Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Review

Where the rubber meets the road: Emerging environmental impacts of tire
wear particles and their chemical cocktails
Paul M. Mayer a, *, Kelly D. Moran b, Ezra L. Miller b, Susanne M. Brander c, Stacey Harper d,
Manuel Garcia-Jaramillo e, Victor Carrasco-Navarro f, Kay T. Ho g, Robert M. Burgess g, Leah
M. Thornton Hampton h, Elise F. Granek i, Margaret McCauley j, Jenifer K. McIntyre k,
Edward P. Kolodziej l, Ximin Hu m, Antony J. Williams n, Barbara A. Beckingham o,
Miranda E. Jackson e, Rhea D. Sanders-Smith p, Chloe L. Fender e, George A. King q,
Michael Bollman a, Sujay S. Kaushal r, Brittany E. Cunningham s, Sara J. Hutton v,
Jackelyn Lang t, Heather V. Goss u, Samreen Siddiqui c, Rebecca Sutton b, Diana Lin b,
Miguel Mendez b
a
US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Pacific Ecological Systems Division,
Corvallis, OR 97333, United States of America
b
San Francisco Estuary Institute, 4911 Central Ave, Richmond, CA 94804, United States of America
c
Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Sciences, Coastal Oregon Marine Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States of
America
d
Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, School of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97333,
United States of America
e
Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, United States of America
f
Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio Campus, Yliopistonranta 1 E, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
g
US Environmental Protection Agency, ORD/CEMM Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, Narragansett, RI 02882, United States of America
h
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Blvd, Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, United States of America
i
Environmental Science & Management, Portland State University, Portland, OR 97201, United States of America
j
US Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Seattle, WA 98101, United States of America
k
School of the Environment, Washington State University, Puyallup Research & Extension Center, Washington Stormwater Center, 2606 W Pioneer Ave, Puyallup, WA
98371, United States of America
l
Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences (UW Tacoma), Civil and Environmental Engineering (UW Seattle), Center for Urban Waters, University of Washington, Tacoma, WA
98402, United States of America
m
Civil and Environmental Engineering (UW Seattle), University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States of America
n
US Environmental Protection Agency, Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, Chemical Characterization and Exposure Division, Computational Chemistry
& Cheminformatics Branch, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, United States of America
o
Department of Geology & Environmental Geosciences, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC, 66 George Street Charleston, SC 29424, United States of America
p
Washington State Department of Ecology, 300 Desmond Drive SE, Lacey, WA 98503, United States of America
q
CSS, Inc., 200 SW 35th St, Corvallis, OR 97333, United States of America
r
Department of Geology and Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, United States of America
s
Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97333, United States of America
t
Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Cell Biology, Department of Medicine and Epidemiology and the Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, University of
California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA 95616, United States of America
u
US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Office of Wastewater Management, Washington, DC 20004, United States of America
v
GSI Environmental, Inc., Olympia, Washington 98502, USA

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P.M. Mayer), [email protected] (K.D. Moran), [email protected] (E.L. Miller), [email protected]
(S.M. Brander), [email protected] (S. Harper), [email protected] (M. Garcia-Jaramillo), [email protected]
(V. Carrasco-Navarro), [email protected] (K.T. Ho), [email protected] (R.M. Burgess), [email protected] (L.M. Thornton Hampton), [email protected]
(E.F. Granek), [email protected] (M. McCauley), [email protected] (J.K. McIntyre), [email protected] (E.P. Kolodziej), [email protected] (X. Hu),
[email protected] (A.J. Williams), [email protected] (B.A. Beckingham), [email protected] (M.E. Jackson), [email protected].
gov (R.D. Sanders-Smith), [email protected] (C.L. Fender), [email protected] (G.A. King), [email protected] (M. Bollman), skaushal@umd.
edu (S.S. Kaushal), [email protected] (B.E. Cunningham), [email protected] (S.J. Hutton), [email protected] (J. Lang), [email protected]
(H.V. Goss), [email protected] (S. Siddiqui), [email protected] (R. Sutton), [email protected] (D. Lin), [email protected] (M. Mendez).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171153

Available online 7 March 2024

0048-9697/Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Billions of tires are produced each year

and hundreds of millions of tires become
waste.
• Tires are a complex source of pollutants
including whole tires, particles, com­
pounds, and chemicals.
• As they wear, tires emit pollutants via
atmospheric, aquatic, and terrestrial
pathways.
• Tire wear pollutants represent an envi­
ronmental and human health risk.
• Comprehensive clean-up solutions are
needed to reduce the risk of tire wear
pollutants.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Dimitra A Lambropoulou About 3 billion new tires are produced each year and about 800 million tires become waste annually. Global
dependence upon tires produced from natural rubber and petroleum-based compounds represents a persistent
Keywords: and complex environmental problem with only partial and often-times, ineffective solutions. Tire emissions may
Persistent pollutants be in the form of whole tires, tire particles, and chemical compounds, each of which is transported through
Emerging contaminants
various atmospheric, terrestrial, and aquatic routes in the natural and built environments. Production and use of
Microplastics
tires generates multiple heavy metals, plastics, PAH's, and other compounds that can be toxic alone or as
Tire wear particles
6PPD-quinone chemical cocktails. Used tires require storage space, are energy intensive to recycle, and generally have few post-
wear uses that are not also potential sources of pollutants (e.g., crumb rubber, pavements, burning). Tire particles
emitted during use are a major component of microplastics in urban runoff and a source of unique and highly
potent toxic substances. Thus, tires represent a ubiquitous and complex pollutant that requires a comprehensive
examination to develop effective management and remediation. We approach the issue of tire pollution holis­
tically by examining the life cycle of tires across production, emissions, recycling, and disposal. In this paper, we
synthesize recent research and data about the environmental and human health risks associated with the pro­
duction, use, and disposal of tires and discuss gaps in our knowledge about fate and transport, as well as the
toxicology of tire particles and chemical leachates. We examine potential management and remediation ap­
proaches for addressing exposure risks across the life cycle of tires. We consider tires as pollutants across three
levels: tires in their whole state, as particulates, and as a mixture of chemical cocktails. Finally, we discuss in­
formation gaps in our understanding of tires as a pollutant and outline key questions to improve our knowledge
and ability to manage and remediate tire pollution.

1. Introduction expected to increase globally. Roads can represent hot spots of tire
pollutants and effective pathways of pollutants to aquatic, terrestrial,
Global dependence on tires produced from petroleum-based com­ atmospheric, and groundwater resources (Cooper et al., 2014; Sommer
pounds, synthetic materials, heavy metals, and added chemicals, rep­ et al., 2018; Uliasz-Misiak et al., 2022).
resents a persistent and complex environmental problem with only Here we synthesize recent research and data about the environ­
partial, and often-times ineffective, solutions. Used tires require storage mental and human health risks associated with tire production, use, and
space, are energy intensive to recycle, and end-of-life uses for tires (e.g., disposal. We discuss gaps in our knowledge about fate and transport, as
crumb rubber, pavements, combusted tires) generally continue to well as the toxicology of tire particles and leachates. We examine po­
release pollutants as particles or leached chemicals, or both. Tires are a tential management and remediation approaches for addressing expo­
significant source of highly mobile, persistent microplastics (Moran sure risks across the life cycle of tires and associated contaminants. We
et al., 2021; Brander et al., 2021) that are a major component of pol­ consider tires as pollutants across three levels: whole tires, tire wear
lutants in urban stormwater runoff (Wik and Dave, 2009). Furthermore, particles, and as a mixture of chemical constituents. Finally, we outline
recent research has demonstrated that tires are a source of previously key questions to expand our knowledge and ability to manage and
unrecognized chemicals, some are highly toxic to aquatic organisms, remediate pollution from tires.
and many of which are currently unknown or poorly described (Tian
et al., 2021a; Siddiqui et al., 2022; Cunningham et al., 2022). Production 2. The composition of tires
and use of tires generate a suite of heavy metals and other contaminants
that can be toxic alone or as chemical cocktails, which represent com­ Tires are constructed of multiple, highly engineered components,
binations of elements novel to the Anthropocene (sensu Kaushal et al., including tread, belts, inner liners, and sidewall, each designed to meet
2020). Given that roads are ubiquitous in developed nations (Ibisch performance characteristics that together create durable, strong, reli­
et al., 2016), cover extensive areas in urban ecosystems (Elmore and able, and safe tires (USTMA, 2018) which are the same properties that
Kaushal, 2008), and that road construction and traffic are increasing ensure the persistence of tire particles and tire materials in the envi­
worldwide (Meijer et al., 2018), the impacts of tires are vast and are ronment. Tires contain myriad materials and chemicals, many of which

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

are proprietary (Tian et al., 2021b). Tires typically use metal mesh or Manufacturing tires requires copious water and electricity and produces
textiles for structure and rubber for all other components. Tire rubber nitrogen oxides (NOx), benzene, and PAHs (Dong et al., 2021). Each tire
consists of complex proprietary formulations that vary among brands, life cycle stage has multiple impacts on climate and acidification from
tire types, and tire components (Hüffer et al., 2019; Kreider et al., 2010; energy use and production of CO2, ozone depletion, photochemical
Selbes et al., 2015; Wagner et al., 2018; Chibwe et al., 2022). In general, oxidation, and eutrophication from NOx production and use of PO3− 4 in
tire rubber consists of synthetic and/or natural rubber (40–60 %), fillers manufacturing (Dong et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2016).
and reinforcing agents like carbon black and silica (20–25 %), process or
extender oils (12–15 %), vulcanization agents like Zn and thiazoles (1–2 3.1. Environmental and health impacts from the production of tires
%), and other additives such as preservatives and processing aids (5–10
%) (Wagner et al., 2018). Tires contain approximately 50:50 ratio of Global demand for automobile tires is large and growing. In 2019
natural to synthetic rubber; passenger car tires contain more synthetic
alone, 3 billion tires were produced globally (Ruwona et al., 2019; Dong
rubber, while truck tires more natural rubber, and heavy-duty vehicles et al., 2021), an amount that, if stacked on top of one another, would
tires contain little or no synthetic rubber (Grammelis et al., 2021). Tires
reach ca. 675,000 km, nearly twice the distance to the moon. Recent tire
contain thousands of chemicals, including those deliberately added, production in the EU is about 335 million annually (Torretta et al.,
such as N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD,
2015), while tire production was about 300 million in the US (USTM,
DTXSID9025114; CAS 793–24-8), contaminants in manufacturing 2022) and about 800 million in China (Dong et al., 2021). Tire pro­
feedstocks, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and
duction begins with acquisition of natural rubber for the tread, textiles
weathering or transformation products as tires age (Tian et al., 2021b; and steel for the cord and belts, and chemicals such as carbon black,
European Tyre and Rubber Manufacturer’s Association, 2021; Kovo­
silicon dioxide, and clay (Dong et al., 2021). A significant environmental
chich et al., 2021). As a result, there is no standard chemical composi­ impact of tire production is from the cultivation of natural rubber which
tion of tire wear particles. This creates challenges for monitoring and
involves clearing native, diverse forests for growing monocultures of
characterizing tire particles and tire-derived chemicals in environmental rubber trees. This type of agriculture is an especially important cause of
samples, for estimating tire microplastics fate, and for conducting eco­
deforestation in Asia and Africa (Pendrill et al., 2022). High resolution
toxicology impact assessments. Determining the complete and quanti­ maps of southeast Asia show that rubber tree cultivation accounted for
tative chemical composition of tire rubber remains a critical research
at least 4 million ha of deforestation since 1993, 2 million ha of which
need. was lost since 2000, including 1 million ha of rubber plantations that
have been established in high biodiversity areas (Wang et al., 2023).
3. Environmental and health impacts along the life cycle of tires Combining tire components during production emits carcinogens
and radioactive compounds (e.g. radon-222 and carbon-14), contributes
The life cycle of a tire can be characterized by stages including a) raw to stratospheric ozone depletion, and requires massive consumption of
materials and production of the whole tire, b) transportation of the tire water and electricity, and land in the form of extraction of minerals and
to a destination, c) use on a vehicle, and d) end of life management fossil fuels, and water (Piotrowska et al., 2019). Combined, the various
through downcycling into non-tire products or disposal (Dong et al., chemical components and the particles create chemical cocktails (sensu
2021; Trudsø et al., 2022). Here, we examine these stages as a contin­ Kaushal et al., 2018, Kaushal et al., 2020, Kaushal et al., 2022) of heavy
uum along the life cycle of a tire (Fig. 1) where tires and their compo­ metals (e.g., Zn), natural and synthetic rubber and plastics, hydrocar­
nents are produced and used. In the process, energy and resources are bons (e.g., PAHs), and traces of other chemicals (e.g., 6PPD) that can
consumed while particles and elements are emitted and transported have negative effects on human health and the environment.
through the environment across various pathways (Trudsø et al., 2022). Manufacturing a single tire produces an estimated 243 g particulate
At points along those pathways, there are potential mitigation ap­ matter to the air, 0.19 g NH+ 4 and 0.69 g suspended solids to the water
proaches to reduce environmental impacts including reuse or disposal, (Sun et al., 2016). On average, 6 MJ of electrical energy, 45 L of water,
and, in some cases, recycling into new tires and tire related products. and 0.02 kg of dissolvent are needed to manufacture one tire while

Fig. 1. Life cycle of tires

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

yielding 0.5 kg of waste (Piotrowska et al., 2019). Extrapolating from an million tires (USTMA, 2020). The global annual production of waste
estimated 3 billion tires produced annually, tire manufacture may pro­ tires is estimated to reach 1.2 billion tons by the 2030s (Liu et al., 2020).
duce as much as 729 million kg particulate matter, 570,000 kg NH+ 4 , and Others estimate that, globally, 1.5 billion tires are discarded annually
over 2 million kg suspended solids annually, while as much as 104 currently with an expected to increase to 5 billion tires by 2030
billion MJ energy may be consumed along with over 70 billion liters of (Grammelis et al., 2021). Generally, waste tires remain in the region of
water though, water and energy consumption could be reduced through their production. For example, only 3.1 % and 5.7 % of waste tires are
existing technologies, including high-pressure steam to shorten vulca­ exported from the US (USTMA, 2020) and the EU (Sienkiewicz et al.,
nization time and recovery of waste steam (Sun et al., 2016). Using the 2012), respectively. Waste tires are often recycled into various products,
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology, each including outdoor products with high potential to disperse tire particles
tire requires over 333,000 kg CO2 Eq during production while 2116 kg or tire-derived chemicals into the environment (Dabic-Miletic et al.,
of CO2 Eq are recovered by recycling a tire (Piotrowska et al., 2019). 2021). For example, the majority of waste tire use in California, USA
Some tire manufacturers are striving to reduce their factory carbon includes burning for fuel, crumb rubber production, and integration in
footprint and/or exploring new tire designs with longer lifespan or civil engineering applications (Table 1). Worldwide, the fate of tires is
which could be retread like industrial tires, thereby saving significantly similar with most going into energy production or recycled (Table 2).
on the amounts of materials required for production (https://www. Tires are often downcycled into microplastic-containing products like
motortrend.com/features/future-tire-technology/?id=applenews). tire crumb and tire buffings. Used tire processors separate tire rubber
from tire structural components (e.g., steel belts) to produce various
3.2. Environmental and health impacts from the use of tires sized tire rubber pieces (Valente and Sibai, 2019) classified as buffings,
ground, crumb, or aggregate, some of which contain or are entirely
Significant ecosystem impacts are from tire emissions of carbon di­ composed of microplastics. Products created from used tires include
oxide and sulfur oxides or nitrogen oxides, which are greatest during the retreaded tires, tire-derived fuel, artificial turf infill, rubberized asphalt,
use stage of the life cycle and a function of fuel use of the vehicle shock absorption applications, landscaping mulch, playground and
(Piotrowska et al., 2019). Tire wear during use results in tire wear recreational areas, rubber-containing pavement seal coats, rubberized
particle emissions into the environment. Vehicle tire wear produces an building and floor materials, railroad ties, and doormats (Dabic-Miletic
estimated 1.2–6.7 kg of particles, or about 10–16 % of the weight of the et al., 2021). There are 12,000–13,000 synthetic turf fields in the US
tire, over the lifetime of the tire (Sun et al., 2016; USTMA, 2021). Tire with 1200–1500 new installations annually (USEPA, 2019). Wear of turf
wear and evolution of tire wear products may be exacerbated by the fields, tracks, and other recreational areas where recycled tire crumb
heavier weight and increased acceleration and torque produced by EVs rubber is used can release tire microplastics into the environment (Wang
(Zhao et al., 2019). Tire microplastics from synthetic rubber tires are a et al., 2021).
major contributor of microplastic pollution to the environment (Kole
et al., 2017; Sieber et al., 2020; Siegfried et al., 2017). Measurable and 4. Fate and transport
sometimes significant amounts of tire particles have been collected in
air, aquatic environments, and organisms (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 4.1. Cycling of tire particles in the environment
2020; Leads and Weinstein, 2019; Siegfried et al., 2017; Tian et al.,
2017; Werbowski et al., 2021; Wik and Dave, 2009). For example, un­ Studies of the fate and transport of tire microplastics and associated
treated stormwater runoff samples collected from San Francisco Bay contaminants has been limited. A handful of studies have helped to
watersheds contained up to 15.9 tire particles/L, almost 50 % of all characterize tire microplastics and affiliated leachate in the environ­
microparticles in these samples (Sutton et al., 2019; Werbowski et al., ment associated with urban runoff (Werbowski et al., 2021; Johannes­
2021). Globally, tires may be one of the top sources of microplastics to sen et al., 2021; Klöckner et al., 2020; Klöckner et al., 2021; Peter et al.,
the environment (Boucher and Friot, 2017; Kole et al., 2017; Sieber 2018; Peter et al., 2020; Tian et al., 2021b). Data from Europe show that
et al., 2020), with a pollutant mass exceeding the total environmental most of the mass of tire microplastics is deposited near roadsides, but
emissions of other pollutant classes like pharmaceuticals and pesticides that water and atmospheric pathways can move particles significantly
(Wagner et al., 2018). farther (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2021; Evangeliou et al., 2020; Sieber
Tire emissions generally relate to vehicle weight, tire size, and dis­ et al., 2020; Sommer et al., 2018; Verschoor et al., 2016). Moran et al.
tance traveled, with larger heavier vehicles (trucks) emitting more than (2021) conceptualized the sources and pathways of rubber particles to
small light ones. Higher traffic speeds result in increased generation of urban stormwater (Fig. 2).
tire particles (Wang, 2017; Pohrt, 2019; Kwak et al., 2013; Foitzik et al.,
2018). Particle generation from any specific vehicle or in specific
roadway segments can vary depending on driving speed or style (e.g., Table 1
urban stop/go vs. highway), road surface condition, type of contact California waste tire use summary 2018*. Source: CalRecycle, 2019. *Includes
(rolling vs. slipping) and temperature (Alexandrova et al., 2007; Knight material imported from out of state. Reprinted from Moran et al. (2021).
et al., 2020; Kole et al., 2017). Based on relatively limited data, country- Use Examples Quantity
specific tire particle generation across size classes 10 nm to 1000 μm has (Metric
Tons)
been estimated to be as low as 0.23 kg/yr/capita in India to as high as
5.5 kg/yr/capita in the US due to its longer per-capita annual vehicle Combustion Burned at non-California facilities 130,000
travel distances (Mennekes and Nowack, 2022; Baensch-Baltruschat (export)
Combustion “Tire-derived fuel” burned at four California 82,000
et al., 2020; Councell et al., 2004; Wagner et al., 2018; Kole et al., 2017). facilities
Thus, approximately 1.7 million tons of tire wear particles are produced Landfill Disposal, alternative daily cover 98,000
annually in the US based on 2021 population size. Where automobile Reuse on vehicles Used tires and retreads 82,000
and truck traffic are higher, production of particles may be significantly Crumb/ground Rubberized asphalt pavement (60–67 %) 81,000
rubber Artificial turf infill (11–14 %)
greater. Based on empirical and extrapolated data synthesized from
Mulch and ground covers (3–5 %)
Europe, Japan, China, Australia, Brazil, India, and USA annual global Molded & extruded products (19–20 %)
tire wear emissions, across size classes 10 nm − 1000 μm, were estimated Civil engineering Landfill structures, construction fill, vibration 4600
to be nearly 6 million tons (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2020). applications damping, and stormwater capture and
Annually, about 800 million tires become waste material worldwide treatment systems
Other recycling Unspecified 3100
(Tsang, 2012). In the US, scrap tire generation in 2019 was about 260

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Table 2 indicate that most tire wear particle volume (and therefore mass) is in
Fate of End of Life (Scrap) Tires in the United States and Europe in 2019. 76 % of the coarse fraction (particles >50 μm), which deposit quickly from the
scrap tires in the US are utilized in some fashion (not disposed of) and 95 % in source, landing on or close to pavements. While no studies show the full
the EU27 + NO+CH + RS + TR + UK. Sources: 1USTMA 2019. U.S. Scrap Tire range of particle sizes, most tire wear particles are fine and ultrafine
Management Summary. U.S. Tire Manufacturer Association. Washington, D.C. (Alves et al., 2020; Cadle and Williams, 1978; Fauser et al., 2002;
20005. 2 European Tyre and Rubber Manufacturing Association (ETRMA). Press
Kreider et al., 2010). The smaller coarse and larger fine particles (be­
Release: In Europe 95 % of all End of Life Tyres were collected and treated in
tween 1 μm and 10 μm), can be entrained into the atmosphere through
2019. https://www.etrma.org/news/in-europe-94-of-all-end-of-life-tyres-we
re-collected-and-treated-in-2019/ mechanical processes, such as from the intense turbulence generated by
high speed vehicle traffic (Brahney et al., 2021) and have atmospheric
Disposition United Europe2 Notes
residence times of 8 days (<10 μm; “PM10”) to 28 days (<2.5 μm;
(thousands of States1 EU27 +
metric tons) NO+CH + RS “PM2.5”) (Evangeliou et al., 2020).
+ TR + UK Fine (<10 μm) and ultrafine (<2.5 μm) tire particles comprise only a
Civil Engineering 333.20 112.95 (3.2 USA: includes Steel,
small fraction of the total mass of tire wear particles. However, they
and Similar (8.2 %) %) Reclamation Projects, compose a large fraction of the total number of emitted particles, and
Uses Agricultural, Baled Tires to their surface area might make them important vectors for tire chemical
Market and Punched transport beyond the immediate roadside area. This is particularly true
Stamped. EU: includes public
for smaller organisms and/or sensitive life stages. Due to limited data
works and backfilling
Recycling 987.92 1841.20 USTMA does not use addressing tire particles across the full particle size distribution and the
(24.4 %) (51.8 %) Recycling category. Ground lack of surface area measurements for each size fraction, the role and
Rubber included in total here. importance of air deposition in tire particle and chemical transport
For EU, includes granulation
within and between watersheds remains largely unknown (Moran et al.,
and additions to cement
manufacturing.
2021).
Energy 1493.98 1428.82 EU: Cement kilns 75 % and 25 Ultimately, tire wear particles are incorporated into soils and sur­
Production (36.9 %) (40.2 %) % Urban Heating and power faces, washed off outdoor surfaces with runoff (Field et al., 2000;
plants American Society of Civil Engineers, 1998), or washed out of the air by
Exported 125.19
rainfall or snow. Particle wash-off from impervious surfaces (e.g., streets,
(3.1 %)
Other 119.64 sidewalks, roofs) is far more efficient than from permeable surfaces (e.g.,
(3.0 %) lawns, gardens, agricultural fields) (Field et al., 2000; Pitt et al., 2008).
Land disposed 616.89 Estimates of the portion of tire wear debris that is washed off of urban
(15.2 %) outdoor surfaces into urban runoff are highly variable and likely a
Unknown/stocks 372.84 165.16 (4.6
(9.2 %) %)
function of many system and condition specific variables; e.g., 15–50 %,
Total 4049.67 3555.61 Totals are from Source Tables Wagner et al., 2018; 35 %, Blok, 2005; 80 %, Kennedy et al., 2002).
Modern urban and roadway drainage systems direct stormwater
runoff directly (or indirectly via storm drains), untreated, into local
Abrasion by pavement during vehicle use creates small tire wear water bodies. While tire particles may be temporarily retained in low
particles. After their initial release to the air, tire wear particles may points in stormwater collection systems under low flow conditions due
travel short (1–10 m) to long (km) distances prior to deposition, often to their density, turbulent flows during larger storm events will likely
promoted by localized effects of high-speed traffic. Roadway-derived mobilize these particles and carry them into surface waters (Hoellein
particles (including tires) may compose >80 % of all microplastic air et al., 2019).
deposition, (Brahney et al., 2021). Notably, inhalation of atmospheric Tire particles may be washed by stormwater runoff into wastewater
particulate matter is a critically important mechanism of human expo­ treatment systems. There are no current data on fate or volumes of tire
sure to tire rubber microplastics and tire-derived chemicals. Recent particles specifically in wastewater treatment plants; however, data
studies documented substantial contributions of tire rubbers and asso­ suggest that a high percentage of other microplastic particles transfer
ciated chemicals to atmospheric particulate matter phases and associ­ from the water into sewage sludge (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2021).
ated human exposure risks via inhalation (Cao et al., 2022; Johannessen Even with high removal rates, significant annual loadings of tire and
et al., 2022a; Zhang et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2022). road wear particles have been estimated in treated wastewater effluent
Particles, especially those deposited on pavements, may be resus­ in the UK (Parker-Jurd et al., 2021). Sewage sludge is typically incin­
pended, redistributed, or modified by vehicle traffic and environmental erated, disposed of in landfills or spread on agricultural fields (Duis and
conditions. Vehicle tire abrasion grinds tire wear particles into pave­ Coors, 2016) where tire particles may remain in the soil or be mobilized
ment debris and soil, reducing particle size, encrusting particles with and distributed by wind or by surface runoff to the aquatic environment
other road debris, and modifying particle shape (Kreider et al., 2010; (Duis and Coors, 2016; Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2021).
Park et al., 2018) and chemical composition. Particles may also release Air transport and runoff may carry tire particles and associated
tire related chemicals, including additive chemicals and their industrial chemicals into surface water drinking water sources (Johannessen and
and environmental transformation products, into air and water phases, Metcalfe, 2022; Zhang et al., 2023). Drinking water treatment plants
or within biota that ingest particles (Peter et al., 2020; Tian et al., 2021b; draw water from surface water, groundwater, and/or seawater, all of
Wagner et al., 2018). which may contain microplastics including tire particles (Collivignarelli
For understanding particle transport, tire particles can be divided et al., 2018). Drinking water treatment typically starts with screening
into three groups based on diameter: coarse (>2.5 μm), fine (<2.5 μm and grit removal, followed by addition of alum to the raw water for
and > 0.1 μm), and ultrafine (<0.1 μm) (Wagner et al., 2018). Particle coagulation, flocculation, and settling in tanks. Drinking water treat­
size governs transport distance, with fine and ultrafine particles most ment plants are effective at removing small particles including 70–83 %
subject to long-distance aerial transport, depositing far from their of microplastics (<100 μm) with treatment by coagulation and mem­
sources (e.g., the Arctic, mountain wilderness) (Brahney et al., 2021; brane filtration showing high effectiveness (Nikiema and Asiedu, 2022;
Evangeliou et al., 2020; Thornton Hampton et al., 2022; Wagner et al., Pivokonsky et al., 2018). However, the level and types of drinking water
2018). Larger particles >10 μm typically deposit close to the point of treatment varies widely and effectiveness of drinking water treatment
emission (Cadle and Williams, 1978; Fauser et al., 2002; Kreider et al., technologies to remove tire particles specifically is unknown.
2010; Wagner et al., 2018). Available particle size distribution data Particle density affects particle transport. While tire rubber has a

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Fig. 2. Conceptual model of the sources and pathways of rubber particles to urban stormwater. Major pathways are indicated by larger arrows, and dotted arrows
represent minor pathways. The major source of rubber particles is tire wear, with tire-derived and non-tire rubber products representing smaller sources. Reprinted
from Moran et al. (2021).

density of about 1.1–1.2 g/cm3 (Degaffe and Turner, 2011; Tang et al., particles in the environment (Moran et al., 2021). Currently, few studies
2006), slightly denser than water, tire wear particles collected near have investigated the physical effects of weathering on tire wear parti­
roads and generated by road simulators typically contain encrustations cles, with most studies investigating bulk tire material or microplastics
that increase density. Encrustations are diverse and consist of soil, composed of other polymers.
pavement material, vehicle debris, road marking materials, etc. (Penkała Photoaging may have significant effects on the specific surface area
et al., 2018; Thorpe and Harrison, 2008). Depending on the nature and of tire particles, thus facilitating chemical release. One study found a 55-
quantity of encrustations, tire wear particle densities can range across fold increase in the surface area of tire particles obtained from a recy­
1.25–1.8 g/cm3 (Klöckner et al., 2021; Wagner et al., 2018). Higher cling plant, compared to a 13-fold increase in the surface area of poly­
density, encrusted particles will settle out more quickly, slowing trans­ propylene microplastics (Fan et al., 2021). The effects of environmental
port and increasing potential for these particles to become sequestered weathering processes on tire wear particle physical properties like spe­
on land or in aquatic sediment. Non-encrusted particles have sufficiently cific surface area and particle deterioration remain an important
low density to transport readily in moving water (Tang et al., 2006). knowledge gap. Additionally, there is little known about the role of
While some microplastics can be re-entrained into atmospheric path­ microbiological processes in the degradation of tire particles and asso­
ways such as re-emission of previously deposited particles from the ciated pollutants and the fate and transfer of pollutants carried into
oceans to land (Allen et al., 2020), because tire wear particles are denser trophic chains.
than seawater, the ocean to land pathway is unlikely for tire particles, Tire additives begin to transform during the production process and
except potentially the ultrafine particles. continue throughout the tire life cycle. Tire chemicals can transform and
degrade at the surface and interior of the tire, the surface and interior of
tire wear particles, and in the gaseous or dissolved phases following
4.2. Weathering of tires and chemical transformations
release from the tire polymer matrix. Oxidation reactions are common,
including thermooxidation, photooxidation, ozonolysis, shear stress,
Tire particles are relatively persistent in the environment but are
biodegradation, and hydrolysis (Wagner et al., 2022). Chemical polarity
subject to phototransformation, oxidation/reduction, hydrolysis,
can increase because of radical formation, hydrogen abstraction, oxygen
biotransformation, and mechanical degradation processes (Wagner
addition, and formation of polar functional groups, including ketones
et al., 2018; Fig. 3). Tire rubber is susceptible to ozonolysis, or the
and carbonyls (P. Fan and Lu, 2011; Rånby, 1989).
oxidative cleavage of carbon‑carbon C– –C double bonds, leading to
During rain, roadway runoff transports tire wear particles into
cracks and crazing in the rubber (Newton, 1945). Tire particles are also
receiving waters where ozonation and thermal degradation cease and
subject to thermal degradation, sometimes reaching temperatures of up
photooxidation slows due to low temperature, low oxygen availability,
to 60 ◦ C on hot asphalt (Higashiyama et al., 2016). Given tire rubber
and attenuation of ultraviolet light with depth and turbidity. When
durability, physical modification other than by mechanical degradation
exposed to water, the dominant transformation processes for tire-related
should be relatively limited over short-term time scales (Wagner et al.,
compounds include leaching, hydrolysis, and biodegradation.
2018), although tire particles could potentially agglomerate with other

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Fig. 3. Degraded tire on an Oregon, USA beach (photo courtesy of James Kaldy)

Depending on location, tire leachate compounds may be directly or 4.3. Fate and transport of tire-related chemicals
indirectly (through storm drains) released into nearby waterways or
transported to a treatment facility through combined sewer systems. Known chemical emissions from tires include benzothiazoles, PAHs,
Transformation products of tire additives have been detected in both the vulcanizers, antidegradants, aromatic and paraffinic oils, formaldehyde,
influent and effluent of wastewater treatment plants and municipal and styrene-butadiene rubber polymers, along with heavy metals like Zn
drinking water treatment plants (Johannessen and Metcalfe, 2022). (Adachi and Tainosho, 2004; Cadle and Williams, 1978; Fauser et al.,
Transformation of tire compounds due to environmental weathering 1999; Klöckner et al., 2019; Kumata et al., 2011). A comprehensive list is
processes can drastically change the chemical signature and ecotoxicity shown in Supplementary Table 1. Despite their medium to long-term
of leachates. Transformation and degradation can lead to reduced or durability, both manufacture and aging of tire particles induce trans­
enhanced toxicity of certain compounds. Recent research efforts have formation of additive chemicals that generate complex mixtures of tire-
put a spotlight on one product of 6PPD oxidation, 6PPD-quinone (N- derived environmental contaminants (Huang et al., 2021; Johannessen
(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine-quinone et al., 2022b; Peter et al., 2018, 2020; Tian et al., 2021a), which are
(DTXSID301034849; CAS 2754428–18-5) due to its lethal effects in subsequently transported by urban runoff into near-urban ecosystems
coho salmon and other salmonids. This chemical is an ozonation product (Johannessen et al., 2022b; Peter et al., 2018, 2020; Tian et al., 2021b;
of the anti-ozonant 6PPD, which is intentionally added to tires to pre­ Halama et al., 2024). Particles transported to roadside soils, sediments,
vent ozonolysis and oxidation (Tian et al., 2021a; Brinkmann et al., and surface water likely continue to release chemicals into aquatic en­
2022; Lo et al., 2023). Tires are typically composed of a mixture of vironments and organisms that take up the particles. Supplementary
several types of anti-aging additives including amine, phenolic, het­ Table 1 lists known or suspected chemical contaminants associated with
erocyclic, and phosphite antioxidants (Castan et al., 2023). tire rubbers.

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Numerous chemicals are present at relatively high concentrations in dependent upon both the tire mass and the rubber phase concentration
aqueous leachates from tire materials, such as chemicals used or formed of the chemical. For studies reporting the solid phase concentration (μg
as byproducts during production, including metals (especially Zn, but chemical in tire/g tire), the fraction (or %) of chemical leached into
also Al, Cu, Ni, Co, Mn); PAHs; vulcanization accelerators; crosslinking solution can be calculated (μg chemical in solution/g tire divided by μg
agents, corrosion inhibitors and their transformation products [e.g., chemical in tire/g tire * 100 %). To illustrate, data from four studies on
benzothiazole (DTXSID7024586), diphenylguanidine (DTXSID30251 benzothiazole leaching, a compound frequently reported in tire leach­
78), hexamethoxymethyl melamine (DTXSID9027520)], anti-ozonates/ ates, is compiled in Table 3. Tire material loading in the leaching studies
oxidants (e.g., 6PPD); plasticizers (e.g., bisphenol A, phthalide, phtha­ (Table 3) is at least 10× but usually several orders of magnitude higher
lates), organic compounds (e.g., dicyclohexylurea, 1-indanone)], and than water concentrations of tire particles observed in the environment
chemicals present at very low or non-detectable concentrations in tire (i.e., <0.1 g/L; Wagner et al., 2018). Halsband et al. (2020) found
material itself but that are apparently readily leachable and many un­ similar leachate concentration of benzothiazole after 48 h and 14 d at a
knowns or suspect chemicals (Capolupo et al., 2020; Chibwe et al., 2022; concentration of 100 g tire/L (liquid:solid ratio 10 L/kg), indicating
Halsband et al., 2020; Peter et al., 2020). rapid release and approach to batch equilibrium. Aging and weathering
Urban environments harbor atmospheric cocktails of tire contami­ of material in the environment can reduce the pool of leachable chem­
nants and other traffic-related pollutants, including nitrogen oxides and icals like benzothiazole (Unice et al., 2015), making certain organic
ozone from photochemical smog. In the atmosphere, volatile com­ compounds like (N-cyclohexylbenzothiazole-2-sulfenamide (CBS), N-
pounds and particles generated by volatilization and recondensation of (1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine (6-PPD), and 1,3-
semivolatile organic compounds are subject to reactions with atmo­ diphenylguanidine (DPG) less practical as tire pollutant markers in
spheric radicals (OH, O3, and NOx) in the presence of ultraviolet light. environmental samples.
These reactions create the potential for chemicals from tire particles to
generate carcinogenic nitrosamines formed by the reaction of parent 4.4. Monitoring fate and transport of tire wear particles in the
molecules containing amine functional groups with nitrogen oxides environment
(Johannessen et al., 2022a; Johannessen and Metcalfe, 2022). Other tire
wear chemicals with implications for atmospheric transport include Stormwater is considered a significant pathway for tire wear parti­
2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2-dihydroquinoline (TMQ), 4,4′ -dithiodimorpholine cles to enter aquatic systems (Wei et al., 2023). However, few studies
(DTDM), and tetramethyl thiram disulfide (TMTD), though their fate have rigorously monitored tire wear particles in urban runoff. Most tire
and transport are poorly understood (Johannessen et al., 2022a). The wear particles are smaller than <220 μm (Cadle and Williams, 1978;
toxic tire wear compounds 6PPD-quinone and 4-aminodiphenylamine Fauser et al., 2002; Kreider et al., 2010). For example, in contrast to
(4-ADPA) were detected in atmospheric samples collected at 5, 15, stormwater microplastic monitoring studies that employed a 300 μm
and 30 m from roads at levels estimated at 2.90 and 1.14 ng L − 1 for filter (Sutton et al., 2019; Werbowski et al., 2021), monitoring in the San
6PPD-quinone and 4-ADPA, respectively, suggesting a potential human Francisco Bay area (California, USA) revealed that black, rubbery tire
and wildlife health hazard (Olubusoye et al., 2023). While exposure is particles in untreated urban stormwater could pass through a smaller
likely higher closer to roads, due to the long residence time of atmo­ 125 μm pore filter (Moran et al., 2021). Even where environmental
spheric tire particles (up to 28 days), tire chemicals can also travel long sampling methods do not exclude particles <220 μm (e.g., sediment
distances and contaminate distant environments (Evangeliou et al., samples), common density-based methods for separating microplastics
2020). from environmental samples often exclude denser tire wear particles
The magnitude of leaching from tire particles depends on numerous (Klöckner et al., 2019).
chemical and system-specific factors, including chemical properties (e. Some tire chemical ingredients such as benzothiazoles, styrene-
g., diffusivity, hydrophobicity, polarity, structure), tire material prop­ butadiene rubber, and Zn have been used as markers for the environ­
erties (e.g., chemical composition, aging/weathering or other surface mental presence of tires and occasionally as the basis for quantification
alteration, particle size or surface area), and location and binding in­ of tire particles in environmental samples (Adachi and Tainosho, 2004;
teractions of the chemical to the tire matrix. Additionally, leachate Cadle and Williams, 1978; Fauser et al., 1999; Klöckner et al., 2019;
generation system variables also influence boundary conditions of mass Kumata et al., 2011). While the markers have provided valuable insights
transfer and thermodynamic equilibrium, such as liquid-to-solid ratio, on tire wear particle transport, due to other environmental sources, the
time, mixing regime, temperature, and water phase composition, high variability among tire formulations, and the potential leaching of
including pH, salinity, and presence of co-solvents, organic matter, or marker chemicals from the tire matrix, recent analyses suggest such
infinite sink conditions. Observed leachate concentrations of individual methods are unreliable for quantification of tire wear particles in envi­
chemicals can vary widely across studies due to these many system ronmental samples (Rauert et al., 2021; Wagner et al., 2018).
variables. For example, changing temperature and turbulence/flow re­ Both on-road and laboratory road- simulator-generated tire particles
gimes were found to significantly affect tire leachate toxicity (Kolomi­ have similar, bimodal particle size distributions with peaks in both the
jeca et al., 2020). More hydrophobic compounds, such as high molecular ultrafine and coarse particle size groups (Cadle and Williams, 1978;
weight PAHs and 6PPD, were observed to preferentially leach and then Dahl et al., 2006; Fauser et al., 2002; Gustafsson et al., 2008; Kreider
sorb to sediments when leaching occurs in the presence of natural et al., 2010), making it difficult to measure particles across the size
sediment (Unice et al., 2015). Leaching of Zn and other metals increases distribution by a single method (Wagner et al., 2018). For example, air
in acidic solutions and freshwaters (versus saltwater) due to the influ­ quality monitoring typically focuses on particle sizes <10 μm (PM10) or
ence of pH and ionic strength on metal solubility (Capolupo et al., 2020; < 2.5 μm (PM2.5) (e.g., Cadle and Williams, 1978; Dahl et al., 2006;
Selbes et al., 2015). Fauser et al., 2002), while aquatic and terrestrial monitoring typically
Chemical reaction and transformation in leachates also occur, and focuses on particles >10 μm (e.g., Kreider et al., 2010).
while transformation products are often observed in laboratory studies, Because tire wear particles are denser than fresh or estuarine water,
it can be especially difficult to interpret temporal dynamics in complex there is high likelihood for them to become entrenched in aquatic sed­
mixtures and to represent environmental field conditions in the labo­ iments, making accurate sampling of tire particles in water difficult,
ratory. Studies often report leachate concentrations and may also though non-encrusted tire particles may be readily mobilized in flowing
calculate an aqueous loading (μg chemical in solution/g tire) that ac­ water (Tang et al., 2006). Thus, sediment sampling may be necessary to
counts for the mass of tire in solution, or the liquid-to-solid ratio, used to fully assess tire particle pollutant loads in streams or rivers.
generate the leachate (μg/L * g tire/L). However, this does not account
for the mass of the chemical compound in the system, which is

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Table 3
Leaching of benzothiazole (Log KOW = 2.17, EpiSuite) from tire particles (TWP or crumb rubber) or tire road wear particles (TRWP). 1 Calculated from data provided
in the study. 2 A new tire was used, but since particles were generated under more realistic conditions, TRWPs are classified here as “worn”. 3 Freshwater and marine
algal growth media contained nutrients, trace metals and vitamins, which affected leaching of metals more than organic compounds (Capolupo et al., 2020). 4 Based on
a 1:1 ratio of tread to road-derived minerals in TRWP (Peter et al., 2020). * L:S = liquid-to-solid ratio.
Study design Leachate Aqueous loading Leached into
Reference conc., (μg/L) from tire (μg/g tire) aqueous solution
(% of tire
concentration)

Particle generation; size Leachate preparation L:S* (L/kg) “Worn” “Worn” “New” “Worn” “New”
(conc., kg/L)

Unice et al. (2015) TRWP generated in road Column, hard water, 30d, 20 10 L/kg 13001 TRWP 13 TRWP – 372 –
simulator; no size information ◦
C (0.1 kg/L) TRWP
4
26 TWP
Halsband et al., 2020 Crumb rubber granulate; Batch, seawater, 14d, 20 ◦ C 1000 L/kg 68 681 801 621 761
1–2.8 mm (0.001 kg/L)
highest L:S
10 L/kg 1415 141 171 131 161
(0.1 kg/L) (“pre- (“pre-
use”) use”)
Halle et al., 2021 Tire tread on grindstone; avg. Batch, DI, 15 L/kg 2541 3.8 3.9 16 19
176 um (worn), 210 um 48 h, 25 ◦ C (0.067 kg/L)
(“pristine”)
Capolupo et al., 2020 Tire derived granulate; 1–2 Batch, freshwater (fw) or 12.5 L/kg 2313 (fw) 291 (fw) – – –
mm marine algal growth medium3, (0.08 kg/L) 1460 181
14d, 25 ◦ C (marine) (marine)

4.5. Ecotoxicological effects translocate into cells (Brander et al., 2024, Coffin et al., 2022, McIl­
wraith et al., 2021). Markers of oxidative stress have been demonstrated
Tire particles can be ingested or respired, and toxicity is likely size- to increase following exposure to tire particles (Sheng et al., 2021; Shin
dependent and/or influenced by chemical composition (e.g., additives, et al., 2022). However, an increase in antioxidant defense may indicate
associated pollutants, influence of weathering) and abiotic factors an adaptive response to the presence of the tire particles. In episodic
(Wagner et al., 2018). Tire particles likely behave similarly to other exposure to tire particles, mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) showed an
types of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs), and a handful of studies, adaptive response wherein DNA damage and repair were both increased,
mainly in model aquatic organisms, indicate that mechanisms elicited and antioxidant response mechanisms were altered in a dose-dependent
by tire wear particle exposure are similar to other MNPs (Cunningham manner (LaPlaca et al., 2022). To date, most studies on tire particles
et al., 2022; Siddiqui et al., 2022). However, much remains unknown have focused on leachates, rather than particles, or have examined the
about absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) combined toxicity of particles and heavy metals such as Zn (e.g., Yang
processes across taxa, including humans. Additionally, no published et al., 2022). Differentiating the effects of particles themselves from the
studies have examined the difference in toxicity between new and effects of harmful chemical leachates such as heavy metals is complex,
weathered particles, tire particle mixtures from different tire types and and more research is needed to determine which variables cause
brands, or the combination of tire, brake, and road wear that most oxidative stress and whether this is an adaptive versus a toxicological
realistically represents actual emissions to the environment. response.
Once entrained in sediments and soils, tire wear particles may serve Aqueous leachates of laboratory-generated tire tread particles and
as a source of adverse effects to benthic and soil populations, commu­ tire crumb are complex mixtures of chemicals, many of which have toxic
nities, and ecosystems. Consequently, tire particles and associated effects (Capolupo et al., 2020; Celeiro et al., 2021; Unice et al., 2015).
chemical additives have biological and larger scale ecological effects Several cationic metals associated with tire particles, including Zn, Fe,
across the range of species and populations, types of communities and Cr, Pb, Ni, Cu, Ti, Sr, Ba, Se, Cd, and Pb, are routinely used materials in
ecosystems, characteristics of the chemical additives, extent of particle tires, brakes, catalytic converters, and road asphalt and are commonly
weathering, and route of chemical exposure. For example, differing tire detected in tire and road dust (Adamiec et al., 2016; Hong et al., 2020),
particle effects, such as 6PPD-quinone toxicity to some salmonids potentially causing toxic effects in aquatic ecosystems. While there is a
(McIntyre et al., 2021; Tian et al., 2022), have been found among lack of direct information concerning TWP toxicity, there is toxicity
matrices, such as sediment, water, and food (Khan et al., 2019; Redondo- information on the constituents of TWP such as heavy metals and PAHs.
Hasselerharm et al., 2018) and from both particles and additive This information can be extrapolated, but matrix effects, biological
leachates. uptake, and particular speciation of adjuvants/leachates may influence
In general, MNPs contribute to food dilution, a phenomenon of the toxicity of the individual toxicants in the TWP matrix. Zn has been
reduced growth following ingestion due to either a false sense of satia­ identified as a major toxicant in tire particles and associated leachates
tion on the part of the organism, stress interfering with swimming and (Liu et al., 2022; Wik et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2022) because ZnO and
prey capture ability, or reduction of nutrient absorption (Siddiqui et al., ZnS are added to tires during the vulcanization process (Adamiec et al.,
2022, Cunningham et al., 2022, Panko et al., 2013, Brander et al., 2024, 2016). Zn levels as low as 0.65 μg/L and Cd levels as low as 0.56 μg/L
Thornton Hampton et al., 2022), as well as oxidative damage if small can cause significant declines in marine copepod egg production, which
enough (< 10 μm estimated) to translocate (Mehinto et al., 2022). is linked to population-level effects (Fisher and Hook, 2002). In addi­
Exposure to tire particles has been shown to result in differences in tion, Ni can affect population structure in the estuarine copepod, Eur­
behavior, development, and other sublethal effects (Cunningham et al., ytemora affinis (30 μg/L for males and 50 μg/L for females) (Zidour et al.,
2022; Magni et al., 2022; Siddiqui et al., 2022; Sheng et al., 2021). 2019). Other cationic metals such as Al and Cu, also found in tire par­
Recent studies also indicate that nanoplastics (defined as particles 1 to ticles, have exhibited population-level effects in a variety of aquatic
1000 nm; Gigault et al., 2018; Cunningham et al., 2023) may be able to organisms (Cleveland et al., 1991; Cribiu et al., 2020; Zidour et al.,
translocate from the gut to other tissues and in some cases may be able to 2019). Because tires are not the only source, the proportional

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

contribution of cationic metals from tires to the environment, remains a to cause toxic effects on larvae, molting, and metamorphosis in in­
critical data gap. vertebrates such as American lobster (Homarus americanus) (Laufer
Soils and water bodies near major roadways are typically contami­ et al., 2013). 6PPD-quinone (DTXSID301034849), the degradate of
nated with elevated levels of heavy metals, and concentrations are often 6PPD, an antiozonant used in tires, is highly toxic to juvenile Coho
positively correlated with increasing traffic and/or industrial activity salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) (24 h LC50 of 0.095 μg/L) an ecologi­
(Aslam et al., 2013; Alsbou and Al-Khashman, 2017; Ghosh and Maiti, cally, economically, and culturally important fish (Tian et al., 2022).
2018). Chronic heavy metal exposure is known to cause ecotoxicological Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) also suffer mortality from
effects in wildlife including developmental abnormalities, neurotoxicity, 6PPD-quinone, though juvenile coho were 3 orders of magnitude more
and reduced reproduction and survival (Redondo-Hasselerharm et al., sensitive than juvenile Chinook; 24-h median LC50 estimates were 41.0
2018; Capolupo et al., 2020; Ding et al., 2020; Sheng et al., 2021; Simon versus 67,307 ng/L, respectively (Lo et al., 2023). Notably, coho LC50
et al., 2021; Leifheit et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2022). For most studies, was 2.3-fold lower than previously reported for adult coho (95 ng/L),
toxicological effects cannot be definitively linked to heavy metals alone emphasizing age-related differences in sensitivity (Lo et al., 2023).
due to the variability and complexity of the detected chemical constit­ Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
uents (Capolupo et al., 2020; Ding et al., 2020). However, a recent study mykiss) also showed high sensitivity to this compound with reported 24
by Yang et al. (2022) employed a Toxicity Identification Evaluation h LC50s of 0.59 and 1.96 μg/L, respectively (Brinkmann et al., 2022).
(TIE) approach to identify Zn as the causative agent for mortality in the The mode of action for 6PPD-quinone toxicity to salmonids remains
marine copepod, Tigriopus japonicus, following exposure to tire particle unknown, as other species such as arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus), white
leachate. Different experimental conditions (e.g., temperature, pH, soil sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus), zebrafish (Danio rerio), and in­
organic content), differences in manufacturing or weathering among tire vertebrates (Daphnia magna and Hyalella azteca) are far less sensitive
materials, and/or species sensitivity may influence bioavailability of (Hiki et al., 2021; Brinkmann et al., 2022; Varshney et al., 2022). Studies
heavy metals and alter toxicity profiles. on the aquatic toxicity of 6PPD-quinone are summarized in Table 4 and
In addition to heavy metals, the toxicity of tires has often been 6PPD-quinone occurrence in the environment is shown in Table 5.
attributed to non-polar organic compounds, such as PAHs (Wik and Aside from their chemical composition, differences in tire particle
Dave, 2006), created by the incomplete combustion of organic matter size and shape (e.g., aspect ratio) may have varying levels of biological
and which are found in tires, crude oil, and gasoline (Hussain et al., effects, as is the case for other types of MNPs (e.g., Schell et al., 2022).
2018). The amounts and types of PAHs vary among tires (Sadiktsis et al., Overall, smaller MNPs can induce more significant biological effects
2012). PAHs are leached from tire particles and other tire debris in compared to larger ones (Mehinto et al., 2022; Thornton Hampton et al.,
water, soil, and biological fluids (Marwood et al., 2011; Panko et al., 2022). This may be because of their ability to disrupt epithelial barriers
2013; LaPlaca and van den Hurk, 2020) and can persist in the envi­ and affect tissue viability, recently demonstrated by Donkers et al.
ronment (Shuttleworth and Cerniglia, 1995) or transform into other (2022) using a variety of different material types and sizes (nylon
potentially toxic compounds (Lundstedt et al., 2007). Much of the microfibers, tire particles, polystyrene, polyethylene). This phenomenon
toxicity observed in leachate and tire debris exposures has been attrib­ is size rather than material dependent, with particles <10 μm having the
uted to PAHs (Wik and Dave, 2006; McIntyre et al., 2014; Wu et al., greatest propensity to translocate. Across plastic pollution in general,
2014); however, the proportion of PAHs in the environment that origi­ particles may be ingested but don't appear to bioaccumulate (Gouin,
nates from tires is unknown. Observed abnormalities from PAH expo­ 2020). Tire particles and their leachates are subject to influence from
sure are like those seen in fish exposed to tire debris (McIntyre et al., variation in conditions such as salinity, temperature, and pH that can
2014). PAHs and their metabolites can cause carcinogenic and non- lead to changes in particle chemistry and behavior, as well as toxicity.
carcinogenic impacts (Martins et al., 2013; Martins et al., 2015). For Abiotic variability is also known to influence particle behavior such as
example, uptake of PAHs released from tire particles (Stephensen et al., agglomeration, which plays a large role in particle fate and transport
2003; LaPlaca and van den Hurk, 2020) can cause developmental de­ (Chang et al., 2022; Shupe et al., 2021). At increasing salinities for
fects and mortality in fish (Incardona et al., 2004; Fallahtafti et al., 2012; example, inland silverside (Menidia beryllina) and mysid shrimp (Amer­
Incardona et al., 2012; Philibert et al., 2016) and PAH exposure can icamysis bahia) both exhibited greater alterations in swimming behavior
cause immunotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, and impact reproduction in following exposure to nano-size tire particles (< 1 μm) and leachate
wildlife (Honda and Suzuki, 2020). (Siddiqui et al., 2022). Comparatively, the same organisms exhibited
The toxicity of PAHs is photo-enhanced by sunlight. For example, greater behavioral changes in the lowest salinity following exposure to
Pelletier et al. (2000) found potential population level effects from PAHs micro-size tire particles (1–20 μm) (Siddiqui et al., 2022). In a study on
and UV light exposures in bivalves that had bioaccumulated 5000 μg fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas), temperature and mechanical
PAH/g lipid (Pelletier et al., 2000). Bellas and Thor (2007) reported stress had a significant negative effect on tire leachate toxicity; however,
adverse effect levels for the marine calanoid copepod Acartia tonsa for UV-A treatment of the tire particles (~ 1 mm) and range of pH condi­
pyrene and UV exposures, with concentrations that affect 50 % of the tions studied (8.2–8.6) did not alter toxicity (Kolomijeca et al., 2020).
organisms (EC50s) of 16 μg/L (egg production rate) and 8.3 μg/L Future studies on varying abiotic factors on tire particle toxicity should
(recruitment rate). Environmental mixtures of PAHs can affect repro­ consider incorporation of abiotic factors into their design since research
ductive endpoints in mussels at tissue concentrations as low as 60 μg/Kg on how these factors affect tire particle toxicity is largely unexplored to
dw (Ruiz et al., 2011). PAHs decreased nauplii and copepodite pro­ date.
duction in an estuarine copepod (Schizopera knabeni) at sediment con­ Organisms can vary significantly in their response to tire particles
centrations as low as 38 μg/Kg dw. Because of the many sources of PAHs (Table 6). For example, in estuarine organisms exposed to tire particles
in the environment, distinguishing the contribution from tires remains during the first few days of life, reduced growth was observed in larval
an important data gap. fish (Menidia beryllina) and juvenile mysid shrimp (Americamysis bahia)
In addition to PAHs, many other organic compounds exist in tires (Siddiqui et al., 2022). Similarly, in the freshwater species Danio rerio,
(Supplementary Table 1). Alkylphenols, including bisphenol A (BPA: growth was reduced following exposure to tire particles (Magni et al.,
DTXSID7020182), and other related alkylphenols such as octyl- and 2022). However, this trend does not hold across all species; Daphnia
nonyl-phenol and alkyl-phenolic ethoxylates, have also been found in magna growth was not impacted in the same study, but fecundity was
tire particles and associated leachates. These compounds are known reduced due to internalization of tire particles (Magni et al., 2022).
endocrine disruptors in vertebrates, including several fish species (e.g., Another study with D. magna showed particle-based enhancement of
medaka, fathead minnow, sheepshead minnow, and rainbow trout) at toxicity, with greater toxicity from nanosized (<1 μm) in comparison to
concentrations as low as 100 μg/L (David et al., 2019) and are suspected microsized (1–20 μm) tire particles; specifically, at high concentrations

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Table 4
6PPD-quinone aquatic toxicity in peer-reviewed literature. LC50 = median lethal concentration, C.L. = confidence limits. 1 Tian et al., 2021a; 2 Tian et al., 2022; 3 Hiki
et al., 2021; 4 Varshney et al., 2022; 5 Brinkmann et al., 2022; 6 Di et al., 2022; 7Peng et al., 2022; 8Lo et al., 2023; a Based on measured concentration at the start of
exposure; b Time weighted average concentration; c ISO (International Standards Organization) Standard Fish Media; d Based on nominal concentrations; e Hardness as
mg/L CaCO3; *Concentrations measured using in-house standards without internal standard normalization. Tian et al. (2022) observed that use of a commercial
standard yielded ~15-fold higher peak area response for the same 6PPD-quinone concentration in their in-house standard, and 6PPD-quinone recovery without in­
ternal standard normalization was ~60–70 %.; +Concentrations measured using a commercial standard; ^Hiki et al. (2021) also created their own in-house standard
and did not use an internal control when measuring exposure concentrations. Therefore, their reported concentrations may be overestimated, similar to Tian et al.,
2021a.
Species pH Conductivity (μS/cm) Temp. (◦ C) Exp Time Solution renewal LC50 Ref.
(μg/L; 95 % C.L.)

Oncorhynchus kisutch 7.6–7.8 1250–1300 10–12 24 h None 0.79 (0.6–1.0)a,* 1

Oncorhynchus kisutch 7.6–7.8 1250–1300 10–12 24 h None 0.10 (0.08–0.11)a,+ 2
Danio rerio 7.7 ± 0.0 3090 ± 200 25.9 ± 0.1 96 h 48 h >70b,^ 3
Danio rerio 7.4 ± 0.1 ISOc 27 ± 1 24 h 24 h 308.7 (258.3–368.9)d 4
Oryzias latipes 7.9 ± 0.1 3420 ± 1100 24.4 ± 0.2 96 h 48 h >40b,^ 3
Daphnia magna 8.0–8.4 6380–6430 21.6–21.9 48 h None >60b,^ 3
Hyallela azteca 8.0 ± 0.1 3100 ± 1100 23.5 ± 0.2 96 h 48 h >90b,^ 3
Salvelinus fontinalis 6.7 ± 0.1 131 ± 2.33e 10.3 ± 0.7 24 h 24 h 0.59 (0.48–0.63)b,+ 5
Oncorhynchus mykiss 8.4 ± 0.5 132 ± 6.80e 12.8 ± 0.8 72 h 24 h 1.00 (0.95–1.05)b,+ 5
Oncorhynchus mykiss 6.5 ± 0.0 143 ± 2 16 ± 1 96 h 48 h 2.26 (2.13–2.44)a 6
Salvelinus alpinus 8.4 ± 0.5 132 ± 6.80e 12.8 ± 0.8 96 h 24 h >14.2b,+ 5
Acipenser transmontanus 8.4 ± 0.5 132 ± 6.80e 12.8 ± 0.8 96 h 24 h >12.7b,+ 5
Gobiocypris rarus 8.0 ± 0.0 149 ± 2 25 ± 1 96 h 48 h >500a 6
Danio rerio 28 ± 0.5 96 h 24 h 2200 7
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha 6.8–7.3 89.8 CaCO3 13.8 ± 0.3 24 h none 67.3 8
Oncorhynchus kisutch 3.7–7.0 102 CaCO3 13.6 ± 0.3 24 h none 0.041 8

of nano and micro-sized tire particles, developmental deformities were In experiments that evaluated the reproduction of D. magna, 15 and
observed in D. rerio as was mortality in both D. rerio and D. magna 150 mg/L of tire rubber particles significantly reduced the numbers of
(Cunningham et al., 2022). daphnids and their neonates (Schell et al., 2022). Furthermore, Magni

Table 5
6PPD-quinone occurrence in the environment. (1Tian et al., 2022, 2Nedrich, 2022; 3Eurofin presentation to EPA group 2022; 4Johannessen et al., 2021, 2022a, 2022b;
5
Challis et al., 2021; 6Monaghan et al., 2021; 7Cao et al., 2022; 8Rauert et al., 2022; 9Geometric mean of lowest observed effect concentration for mortality from Tian
et al., 2022, Lo et al., 2022, Greer et al., 2023).
Location and timing Sample method Sample type Land use Detected Non- 6PPD-quinone Coho NOEC9
detected (μg/L) 0.034 (μg/L)

Seattle, WA, US1 Grab Road surface Urban highway 6 1 <0.05–1.27 Above
During storm
event
Seattle, WA, US1 Grab Creek Urbanized residential watersheds (Miller <0.02–0.21 Above
During storm Creek, Longfellow Creek, Thornton Creek)
Seattle, WA, US1 Grab Creek Urbanized residential watersheds (Miller 0 15 NA Below
Between storms Creek, Longfellow Creek, Thornton Creek)
Los Angeles, CA, US1 Grab Road surface Urban highway 2 0 0.49–0.74 Above
During storm
San Francisco Bay Time Composite Creek Urban and Reference sites 4 6 0.12–0.42 Above
Area, CA, US1 Samples
During storm
Michigan, US2 Post Grab Creek Various 2 17 0.012–0.037 Above
storm 35 h
Michigan, US2 Grab Road surface & Various 5 0 0.054–0.66 Above
During storm puddles
Central California, Grab River 0 10 NA NA
US
Dry Season
Central California, Grab River 2 8 0.002–0.014 Below
US
Wet Season3
Toronto, Canada1 Composite (42 h) River Urban, downstream of high-traffic corridor 0.3–2.3 Above
(Don River)
Saskatoon, Canada2 Composite Outfall Urban (residential / light industrial) 0.086–1.40 Above
Saskatoon, Canada5 Composite (8–12 Snowmelt Urban (residential / light industrial) 0.015–0.756 Above
snow piles)
Nanaimo, BC, Grab Creek Not available 2 0 0.096–0.112 Above
Canada3
Nanaimo, BC, Grab Stormwater Not available 4 0.048–5.58 Above
Canada6
Hong Kong4 Grab Road surface Dense traffic, urban area 9 0 0.021–0.243 Above
Brisbane, Australia5 Grab Creek Sub-urban (low density residential, open 9 0 0.0004–0.08 Above
post storm 18 days space)
dry

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Table 6
Published toxicological studies on tire particles and leachates.
Reference Tested species Type of exposure Authors consider exposures to be Observed Notes
(* indicates those with Environmentally Relevant Affected
Micro Nano Leachates
observed significant Concentrations Endpoints
particles particles
effects)

Carrasco-Navarro California blackworm x x None

et al., 2022 (Lumbriculus variegatus)
Harlequin fly
(Chironomus riparius)
Garrard et al., 2022 *Scrobicularia plan x Behavior
*Ragworm (Hediste Oxidative stress
diversicolor)
LaPlaca et al., 2022 *Mummichog (Fundulus x x DNA damage Episodic exposures
heteroclitus)
Magni et al., 2022 *Zebrafish (Danio rerio) x x Growth Used end-of-life tires
*Daphnia magna fecundity
Schell et al., 2022 *Daphnia magna x x Reproduction
Hyalella azteca mortality
Water louse (Asellus
aquaticus)
California blackworm
(Lumbriculus variegatus)
Shin et al., 2022 *Rotifer (Brachionus x Mortality
plicatilis) Oxidative stress
Siddiqui et al., 2022 *Inland Silverside x x x x Behavior
(Menidia beryllina) growth
*Mysid shrimp
(Americamysis bahia)
Carrasco-Navarro *Harlequin fly x x Gene expression
et al., 2021 (Chironomus riparius)
Chibwe et al., 2022 *Fathead minnow x Development
(Pimephales promelas)
Cunningham et al., *Zebrafish (Danio rerio) x x x Behavior Toxicity affected by
2022 *Daphnia magna development changes in salinity
mortality
Halle et al., 2021 *Hyalella azteca x x Growth
mortality
Koski et al., 2021 Acartia tonsa x x None Used new tires, old tires,
Temora longicornis and rubber granules from
artificial turfs
McIntyre et al., *Coho salmon x x Mortality
2021 (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
Chum salmon
(Oncorhynchus keta)
Selonen et al., 2021 Enchytraeid worm x x Reproduction
(Enchytraeus crypticus) mortality
*Springtail (Folsomia
candida)
Woodlouse (Porcellio
scaber)
Sheng et al., 2021 *Earthworm (Eisenia x Oxidative stress
fetida)
Capolupo et al., *Mediterranean mussel x Reproduction
2020 (Mytilus galloprovincialis)
Ding et al., 2020, *Soil worm (Enchytraeus x x x Intestinal Tire brand-specific
2023 crypticus) pathology, toxicity
mortality
Kolomijeca et al., *Fathead minnow x Reproduction Toxicity affected by
2020 (Pimephales promelas) Growth temperature and
mechanical stress
Khan et al., 2019 *Hyalella azteca x Mortality
Growth
Reproduction
Pochron et al., 2018 *Earthworm (Eisenia x Mortality
fetida) Growth
Redondo- Gammarus pulex x None
Hasselerharm Asellus aquaticus
et al., 2018 Tubifex spp.
Lumbriculus variegatus.
Pochron et al., 2017 *Earthworm (Eisenia x Growth
fetida)
Panko et al., 2013 Hyalella azteca x Growth Mimicked abrasion of tires
Ceriodaphnia dubia to produce particles
*Chironomus dilutus
*Fathead minnow
(Pimephales promelas)
(continued on next page)

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Table 6 (continued )
Reference Tested species Type of exposure Authors consider exposures to be Observed Notes
(* indicates those with Environmentally Relevant Affected
Micro Nano Leachates
observed significant Concentrations Endpoints
particles particles
effects)

Zhao et al., 2011 *Soil nematodes x Abundance

Community
structure
Wik et al., 2009 *Ceriodaphnia dubia x Reproduction

et al. (2022) reported a Lowest Observed Effect Concentration (LOEC) of group. Furthermore, crumb rubber exposure decreased Shannon's di­
9.8 mg/L for the same species exposed to TWPs. However, in 48 h tests versity index, evenness, and plant parasite index of soil nematodes, but
with two levels of feeding and three types of tire materials, at concen­ increased dominance and maturity indexes. In a study exposing enchy­
trations up to 10,000 particles/L, reproduction of marine copepods traeid worms (Enchytraeus crypticus), springtails (Folsomia candida), and
Acartia tonsa and Temora longicornis was unaffected (Koski et al., 2021). woodlice (Porcellio scaber) to TWPs (<180 μm) in soil and food at con­
Reproduction of the daphnid Ceriodaphnia dubia over 9 days was the centrations of 0.02 %, 0.06 %, 0.17 %, 0.5 %, and 1.5 % (w/w), Zn was
most sensitive to tire rubber leachate exposure, with an EC50 of 10 mg/L again found to be the dominant metal and organic contaminants
(Wik et al., 2009). When the rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis) was exposed to included benzothiazole, pyrene, chlorpyrifos, HCB, methoxychlor, and
tire particle leachate, a No Effect Concentration (NOEC) of 200 mg/L BDE (Selonen et al., 2021). At the highest test concentration in soil (1.5
(0.2 g/L) was found (Shin et al., 2022). In experiments conducted with %), TWPs decreased F. candida reproduction by 38 % and survival by 24
the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, gamete fertilization was affected by %, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity of P. scaber by 65 %. In food,
tire rubber leachates (Capolupo et al., 2020), a result attributed to a the 1.5 % test concentration of TWPs reduced F. candida survival by 38
reduced motility of spermatozoa, possibly caused by leached metals % (Selonen et al., 2021). Altogether, the highly variable outcomes of the
(Capolupo et al., 2020). For the freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca, studies may be due to differences in particle size and chemical compo­
Khan et al. (2019) found that neonate production, mortality, and sition, and/or differences in species sensitivity, but suggest that TWPs
growth, were all significantly impacted by TWP (500 to 2000 particles/ can adversely affect soil invertebrates at concentrations found at road­
mL) after a 21-d exposure. Additional studies with the amphipod sides in the environment (Selonen et al., 2021).
H. azteca (Halle et al., 2021) with a concentration up to 250,000 parti­
cles/L, showed no significant effects on the reproductive output. In ex­ 4.6. Population, community, and ecosystem effects
periments using tire and road wear particles spiked in sediment (10,000
mg/Kg) or its elutriate, no reproductive endpoints were affected in the Population, community, and ecosystem level effects are important
amphipod H. azteca or C. dubia, (Panko et al., 2013), and only slight measures of the impacts of tires as pollutant as they integrate individual
growth effects were demonstrated in the insect midge Chironomus dilutus toxicological effects and are often measures of wide-scale change. Spe­
larvae and freshwater fish Pimephales promelas. However, the authors cies especially sensitive to toxic effects of certain chemicals can be early
report reproductive measures in the C. dubia and H. azteca controls were warning indicators of decline and extinction, community function, and
also significantly reduced, most likely due to turbidity. This study is one ecosystem services. Population level changes can occur because of in­
of the few available investigations where abrasion of tires was mimicked dividual toxic effects such as changes in reproduction (e.g., sperm
to produce the TWP (Panko et al., 2013). The lack of effects in sediment motility, delayed hatch, and smaller brood size), as well as reduced
exposures was corroborated in studies using several sediment organisms fitness caused by nutrient substitution. In addition, changes in com­
(Redondo-Hasselerharm et al., 2018; Carrasco-Navarro et al., 2022; munity structure, such as increased or decreased predation or shifts in
Schell et al., 2022). prey availability, may have adverse effects on populations. The few
Reported adverse effects of TWPs on soil invertebrates are highly studies of population level effects from tire particles and associated
variable for oligochaetes, annelids, and nematodes (Ding et al., 2020; chemical additives include laboratory toxicity studies demonstrating
Pochron et al., 2017, 2018; Zhao et al., 2011). For example, Pochron effects on reproduction that may affect wild populations and ecosystems
et al. (2017) found that earthworms (Eisenia fetida) exposed to crumb (Table 6). In general, studies that spike tire particles into sediments
rubber contamination in soil experienced reduced weight gain by 14 %; appear to show fewer adverse effects than those using tire particles in
however, earthworm survivorship or stress response to heat and light water. However, the method by which tire wear particles are produced
was not impacted. Furthermore, crumb rubber contamination did not for toxicity studies may make a large impact on their environmental
inhibit microbial respiration rates despite soils containing toxic con­ relevance and toxicity. Most studies use pieces of a single tire to cryo-
centrations of Zn (Pochron et al., 2017). In a similar study, exposure to mill particles, which results in tire fragments that may look and act
virgin crumb rubber reduced weight gain by 14 % while aged crumb quite differently from particles generated by tire use. Panko et al. (2013)
rubber did not have the same effect. However, exposure to aged crumb is one of the few studies where the environmentally relevant abrasion of
rubber reduced earthworm survival time during a stress test by 16 % tires was mimicked to produce the tire particles used for toxicity testing.
relative to the survival time for worms in clean soil (Pochron et al., Whether how tire particles are produced makes a significant difference
2018). Ding et al. (2020) found that TWPs decreased survival of the soil in their toxicity is an important data gap for interpreting most tire
worm (Enchytraeus crypticus) by >25 % and reproduction by >50 %. Tire particle toxicity studies to date.
particle exposure disturbed the microbiota of the worm's guts causing an Both tire particles and associated leachates can cause shifts in mi­
enrichment of microbes associated with opportunistic pathogenesis, crobial marine communities that may affect nitrogen metabolism in
suggesting that TWPs might impact soil biota and microbiota. Ding et al. marine sediments (Liu et al., 2022; Wik et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2022).
(2023) found that E. crypticus avoided consuming TWP but that tire While there are few studies of community level effects resulting from
leachates exerted toxic effects on gut microbiota, intestinal histopa­ direct tire particle exposure, there are data on some of the chemical
thology, and metabolites at environmentally relevant concentrations additives associated with tires, including metals. For example, changes
and that toxicity varied with brand of tire. Zhao et al., 2011 studied the in community tolerance to increased Zn levels in sediments (>124 mg/
effects of waste crumb rubber in soils on nematode abundance, com­ Kg dw) has been demonstrated for microbial communities (van Beelen,
munity structure and soil characteristics and found significant decreases 2003), and with Zn, Cd, and Cu for river periphyton (Blanck, 2002).
in the numbers of plant parasitic nematodes, the most abundant trophic Effects of Ni on diatom communities were reported at 1000 μg/L (Ivorra

13
P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

et al., 2002) and for freshwater benthic communities at ~500 mg/Kg ecosystem effects of tire particles and associated chemical additives are,
depending upon the acid volatile sulfide and total organic carbon con­ to date, poorly studied and represent a large data gap in our under­
centrations of the impacted sediments (Nguyen et al., 2011). Schlekat standing of the adverse ecological effects of tires.
et al. (2016) summarized studies on benthic freshwater communities In addition to tire particles and associated chemicals, environmental
and determined that NOEC Ni levels ranged between 100 and 230 mg factors such as elevated ion concentrations from road salt (e.g., Ca2+,
Ni/Kg dw. Among freshwater nematode communities, shifts in species Na+, Cl− ) can cause synergistic effects (Kaushal et al., 2020). For
composition start at 13 mg/Kg to 19 mg/Kg dw and porewater concen­ example, Klauschies and Isanta-Navarro (2022) found that, at environ­
trations of 20 μg/L to 30 μg/L (Louati et al., 2013). PAHs have also mentally relevant concentrations, the joint action of salt and 6PPD-
shown community level effects. Alpha diversity and evenness of sedi­ quinone had an antagonistic, negative effect on the reproduction and
ment prokaryotic communities changed after pyrene exposure at 250 survival of freshwater rotifers. Further, the presence of tire debris can
mg/Kg (Ding et al., 2017). Sediment meiofauna community and mi­ change soil pH, potentially influencing availability of nutrients and toxic
crobial processes were altered at PAH concentrations of 130 to 1300 μg/ metals (Smolders and Degryse, 2002; Councell et al., 2004). MNPs can
Kg dw sediment (Lindgren et al., 2014) and the meiofauna community contribute to the formation of anthropogenic soils and carbon stabili­
was disrupted by environmentally occurring PAH mixtures of 45 mg/Kg, zation by influencing bulk density, soil aggregate size, porosity, and
30 mg/Kg, and 25 mg/Kg of dry sediment for fluoranthene, pyrene, and water holding capacity (Rillig et al., 2021) which, in turn, limits growth
phenanthrene, respectively (Louati et al., 2013). Other tire additives and survival of plants (Bollman et al., 2019). While the effect of nano­
such as BPA also can cause microbial community changes; effects of BPA plastics on terrestrial ecosystems is largely unknown, nano-sized parti­
were seen at concentrations of 180 mg BPA/Kg dw sediment (Yang et al., cles may be taken up by plants themselves (Rillig et al., 2021). Leifheit
2014). et al. (2022) showed experimentally that tire abrasion particles reduced
While most published studies on adverse effects caused by tire par­ aboveground and belowground plant biomass, increased soil respiration
ticles, metals, hydrocarbons, and associated chemical additives are and pH, and affected litter decomposition even at their lowest treatment
related to the aquatic environment, terrestrial endpoints may also be concentrations of 10 mg/g of tire particles (average size of 125 μm;
impacted. For example, Selonen et al. (2021) found a significant range of 34–265 μm). Castan et al. (2023) showed that lettuce plants
reduction in the reproduction of the springtail Folsomia candida in soils exposed to tire-derived compounds including diphenylguanidine, hex­
spiked with tire rubber particles at concentrations up to 1.5 % of soil dry amethoxymethylmelamine, benzothiazole, 6PPD, and 6PPD-quinone at
weight. In contrast, at the same concentration, no significant effects concentrations of 1 mg/L were readily taken up and metabolized by the
were found on reproduction of the worm Enchytraeus crypticus (Selonen plants and, furthermore, leaching from tire particles continually resup­
et al., 2021) or of F. candida exposed to tire particles from bicycles, cars, plied the metabolized compounds to the lettuce leaves. The role of tire
and e-scooters (Kim et al., 2022). wear particles as stimulators or inhibitors of biogeochemical and
Reported adverse effects of tire particles on soil invertebrates are ecosystem functions in urban systems and the potential for ecological
highly variable for oligochaetes, annelids, isopods, arthropods, and and human health risks warrants further consideration and
nematodes, but suggest that tire wear particles could adversely affect investigation.
soil invertebrates at concentrations found at roadsides in the environ­ Studies show that tire particles can influence C, N, and P cycles
ment (Ding et al., 2020; Pochron et al., 2017, 2018; Selonen et al., 2021; directly and indirectly by serving as a source for these elements in food
Zhao et al., 2011). In addition, a 15 % treatment of crumb rubber webs (Bucci et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2020). The high C:N ratios of tires and
reduced soil bulk density by 28 % and soil moisture by 6 % (Zhao et al. aromatic hydrocarbons stimulate immobilization of N in soils by mi­
(2011). While the concentration of tire particles found to have an effect crobes (Rillig et al., 2021). Conversely, plastics are of lower quality and
in this study was relatively high, it is likely representative of current or lability than simpler natural and anthropogenic carbohydrates. Conse­
future soil tire content given the constant generation of tire particles on quently, in the presence of lower litter quality, microbes seek N in the
roadways and a lack of mitigation strategies. At the ecosystem level, soil organic matter to process the C from the litter, thus inducing excess
whole tires collect water, serving as habitat and shelter for pests such as C loss from soils (Averill and Waring, 2018). Such processes may vary
mosquitoes and bacteria or disease-carrying rodents (Torretta et al., among ecosystem types or along successional gradients (Mayer, 2008).
2015). MNPs, under which tire particles can be categorized, can influ­ Future studies could investigate the effects of tire particles on decom­
ence the structure and function of ecosystems (Rillig and Lehmann, position rates because toxic cationic metals and toxic organic chemicals
2020). Therefore, tire particles should be considered as an agent of can inhibit microbial and biogeochemical processes and rates (Baensch-
change at the ecosystem level. Tire particles may serve as substrata for Baltruschat et al., 2020; Rødland et al., 2022). Tire particles can release
colonization by microbes (Torretta et al., 2015). Ecosystem level effects nonpolar hydrocarbons, which may lead to accumulation of C in upper
from metals, as well as other impacts caused by environmental param­ soil horizons due to their limited mobility (sensu Lajtha et al., 2005).
eters (e.g., ionic strength, pH) may also result when tire wear particles Ingestion of plastic particles like tire particles may cause lesions and
are present. For example, in a laboratory study of a marine benthic reduce reproductive success in earthworms and affect other soil ar­
system from the Baltic Sea, Sundelin and Elmgren (1991) reported thropods (Büks and Kaupenjohann, 2020), though the full range of ef­
adverse impacts to nematode abundance, total meiofauna abundance fects of tire particles on soil macrofauna are unknown. Tires and tire
and biomass, non-nematode biomass, ostracod abundance, and Turbel­ particles are also rich in organic N and P, but less is known regarding
larian abundance resulting from exposure to Cd. In contaminated sedi­ their bioavailability compared to C.
ments on the northern Australian coast, based on genomic analysis, the
presence of several metals (e.g., Al, V, Zn, Cu, Ga, Pb, Cd, and As) 4.7. Human health effects
negatively impacted Archaea and bacterial (Cornall et al., 2016). In
another field study from Australia, invertebrate predator ratios and taxa Some tire chemicals are known toxicants to terrestrial organisms and
richness in freshwater streams were negatively affected by Cu and Zn humans (e.g., many metals, PAHs), but the potential toxic effects of
(Liess et al., 2017). Versteeg et al. (1999) demonstrated the impacts of many tire-derived chemicals on terrestrial organisms remain unknown.
metals to ecosystems ranging from disruptions to community structure, For humans, oral and dermal exposure to tire particles is expected to be
colonization, and productivity, to reductions in taxa richness, growth, minimal compared to inhalation exposure (Kreider et al., 2020). While
and survival. Their synthesis demonstrated that cationic metals such as the larger fraction of particles is primarily in the non-respirable size
those leached from tire particles could cause adverse effects to ecosys­ range (5 μm–220 μm, mode approximately 75 um; Kreider et al., 2010),
tems. However, no ecosystem level studies have been performed on tire smaller sized tire particles (PM10 and PM2.5) contribute to particulate
particles themselves in aquatic systems. Both aquatic and terrestrial air pollution that can get deep into the lungs and into the bloodstream.

14
P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Du et al. (2022) found 6PPD and 6PPD-quinone in the urine of children 5. Managing and remediating pollution from tires
and adults including pregnant women in China, showing that tire-
derived chemicals can get into the bloodstream, presumably from Currently, few remediation and management technologies are
inhalation exposure to tire particles. While tires are a major source, focused on tire particles or related chemicals (Schmaltz et al., 2020).
other rubber materials such as belts hoses and cables also may emit Potential mitigation opportunities for uncontrolled environmental
6PPD and 6PPD-quinone (Bohara et al., 2024; Cao et al., 2022), and release of tire particles and chemicals include actions by four sectors:
facilities such as sports fields constructed wth tire crumb may be tire manufacturers, vehicle manufacturers, government, and the general
exposure points for humans (Skoczyńska et al., 2021). Mice exposed population. Approaches for mitigating tire particle and related chemical
orally to 6PPD and 6PPD-quinone showed signs of hepatotoxicity from pollution range from prevention (e.g., reformulating tires to remove
bioaccumulation in liver tissue along with disorders of lipid metabolism toxic ingredients and reducing tire wear debris formation and emissions)
and inflammatory immune response due to gene upregulation, sug­ to collection and treatment (e.g., capturing tire particles or tire-related
gesting potential health risks to mammals (Fang et al., 2023). chemicals after dispersal into the environment) (Fig. 4). Efforts to
The toxicity of tire particles has been investigated in various in vitro reduce overall vehicle kilometers traveled by promoting or making more
studies, which have consistently shown DNA damage and inflammatory accessible alternative forms of travel or public transportation could
effects, while in vivo studies using rats and mice have found inflamma­ reduce tire emissions. Addressing tire particles and tire-related chem­
tory response and pulmonary toxicity from exposure to tire particles icals will require a holistic approach to address both the tire micro­
(Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2020). Based on a mouse model and epi­ plastics and the chemicals they contain because multiple entities and
genic markers, inhalation of tire wear particles in the size range of <1 agencies typically manage different components of the tire life cycle. In
μm (hydrodynamic diameter distributed at 100 nm) caused significant an extensive review, Baensch-Baltruschat et al. (2020) summarized
pulmonary fibrotic injury (Li et al., 2022). Kreider et al. (2020) devel­ possible mitigation approaches for reducing tire wear particles emitted
oped a species- and time- adjusted no-observed-adverse-effect- to the environment including: modernized installation and retrofitting
concentration (NOAEC) for respirable tire and road wear particles of of stormwater treatment systems, improved runoff treatment systems on
55 μg/m3 based on cardiopulmonary effects. Comparing this NOAEC to rural roads and highways including disposal of sediment, incineration of
predicted exposure concentrations, they concluded that tire and road sewage sludge containing road runoff sediments instead of spreading on
wear particles present a low risk to human health, especially when agricultural areas or natural soil, regular maintenance of roads, lighter
compared to other air pollution sources like diesel exhaust. However, weight vehicles, reduced traffic and speed limits, and optimization of
this analysis is based on limited data and did not consider particularly tire materials to improve wear resistance. Autonomous cars may
sensitive or highly exposed population groups or other effects such as improve emissions because they could be operated to brake and accel­
development of asthma, cancer, or reproductive toxicity. erate less often. Treating road runoff, particularly at pollution hotspots
such as tunnels, was also suggested (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2020).
However, because tire particles follow various paths, estimated at pro­
portions of 49 % for runoff, 49 % for soil and 2 % for aerial transport

Fig. 4. Management options for tire wear particle pollution, framed on a scale from preventative (reducing use and release) to remedial (collection and removal)
measures. Options are color-coded by who would be responsible for implementation, with tire manufacturers in light orange, vehicle manufacturers in dark orange,
government in dark blue, and community-wide in light blue. Reprinted from Moran et al. (2021).

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

(Unice et al., 2019), multiple mitigation approaches along pathways are would inform priorities for installation of such systems.
necessary for effective control.
5.4. Collection and treatment of dispersed tire particles
5.1. Reformulation
Collecting tire particles in the environment poses significant chal­
Ingredient assessments (e.g., as implemented by the California lenges. Existing street sweeping programs are episodic and do not
Department of Toxic Substances Control; California DTSC, 2021) could address all impervious surfaces where tire particles deposit (e.g., side­
provide information to inform potential tire tread reformulation to walks, driveways, and rooftops). Mechanical street sweepers are only
address aquatic toxicity associated with existing formulations. Existing moderately efficient at collecting particles in the size range of tire wear
chemical hazard evaluation tools like Green Screen for Safer Chemicals debris and may release microplastics from the sweeping brushes them­
or the USEPA Hazard Comparison tool (vide infra Vegosen and Martin, selves (Amato et al., 2010; Piscitello et al., 2021; Selbig and Bannerman,
2020) might provide a framework for such evaluations (Clean Produc­ 2007). Particles may also be collected by clearing deposition locations in
tion Action, 2021). The international Global Automotive Declarable the runoff transport system like roadside ditches, catch basins, and
Substance List (GADSL) provides a list of chemicals of interest due to storm drainpipes before they are washed into surface water (Navickis-
existing or anticipated regulation, human or environmental hazard, or Brasch et al., 2022). Larger tire fragments, such as those from failed
association with functional problems in vehicle parts (Technology, retread tires, could be manually collected at roadsides prior to decom­
2021; Global Automotive Stakeholders Group, 2021). The GADSL pro­ position. Currently, the portion of all tire wear particles collected cannot
vides vehicle manufacturers with data on chemical ingredients for use in be reliably estimated from available data (Klöckner et al., 2020; Polu­
tires that could be considered in reformulations to address potential karova et al., 2020; Sieber et al., 2020).
toxicity concerns. Tire manufacturers report seeking sustainable mate­ Although it increases tire wear, porous pavement may reduce tire
rials to develop next generation tires (Amick, 2018). However, limita­ particle wash off by retaining a significant fraction (as much as 40 %) of
tions to this search include manufacturer competition, proprietary emitted tire wear particles (Stanard et al., 2007; Verschoor et al., 2016).
information protection, and technological barriers to formulating tires It is unknown if retained particles subsequently wash away. Further­
with desired wear and handling characteristics. more, retained tire particles could continue to release tire-related
chemicals into the environment over time. While some countries (e.g.,
5.2. Reduced tire wear debris formation Netherlands) make extensive use of porous pavement (Verschoor et al.,
2016), such pavement for automobile traffic is uncommon in the US
Multiple organizations are working to redesign and reformulate tires (Caltrans, 2021; Passeport et al., 2013), may not last as long as con­
to reduce wear debris formation, potentially involving regulatory stan­ ventional pavement, and it may be cost prohibitive to replace existing
dards (e.g., European TRWP Platform, 2019; Hann et al., 2018; Piscitello pavement.
et al., 2021; European Tyre and Rubber Manufacturer’s Association,
2021; Verschoor et al., 2016). Between 2015 and 2021, tire manufac­ 5.5. Treatment to remove tire particles and chemicals from water
turer Michelin claims to have reduced its overall tire wear mass emis­
sions by 5 % (de Peufeilhoux et al., 2021), which may explain why a Because urban and road stormwater is a significant pathway for tire
comparison test of tires from major European manufacturers showed particle transport (Moran et al., 2021; Werbowski et al., 2021), priori­
Michelin had the lowest tire wear rates (Silvestro, 2022). In 2022, the tizing stormwater runoff is key to capturing tire particles and chemicals.
European Commission proposed to regulate tire wear rates (European Urban runoff treatment systems or combinations of these systems (“best
Commission, 2022). management practices” or BMPs) have potential to reduce tire particles
Maintaining tire pressure, either through airless tires (a technology and chemicals released to waterways. Examples of urban runoff BMPs
already entering the market) or tire pressure monitors, has potential to include “green infrastructure” such as vegetative buffers along water
reduce wear rates by an estimated 14 % (Verschoor and de Valk, 2017). bodies (Mayer et al., 2007), rain gardens, grassed swales, retention
Improvements in tire pressure monitoring systems, such as tire-specific structures such as ponds, sand filters and filter strips, wetlands, and
warnings and a more sensitive trigger for the warning could maximize infiltration features such as trenches and basins (Martins et al., 2015;
reductions. Resurfacing roads and increasing road maintenance to Galella et al., 2023) and “gray infrastructure” such as hydrodynamic
create smoother surfaces may reduce tire wear rates (Alexandrova et al., separators. Studies have demonstrated that stormwater bioretention
2007; Kole et al., 2017) but may entail high implementation costs likely facilities can effectively remove inorganic and organic pollutants from
to limit the widespread implementation of such measures. Changing stormwater, including removal of tire wear particles (Gilbreath et al.,
driver behavior (e.g., reducing speed, hard cornering, and braking) 2019, Smyth et al., 2021, Mengistu et al., 2022, and McIntyre et al.,
could reduce wear debris formation (Kole et al., 2017). However, public 2023). The effectiveness of these facilities varies depending on a range
education is only effective when costs, benefits, and social norms sup­ of factors, including their design and maintenance. Assessing storm­
port changed behaviors. Future vehicle automation could provide a water treatment effectiveness is a significant challenge when not all of
more realistic path for behavior-related tire emissions reductions. Also, the constituent chemicals in tires are currently known. The most
roads could be designed to reduce travel speeds that would, in turn, promising stormwater treatment systems for tire particles and chemicals
reduce tire wear though, road reconstruction or retrofit may be pro­ are rain gardens (bioretention cells) and similar soil-based pollutant
hibitively costly and would have its own impacts. capture and infiltration systems. Rain gardens (engineered depression
features of soil, organic matter, and vegetation) are known to be highly
5.3. Reduced tire wear debris emissions effective at capturing pollutants from stormwater including metals,
salts, and nutrients (e.g., Passeport et al., 2013; Gilbreath et al., 2019;
Capturing pollutant emissions at the source typically is more cost- Lange et al., 2021; Laws et al., 2011; McIntyre et al., 2015; Smyth et al.,
effective than removal from the environment after dispersal. Three 2021; Galella et al., 2023; Kaushal et al., 2022; Maas et al., 2023). Both
companies are patenting systems to collect tire wear debris on vehicles Gilbreath et al. (2019) and Werbowski et al. (2021) found that rain
(The Tyre Collective, Nexen Tire, and GelbKo Environmental Solutions). gardens were effective at reducing microplastic concentrations in water
The effectiveness of such systems will depend, in part, on capturing (>90 %). Removal was greatest for particles 3.5–5.0 mm but lesser for
particle sizes with the greatest potential to release chemicals or to harm particles <0.5 mm, yet reportedly 100 % for rubbery fragments which
aquatic organisms. Understanding which vehicle classes (e.g., cars, were assumed to be primarily from tires (Werbowski et al., 2021).
heavy duty trucks) emit the greatest total quantity of tire wear debris McIntyre et al. (2015) observed high efficacy of engineered soil matrixes

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

typically used in bioretention systems for attenuating the toxic leachates longevity of such treatments are unknown (Navickis-Brasch et al.,
from tires responsible for coho salmon mortality in the Pacific Northwest 2022). Identifying optimal soil media mixtures for bioretention and
USA. Optimizing filtration systems will be partially a function of the other characteristics is a critical need (Bollman et al., 2019). Designing
capture system design, including the soil or aggregate matrix selected effective bioretention systems will depend upon tailoring their con­
for filtration (Bollman et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2021) and the balance of struction to specific urban landscapes and/or retrofitting existing sys­
organic matter, clay, other potential additives (e.g., biochar), and sand tems (USEPA, 2023). Bioremediation facilities require inspection and
and trade-offs with other microbial and biogeochemical processes such maintenance to ensure adequate performance over multiple years. Oc­
as nutrient transformation (e.g., denitrification) where organic matter casionally material may need to be removed, tested for contaminants,
type and proportion can unintentionally contribute to metal or phos­ and disposed of properly (USEPA, 2016).
phorus mobilization (Duan et al., 2019).
A few green infrastructure designs have shown promise for some 6. Tire recycling, reuse, and disposal
removal of other microplastic types (Stang et al., 2022). Significant tire
particle and chemical removal would only be expected in systems that Waste (scrap) tires or “end of life tires” represent a significant vol­
provide significant removal of fine solids or dissolved pollutants, sug­ ume of the international solid waste stream (Grammelis et al., 2021). In
gesting soil and wetland-based green infrastructure would likely 2019, over 4.05 million metric tons of scrap tires were generated in the
outperform gray infrastructure and many retention pond designs (Clary US compared to 3.56 million metric tons in the EU (Table 2). Brazil
et al., 2020; Wagner et al., 2018; Navickis-Brasch et al., 2022). produced 473,000 tons of waste tires in 2015 alone (Machin et al.,
Infiltration-based runoff treatment systems could allow soluble tire- 2017). While the volume of waste tires over time has increased since
related chemicals to pass into groundwater, raising questions about 1960, fewer tires are landfilled, and more are either recycled or com­
the safety implications for groundwater aquifers that are current or busted as an energy source (USEPA, 2022a, 2022b; Fig. 5). Tiered waste
future drinking water sources. Furthermore, biofiltration-based storm­ management hierarchy starting with pollution prevention is usually
water features may, in the long term, be a source or a sink of tire-derived more cost effective than control or treatment and disposal of waste
chemicals like 6PPD-quinone, and metals or base cations depending on products (USEPA, 2023). The most effective pollution prevention ap­
hydrology, soils, or other factors such as redox potential, pH, and proaches involve creating a circular economy where product-related
salinity (Galella et al., 2021; Galella et al., 2023; Navickis-Brasch et al., waste becomes the source material for another generation of the same
2022). Though not widely implemented in the US, some municipalities product. Tires pose a challenge for this hierarchy, as they wear away
direct “first flush” runoff from select road segments into the municipal during their lifetimes, losing about 10 % of their mass in the form of tire
wastewater collection system that flows to wastewater treatment plants, wear particles emitted into the environment (USTMA, 2021). While such
which likely remove a significant portion of tire particles (Wagner et al., emission and subsequent dispersion prevent a fully closed-loop life
2018). Deliberate, pre-rain event washing to reduce pollutants on road cycle, new prevention options are in development, some of which could
surfaces has also been suggested (Kreiger Jr., 1994). feed into a future circular economy (e.g., on-vehicle collection of tire
Emphasis on management and mitigation of tire-derived chemicals wear particles and end-of-life tire rubber separation and devulcaniza­
has recently been focused on 6PPD due to its connection with coho tion; The Tyre Collective, 2021; Markl and Lackner, 2020).
salmon mortality in the Pacific Northwest USA. For example, the International, national, and US state regulations prohibit the disposal
Washington State Department of Ecology produced a comprehensive of most tires in landfills (e.g., Dabic-Miletic et al., 2021; Dajić et al.,
document on BMPs for stormwater treatment of tire contaminants 2016). While there are no US federal programs to facilitate recycling or
(Navickis-Brasch et al., 2022) which concluded that capture and atten­ reuse of tires, 48 states have regulations that control tire disposal.
uation methods will depend upon the characteristics of 6PPD and 6PPD- Similarly, there are no special EU standards for used tires and countries
quinone, which appear to bind to soil and organic matter, remain un­ may choose a management system (Torretta et al., 2015). Some US
dissolved and buoyant, and may have long half-lives (6PPD has a half- states have developed sustainable statewide market infrastructure for
life of ca. 5 h, while 6PPD-quinone's half-life may be several days; tire-derived products such as California's Department of Resource
DTSC 2022 Product Chemical Profile). Furthermore, 6PPD will continue Recycling and Recovery (CalRecycle, 2019, 2020, 2021).
to leach from tire particles and continue to transform to 6PPD-quinone In the EU, only about 4 % of tires are deposited in landfills while 38
in the presence of ozone or oxygen. Therefore, retention methods will % are used for energy, 40 % are recycled, and 18 % are reused in some
need to be effective over the lifespan of release of the particles, way (Torretta et al., 2015). Stockpiled, landfilled, and illegally dumped
depending upon environmental and physical conditions, including tires can be a source of pollution to groundwaters (Skoczyńska et al.,
temperature, pH, presence of metals, redox, salinity, etc. BMPs with the 2021) and can hold water, making them notorious breeding sites for
highest potential to reduce 6PPD and 6PPD-quinone are infiltration, disease-carrying mosquitoes and bacteria (Torretta et al., 2015). In the
dispersion, and biofiltration combined with sorption, especially those EU, 2 million tons of tires are stockpiled or abandoned illegally (Torretta
containing soil media or compost (Navickis-Brasch et al., 2022). In a et al., 2015). In the US, stockpiled tires have declined steadily from 1
controlled experiment, salmon survived otherwise deadly, untreated billion tires in 1990 to about 56 million tons in 2019, with stockpile
stormwater when the stormwater was filtered through a bioretention concentrations in a few states such as Texas and Colorado (USTMA,
soil mixture containing 60 % sand, 15 % compost, 15 % shredded bark, 2020). Only six states do not have storage and disposal regulations, 11
and 10 % drinking water treatment residuals (McIntyre et al., 2015). allow whole tires in landfills, and 37 states allow cut or shredded tires to
Similarly, Spromberg et al. (2016) successfully prevented mortality of be deposited in landfills (USTMA, 2020), while about half of all states
coho salmon by treating stormwater through biofiltration media. In a have an active stockpile cleanup program. Stockpiles are susceptible to
more recent study, McIntyre et al. (2023) found that experimental bio­ tire fires either inadvertently (e.g., wildfires), through arson, or as a
retention filtration through a mixture of sand and compost (60:40 by disposal method which releases smoke containing particles and toxic
volume) overlying a gravel drainage layer and covered with wood bark pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), cyanide, sulfur dioxide,
mulch, removed bacteria, dissolved metals, and polycyclic aromatic butadiene, and styrene (Singh et al., 2015). Such fires may burn out of
hydrocarbons, and likely also effective removal of 6PPD, thereby pre­ control for many days or months, consuming millions of tires (Kordoghli
venting all mortality of adult coho salmon and alevin, or newly hatched et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2015). Assessment of an uncontrolled fire at a
salmon, exposed to stormwater. In another study, stormwater bio­ landfill showed emission of high concentrations of CO, CO2, SO2, fine
retention cells designed to redirect stormwater away from receiving particulate (PM2.5), and PAHs including nitrogen heteroatoms (azaar­
waters provided a 10-fold reduction in 6PPD-quinone mass loadings to enes) and picene, which are also found in coal combustion (Downard
receiving waters (Rodgers et al., 2023). The mechanism of action and et al., 2015).

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Fig. 5. Vehicle tires waste management: 1960–2018. Weights in US tons. Reprinted from https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-
waste-and-recycling/durable-goods-product-specific-data#VehicleTires.

In 2019, 75.6 % of scrap tires in the US and 95.6 % in the EU were road construction (Table 2). Tires used as fuel can release potent
processed in some manner that kept them out of landfills (USTMA, 2020; carcinogenic particulates to the atmosphere including HCN, NOx, SOx,
European Tyre and Rubber Manufacturer’s Association, 2021). The CO, and CO2 (Glushankova et al., 2019). NOx and SOx emissions occur
three major categories of tire disposition other than deposit in landfills when tires are used to fuel combustion in cement kilns (Nakomcic-
are energy production, recycling, and civil engineering. Whole tires are Smaragdakis et al., 2016). If facilities are designed properly, emissions
often used as fuel to generate electricity or for manufacturing processes from use of tires as fuel are unlikely to be greater than those from
(USTMA, 2020; Ruwona et al., 2019). For example, in the EU, 40 % of conventional fuels such as coal, coke, or wood (USEPA, 1997).
tires are burnt, mostly in cement kilns (Piotrowska et al., 2019). In the About 226,000 tons of tires were used in civil engineering projects in
US, 100 million tires (1.4 million tons) were burned as fuel for cement the US in 2019 (USTMA, 2020). Tire rubber pieces (tire-derived aggre­
kilns, paper industry, and industrial boilers (USTMA, 2020). Combust­ gate, crumb rubber) are sometimes used in stormwater capture and
ing tires for fuel is primarily employed in developed countries and treatment systems (e.g., bioretention) or as bottom fill for roadside
mainly for cement manufacturing which requires significant energy drains (CalRecycle, 2016; Deng et al., 2016). Crumb rubber may remove
consumption (Grammelis et al., 2021). The energy value of tires for fuel some pollutants (e.g., metals) from runoff (Deng et al., 2016). However,
is equivalent to oil but produces fewer NOx emissions (Grammelis et al., tire microplastics and tire-related chemicals may be released into urban
2021). However, the combustion of waste tires produces atmospheric runoff or groundwater (Moran et al., 2021) as may be the case for whole
pollutants such as dioxins, dibenzofurans, NOx, SOx, and heavy metals tires used in engineering such as for road fill and construction (Torretta
remain in the ash such as Zn, Mn, Cr, Pb which present disposal issues et al., 2015). Shredded tires are sometimes used as landfill liners, which
(Chen et al., 2022). However, Cu can be removed from industrial may pose risks from groundwater seepage and, in some cases, inadver­
wastewater using tire ash as an absorbant (Mousavi et al., 2010). Tire tent burning (Downard et al., 2015). For example, tire-derived aggre­
ash is also often incorporated into asphalt and Portland cement (Al- gates in stormwater management features can leach Fe, Cu, and Zn at
Akhras and Smadi, 2004). Tires may also be pyrolyzed or gasified which levels above chronic criteria for aquatic biota (Singh et al., 2023).
provides higher energy efficiencies, produces less gaseous pollutants Artificial turf installations use infill composed of crumb (ground)
than combustion and enables recovery of by-products like Zn or char for rubber microplastics created by cryomilling or granulation of whole
activated carbon production and carbon black, though there are limits to used tires into microplastics 0.25–4 mm in size (USEPA, 2019). Turf
the utility of this type of char due to impurities (Grammelis et al., 2021; installations can represent significant inputs of tire rubber to the envi­
Chen et al., 2022). While the gas, liquid, and solid (char) products from ronment with over 11,000 synthetic turf fields across the US (Perkins
pyrolysis of tires are useful for energy production, carbon black, gra­ et al., 2019). In 2017, there were over 60,000 synthetic turf football
phene, and others, further research and technologies are needed for tire fields and pitches in the EU, not including children's playgrounds or
pyrolysis to be a sustainable process for disposing tires at an industrial indoor recreation facilities (Skoczyńska et al., 2021). While crumb
and economic scale (Kommineni et al., 2018; Gao et al., 2022). rubber loss estimates vary (Hann et al., 2018; Kole et al., 2017), the wide
Recycling tires yields rubber, steel, textile fibers, and carbon black use of crumb rubber in the construction of artificial turf on football fields
(Fazli and Rodrigue, 2020). Rubber may be reused as fillers, in asphalt has prompted concerns about potential health risks of hazardous sub­
and road pavements, and in manufacturing of new tires, while recycled stances present in recycled rubber and a possible link to lymphoma and
steel can replace anthracite and coke, and textile fibers which amount to leukemia risk among sports players (Skoczyńska et al., 2021). These
about 5 % of the total mass of the tire, may be recycled or incorporated concerns, in part, led to the development of the “Federal Research Ac­
into products such as sound absorbing materials or mixed into plastics or tion Plan on Recycled Tire Crumb Used on Playing Fields and Play­
cement for reinforcement, or as a geopolymer to reinforce soils (Dong grounds” (USEPA, 2019). Human exposure to toxics from crumb rubber
et al., 2021; Grammelis et al., 2021). The second largest use of scrap tires may be via inhalation, ingestion, or contact depending upon specific use
in the US is for ground rubber. About 66 million tires (1 billion tons) are of the playing surface as well as environmental factors such as temper­
used in asphalt, sports surfaces, artificial mulch, and for other molded ature; for example, heavy metals may be inadvertently ingested from
manufactured goods (USTMA, 2020). Europe disposes of over 51 % of particles, while PAHs are more likely to be inhaled through off-gassing
scrap tires, including significant amounts of granulated rubber (ETRMA of turf during high temperatures (Armada et al., 2023; Perkins et al.,
2021). A smaller but still significant use of scrap tires is for civil engi­ 2019; Zhang et al., 2008). Chemical leaching from crumb rubber also
neering purposes (Grammelis et al., 2021), including backfilling and has potential negative effects on aquatic biota (Halsband et al., 2020).

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Road surfaces may contain tire crumb, either as a component of monitoring systems. The Regulation of the European Parliament and
asphalt pavement (rubberized asphalt) or as a component of a surface Council (EU 2020/740) on tire labeling includes provisions for adding
coating (chip seal or slurry seal). In California, USA, while tire crumb parameters on tire abrasion and when tires need to be replaced due to
rubber composes only a small fraction (about 1.6 %) of the final pave­ wear (European Council, 2020). Currently, the only European Union
ment by weight, each metric ton of pavement contains about 16 kg of restriction on chemical content of tires is a PAH limit of 1 mg/kg for
crumb rubber (Caltrans, 2020). Particles released when rubberized benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and 10 mg/kg for the sum of PAHs. The Austrian
asphalt, chip seal, and rubberized seal coats wear away are primarily National Road Administration requires that road runoff is treated when
rock and non-rubbery asphalt/tire crumb blends, though volumes of the annual daily traffic reaches 15,000 vehicles/day and road tunnel
emissions from rubberized asphalt are currently unknown and questions wash water in Austria is not allowed to be discharged untreated (Mel­
remain on potential impacts to air and water pollution (Buttlar, 2021). and, 2016). In Switzerland, if a new road project is projected to have
Lokesh et al. (2023) found that rubberized asphalt concrete mixtures >14,000 vehicles/day, runoff water will be required to discharge
both sorbed and released 6PPD-q in leachates over time. through an appropriate treatment system (Meland, 2016). Similarly, in
Overall, the fate of end-of-life tires is varied, and each end use has Ireland, wash water from road tunnels in Ireland is sent to wastewater
different environmental impacts, ranging from the virtual elimination treatment plants (Meland, 2016). In Poland, permits are required for
from the waste stream (e.g., incineration, incorporation into cement) to a runoff and many require water treatment such as oil interceptors, small
continued presence (e.g., asphalt, tire crumb) that requires additional sedimentation tanks, infiltration ponds, wet ponds, and post-
disposal considerations (Sienkiewicz et al., 2012; Fazli and Rodrigue, construction discharge monitoring for sediment (100 mg/L) and hy­
2020). drocarbons (15 mg/L; Meland, 2016). In the US, California has proposed
regulating microplastics (California State Water Resources Control
7. Regulation and legislation Board, 2023) and has finalized a regulation that lists vehicle tires con­
taining 6PPD under its Safer Consumer Products regulations (https://dts
Regulations and policies can reduce emissions and negative impacts c.ca.gov/scp/motor_vehicle_tires_containing_6ppd/). For particles asso­
from tire particles (Trudsø et al., 2022; https://unece.org/transport/veh ciated with artificial turf and crumb rubber, there is recognition globally
icle-regulations). Policy instruments directed at multiple levels to of the risks associated with the microplastics, PAHs, heavy metals, and
address risks across the tire life cycle have the potential to affect the PFAS chemicals of these rubber particles, though few countries and ju­
production, dispersal, or characteristics of tire pollutants (Johannesson risdictions, with perhaps exception of the EU, have implemented
and Lithner, 2022), including: adequate regulations and surveillance to address health risks and limit
human exposure (Zuccaro et al., 2022).
• tires (degradability, type of tire, wear propensity, tire pressure,
hazardous substances). 8. Data gaps and research needs
• vehicles (weight, number of axles, engine power, acceleration, wheel
alignment). While there has been an upsurge in tire related research, many data
• road layout (engineering designs that encourage high speeds or gaps remain that require attention to develop effective comprehensive
sudden braking and acceleration). approaches to managing risks (Wang et al., 2023). Research has been
• road operation and characteristics (snow clearing, road cleaning, concentrated among US, China, and Europe with lesser focus in Africa or
road surfacing material, management of stormwater, presence of Asia (Wang et al., 2023). While our synthesis here is intended to be
roadside vegetation). global, we acknowledge a limitation of our study in that there are fewer
• traffic patterns (physical planning, public transport, taxes, parking data and studies from developing countries and, as such, understanding
fees). the diverse nature of tire pollution and identifying effective solutions
will require more work in regions outside the US, EU, and China where
Various countries and jurisdictions are using guidance and regula­ policies and infrastructure may not be adequate to address the com­
tory tools to address management of tire pollutants. For example, plexities of risk management. Addressing the following data gaps and
legislation in Europe addressing tires as hazardous waste dates to 1975 priority research areas will allow for more comprehensive and effective
while other legislation over years has addressed disposal of tires, ship­ strategies to mitigate and prevent the effects of tire particles and tire-
ment of waste, and “polluter pays” principles (Grammelis et al., 2021). derived chemicals on the diverse terrestrial, aquatic, and marine eco­
In the EU, there are three options for managing end-of-life tires: a) systems that become the sinks of these contaminants.
Extended Producer Responsibility where the producer is fully or
partially responsible for an end-of-life product; b) Free Market System 8.1. Tire production and use
where countries operate under specific contract agreements and often
report to respective regulatory agencies (e.g. Austria, Switzerland, Ger­ Determining the complete and quantitative chemical composition of
many, and the UK; c) Tax System where a tax is imposed upon tire tire rubbers remains a critical and pressing research need, meriting
producers, which is indirectly paid by the consumer (e.g. Croatia and systemic and intensive global effort. Study of how tire particles may vary
Denmark). across commonly used brands and tire types (e.g., snow tires, tires from
The World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations hybrid and electric cars) and associated road wear, including particles
(WP.29), part of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, from brake pads and mixtures with other particle types such as fibers
issued global technical guidance for regulation of tires (Global Technical being emitted from roadways (described in Brahney et al., 2021) is
Regulation no.16; UNECE, 2014) with environmental and performance- greatly needed. Data on which types of tires have the most use and tire
oriented test requirements. These regulations encompass tire wear in­ wear particle emissions would help guide risk assessments of tire par­
dicators but not tire wear particles or emissions of other tire-derived ticles and tire-derived chemicals.
chemicals. World Forum regulations are not enforceable. Rather, con­ Given the ubiquitous nature of transportation, tires, and tire wear
tracting parties agree to adopt regulations and enforce respectively particles, this legacy pollutant footprint in the environment has the
(UNECE, 2014). Under-inflated tires release more wear particles than potential to be extensive. Developing multi-scalar and multi-disciplinary
those properly inflated. The European Parliament and Council required strategies for prioritizing mitigations for sensitive species population
all new passenger vehicles in the European Union to be fitted with tire declines could support smarter transportation infrastructure planning.
pressure monitoring systems beginning in 2014. The US, China, Taiwan,
and South Korea (van Zyl et al., 2013) also mandate tire pressure

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P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

8.2. Fate and transport quinone) will be challenging or impossible without additional manu­
facturer information which often is restricted or proprietary.
Given that there are thousands of compounds associated with tire Determining differences in effects across different tire particle
leachate, including many compounds with considerable known toxicity, properties such as particle size, chemical composition, and level of
efforts to elucidate chemical structures of environmentally relevant tire degradation, as well as across both common lab species and more sen­
contaminants remains a high priority. The fate and transport of tire wear sitive species will help inform risk assessment and prioritize remediation
particles is challenging due to special and temporal variation in the efforts. Species-specific ecotoxicology studies will help inform what
environment and by lack of standardized sampling methods as well as corresponding habitats are most susceptible to tire emission exposure.
variability in tire composition and proprietary formulations which Overall, the duration of most current toxicological investigations (usu­
preclude adoption of analytical markers (Khan et al., 2024). Monitoring ally only tens days) is one of the greatest drawbacks of these studies
data of tire particles and many tire-derived chemicals remains limited, when the results need to be extrapolated to populations, communities,
often due to a lack of reliable methods to extract and quantify them. and ecosystems. Chronic, multigenerational exposures in the environ­
Quantifying concentrations of tire particles and tire-related chemicals ment may lead to a reduction in the size of populations and to negative
across environmental phases (e.g., urban runoff and wet and dry air effects in communities and ecosystems. There is thus a need to conduct
deposition) are needed to understand the fate and transport of tire longer and in-situ exposures to discern community- and ecosystem-level
particles and tire-derived contaminants (Halle et al., 2020). Different effects of tire particles and associated chemicals over longer time hori­
sample matrices and the broad size distribution of tire microplastics zons and across different ecosystems. New genomics tools may make
require different methodologies to characterize and quantify tire these types of assessments more feasible and accurate (e.g. Giroux et al.,
microplastics in environmental samples, creating challenges for esti­ 2023). Landscape-scale risk assessments would help focus source iden­
mating their environmental fate and transport, as well as comparing tification and reconnaissance studies. Few studies have addressed
data across studies (Luo et al., 2021; Wagner et al., 2018). Development human health risks of tire wear particles or associated tire-derived
of accurate sample collection, separation, and quantification methods chemicals (Wang et al., 2023).
for tire particles spanning the full particle size distribution and
comprising different sample matrices (e.g., sediment, ambient surface 8.4. Management and remediation
water vs. effluent/stormwater, tissue, etc.) is needed to better charac­
terize the fate and transport of tire particles (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., Toxic source control becomes more complex and challenging the
2021; Halle et al., 2020; Luo et al., 2021). further away from the source it travels. Focusing on prevention over
Better characterization (e.g., size, shape, surface properties) of tire remediation is therefore imperative. The range of solutions to plastic
particles and determination of how particle characteristics affect parti­ pollution, including tire particles, can be sorted by cost and harm, with
cle fate and transport, as well as the formation and release of tire-related design and material solutions having lowest cost and harm and recycling
chemicals and their degradates is also needed. Larger tire particles are and cleanup at the high end of the cost-harm continuum (Erdle and
relatively easy to identify visually in environmental samples given their Eriksen, 2023). Furthermore, because tires are a complex mixture of
color and rubbery character (Gray et al., 2018; Miller et al., 2021), but constituents, there must be tailored solutions for each category of
are challenging to characterize analytically using commonly available pollutant and stage in the tire life cycle (Erdle and Eriksen, 2023). Un­
instrumentation due to their high carbon content (Nava et al., 2021). derstanding how watershed and climate characteristics, particularly
Measuring the proportion of common environmental contaminants such under a rapidly changing climate, may drive tire emission pollution to
as heavy metals and PAHs that tires are contributing to the environment vulnerable ecological areas will help determine where, when, and how
relative to other sources would also help prioritize and focus source often to mitigate tire wear emissions across various land uses.
control efforts. The ability to measure and quantify tire emissions among water,
sediment, air, and biota is critical to support the efficacy of toxic cleanup
8.3. Biological and ecological effects and reduction strategies. Emissions estimates based on measured data
rather than summarized databases are critically needed to judge envi­
Like all microplastic types, it is critical to understand toxicological ronmental loads locally and regionally (Khan et al., 2024). The vari­
concerns centering on both the associated chemicals and the particles ability in geographic attributes such as climate, geology, land use,
themselves. Toxicity testing is essential to fully understand both the vulnerable species distribution, population density, transportation
physical and chemical impacts of tire particles. Toxicity experiments infrastructure, and water quality regulations will determine the fate,
should reflect the size range of tire particles thought to be released into transport, and biological exposure of tire emissions. For example, pre­
the environment, including the fine and ultrafine particles <1 μm. liminary monitoring efforts have revealed that 6PPD-quinone is found
Research on the combined toxicity of tire-related chemicals and the ubiquitously in tires and on transportation pavement, yet its prevalence
particles themselves is also necessary to determine the true impact on in receiving waters or sediments is more variable and less well under­
both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, and humans. These studies stood (Rauert et al., 2022; Zeng et al., 2023).
should be coupled with investigations into the fate of tire-derived Testing BMPs for tire particle and chemical removal efficiency to
chemicals of high ecological concern, such as 6PPD and Zn, since it is understand their stormwater treatment effectiveness is needed. Green
not yet clear what chemical concentrations continue to be associated infrastructure approaches like constructed wetlands, bioretention, and
with particles once they are emitted into the environment and following filtration features are promising BMPs for tire particle capture, but more
weathering. As many tire-associated chemicals are not unique to tires research is needed on measuring efficacy based on multiple variables
and have well-understood hazards, researchers should draw upon such as particle size and mobility as well as inflow rate and storm in­
existing toxicological data to help prioritize which chemical constituents tensity (Wei et al., 2023). For BMPs such as bioretention gardens that are
found in tires may be most hazardous to biota. Studies of other micro- known to remove particles, further optimization (e.g., identifying
and nanoplastic particle types indicate that chemicals may largely leach optimal soil media mixtures and maintenance cycles; Bollman et al.,
out prior to internalization (Koelmans, 2015), yet because stabilizers 2019) is a critical need. Other emerging technologies have proved
such as 6PPD can be acutely toxic to sensitive species at low concen­ effective at removing other types of microplastics, including acoustic
trations (Tian et al., 2021a), continued assessment of the fate and waves (Akiyama et al., 2020), electrocoagulation (Perren et al., 2018),
toxicity of chemicals used in the manufacture of tires and those sug­ photocatalysis (Koe et al., 2020), magnetic extraction (Grbic et al.,
gested as replacements for toxic additives should be conducted. Addi­ 2019), and spider webs (Goßmann et al., 2022), and may also be
tionally, the prediction of the toxic transformation products (e.g. 6PPD- promising for tire particles and/or tire-derived chemicals. It will also be

20
P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

necessary to identify the role of these BMPs as hot spots, biogeochemical tires, tire particles, and chemical compounds. Production and use of tires
reactors for transformations and/or entry pathways for tire particles or generates multiple heavy metals, radioactive compounds, and nutrients
the pollutants they carry into local trophic chains. that can be toxic alone or as chemical cocktails. Tire particles emitted
during use is a major component of microplastics in urban runoff and a
8.5. Recycling, reuse, and disposal source of unique and highly potent toxic substances, many of which are
currently unknown or poorly described. Source control such as reducing
Although the efforts to reuse and recycle tires at their end-of-life the need for tires, recycling, or reuse is easier than remediating particles
stage have increased (Shulman, 2019), new technologies and efforts or chemicals that are released to the environment. Pollution from tires
are needed to increase the circularity of tire materials even further. must be examined holistically across production, emissions, recycling,
Finding recycling, reuse, and disposal strategies for tires that minimize and disposal to develop effective management and remediation. There
release of toxicants to the environment is critical. Thus, while more tire are many gaps in our knowledge about fate and transport, and toxi­
emissions will likely be generated in developed countries versus devel­ cology of tire particles and leachates. Further research is needed to
oping countries by virtue of the larger number of vehicles and more characterize the gamut of effects from tire pollution and to identify
roads, the recycling infrastructure and/or pollution abatement services effective methods of remediation and risk management across envi­
may be more readily available or effective. Conversely, developing ronmental, socioeconomic, and political boundaries. However, it is
countries may have fewer vehicles and therefore fewer emissions, the currently clear that tire wear particles and their chemical cocktails are
infrastructure and/or policy mechanisms may be lacking to deal with emerging contaminants of global concern, and that action should
tire recycling or the associated pollution emissions. Technological so­ therefore be taken to reduce the risks to human health and the
lutions for capturing tire wear particles will likely progress more rapidly environment.
if the scientific community can effectively collaborate with the tire in­ Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
dustry (Khan et al., 2024). org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171153.

8.6. Data management and toxicity assessment CRediT authorship contribution statement

There are many needs to be addressed regarding data management Paul M. Mayer: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
associated with chemicals and toxicity associated with tires, whether Supervision, Investigation, Conceptualization. Kelly D. Moran: Writing
they be initial constituents making up the tires or, as in the case of 6PPD- – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Funding
quinone, the transformation products associated with parent chemicals. acquisition, Conceptualization. Ezra L. Miller: Writing – review &
For toxicological assessment, there is a critical need to elucidate both editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization. Sus­
particle and leachate effects and to distinguish among the effects of anne M. Brander: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
single emerging chemicals as well as chemical cocktails and any trans­ Investigation, Conceptualization. Stacey Harper: Writing – review &
formation products (Khan et al., 2024). The aggregation of relevant editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization.
data, whether experimental or predicted, has been addressed by systems Manuel Garcia-Jaramillo: Writing – review & editing, Writing – orig­
including PubChem (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/), and Chem­ inal draft, Investigation, Conceptualization. Victor Carrasco-Navarro:
Spider (http://www.chemspider.com/; Pence and Williams, 2010) Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation,
which provide access to 116 million and 128 million, respectively (as of Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Kay T. Ho: Writing – review &
December 2023). Currently, only the CompTox Chemicals Dashboard editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization.
(Williams et al., 2017; https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/) provides Robert M. Burgess: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
access to an aggregated list of chemicals with associated, curated Investigation, Conceptualization. Leah M. Thornton Hampton:
property and toxicity data for over 1.2 million chemical substances (as of Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation,
December 2023). These data include physicochemical properties, fate Conceptualization. Elise F. Granek: Writing – review & editing, Writing
and transport data, in vivo and in vitro toxicity, and exposure data. – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization. Margaret McCauley:
Chemicals can be searched individually or in batches of thousands of Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation,
chemical identifiers (Lowe and Williams, 2021). The Dashboard can Conceptualization. Jenifer K. McIntyre: Writing – review & editing,
provide detailed information for chemicals such as 6PPD or summarized Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization. Edward P.
showing quantitative hazard data and in vitro bioactivity screening data. Kolodziej: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization.
The Dashboard also lists tire crumb rubber chemicals based on data Ximin Hu: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization.
contained within the Federal Research Action Plan (FRAP) on Recycled Antony J. Williams: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
Tire Crumb Used on Playing Fields and Playgrounds. Data can be har­ draft, Investigation, Conceptualization. Barbara A. Beckingham:
vested en masse by passing any list through the batch search. Note that Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization. Miranda E.
many parameters are predicted versus measured which may represent Jackson: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization.
significant uncertainty in ascertaining toxic effects. A new suite of pro­ Rhea D. Sanders-Smith: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
totype cheminformatics tools is publicly available with a hazard profile draft, Investigation, Conceptualization. Chloe L. Fender: Writing –
module allowing for comparison of toxicity effects across sets of chem­ original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization. George A. King:
icals including experimental and predicted human health effects, eco­ Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation,
toxicity, and fate (Vegosen and Martin, 2020). Conceptualization. Michael Bollman: Writing – original draft, Investi­
gation, Conceptualization. Sujay S. Kaushal: Writing – review & edit­
9. Conclusion ing, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization. Brittany
E. Cunningham: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptuali­
Tires are a complex pollutant consisting of particles and chemicals zation. Sara Hutton: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptu­
that can be transported by air, water, and terrestrial pathways. The life alization. Jackelyn Lang: Writing – original draft, Investigation,
cycle of tires spans production, use, and disposal. There are thousands of Conceptualization. Heather V. Goss: Writing – review & editing,
known and potentially toxic compounds contained in tires. Tires can Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization. Samreen
pose risks to environmental and human health across the entire life Siddiqui: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptualization.
cycle. Mitigating these risks is challenging given the volume of tires in Rebecca Sutton: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Conceptuali­
use and produced as waste. Tire emissions may be in the form of whole zation. Diana Lin: Writing – original draft, Investigation,

21
P.M. Mayer et al. Science of the Total Environment 927 (2024) 171153

Conceptualization. Miguel Mendez: Writing – original draft, Investi­ Amick, S., 2018. Sustainability: Driving the US Tire Manufacturing Industry. U.S., Tire
Manufacturers Association. https://www.ustires.org/sustainability-driving-force-us
gation, Conceptualization.
-tire-manufacturing-industry.
Armada, D., Martinez-Fernandez, A., Celeiro, M., Dagnac, T., Llompart, M., 2023.
Assessment of the bioaccessibility of PAHs and other hazardous compounds present
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