted to over $20,000

a year, and he had everything he could possibly want,

except perhaps undying fame as the executioner of a "tyrant,11

** A single-shot, muzzle-loading, .M-cal iber Derringer

8.1 pistol was used.

U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Lincoln Museum and the

8.1 House Where Lincoln Died, Booklet, reprint (Washington, DC:
1956), p. W.

8.14 6Edward James Kelly, The Crime at Ford's Theatre

(Washington, DC: Government Service, Inc., Action Publishers,
 A Sample Term Paper 105
5

as he viewed Lincoln. Contrary to popular belief, he

originally had intended to kidnap the President and

exchange him for southern prisoners of war. The extent

of southern losses, however, changed Booth's mind about

the practicability of such a move, and in its place

another plan had to be developed. The resulting trial

and historical accounts of the incident have never made

clear whether or not the persons convicted of the crime

of being accessories knew of Booth's change of plans from

kidnaping to murder.

Booth's decision to kill the President may have

resulted from Lincoln's statement of April 12/ that he

(Lincoln) hoped that the freed slaves of Louisiana would

be given the right to vote. Kelly remarked that when

Booth heard of this, he fumed loudly and said, "Now, by

o
God, I'll put him through!" 8.13

General Grant's strange behavior

Now let us consider General Grant for a moment.

The evening at Ford's Theatre was to honor Lincoln as

well as Grant and, unbeknown to either of them, both

men had been marked for murder by Booth. Lincoln had

asked the general and his wife to join the presidential

party. "Earlier in the morning, General and Mrs. Grant

had accepted an invitation from the President to accompany

8.12 'During the closing days of the war in 1865.

8.13 8Kelly, The Crime, p. k.
8.3
 6

him and Mrs. Lincoln to the theatre."^

History has never satisfactorily explained why the

7.28
general and his lady suddenly notified the President on

the same afternoon of that terrible day that they would

be unable to attend the performance. With this abrupt

explanation, the Grants boarded the train and headed for

New Jersey to visit their children who were attending a

camp.'O 7.26
7.28 Lincoln invited several other people to attend in

place of the Grants but all declined. Finally, the

President was able to get a Miss Clara Harris, a daughter

of a senator, and her escort, a Major Henry R. Rathbone*,

to join him in the presidential box. Does it not seem

strange that the President of the United States had great

difficulty In obtaining guests for the evening's performance

of what was to be a gala affair?

7.28 Grant's behavior in his refusal to attend was indeed

strange. Only sixteen months later during the presidency

of Andrew Johnson, Grant accepted another invitation to

attend a reception at the Executive Mansion because he

considered such an invitation from the President to be

tantamount to an order, and Grant had always prided himself

by saying he never disobeyed an order. One must question

why Grant did not consider Lincoln's invitation to be an

8.16 8.17
^Lincoln Museum and the House Where Lincoln Died, p. 6.
8.24 8.20 I0|b.d-
7.26
 7
order but did feel the need to obey the Invitation of

Johnson.

Stanton's famous last words about Lincoln

The dastardly deed had been done. Booth carried out

his promise to "put him (Lincoln) through," for on the

morning of April 15, the President died. An untold number

of accounts quote Stanton, Secretary of War, as saying,

"Now he belongs to the ages" at the moment of Lincoln's

death. Yet it is quite likely that this famous eulogy was

never spoken by Stanton or by anyone else. Witnesses present

at Lincoln's death later recount many versions of what

Stanton was supposed to have said;

Now he belongs to the angels

Now he belongs to history
And now he belongs to the ages
Doctor, please lead in prayer 2?ote the lack

Ah ofdear
any friendi
reference to the
there "ages"
is none now saying
to do "J
me
justice; none to tell the world of the
anxious hours we have spent together!
There lies the most perfect ruler of men the
world has ever seen. 11

Booth's escape Into Maryland

And what of Booth all this time? He was suffering

from the effects of a broken leg received in his fall to

the stage. But let us retrace his steps.

Booth, considering himself to be a national hero

now that he had rid the country of a "tyrant," made his

8.8 11 Eisenschiml, Lincoln Murdered, pp. J*82-8*f.

 8

escape from the theater by horseback and approached the

sentry at the Navy Yard Bridge. From this point on,

history disagrees on what took place. One historical

account states that Booth passed himself off as a Maryland

12
planter from "near Beantown." The sentry, Sergeant

Silas T. Cobb, violated orders by allowing Booth to pass

through the gate after curfew. Eisenschiml *s account of

the incident differs widely from Kelly's:

A Sergeant Cobb, who was in charge at

the north end of the bridge, had questioned
Booth and, after a brief conversation, had
let him pass ... ~ 94
5.26
It is characteristic of Booth that he
did not hesitate to give his true name to the
sentinel at the bridge, for, in the fantastic
mind of the assassin, his act was to be the
perfect crime of the ages, and he the most
heroic assassin of all timesi^3 7^

To return to Sergeant Cobb, one can

understand his decision to let Booth . . . 5.24
pass unconditionally. ... He /Cobb_7 had to
make his decisions, and he made them accord-
ing to his best judgment. On what grounds can
it be explained, however, that having heard
Booth's name from his own lips, this soldier
did not give the alarm as soon as the news of
Lincoln's assassination reached him?^

Cobb's failure to mention Booth's passing through his

post was never brought up In the trial. Strange indeed

that not one of the prosecuting officers asked

9.31

9-26l2Kelly, The Crime, p. 15.

7.19 8.24 13Eisenschiml, Lincoln Murdered, pp. 107-109.
8.24 8.20 12+|bid., pp. 108-109.
 9

this guard why he, Cobb, never reported that Booth

headed into Maryland.

Confusion rose to Inew heights in the hours imme-

diately following Booth's cowardly shot. To cite one

Illustration, the New York Herald carried news dispatches

in every edition. In the rush to get out its first

extra on the slaying, the Herald misdated its paper by

carrying the date Friday, April 14, on its masthead. 5

Secretary of War Stanton's unexplained silence

A second strange event concerns the actions of the

Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton. Rather than following

the most logical course of action by releasing the name

of the assassin to the newspapers as soon as possible as

an aid in Booth's apprehension, Stanton withheld the

name until several hours after the crime had been committed.

A news dispatch of 1:30 a.m. appearing in the Herald

dated April 15 states "some evidence of the guilt of the 7.21

party who attacked the President is in the possession

of the police. "1" g ^

The cloud of suspicion over Dr. Samuel Mudd

What was Booth doing during the hours immediately

following the shooting? He had made a safe escape into

Maryland although racked by pain from a broken leg bone.

Because the home of Dr. Samuel Mudd, a general practitioner,

l->The true date was Saturday, April 15. New York

8.15 Herald, Whole No. 10,456.
,6The New York Herald, Saturday, April 15, 1865, p. I,
col. 4, 1 ines 28-30.
110 The Term Paper

10
was on Booth's escape route, it seems only natural that

Booth headed for the doctor's home to receive first aid.

Mudd may have been merely an unfortunate victim by his

apparent innocent acquaintanceship with Booth. The

doctor received a life sentence for giving aid and comfort

to Booth. Several years after the trial, Mudd was par-

doned for his heroic medical deeds performed while he

served time in a federal prison. Mudd escaped the death

penalty because the court never proved that he was guilty

of being an accomplice in the crime. Consider the follow-

ing facts in favor of the physician:

a) He was a doctor sworn by oath to give aid to

the injured.

b) There is considerable doubt that Mudd knew of

the shooting at Ford's Theatre when Booth
approached him for treatment. Lack of rapid
communication plus the fact that Mudd treated
Booth only hours after the crime had been
committed open serious doubts as to Mudd's
knowledge of what Booth had done.

c) Booth certainly did not intend to injure him-

self at Ford's Theatre. He would have no
reason, therefore, to include Dr. Mudd among
his accomplices. Booth's arrival at Mudd's
home for first aid may have been nothing more
than a coincidence.

Mrs. Surrat's sacrifice

Booth and his confederates who actually wielded

pistol and dagger as they attacked government officials

marked for death along with Lincoln were obviously

guilty. Yet, history has not clearly established the

degree of guilt or innocence of any of the people who

went on trial and who In some cases forfeited their

 A Sample Term Paper HI
11

freedom or their lives. For example, Dr. Mudd may have

been guilty only of knowing Booth. Mary Surrat may have

been found guilty because she had a son who was an active

southern courier and because she operated a boardinghouse

where Booth sometimes visited her son and other men found

guilty of the crime. "The trial of Mrs. Surrat, first

woman to be legally executed in the United States, pro-

voked unending controversy. Many held her to be innocent,

few believed her degree of guilt warranted hanging, but

the verdict remained unchanged. "'7 9.43

A case of mistaken identity

Perhaps the most intriguing and mystifying aspect

of the trial concerned the establishment of the identity of

John Wilkes Booth from a photograph. Witnesses to the

shooting were asked to identify the photograph as that

of the murderer--John Wilkes Booth. This they failed

to do simply because all through the trial the photo-

graph exhibited was that of John's brother Edwin, also

a famous actor and equally as well known as John.

Yet, the photograph £>f Edwin _7went un-

7.23 noticed into the files of the trial and
history has failed to record this slip — one
of the most tragic mistakes in American
jurisprudence. 18
5.26

Of all the mysteries and problems arising

9.43 '/Kel ly, The Crime, p. 31.

^Eisenschiml , Lincoln Murdered, pp. 26^4—65.
 12

out of Lincoln's assassination, the enigma of

how Edwin's picture came to be substituted for
that of his brother John Wilkes is one of the

most intriguing. '°

Booth's diary and the thirteen missing pages

Let us now turn our attention from the trial to the

diary kept by Booth. He had developed a habit of

recording Interesting events of the day in a small blank

20
book. After he was killed by federal troops (some

historians say he took his own life rather than be cap-

tured), the diary was discovered on his body and turned

over to the officer in charge. The diary eventually

found its way to the Secretary of War after having been

officially listed among the personal effects found on

Booth's body. Each of the pages In the diary was counted

and numbered. The officer called this to Stanton's atten-

tion when the diary was transferred to the Secretary's

care. However, when the diary was produced at the trial,

thirteen sequential pages In the middle of the book had

been torn out from the binding and were missing. The officer

In charge of the federal troops stated emphatically at the

court of investigation that the pages were all accounted

for when the diary was given to the Secretary. Stanton,

on the other hand, insisted that the pages were torn

from the diary before It was placed in his hands. It

8.20 19|bid., p. 265.

20
Frederick A. Morse, "The Trial of the Lincoln Assas-
sins, A Probable Usurpation of Civil Justice"
(M.A. Thesis, The Graduate School of Cornell University,
1933), pp. 65-66.
 13

was a case of one man's word against another man's word.

Stanton, being the superior officer, convinced the court

that the pages were missing when he received the diary.

Why has this diary been referred to so many times

by historians? Of what importance was it? Why did the

colonel or Stanton lie about the missing pages? Accord-

ing to the colonel who claimed that he had read the

diary, the missing pages offered incriminating evidence

Implicating men holding government office in Washington.

Although no office holder was mentioned by name, the iden-

tification of these individuals was eagerly sought after

by the Investigating officers and the court of inquiry

but to no avail. Booth, the man who wrote the entries

In the diary, was shot and killed before he could be

questioned. Throughout the following years, historians

have searched diligently for clues leading to the identity

of the persons left nameless in Booth's diary.

Was Stanton implicated?

One name that keeps coming to the attention of

historians is that of Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War

during Lincoln's administration. It is the opinion of

Eisenschlml , ■ Bishopf22 Sandburg, * and writers who

9.24 zlEisenschiml , Lincoln Murdered, pp. 434-35.

22james Alonzo Bishop, The Day Lincoln Was Shot
(New York: Harper & Brothers, 1955), p. 257.
23Carl Sandburg, The Prairie Years and the War Years
(New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1954), p. 723.
have documented the assassination that Stanton, a pol-
itically ambitious man and an outspoken critic of the

President, acted in a very peculiar manner following the

slaying. For example, why did he keep the name of the

assassin a secret until three hours after the crime, know-

ing that every minute's delay reduced the chances for

apprehending the criminal? No one has been able to ex-

plain Stanton's motives for withholding the name of the

murderer when it was an established fact that the culprit
was John Wilkes Booth.

Consider also how Stanton reacted to the news

brought to him by the chief of detectives, General

LaFayette C. Baker. Baker reported to Stanton, "We have

got Booth." Stanton said nothing in return but waited

a full minute in silence and then left the room without
2k
a word. This was strange behavior for a man who should

25 had
have been overjoyed at the news that the manhunt
been successful.

An interesting story of a coded message prepared by

General Baker shortly before his death alleges that

Stanton helped plot the murder of Lincoln.

Time erases evidence

It is tragic that each passing year washes away

24
Eisenschiml, Lincoln Murdered, p. 150.

^Robert H. Fowler, ed., "Was Stanton Behind

Lincoln's Murder?", Civil War Times, 3, August-
September 1961, p. 5.
 15

another bit of evidence concerning the Lincoln murder.

Interpretations by different writers do not always agree.

In fact, the many different accounts serve to muddle the

affair even more than it already is. If one wishes to

judge Stanton on circumstantial evidence, then the finger

of suspicion points heavily at him. However, this is not

the American way to determine the guilt or innocence of

individuals.

Perhaps more would be known about the conspirators

in the killing of President Lincoln if the son of this

great man had not destroyed many of his father's personal

papers. In 1925, a year before his death, Robert Todd

Lincoln burned some of his father's unpublished papers.

He gave as his reason that he saw no useful way in which

the evidence contained in the letters and manuscripts

could be used. He further stated that the incident and

all connected with it were long since dead and he did not

wish to reopen the case. Robert Lincoln never elaborated

upon his comments and in so doing added more mysteries

to those that already surrounded the murder.

We can only
26
conjecture as to the contents of the burned papers.

It is almost a certainty that the motives for kill-

ing the President, the mysteries surrounding the event,

the identity of the conspirators, and the actions of indi-

viduals close to the President will never be fully known.

^^Emanuel Hertz, The Hidden Lincoln (New York;

The Viking Press, 1938), Preface.
 116 The Term Paper
4.11

9.51 9.53
7.38
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bishop, James Alonzo. The Day Lincoln Was Shot. New

9.55 York: Harper & Brothers, 1955. g 27

Current, Richard N. Mr. Lincoln. New York: Dodd, Mead

954 and Co., 1957.

8#g Eisenschiml, Otto. Why Was Lincoln Murdered? New York:

Grossett and Dunlap, 1937.

Fowler, Robert H., ed., "Was Stanton Behind Lincoln's Murder?"

Civil War Times, 3, August-Stepember , 1961.
Hertz, Emanuel. The Hidden Lincoln. New York: The
Viking Press, 1938.

Kelly, Edward James. The Crime at Ford's Theatre.

Washington, DC: Government Service, Inc., Action Pub-
lishers, ISM.

Morse, Frederick A. "The Trial of the Lincoln Assassins,

A Probable Usurpation of Civil Justice."
M.A. Thesis, The Graduate School of Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York, 1933.

New York Herald, Saturday, April 15, 1865.

Sandburg, Carl. The Prairie Years and the War Years.

New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 195*+.

U.S. Department of the Interior. Lincoln Museum and the

House Where Lincoln Died. Booklet, reprint. Washington,
DC: Government Printing Office, 1956.

The World Book Encyclopedia, 1982 ed. S.v. Lincoln."

 TERM PAPER CHECKLIST

Yes No

1 . Does my introductory paragraph get the paper

off to a flying start?
2. Does the introductory section state specifically
the purpose of my paper?
3. Have I developed the body of the paper ac-
cording to the outline?
4. Does each paragraph link up with the previ-
ous and following paragraphs?
5. Does each paragraph have one central
thought?
6. Are the lengths of my sentences varied to
avoid monotony?
7. Have I refrained from drawing too much ma-
terial from one source?
8. Does the language sound like my own?
9. Have I eliminated meanderings and unnec-
essary repetitions?
10. Does the paper accomplish my objective as
stated in the opening paragraph?
1 1. Do my conclusions rest on the evidence pre-
sented in the paper?
12. Do all comments of my own stem from my
findings?
13. As I read it over, is my paper clear, does it
make sense?
1 4. Is it interesting to read?
15. Does the paper reflect my best effort?
16. Is my paper's physical presentation neat and
attractive?
17. Is it grammatically free from errors?
18. Have I proofread the paper to double-check
spelling and punctuation?
continued on next page
118 The Term Paper
Yes No
19. Are the pages, except page 1, numbered in
the upper right-hand corner in the correct
order?
20. Have I checked the accuracy of my quoted
material?
21. Are short quotations of three or four lines or
less enclosed in quotation marks and run in
with the contextual matter?
22. Are longer quotations indented and set off
in single-spaced type with no quotation
marks?
23. Does each quotation carry a footnote refer-
ence?
24. Is the bibliography in correct form?
25. Is one method of numbering footnotes used
consistently throughout the paper?
26. Have I double-checked the accuracy of these
footnotes?
27. Is every source mentioned in a footnote in-
cluded inthe bibliography?

Each of the above questions should be answered with a "Yes."

If you have answered with a "No," check that particular aspect of
your term paper because you have done something wrong.
 ABBREVIATIONS COMMONLY USED
IN REFERENCE BOOKS

a.d. after the birth of Christ (Anno Domini, in the year

of our Lord)
ad loc. at the passage cited (ad locum, to or at the place)
aet. aged
anon. anonymous
ante before
app. appendix
art. article
b. born
B.C. before Christ
bibliog. bibliography
bk. book
bull. bulletin
C. or © copyright
ca. about (circa)
cf. compare
cf. ante compare above
cf. post compare below
chap. chapter
col. column
comp. compiled, -er
Cong. Congress
d. died
DAI Dissertation Abstracts International
diss. dissertation
div. division
ed. edited, -or
ed. cit. the edition cited
e.g. for example (exempli gratia)
encyc. encyclopedia
enl. enlarged
esp. especially
et al. and others (et alii)
etc. and so forth (et cetera)
et passim here and there
120 The Term Paper
et seq. and the following (et sequens)
ex. example
f. following page
fac. facsimile
fasc. fascicle
ff. and the following pages
fig.
figure
fl. flourished, greatest development or influence
fn. footnote
fol. folio
front. frontispiece
hist. history, -ical, -ian
ibid. in the same place (ibidem)
id. or idem that same person
i.e. that is (id est)
illus. illustrated, -tion
infra. below
in re about
introd. introduction, -ed
jour. journal
line
1.
lang. language
loc. cit. in the place cited (loco citato)
MS. (MSS.) manuscript (s)
narr. narrated by
n.b. note well (nota bene)
n.d. no date
n.n. no name
no publ. no publisher
n.p. no place given for publication
n.s. new series
numb. numbered
op. cit. in the work cited (op ere citato)
o.s. old series

page
paragraph
par.P- here and there
passim
per se by itself, of itself

after
i- plate
poPst
pp. 2ff.
pp.
pages
page 2 and the following page
 Abbreviations Used in Reference Books 121

pref.
Ps. preface
Psalm
pseud. pseudonym

pt. published,
part -ication
pub. which see, whom see {quantum vis; quode vide)
r.q.vor. recto right-hand page of a book
rev. revised
sc. scene
scil. to wit (scilicet)
sec. section
ser. series
sic thus
sig. signature
St. stanza
supp. supplement
supra above
s.v. under the word or heading (sub verbo)
trans. translated, -or, -ion
v., vide see
v. or verso left-hand page of a book
vide ante see the preceding
vide infra see below or the following
vide supra see above
viz. namely (videlicet)
vol. volume
v.s. see above (vide supra)
vs.
against
 INDEX

Abbreviations Library of Congress

common, pp. 119-21 System, 3.32, 3.36 b
unusual, 5.8 note cards, 3.26, 5.5-.9,
Author reference in 6.3. See also
Notetaking
bibliography, 4.12 a-z "See," 3.34
card catalog, 3.30-.32
footnotes, 8.24-.25 "See also," 3.34
subject, 3.31, 3.35
Bibliography (Chapter 4) title, 3.30-.31, 3.35
citations, 4.11
common types, 4.12 a-z Footnoting (Chapter 8)
computer-produced, 3.11 common types, 8.25 a-z
content, 9.52
formal style, 8.2-.4, 8.8
final, 4.2, 4.12
Latin, use of, 8.19-.24
form, 9.54-.55
location, 9.51 purpose, 8.1, 8.5-6
number of references, 4.4 simplified style, 8.2-.3, 8.8
typing. See Typing the
preliminary, 3.27, 4.8
sample. See sample term paper, footnotes
paper, p. 116 Ibid., 8.19-.20, 8.24
typing. See Typing the in sample term paper,
paper
working, 4.1, 4.3, 4.5-6, pp. 6, 8, 12
4.12, 5.1 Idem, 8.19, 8.23-.24

Cards ter 3) the (Chap-

Library, using
analytic, 3.35
author, 3.30-.32, 3.35 abstracts, 3.44 b, c, f-j, m-
card catalog, 3.28-34 o, q, u, v
Dewey Decimal System, almanacs, 3.44 r, 3.45
3.36 a atlases, 3.46
124 Index

audio-visual equipment, Descriptors, 3.15 a,

3.21 3.44 f
automation, 3.17 Guide to Reference Books,
books "on reserve," 3.3 3.42
carrels, 3.22 information retrieval, 3.11
Circulation or Loan Interlibrary loan service,
Department, 3.4 3.10
computer printout, 3.25 microcard, 3.16
computer-produced microform, 3.16, 3.48
bibliography, 3.11 -.14 microprint, 3.16, 3.48
computer search, 3. 12- 14 newspaper indexes, 3.37,
3.41
Database, 3.11-.12, 3.14
Biological Abstracts, Periodicals
3.8 Department,
3.11
ERIC, 3.11, 3.15 a-e, Readers' Guide to
3.44 f Periodical Literature,
MEDLARS, 3.11 3.38-.39
Psychological Abstracts, Reading Room, 3.5
3.11 Reference Librarian, 3.6,
Dial Access, 3.20 3.19
dictionaries, 3.27, 3.44 a-f, Reference Room, 3.7
i-k, m, p-t, v, 3.47 rotary files, 3.24, 3.28
divisional reading rooms, Special Collections, 3.23
3.9 Special reference books and
encyclopedias, 3.27, 3.44 indexes, 3.44 a-v
a-f, h-u, 3.45-.46 accounting, banking,
ERIC, 3.11, 3.15 a-e, business, economics,
3.44 f finance, 3.44 a
Current Indexes to agriculture, biology,
Journals in Education, chemistry, medicine,
3.15 c, 3.44 f 3.44 b
descriptors, 3.15 e anthropology, 3.44 c
Document Resume, art, music, 3.44 d
3.15 d, e biography, 3.44 e
Research in Education, education, 3.44 f
3.44 f
energy and the
Resources in Education, environment, 3.44 g
3.15 b, 3.44 f engineering, science,
Thesaurus of ERIC technology, 3.44 h
 Index 125
folklore, mythology, Op. cit., 8.19, 8.22, 8.24
3.44 n Oral reports (Chapter 10)
geology, geography, appearance during
3.44 i presentation,
history, 3.44 j 10.77-.80
language, acronyms, attitude toward, 10.64
audience analysis, 10.20,
synonyms, proverbs,
quotations, 3.44 k 10.94, 10.102
audience fatigue,
literature, 3.44 1
10.101-.102, 10.108
mathematics, physics, audience rapport,
3.44 m
10.81-.83
nations, political science, communications skills,
3.44o
philosophy, 3.44 p importance of, 10.1 -.3
contingency plan, 10.95
psychology, 3.44 q
data gathering, 10.21 -.26
radio, television, 3.44 r determining equipment
recreation, sports, 3.44 s needs, 10.67-.68
religion, 3.44 t differences between term
social science, 3.44 u paper and oral report,
United States, public 10.4
documents, 3.44 v editing the draft, 10.40,
vertical files, 3.28 10.51, 10.55-.56
Xerox, 3.18 establishing target dates,
10.18
yearbooks, 3.44 e-f, u,
3.45 evaluating the presentation,
hoc. cit., 8.19, 8.21, 8.24 10.117-.122
getting started, 10. 17-. 18
giving the presentation,
Notetaking (Chapter 5)
10.84-.102, 10.108
brackets, use of, 5.27 handout materials,
how to take, 5.2-. 18 10.109-.110
index cards, use of, 3.26, how much to know about
5.5-.10
topic, 10.16, 10.96
safeguarding, 5.2, 5.29, jokes and funny stories,
7.41-.42 10.103-.107
types, 5.1 1—. 14 language. See under
using with outline, 6.3-4, Writing the paper
7.12
length of talk, 10.99-.101
126 Index
noncontroversial type,
note cards, 10.21-.26
opening and closing the 10.13
talk, 10.30-.32 typing the draft or final
Oral Report Checklist, pp.
95-98 voice copy, 10.41-.47
quality, 10.5,
paragraph headings, 10.39 10.53-.56, 10.84-.85
preparing audiovisuals and why give a speech, 10.6-.8
demonstrations, why speeches fail, 10.9
10.69-.76 writing the draft,
preparing the outline, 10.33-.39. See also
10.27-.28 Writing the paper
ter 6)
Outline, making the (Chap-
purpose, 10.6-.8
questions, 10.102,
10.1 11-.116 divisions within, 6.9
direct, 10.102 main headings, 6.9-. 12
indirect, 10.102 numbering, 6.9-. 10
reading the speech or using order, chronological, 6.6
note cards, 10.59-.63 order, time occurrence, 6.5
rehearsing the oral report, preparing from cards,
10.5^10.58, 10.61,
10.64-.65 6.3-.4
relationship to note cards,
room arrangements, 10.66 6.3
shortening or lengthening revising, 6.7
the talk, 10.50 sentence form, 6.13
speed of delivery, 10.49
topic form, 6.13
staying within time
allowance, 10.100
Presentation. See Oral reports
systems chart for
completing assignment, Public Speaking. See Oral
10.19 reports
taping the final copy,
10.48-.58 Speech. See Oral reports
three parts to a speech, Subjects, choosing and
10.29 ter 2) the (Chap-
limiting
topic, selection of,
10.10- 15 for oral report, 10.10-. 15
controversial type, 10.14, for term paper, Chapter 2,
10.96

pp. 6-11
 Index 127

Talk. See Oral reports paragraphs, 7.28, 9.42,

Term paper (Chapter 1) 9.47
checklist, pp. 134-35 proofreading, 9.56
description, p. 4 quotations, 5.21-.25
importance of, p. 2 brackets, use of, 5.27
sample, pp. 99-116 copying, 5.22-.23
See also Typing the paper; ellipses, 5.24-.26
Writing the paper error within quotation,
Typing the paper (Chapter 9) 5.28
bibliography form, 4.11, laws and formulas, 5.21
4.12 a-z, 9.27,
long, 7.23, 9.22-.23
9.51-.55. See also
poetry, 9.48
sample term paper, punctuation, 9.50
p. 116 within quoted matter,
carbon copy, 9.10 9.49
cleaning typewriter, 9.14
spacing, 9.21-.22, 9.27
completed paper, 7.38
tables, 7.44-.52
cover, 9.18
title, 9.34, 9.40-.41
folder, 9.2, 9.17, 9.58
title page, 9.33, 9.35. See
footnotes
also sample term
accuracy, 9.44
common types, 8.25 a-z paper, p. 100
numbers, 8.9, 8.12-.13, type size, 9. 15- 16
9.43, 9.45 typewriter ribbon, 9.13
punctuation, 8.7
space allowance, 7.18, Writing theter paper
7) (Chap-
8.18,9.19,9.26,9.46
carbon copy, 7.16, 9.10
spacing, 8.15
coherence, 7.32
typing, 8.14, 9.54
consistency of footnotes
underscoring, 8. 16-. 17,
and bibliographic
9.24-.25, 9.30-.31
general appearance of entries, 7.35
completed paper, documentation, 5.19-.20,
9.4-.9, 9.13-.14 7.19-.20
margins, 9. 17-.18, 9.20, draft copy, 7.17
9.28 editing, 7.37
outline, 9.36-.38 error in reference, 5.28
page numbers, 9.39 final draft, 7.34, 7.36-.38,
paper selection, 9.3, 9.29 9.7
128 Index

first draft, 7.5-.6, 7. 12-. 15, unnecessary words, 10.38

7.20, 7.27, 7.31-.34 word choice, 7.9
handwritten copy, 9.5, 9.8 notes, 7.7
ink color, 9.6 number of words, 7.2
instructor's copy, 7.16 opening and closing
language, 10.33-.38, 10.40 paragraphs, 7.4
action verbs, 10.33
paper, 7.15, 9.3-.5
adjectives, 10.36 paragraph design, 7.27-.30,
adverbs, 10.36 9.42
colloquial and slang quotations, 5.22, 7.21-.25
expressions, 7.8
long, 9.22-.23
grammar, 7.6, 10.37 short, 7.21
passive verbs, 10.34 superscript, 7.26
personal references, 7.10 title, 2.4, 7.3
sentence structure, 10.35
Notes
Notes
Notes
Notes
REFERENCE
$4.95

This thorough handbook guides you through each step of a successful

term paper, from the preliminary research and notes to the actual
writing and typing footnotes and bibliography. This revised edition
includes the most up-to-date information on using the library as well
as an all-new chapter on preparing an oral report. Whether you're in
high school or college, you will find this an invaluable book.

Choosing the What

Subject should abe."good" subject is; how specific it
Using the Extensive lists of standard reference works and
Library specialized sources and how to get the most out ot
them; how to use the card catalog and how to use
computer search services.
Preparing the How to evaluate sources; where to begin and
Bibliography when to stop; bibliography form for sources of
all kinds.
Taking Notes How to know what to take notes on and what not
to take notes on; a complete note-taking system.
Making the Why a working outline is important and what it
Outline should include; correct outline form.
Writing the Organizing your notes; planning transitions from
Paper introduction to body to conclusion; how to pre-
sent your own ideas and conclusions.
Footnoting When and how you should use them; proper
footnoting forms and abbreviations.
Typing the How to create a good first impression on your
Paper teacher; form and presentation oi the text; pre-
paring tables.
Developing an Analyzing your audience; establishing target dates;
Oral Refjort rehearsal suggestions.

Plus: a checklist of questions to ask yourself about your paper before

you hand it in and about your oral report before and after presenting it
and a sample term paper keyed to the text for definitions and explana-
tions ofterms and forms used.
0863
Cover design by Steve Jenkins
A DOUBLEDAY/ANCHOR BOOK ISBN: D-BfiS-lflE31-7