REPUBLIC OF ZAMBIA

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

senior SECONDARY SCHOOL

PROGRAMME

Biology study kit

Zambia College of distance education

Directorate of open and distance education
Table of Contents

LIVING ORGANISMS AND LIFE PROCESSES ........................................................ 1

CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION ........................................................... 3

NUTRITION IN PLANTS .................................................................................... 27

SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION .............................................................................. 30

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS .................................................................................. 32

DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH ........................................................................ 39

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ................................................................................... 44

HEALTH .............................................................................................................. 56

TRANSPORT AND STORAGE IN PLANTS ............................................................. 66

TRANSPORT IN MAN ........................................................................................ 71

EXCRETION ..................................................................................................... 82

HOMESSTASIS AND OSMOREGULATION ........................................................ 85

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM .............................................................................. 87

THE SKELETON AND LOCOMOTION .................................................................. 99

TROPIC AND TOXIC RESPONSES ..................................................................... 103

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ..................................................................... 105

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION............................................................................... 109

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION ...................................................................... 112

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS .......................................... 114

FERTILIZATION................................................................................................. 116

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS ........................................................................... 118

GENETICS 124

CELL DIVISION AND CHROMOSOMES ............................................................. 126

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CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS .................................................... 129

THE SOIL .......................................................................................................... 131

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC INTERACTIONS ........................................................... 131

POPULATION .................................................................................................... 134

POLLUTION ................................................................................................... 136

BIO-DIVERSITY ............................................................................................. 137

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LIVING ORGANISMS AND LIFE PROCESSES

1. Identify the characteristics of living organisms

The following are the characteristics of living organisms: feeding,

breathing, reproducing, respiration, growing locomotion, sensitivity
and excretion.

2. Distinguish between living organisms and non-living things.

Living organism Non Living organism

Living organism feed Non living organisms Do not feed

Living organism reproduce Non Living organism Do not

reproduce

Living organism grow Non Living organism Do not grow

Living organism excrete Non Living organism Do not excrete

Living organisms are sensitive Non Living organisms are not

sensitive

Living organisms are capable Non Living organisms are not capable
of locomotion and movement of locomotion and movement

Living organisms respire Non- Living organisms do not respire

Living organisms have a cell Non-Living organisms do not have a

cell

3. Describe life processes of living organisms

• Life processes of living organisms are metabolic reactions

• This is the sum total of chemical reactions that take place inside
living cells. There are two types of metabolic reactions, namely
anabolic and catabolic reactions. Anabolic reactions are metabolic
reactions where large and complex molecules are synthesized from

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 small and simple molecules such as photosynthesis. Catabolic
reactions are metabolic reactions where large complex molecules
are broken down to simpler molecules such as respiration. All
metabolic reactions are catalysed by enzymes. An enzyme is a
biological catalyst (a catalyst inside a living organism).
4. Calculate magnification of specimen
Magnification is the measure of how many times bigger an object looks
when viewed with a microscope compared to its actual size.

Magnification = Size of Image/Drawing

Size of Object/Specimen

The substitution must be correctly done with identical units in the

numerator and denominator. A substitution where the size of the
specimen is swapped with the size of the drawing is wrong and makes
the rest of the calculation wrong. When the units in the numerator
and denominator are not identical, the substitution is rejected along
with the rest of the calculation. For example, if an individual
measures the specimen size as being 6.4cm and the corresponding
measurement on the diagram is 7.2cm, the substitution will be correct
if written as:
7.2.cm/6.4cm or 72mm/64mm but will be wrong if written as 7.2/6.4
or 72/64 or 7.2cm/64mm or 72mm/6.4cm.
The final answer for magnification must be written to one decimal
place with a multiplication sign (X) or the word ‘time’ either before or
after the magnification and without units. E.g. the answer for the
substitution given above is 1.125 but should be written as:
XI.I or 1.1X or times 1.1 or 1.1 times.
In summary, the magnification for the above given situation would be
calculated as follows:

Size of Image 7.2cm

Magnification = = 6.4cm =X1.1
Size of Object

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CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION

1. Investigate the structure of cells and functions of the organelles

Nucleus: This part is responsible for controlling cell activities and

storage of genetic information on threads of DNA called chromosomes.
It is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear membrane
which has openings called nuclear pores. The inside of the nucleus
contains a fluid called the nucleoplasm and a dense body of DNA
called the nucleolus.

Cell membrane: This part is made of lipids and proteins and is

responsible for controlling the substances that enter and leave the
cells. It is adapted for this function by being selectively/partially
permeable. This means it allows some substances to pass through it
but prevents others from passing through. The substances that cross
the cell membrane freely include gases (such as oxygen and carbon
dioxide) and water because their molecules have small sizes. On the
other hand, substances such as urea whose molecules are large do
not freely cross the cell membrane but use special carrier proteins to
do so.

Cytoplasm: This is a jelly-like fluid made of water and dissolved

substances such as proteins, salts and sugars. It contains suspended
cell structures called organelles and is the site for cell activities.

Note: The three parts (nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane) are
collectively called the protoplasm.

Mitochondrion: (plural: mitochondria); these are rod-shaped or

sausage-shaped structures in the cell. This is where respiration takes
place. For this reason mitochondria are called the power house of the
cell.
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Ribosomes: These are small round structures in the cell where
protein synthesis takes place. Some ribosomes float freely in the
cytoplasm while others are attached to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: This is a network of membranes used for
transportation of substances within the cytoplasm. There are two
types of endoplasmic reticulum, namely smooth endoplasmic
reticulum and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes on its
surface and transports proteins. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has
no ribosomes on its surface and transports lipids.

Golgi Bodies: These are a pile of flattened vesicles which modify and
carry proteins such as enzymes from the sites of synthesis to the sites
of reaction. They are collectively called the Golgi apparatus.

Chloroplasts: These are oval-shaped structures found in plant cells.

They carry out photosynthesis. They contain a green pigment called
chlorophyll which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.

Vacuole: This is a fluid filled space inside the cytoplasm of a plant

cell. It contains a fluid called cell sap (a solution of sugars and salts
in water) and is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast. The
concentration of the cell sap plays a role in the movement of water
into and out of the cell.

Cell wall: This is the outermost boundary of the plant cell. It is made
of a substance called cellulose. It is important for protection against
damage and prevention of bursting when the plant cell gains a lot of
water. It also gives shape t the plant cell. It is fully permeable to all
substances.

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2. Distinguish between plant and animal cell structure

Differences between animal and plant cells

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Has cellulose cell wall Does not have cellulose cell wall
Has large permanent vacuole Does not have large permanent vacuole
Has chloroplasts Does not have chloroplasts
Has regular shape and bigger Has irregular shape and smaller size
size

3. Relate cell structure to functions

Ciliated cells
Functions
These are cells found in the inner lining of the respiratory tract and
the oviducts

• In the respiratory tract they sweep out mucus containing dust

particles and germs.

• In the oviduct they move the ovum towards the uterus.

Adaptations

• Presence of cytoplasmic hairs called cilia

• A high concentration of mitochondria in the cytoplasm to
generate energy for movements of the cilia.

Root Hair cell: These are cells found near the tips of roots
Functions

• Absorption of water and mineral salts

• Anchor the plant in the ground

Adaptations
• Has an elongated outgrowth (long extension) which increases
the surface area for faster diffusion during absorption.

• Absence of chloroplast to create more room for absorption.

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 • High concentration of mitochondria to provide energy for active
absorption/transport of mineral salts. In addition, root hair
cells are numerous which further increase their surface area.

Xylem Cell
Functions

• Conduction of water and mineral salts Mechanical support of

the plant.

Adaptations
• End walls of neighbouring cells broken to form continuous
tubes

• Protoplasm is absent leaving a hollow space in the middle of the

cell.

• Walls are lignified (filled with lignin) to provide mechanical

support

Muscle Cells
Function

• Contraction to produce movement

Adaptations
• Abundance of mitochondria to release energy for contraction
• Presence of action and myosin filaments in the cytoplasm which
carry out contraction
Red blood cell (Erythrocyte)
Functions
• Transportation of oxygen and small amounts of carbon dioxide
Adaptation
• Biconcave disc shape to increase the surface area for diffusion
of oxygen.

• Presence of a red pigment called haemoglobin which has a high

affinity (attraction) for oxygen. Haemoglobin combines with
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 oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin when oxygen concentrations are
high (e.g. in the lungs). When oxygen concentrations are low
e.g. in the muscles, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates forming
haemoglobin and oxygen.

Nerve Cell (Neurone)

Functions
• To conduct electrical impulses (nerve impulses) from one part of
the body to another.
Adaptations
• Presence of dendrites that collect impulses from neighbouring
cells

• Presence of axon that carries impulses from one end of the

neurone to another.

• Presence of synaptic knob that forms a link with other

neurones.

• Presence of nodes of Ranvier that make impulses move faster.

Note the part of the neurones having the nucleus and cytoplasm
is called the cell body.
White Blood Cells
These are cells that defend the body against infection (diseases). Two
examples of white blood cells are phagocytes and lymphocytes.

Phagocytes
Functions
• These defined the body against infection by engulfing and
digesting germs (foreign bodies)

Adaptations

• Lobed nucleus which makes engulfing of germs easy.

• Amoeboid movement which makes it possible for them to move
towards germs.

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 • They have no fixed shape but can change their shapes, making
engulfing of foreign bodies possible.
Lymphocytes
Functions
• To defend the body against infection by producing antibodies
and antitoxins. Antibodies are proteins that destroy
germs/foreign bodies while antitoxins are proteins that
neutralize poisons from germs.
Adaptations
• Presence of a large nucleus and thin cytoplasm.
Guard Cells
• These are a pair of cells that surround each stoma.

Function

• To control the size of the stoma

Adaptations
• They occur in pairs and each cell has a semi-circular (curved)
shape when turgid and a straight shape when plasmolysed.

• Their cell walls are thicker around the stoma than anywhere
else; this makes it possible for the stoma to open when these
cells absorb water.

Phloem Cells
Functions
• To transport manufactured food from one part of the plant to
another
Adaptations
• End walls between neighbouring cells are perforated to form
sieve plates.

• Protoplasm is partly lost leaving behind some cytoplasmic

strands

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 • Presence of companion cells which supply phloem cells with
enzymes and ATP.

Palisade Cell
Functions
Carrying out photosynthesis
Adaptations
A high concentration of chloroplasts.
The cells are longer vertically than horizontally. This allows
chloroplasts to migrate upwards or downwards as light intensity
changes so that they are not damaged by excess light.

4. Describe cell organization in multicellular organisms

Cell Organisation

A group of specialized cells having the same shape/structure and

function make up a tissue. Examples of tissues are epidermis,
palisade tissue, spongy tissue, blood, and epithelium and bone tissue.
A group of tissues performing a specific function make up an organ.
Examples of organs are roots, stems, leaves, liver, skin, heart, brain,
eyes, ears, kidneys and lungs. What tissues make up each of these
organs?
A group of organs performing a specific function make up a system.
Examples of systems are vascular system, digestive system, excretory
system, endocrine system, nervous system, skeletal system,
respiratory system and reproductive system. What organs make up
each of these systems?
Levels of cell organization may be summarized as follows:

Cell Tissues Organs Systems Organism

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5. Identify tissues in plants and animals
Plants (palisade, phloem, epidermis, xylem, spongy) and Animals
(muscle, bone, nerves, blood).

Study the following two pictures showing some of the stated tissues
above.

Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April, 2018

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 Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April, 2018

6. Explain the general functions of each tissue

Phloem tissue

• To transport manufactured food from one part of the plant to

another

Palisade tissue
• That’s where photosynthesis mainly takes place

Xylem tissue
• To transport water and mineral salts from the roots to all parts
of the plant.

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 Muscle tissue

• Contraction to produce movement

Nerve tissues
Functions
• To conduct electrical impulses (nerve impulses) from one part of
the body

Blood tissues
• Blood is a tissue made up of liquid called plasma. Plasma is
mainly water with dissolved substances like hormones,
enzymes, gases and nutrients.

• To transport materials to and from all parts of the body.

• To protect the body from diseases
• To regulate the body temperature.
7. Identify organs in plants and animals Plants (leaves, roots,
stems, fruits, flowers)

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Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April, 2018
Animals (heart, liver, brain, lungs, kidneys)

Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April, 2018

8. Describe the processes of diffusion and osmosis

Diffusion: This is movement of solutes into and out of the cell down
the concentration gradient. (The difference in concentration between
a region with a high concentration of molecules and region of low
concentration of molecules).
Osmosis: as the movement of water molecules from a region of high
water potential to a region of low water potential through a selectively
permeable membrane. Osmosis is a special type of diffusion.

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9. Explain the effects and importance of diffusion and osmosis in
living organisms

(a) Effects of Osmosis in animals

When an animal cell such as a red blood cell is placed in a
hypotonic solution, it gains water by osmosis. This is as a
result of the water potential of the hypotonic solution being
higher inside the cell than outside the cell. Eventually the cell
swells up and bursts. The bursting of an animal cell due to
osmotic gain of water is called cell lysis. An animal cell which is
placed in a hypertonic solution loses water by osmosis because
the water potential inside the cell is higher than the water
potential of the hypertonic solution. This leads to shrinking and
crinkling / wrinkling of an animal cell. This is a condition
called crenation. Osmotic loss of water by animal tissues leads
to dehydration of the animal. The following diagrams illustrate
cell lysis and crenation.

Cell lysis and crenation in a red blood cell

Cell lysis Crenation

Red blood cell placed in Red blood cell placed in a

A hypotonic solution hypertonic solution loses
Lysed Red Gains water by osmosis; Normal water by osmosis; this
Blood Cell This makes it increase in blood Cell makes it decrease in size
Size and eventually burst. and develop wrinkles in the
cell membrane.

(b) Effects of Osmosis in Plants

Turgidity
When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it gains water by
osmosis because the water potential of the hypotonic solution is
higher than the water potential inside the plant cell. The protoplasm
swells and eventually starts pressing against the cell wall. The

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 condition where the protoplasm of a plant cell presses against the cell
wall due to osmotic gain of water is called turgidity.

A plant cell that is undergoing turgidity is said to be turgid. The plant

cell does not burst because it has a cellulose cell wall which protects it
from bursting.
Plasmolysis
When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, it loses water by
osmosis because the water potential inside the cell is higher than the
water potential of the hypotonic solution. The protoplasm shrinks and
pulls away from the cell wall due to osmotic loss of water. This is
condition referred to as plasmolysis. A plant cell that is undergoing
plasmolysis is said to be plasmolysed. The following diagrams
illustrate turgidity and plasmolysis.

Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April, 2018

Flaccid
When a plant tissue such as a peeled potato tuber is placed in a
hypotonic solution, it gains water by osmosis and becomes bigger and
more firm. The presence of water tissues forms a hydrostatic skeleton
which renders mechanical support to the entire plant. When a plant
tissue such as a peeled potato tuber is placed in a hypertonic
solution, it loses water by osmosis and becomes flaccid/flabby
(smaller and weaker). In a living plant, this leads to a condition called

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wilting. Wilting is the sagging of delicate plant parts such as leaves,
flowers and young stems due loss of water.
Study the following picture which shows a flaccid plant cell.

Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on

9th April, 2018

Temporary wilting is one which can be reversed by supplying a plant

with water. Permanent wilting cannot be reversed even if a plant is
supplied with water the plant tissues have already died. Suggest why
it is not advisable to apply too much fertilizer on plants.
Importance of Diffusion
Diffusion is important in living organisms in the following ways:
• Oxygen moves from the lungs to the blood and from the blood to
the tissue cells by diffusion.

• Carbon dioxide moves from the tissue cells to the blood and
from the blood to the lungs by diffusion.

• Dissolved food moves from the blood into the tissue cells by
diffusion.

• Metabolic wastes such as urea moves from the tissue cells into
the blood by diffusion.
• Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis by plants moves from
the atmosphere into the leaves by diffusion.

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 • Oxygen produced during photosynthesis moves out of the leaves
to the atmosphere by diffusion.

Water vapour moves out of the air spaces of leaves to the atmosphere
during transpiration by diffusion.
Osmosis is important in living organisms mainly in movement of water
into and out of cells (absorption of water by plants, movement of water
from cell to cell and so on).
Effects of Osmosis in Living Organisms
The cells, tissues, organs and systems of living organisms are always
exposed to body fluids or solutions of different concentrations. There
are three types of solutions an organism may be exposed to, namely
hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solution solutions.

Hypotonic
A hypotonic solution is one whose concentration is lower than the
concentration inside a living cell.
Isotonic
An isotonic solution is one whose concentration is equal to the
concentration inside a living cell. Isotonic solutions have no net
osmotic effects in living organisms because a dynamic equilibrium
exists between them and the living cells.
Hypertonic
A hypertonic solution is one whose concentration is higher than the
concentration inside a living cell
10. Describe what active transport is
The movement of particles against a concentration gradient using
energy from ATP. It is the main process by which mineral ions move
into and out of cells (e.g. ion uptake by root hairs and uptake of
glucose by epithelial cells of the villi).

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 ENZYMES
1. Describe the characteristics of Enzymes

• Most of them are protein in nature

• They are catalysts
• They catalyse both forward and reverse reactions.
• They are specific. This means each enzyme acts on only
one substrate or a narrow range of related substrates.

• Their activity is affected by temperature, PH, substrate

concentration, enzyme concentration, inhibitors and
cofactors (coenzymes and activators). Memory aid;
SEPTIC
2. Explain the effects of temperature and pH on enzyme action
Temperature
Enzyme activity increases with temperature up to the optimum
temperature. Optimum temperature is the temperature at which an
enzyme works best. This occurs because increase in temperature
results in increase in the kinetic energy of both the enzyme and the
substrate every increase of 10oC. the optimum temperature is the
temperature at which an enzyme works best. The activity reduces
after the optimum temperature because the enzyme gets denatured
and loses its catalytic function. Enzyme denaturation is the
disturbance of the shape of an enzyme and its active site such that
the substrate no longer fits in the active site. Hence the enzyme can
no longer carry out its catalytic function. The following graph shows
how enzyme activity is affected by temperature.

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 Rate of Enzyme Catalysed Reaction

pH pH (potential hydrogen) is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a

substance is. pH values range from 1 to 14. As shown in the diagram below.

Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April, 2018

The pH value at which a given enzyme works best is called the

optimum pH. Value lower or higher than the optimum pH lower
enzyme activity. The optimum pH varies from enzyme to enzyme,
depending on the enzyme’ s natural occurrence.
For instance, the digestive enzymes of the stomach work best at acidic
pH values while those of the duodenum work best at alkaline pH
values. A graph of enzyme activity against pH is always symmetrical
and has its peak at the optimum pH.

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3. Explain industrial application of enzymes
Making of Biological Detergents
Enzymes are included in biological detergents so that they can
hydrolyse stains of biological origins. The most commonly used
enzyme are proteases which breakdown protein stains such as blood
and chlorophyll stains, forming colourless amino acids as products.
Lipases and carbohydrases may be used to get rid of lipid and
carbohydrate stains, respectively, but these are easy to wash even
with ordinary detergents.
Baking
When baking, the following are mixed together: flour, water, sugar and
yeast. Together, this makes what we call dough. Yeast secretes
zymase which breaks down sugars to form alcohol and carbon dioxide.
The carbon dioxide forms bubbles which cause the dough to rise.
Brewing
When brewing cereal seeds are soaked until they start germinating.
During the process of germination, starch is broken down to maltose
by the enzyme amylase. Maltose is broken down to glucose by
maltase. The seeds are dried ad ground to form a powder. The
powder is boiled in hot water to form a paste. After the paste cools,
yeast is added. The enzyme zymase from yeast acts on sugars to form
alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcohol is removed from the mixture
by distillation. Baking and brewing both make use of the enzyme
zymase which is formed in yeast.
Making Sweeteners for Food and Drinks
In sweetening of confectioneries, glucose is converted into fructose by
the enzyme glucose isomerise because fructose is sweeter than
glucose.
In the Dairy Industry
In the dairy industry, the enzyme remain is used to coagulate milk
during the making of yoghurt and cheese.

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Tanning of Leather
Tanning is a process by which leather is made soft and pliable.
Trypsin is utilized to digest proteins in the leather during tanning.
Extraction and Processing of Fruit Juice
When extracting juice from fruits, enzymes known as cellulases and
pectinases are used to increase the juice yield and prevent jellying of
the juices, respectively.
Tenderizing of Meat
The meat industry makes use of Trypsin to tenderize meat and
predigest baby good.

NUTRIENTS

1. Investigate the presence of nutrients in food samples

(i) The Iodine Test for Starch

(a) If the sample is in solid/powder form

• Place a small amount of sample on a white

tile
• Add 2 drops of iodine solution to the sample;
then observe and record what happens.
(b) If the sample is in solution/suspension form
• Place 2cm3 of sample solution into a clean
and dry test tube.

• Add 2 drops of iodine solution to the test tube

and shake;
Then observe and record what happens.

Observation Conclusion

Solution remains yellowish-brown Starch absent

Solution turns blue-blank Starch present

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(ii) The Benedict’s test for Reducing Sugar
This test requires the sample to be in solution form and
may be formed on suspensions. If the sample is in solid
form, it will first need to be ground/crushed/cut into very
small pieces and to be shaken with distilled water for
extraction of reducing sugars if they are present. Filter
and the process with the following test method on the
filtrate:
• Place 2cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry
test tube.
• Add 2cm3/an equal volume of Benedict’s solution to
the sample solution and shake.

• Gently heat the mixture using a water bath; then

observe and record what happens.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are
given in the following table:

Observation Conclusion

Solution remains blue Reducing sugars absent

Solution turns green/yellow/orange/brick red Starch present

*Only state the final colour observed and not all the colours
mentioned in the table. The extent of the colour change
indicates the quantity of reducing sugars present i.e. green and
yellow colours indicate that little/traces/small amounts of
reducing sugars are present, orange indicates that reducing
sugars are present and brick red indicates high concentrations
of reducing sugar present.

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 (iii) The Benedict’s test for Non-reducing sugars
• First carry out the Benedict’s test for reducing
sugars. If the colour of the solution remains blue,
proceed with the next steps.

• Place another 2cm3 of sample solution into a clean

and dry test tube.

• Add 1cm3 of dilute hydrochloric, heat in water bath

for 3 minutes and cool.

• Add sodium hydrogen carbonate solution or sodium

hydroxide solution to the mixture, a little at a time
until fizzing stops.

• Add an equal volume of Benedict’s solutions to the

mixture

• Gently heat the mixture using a water bath; then

observe and record what happens.

The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in

the following table:
Observation Conclusion

Solution remains blue Non-reducing sugars absent

Solution turns green/yellow/orange/brick red Non-reducing sugar present

(iv) The Biuret Test for Proteins

• This test also works best for solutions and suspension.

Extraction by grinding and shaking with distilled water is
therefore necessary where samples are in solid form. The
filtrate will then be tested as follows:
• Place 2cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test
tube.
• Either add 5 drops of sodium hydroxide solution to the
sample solution followed by a 2 drop of copper (II)

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 sulphate solution, drop by drop, shaking and observing
after each drop.

• Or add an equal volume of Biuret solution; then observe

and record what happens.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in
the following table:
Observation Conclusion

Solution remains blue Proteins absent

Solution turns purple/violet/lilac/mauve Proteins present

Only one of these options needs to be mentioned. Candidates are advised to

use colour names which are commonly used e.g. it is better to use the name
purple or violet instead of mauve or lilac.

(v) Testing for Lipids (Fats and Oils)

(a) The Emulsion Test

• Shake a small sample/a drop of sample solution

with 2cm3 absolute ethanol in a test tube.

• Add a few drops of distilled water to the test tube;

then observe and record what happens.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the
following table:

Observation Conclusion

Solution remains clear Fat/oils absent

Emulsion formed/solution turns cloudy Fats/oils present

(b) The Grease Spot Test

• Place a drop of sample/sample solution on filter paper or brown

paper.

• Place a drop of distilled water next to the drop of the sample

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 • Hold the paper against light until the drop of water disappears;
then observe and record what happens to the sample spot.

The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the

following table.

Observation Conclusion

Sample spot disappears Fat/oils absent

Permanent translucent/oily/greasy spot formed Fats/oils present

2. Identify good sources of nutrients

• Carbohydrates: rice, potatoes. Bread, nshima, cassava.

• Proteins: fish, meat, chicken, beans, eggs.
• Lipids: fats, oils Vitamins:
• Mango, orange, pineapple, apple, banana and vegetables.
3. Describe the importance of nutrients, salts, vitamins and
roughage to the body.

Nutrients:

• Supply of energy to the body

• Repair worn out tissues.
• Protects us from disease.
Salts:
• Strengthen the body and teeth e.g. calcium
• Supply blood (haemoglobin) e.g. iron
Water:
• It’s needed for chemical reactions.

Roughage:

• Prevents constipation.

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4. Identify nutritional related disorders/condition

• Deficiency disease for carbohydrates is marasmus

• Deficiency disease for proteins in kwashiorkor
5. Describe the micro and macro plant nutrients and their deficiency.
There are two groups of elements needed by plants for proper growth
namely major elements and minor elements. Major elements are
required by plants in large quantities. Three examples of major
elements are nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (NPK). Minor
elements are needed by the plant in small quantities. Examples of
mineral ions needed by plants are magnesium and nitrates.
Magnesium
This forms part of the chlorophyll molecule. Deficiency causes chlorosis
which is characterized by yellowing of leaves beginning from the bottom of
the plant.
Nitrogen
This is absorbed from the soil in the form of nitrate ions (NO-3) or
ammonium ions (NH+4). It is important for synthesis of proteins. Deficiency
leads to stunted growth, weak stems and yellowing of leaves.
Potassium
Potassium is important for flowering and fruit formation and is absorbed in
the form of potassium ions (K+). Deficiency of potassium causes poor
flowering and fruit formation.
Phosphorous
It is absorbed in the form of phosphate ions (PO3-4). It is important for the
formation of Nucleic acids and ATP. Deficiency leads to purple leaves and
poorly developed roots.

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NUTRITION IN PLANTS
1. Describe the external and internal structure of a leaf.External
structure of a leaf

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Structure (Cross Section)

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27 | P a g e
2. Describe the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis

Light Reaction: This is the splitting of water molecule into hydrogen

and oxygen by light energy. It takes place in the grana of chloroplast.
They are stack like structures that contain chlorophyll. The main
features of light reaction are light energy, water and a release of
oxygen.
Dark Reaction: it takes place in the liquid storms of the chloroplast.
This is the combining of hydrogen that was split from water molecule
with the carbon dioxide that entered the leaf through the stomata to
form glucose. Light is not needed directly and sugars such as glucose
are formed.
3. Describe the fate of glucose in plants
The glucose formed is metabolically active and takes part in the
following reactions:

• Some of it is used for respiration

• Some of it is converted to cellulose and becomes part of cell
walls
• Some of it is combined with nitrogen and used to synthesise
amino acids
• Some of it is converted to fats and oils
• Some of it is converted to nucleic acids
• The excess is converted to starch for storage

4. Describe the importance of nutrients in plant

Magnesium
This forms part of the chlorophyll molecule. Deficiency causes
chlorosis which is characterized by yellowing of leaves beginning from
the bottom of the plant.
Nitrogen
This is absorbed from the soil in the form of nitrate ions (NO-3) or
ammonium ions (NH+4). It is important for synthesis of proteins.
Deficiency leads to stunted growth, weak stems and yellowing of
leaves.

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 Potassium
Potassium is important for flowering and fruit formation and is
absorbed in the form of potassium ions (K+). Deficiency of potassium
causes poor flowering and fruit formation.

Phosphorous
It is absorbed in the form of phosphate ions (PO3-4). It is important for
the formation of Nucleic acids and ATP. Deficiency leads to purple
leaves and poorly developed roots.
5. Identify storage organs of plants
The food manufactured by plants is normally converted to starch and
oils for storage. Oils are mainly stored in seeds e.g. in groundnuts
and sunflower. Starch is stored in a range of modified plant organs,
some of which are discussed below.
(i) Root tuber: This a fibrous root swollen with stored food such
as sweet potato (Ipomeabatatas) tuber
(ii) Stem tuber: This is an underground stem swollen with stored
food such as Irish potato (Solonumtuberosum)
(iii) Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing
from a short stem such as onion,(Allium sp)
(iv) Rhizome: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem such
as ginger
(v) Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem
such as Crocus sp.
(vi) Seed: A sexually produced structure containing a plant
embryo and its food store protected by a tester.

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SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION

1. Investigate the structure of Rhizopus or Mucor.

2.

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2018

2. State the functions of the parts of Rhizopus

The bodies of Mucor and Rhizopusare made of threads valled hyphae. A
mass of hyphae is called a mycelium. Horizontal hyphae are called
stolons; root like hyphae are called rhizoids while those that bear spore
cases (sporangia) are called sporangiophores. Each spore case contains
numerous spores. Spores are microscopic structures produced a sexually
which are capable of germinating under favourable conditions.

3. Describe what saprophytic nutrition is

Saprophytic nutrition is a type of nutrition where an organism called
the saprophyte feeds on dead and decaying organic matter known as the
substrate. The saprophyte feeds by secreting extracellular digestive
enzymes from its hyphae. These enzymes hydrolyse the substrate and the

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saprophyte absorbs the end products. Examples of saprophytic organisms
are mould fungi such as Mucor and Rhizopus.

4. Explain the importance of saprophytic nutrition

Saprophytes are important in the following ways:

• They decompose dead organic matter, thereby preventing

accumulation of dead bodies

• They play a role in the recycling of nutrients such as carbon and

nitrogen.

• Some saprophytes are used as food e.g. mushrooms.

• Some saprophytes such as yeast are important in brewing and
baking.
5. Identify the external structure and function of the human teeth
Types of Teeth
There are four types of teeth namely incisors, canines, premolars and
molars.
Incisors: These are chisel-shaped teeth used for cutting and biting.
Each incisor only has one root.
Canine: These are dagger-shaped (pointed) teeth used for tearing
flesh, suffocating prey and carrying young ones. Each canine only
has one root. In carnivorous animals, the canines are very long and
pointed.
Premolars: These are broad and ridged teeth used for grinding or
crushing food. Each usually has two roots.
Molars: These are broad and ridged teeth used for grinding or
crushing food. Each molar has from two to four roots. The
projections on top of the crowns of premolars and molars are called
cusps or ridges.

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 Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April, 2018
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
1. Describe the internal structure and function of the human tooth
Internal Structure of a Tooth

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 Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April,
2018
Functions of Tooth Parts:
Enamel
This is the hardest substance in the body of an animal. It’s
made of Calcium and Phosphate salts and its functions are:

• Preventing wearing away of the tooth

• Protecting the tooth from damage
• It is used as a biting and grinding surface
However the enamel can be corroded (dissolved) by acids.

Dentine
This is a bone-like tissue below the enamel which is made of
calcium and phosphate salts, collagen fibres and cytoplasmic
strands. It contains fine canals which link the pulp cavity to
the enamel.
Pulp Cavity
This is a space within the dentine which is made of
toothproducing cells nerves and blood vessels supply the tooth
with food and oxygen.
Cement
This is a bone-like tissue with fibres that anchor the tooth to
the jawbone.
2. Describe the dental formulae of a dog and human being.
Dental Formula (Plural: Dental Formulae)

The dental formula is the number and arrangement of teeth according

to type on the upper and lower jaw in one half of the mouth of an
animal. Examples of dental formulae are:

Human being Cat

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Cow Rat

Where i=incisors, c=canines, pm=premolars and m=molars

Note that the dental formulae only show the number of teeth present
in one half of the mouth.

To get the total number of teeth, the numbers in the dental formula
must be multiplied by two.

3. Identify the differences in dentition of carnivores, herbivores and

omnivores.

Relationship between Dentition and Type of Diet

(a) Dentition in Carnivore

Carnivores are animals that feed predominantly on flesh e.g.
lions. Their dentition is specialised in the following ways:

• Canines are very long and pointed to enable them to tear

flesh and suffocate their prey.

• Presence of carnassial teeth (the last upper premolar and

first lower molar) which work like the blades of a scissors
to slice meat and shear flesh away from bones.
(b) Dentition In a Herbivore
Herbivores are animals that feed predominantly on vegetation e.g.
sheep. Their dentition is specialised in the following way:

• Upper incisors are absent and replaced by a horny pad

which works in conjunction with lower incisors to grip
vegetation and wrench it

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 • There is a space between the incisors and premolars
called the diastema. It is used to manipulate food by
separating the freshly eaten food from the one that is
already being chewed
(c) Dentition in an Omnivore
Omnivores are animals that feed on both flesh and vegetation
such as human beings. Their dentition is not specialised for
any kind of diet.
4. Describe causes, signs and symptoms of gum disease and tooth decay

Tooth Decay
Also called dental decay or dental caries, this is a condition where the
enamel of teeth is dissolved (corroded) by organic acids produced by
fermentation of sugars by bacteria in the mouth forming cavities in the
teeth. When cavity reaches the dentine, the tooth starts getting painful.
The pain increases further then the cavity reaches the pulp cavity. At
this stage, the tooth pains each time the patient takes very hot or very
cold foods, becomes infected and may even start having a bad smell due
to accumulation of abscess (pus). The condition may be treated by filling
the tooth in with cement or having a tooth extraction.

Prevention of Tooth Decay

• Brushing teeth with fluoride toothpaste after every meal
• Avoiding intake of sugary foods
• Regular visits to the dentist, that is, at least twice every year (once
every six months)

• Taking foods that are rich in calcium, phosphorus and vitamins C and
D

• Using dental floss to remove food particles from teeth

• Using teeth properly by avoiding using them for such things as
opening bottle tops as this may crack the enamel

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5. State the main processes in holozoic nutrition
In a specialized tube called the alimentary canal or digestive system
and involves five stages namely ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion.
Ingestion is the intake of food into the mouth.
Digestion is the breaking down of food. There are two types of
digestion, namely physical digestion and chemical digestion
Physical digestion is the breakdown of large pieces of food into
smaller ones. In humans, this process is carried out by teeth in the
mouth. It increases the surface area of the food for more efficient
enzyme activity and makes food easy to swallow.
Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large molecules of food into
smaller ones by enzymes. It makes absorption of food more efficient
Absorption is the uptake of soluble food into the blood stream.
Assimilation is the usage and incorporation of absorbed food in living
cells.
Egestion is the removal of undigested food from the body through the
anus.
6. Identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated
organs.

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Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April, 2018
7. Describe the processes of digestion, absorption and assimilation of
nutrients
Digestion of Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
Digestion of food substances occurs in the mouth, stomach,
duodenum and jejunum.
Digestion in the Mouth
The following events occur after food has been ingested into the
mouth:
(i) Chewing: Also called mastication, this is the breakdown of
large pieces of food into smaller ones by teeth. It increases the
surface area of the food for more efficient enzyme activity and
makes food easy to swallow.
(ii) Secretion of Saliva: This is carried out by salivary glands.
Saliva is a mixture of water, mucus, the enzyme salivary
amylase and lysozyme in a slightly alkaline medium. The water
helps in cooling food that is too hot and warning up food that is
too cold so that its temperature is favourable for enzyme action.
It also softens food for easy chewing for example; it is easier to
chew biscuits after they have been moistened by saliva. The
mucus lubricates food for easier swallowing. The slightly
alkaline pH is favourable or optimum for the activity of salivary
amylase. Salivary amylase starts the digestion of cooked starch
to produce maltose. However, only small amounts of starch are
converted to maltose in the mouth because food stays for a
short time in the mouth. Amylase does not work in the stomach
because the pH there is acidic
(iii) Mixing Food with Saliva and formation of Bolus
While food is being chewed, the tongue mixes it with saliva.
Later, the tongue works with the palate (top of the mouth) to roll
the chewed food up into a round semi solid mass called a bolus,
in readiness for swallowing.

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Swallowing and peristalsis
Swallowing is the passage of food or liquids from the mouth to
the stomach through the oesophagus. During swallowing, the
food bolus moves by a process known as peristalsis. Peristalsis
is the alternate contraction and relaxation of circular and
longitudinal muscles in a wave-like manner in order to move
food along the alimentary canal. Peristalsis in illustrated in the
following diagram:

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https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April, 2018

Behind the bolus, circular muscles contract while longitudinal

muscles relax. Ahead of the bolus, circular muscles relax while
longitudinal muscles contract.

38 | P a g e
DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH
The stomach is an elastic bag with a muscular wall and a
glandular lining. The entrance of the stomach is guarded by the
cardiac sphincter. The exit is guarded by the pyloric sphincter.
The following events take place in the stomach;
Secretion of gastric juice: Gastric juice is a mixture of
pepsin, rennin, hydrochloric acid and mucus. Pepsin
breaks down proteins to form peptides. Rennin
coagulates milk by converting the soluble protein
caesinogen into an insoluble form called casein. This
delays the passage of milk to the duodenum giving chance
for pepsin to digest milk protein. Both pepsin and rennin
are secreted in inactive forms called pepsinogen and
prorennin, respectively. Hydrochloric and activates them
into active enzymes and sets an acidic pH which is
optimum. It also kills some bacteria and hydrolyses
sucrose to glucose and fructose. Mucus protects the
lining of the stomach against the acid and pepsin.
Churning: This is the mixing of food by rhythmic
contraction of the muscles in the wall of the stomach to
form a paste called chime.
Temporal Storage of Food: Liquids can stay in the
stomach for up to 30 minutes; carbohydrates are kept for
about one hour, proteins and lipids stay up to 2 hours.
Digestion in the Duodenum

The duodenum receives digestive juices from the liver and the
pancreas. The liver secretes bile which is temporarily stored in the
gall bladder and carried to the duodenum by the bile duct. Bile
contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, bile salts and bile pigments.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes the acidic chime and the sets
an optimum alkaline pH for the enzymes of the duodenum. The bile
salts emulsify fats thereby increasing the surface area for the action of
39 | P a g e
lipase. Emulsification is the breakdown of large drops of fats into
small droplets. Bile pigments have no digestive function but add
colour to the faeces.
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains sodium
hydrogen carbonate, trypsin, lipase and pancreatic amylase. Sodium
hydrogen carbonate neutralizes the acidic chime and then sets an
optimum alkaline pH for the enzymes of the duodenum. Trypsin
breaks down proteins to form peptides. Lipase breaks down fat
molecules to fatty acid and glycerol. Pancreatic amylase breaks down
starch to form maltose.
Digestion in the Jejunum
This secretes Intestinal Juice (succusentericus) which contains Lactase,
maltase, sucrose and peptidase. Lactase breaks down sucrose to
glucose and fructose. Peptidase breaks down peptides to amino acids.
Digestion is completed in the jejunum.

The ileum and Absorption

The ileum carried out absorption of digestive end products and is
adapted for this function in the following ways:

• The ileum is very long thereby providing a large surface area for
absorption.

• It has a thin epithelium for more efficient diffusion of food.

• It has finger like projections called villi (singular: villus) and
microvilli which further increase the surface area for absorption.

• Each villus has a network of capillaries for absorption and

transportation of monosaccharides and amino acids

• Each villus has a lacteal which absorbs and transports fatty

acids and glycerol.

40 | P a g e
Diagram of a Villus

Assimilation of Digestive end products

After absorption, the digestive end products are transported in the
blood to the liver by the hepatic portal vein. The food is then
assimilated as follows:
(a) Assimilation of Monosaccharides (Glucose, Fructose and
Galactose)
Glucose is mainly used as a substrate for tissue (cellular)
respiration. If it is in excess, the excess is converted to glycogen
which is stored in the muscles and the liver. However the
human body stores limited amounts of glycogen i.e. about 400g
(300g in the muscles and 100g in the liver). If there is still some
excess glucose, it is converted to fat and stored in the adipose
tissue under the skin and around delicate body organs such as
the brain, heart, liver, kidneys and intestine. These processes
are influenced by a hormone called insulin which is secreted by

41 | P a g e
 the pancreas. Fructose and galactose are assimilated in the
same way as glucose
(b) Assimilation of Amino Acids
Amino acids are assembled to make the proteins required by the
body. Excess amino acids are deaminated by the liver.
Deamination is the process by which the amino group of an
amino acid is removed and eventually converted to urea by the
liver. Ammonia is an intermediate during deaminated and is
highly toxic. It is quickly converted to urea which less toxic.
The remaining part of the amino acid known as the carbon
skeleton may be converted to glucose by a process called
gluconeogenesis. Urea is toxic if allowed to accumulate in the
body. It is carried from the liver by blood and is removed from
the body by the kidneys by the process of excretion.
(c) Assimilation of Glycerol and Fatty Acids
Glycerol and fatty acids are chemically combined to make fats
which have the following uses in the body:
• Insulation – animals have a layer of fat under their skins
which prevents heat loss from the body

• Formation of cell membrane – the cell membrane is made

of lipids called phospholipids which can be synthesized
from fats and oils

• Energy source – lipids a store a lot of energy which is

made available when the supply of carbohydrates in the
body is low. In fats, lipids store twice as much energy as
an equal amount of carbohydrates.
Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue under the skin and
around delicate body organs such as the brain, heart, liver,
kidneys and intestine. The fat under the skin is responsible for
insulation while the fat around delicate organs cushions the
organs against shocks.

42 | P a g e
8. Investigate the common ailments of the alimentary canal
Diarrhoea: The passage of watery stool, resulting in dehydration and
loss of mineral ions from the body. It is caused by intake of food or
drinks that are contaminated with pathogens. The pathogens cause
inflammation of the intestinal lining leading to diarrhoea.
Constipation: Difficult defaecation due to hardness and dryness of
faeces, resulting from insufficient roughage and water in diet. it may
also result from keeping the faeces in the rectum for too long which
causes the rectum to absorb too much water, making the faeces hard
and dry.
Stomach Ulcers: An ulcer is defined as an open sore that produces
toxic matter. Stomach ulcers may result from over-production of
pepsin and hydrochloric acid or when the mucus layer in the stomach
is not sufficiently thin. This causes the lining of the stomach to be
destroyed by the action of pepsin or hydrochloric acid.
Piles (haemorrhoids): this is a condition where the veins in the
rectum become swollen and eventually burst causing pain and
bloodstained stool. It may be caused by frequent constipation.
9. Describe the metabolic functions of the liver
The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body and performs
a wide range of functions including the following:
• Destruction of old red blood cells resulting in formation of bile
which is important in emulsification of fats.

• Deamination of excess amino acids resulting in formation of

urea.

• Detoxification of poisons and alcohol by converting them to less

toxic substances e.g. hydrogen peroxide is broken down to water
and oxygen by the enzyme catalase in the liver. Excess intake
of alcohol frequently can lead to a condition called cirrhosis
(hardening liver tissue, leading to loss of function)

• Conversion of excess glucose to glycogen and storage of

glycogen, thereby regulating the levels of blood sugar.

• Manufacture of red blood cells in babies.

43 | P a g e
 • Transamination (the conversion some amino acids to others)
• Synthesis of plasma proteins such as prothrombin, fibrinogen,
globulins and albumin.

• Storage of some vitamins (e.g. vitamin A) and some mineral ions

(e.g. iron)

• Production of heat through a wide range of

exothermic/exergonic reactions.
10. Describe the effects of common ailments of the liver
• Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver which may result from
infection hepatitis viruses.

• Hepatomegaly: Enlargement of the liver.

• Cirrhosis: Hardening of liver tissue resulting from poisoning or
excessive intake of alcohol.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. Describe the respiratory organs of human.

The following diagram illustrates the breathing system

(respiratory system) of a human being

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44 | P a g e
 2. Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in animals
(Insects, fish and human beings)
Breathing and Gaseous Exchange in Insects
Insects breathe in using the tracheal system. The tracheal
begins with spiracles which are located in the thorax and
abdomen. The spiracles are joined to tubes known as trachea
(singular-trachea). The trachea is divided into smaller tubes
called tracheoles. Gaseous exchange occurs across the walls of
the tracheoles. Small inserts normally do not make any
breathing movements. However, large and active inserts such
as grasshoppers and bees make breathing movements by
pushing their abdomens in and out. Note that inserts do not
use blood to transport gases since gases diffuse from the
atmosphere to the tissue cells and vice versa through the
tracheal system.

The following diagram illustrates the tracheal system of an insect.

The following diagram illustrates the tracheal system of an insect.

Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th April, 2018

Breathing and Gaseous Exchange in Fish
Gaseous exchange in bony fish occurs the across the surface of
the gills. The gills of bony fish are attached to structures known
45 | P a g e
 as gill bars (gill arches). There are four gill bars on each side of
the gill chamber of a bony fish. There is a series of gill filaments
attached to each gill bar. Each gill filament has structures
known as gill lamellae (singular-gill lamella) where gaseous
exchange takes place. The other side of the gill bars has
structures known as gill rakers whose function is to remove
solid particles from the water before it passes across the gills.
Water enters the gill chamber of a fish through the mouth
(buccal cavity) and comes out through the operculum when it
opens (note that there is an operculum on each side of the
head).
Breathing and Gaseous Exchange in Fish
Gaseous exchange in bony fish occurs the across the surface of
the gills. The gills of bony fish are attached to structures known
as gill bars (gill arches). There are four gill bars on each side of
the gill chamber of a bony fish. There is a series of gill filaments
attached to each gill bar. Each gill filament has structures
known as gill lamellae (singular-gill lamella) where gaseous
exchange takes place. The other side of the gill bars has
structures known as gill rakers whose function is to remove
solid particles from the water before it passes across the gills.
Water enters the gill chamber of a fish through the mouth
(buccal cavity) and comes out through the operculum when it
opens (note that there is an operculum on each side of the
head).

The following table summarises the events associated with

inspiration and expiration in fish.

Inspiration Expiration

1 Floor of mouth Lowered Raised

2 Mouth Open Closed

3 Operculum Closed Open

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4 Volume of month and gill chamber Increases Decreases

5 Pressure in mouth and gill chamber Decreases Increases

6 Water movement Enters the gill Leaves the gill

chamber chamber

Structure of Bony Fish Gills

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April, 2018

3. Describe the composition of inspired and expired air

Gases Inspired air Expired air

Oxygen 21% 16%

Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4%

Nitrogen 78% 78%

Water vapour Variable Saturated

Other gases traces Traces

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4. Describe the adverse effects of air pollutants (cigarette smoke) on
health of human beings

Effects of Smoking on the Respiratory System

Cigarette smoke contains three major toxic substances, namely
nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide. Tar is responsible for causing
respiratory such as bronchitis, emphysema and lung cancer.

Bronchitis: this is the inflammation of the air passages. Tar

immobilizes (stops movement of the cilia, causing mucus to
accumulate in the air passages. This gives chance to the germs in the
mucus to infect the lining of the air passages, causing coughing. The
overall effect of bronchitis is that it reduces the amount of oxygen
reaching the lungs.
Emphysema: This is the weakening and bursting of the alveoli.
When tar reaches the alveoli it weakness them and irritates them.
The irritation causes coughing which makes the alveoli burst.
Emphysema reduces the surface area available for gaseous exchange.
Lung Cancer: This is the uncontrolled or abnormal division of cells in
the lungs. Smoking increases the risk of lung cancer because tar
which is present in cigarette smoke is a carcinogen (a cancer-causing
agent).
Pneumonia: It is an inflammation of the lungs and alveoli. It is
caused by smoking bacteria which results in accumulation of bacteria
in the lungs. The accumulated bacteria cause lungs infection which
leads to inflammation.
5. Explain gaseous exchange in green plants
Gaseous exchange in plants
Gaseous exchange in plants occurs in the spongy layer of the leaf.
When photosynthesis is actively taking place e.g. during day time), a
plant leaf takes in carbon dioxide and releases oxygen. Note that
during such periods, respiration also takes place. When respiration is

48 | P a g e
 the only process taking place (for example, at night), the plant leaf
takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
The following diagram illustrates gaseous exchange in the leaf of a
plant.

Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th

April, 2018
6. Describe types of tissue respiration

Respiration is defined as the process by which is broken down to

release energy in the living cells. This definition strictly applies to
tissue respiration which is also called cellular respiration or internal
respiration. However the term respiration is sometimes loosely
applied to other processes that help make oxygen available to living
cells. These are breathing (ventilation) and gaseous exchange. In this
case, the term external respiration is used.

The following diagram summarises the terms associated with

respiration.
Internal Respiration

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Source: Creative Commons: https://www.google.co.zm/Retrieved on 9th
April, 2018
Internal respiration occurs inside living cells in organelles called
mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion). The main substrate for
internal respiration in most organisms is glucose. There are two types
of internal respiration, namely aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic Respiration
This is the release of energy from food in living cells in the presence of
oxygen. This process releases a relatively high amount of energy
(about 2880 KJ from one mole of glucose) and the by products
produced are carbon dioxide and water. This type of respiration
occurs in tissue cells of animals and plants when there is a sufficient
supply of oxygen. The word and chemical equations for aerobic
respiration are given below:
Word Equation

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

Chemical Equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (2880KJ)

50 | P a g e
 Anaerobic Respiration
This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the
absence of oxygen. Types of anaerobic respiration include alcoholic
fermentation and lactic fermentation.
Alcoholic Fermentation
This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the
absence of oxygen producing alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide as
by products. This process releases a relatively low amount of energy
(about 210 KJ from one mole of glucose). The reaction is catalysed by
an enzyme called zymase which is naturally found in yeast. The word
and chemical equations for alcoholic fermentation are given below:
7. Describe the production of adenosine triphosphate
ATP and its Significance
Energy from respiration is not used directly by organisms but is used
to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate) by combining adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). Energy from ATP is
then used by living organisms. When the energy is needed, ATP
breaks down to ADP and inorganic phosphate, releasing energy in the
process. The formation and breakdown of ATP can be illustrated as
follows:

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ATP is important in the following ways:

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 It makes it possible for energy to be stored and transported
It makes energy available when and where it is needed.
8. Investigate the production of carbon dioxide during
respiration
Experiment to Demonstrate Respiration in Germinating Seeds
Materials: two thermal flasks, two thermometers, cotton wool, two
sets of bean seeds
Methods
• Soak one set of seeds until they start germinating and boil the
other set of seeds

• Soak both sets of seeds in disinfectant to kill microorganisms

and place each set in a separate thermal flask

• Suggest the correct set-up of the experiment. Draw it in the

space provided below.
• Read the initial temperature from each of the two thermometers.
• Leave the setup for four days and read temperatures from the
two thermometers again.

Exercise: Suggest why the seeds need to be soaked in a disinfectant

before being put into the flask. Write your answer in the space
provided below.
Observations
The temperature in the flask containing boiled seeds will remain the
same while the temperature in the flask containing germinating seeds
will increase.
Conclusion
Energy is produced during respiration. Germinating seeds carry out
respiration while boiled seeds do not.

Experiment to Demonstrate Respiration in Soil Organisms

Materials

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Two large bottles, wire gauze , sodium hydroxide solution, two
capillary tubes, two glass tubes, two petri dishes, two samples of soil,
two screw values.
Method

• Heat one of the soil samples and leave the other one without
heating.

• Suggest the correct set-up of the experiment. Draw it in t6he

space provided below.
• Leave the setup for five hours and observe what happens to the
position of the drop in the capillary tube.

Observations
The oil drop in the container having heated soil remains at the same
position while the one in the container having unheated soil moves
inwards.
Conclusion
Soil contains living organisms that carry out respiration and use up
oxygen in the process.
Experiment to Demonstrate Respiration in Green Plants

Materials
A large bottle, sodium hydroxide solution, capillary tube, glass tube,
petri dish, potted plant, and screw valve.
Method
• Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram and
place the setup in a dark place.

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 • Leave the setup for five hours and observe what happens to the
position of the drop in the capillary tube.
Observations
The oil drop in the capillary tube moves inwards.
Conclusion
The plant carries out respiration and uses up oxygen in the process.
Experiment to show that Carbon Dioxide is produced during
Respiration

Materials
Three large bottles, lime water, glass tubes and a small mammal such
as a rat.
Method
Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram.

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 Observe and record what happens to the lime water in containers A
and C.
Observation
The lime water in the container C turns milky earlier than the one in
A.
Conclusion
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide than inhaled air. That is
why the lime water in C turns milky earlier than in A.
9. State ways in which respiration is important
The energy released during respiration is used in the following
processes: maintenance of a constant body temperature,
reproduction, cell division, active transport and growth / synthesis of
macromolecules (memory aid: MR CAG)
10. Explain the industrial applications of respiration
In brewing, germinating seeds are used. This is because they contain
the sugar maltose. The seeds are dried and ground to form a powder.
This powder is then boiled in water to form a paste. The paste is
cooled and yeast is added. Yeast contains an enzyme called zymase
which converts glucose to carbon dioxide and alcohol, releasing energy
in the process. The glucose is formed from the action of maltase on
maltose. The alcohol is removed from the mixture by simple
distillation
When baking, flour is mixed with water, salt, sugar and yeast to form
a paste called dough. When there is insufficient oxygen, zymase from
yeasts acts on sugars to form carbon dioxide and alcohol. But if
oxygen is sufficient, yeast carried out aerobic respiration. The carbon
dioxide begins to form bubbles in the dough causing it to rise. The
dough is often placed in a warm place to provide an optimum
temperature for enzyme activity. After this the dough can be baked.

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HEALTH
1. Describe what good health is.
Health is defined as a state of physical and mental well-being
2. Define disease
A disease is any physical or mental disorder that interferes with
normal functioning of the body and has a characteristic set of signs
and symptoms.
3. Describe various types of diseases
There are two main categories of diseases which are;
• Infectious diseases (transmissible diseases) and
• Non-infectious diseases (non-transmissible diseases).
Infectious Diseases
Infectious diseases are those diseases that can be transmitted from
person to person. They are also called pathogenic diseases
because they are all caused by pathogens. Pathogens are
diseasecausing organisms, mainly microorganisms. Pathogens
include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi and worms.
4. Describe causative agents, signs and symptoms, methods of
transmission and control
The following table summarizes the causative agents, signs,
symptoms, methods of transmission and methods of control for
selected pathogenic diseases.
Non-transmissible Diseases
These are diseases that cannot be passed from one individual to
another. They are divided into the following categories:

(i) Nutritional Deficiency Diseases: Diseases caused poor

diets lacking one of or more of essential nutrients.

Examples of such diseases are marasmus, kwashiorkor and rickets.

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(ii) Genetic (inherited) Diseases: diseases that are passed
through genes from parents to their offspring such as
sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia and Down’s syndrome.

(iii) Degenerative Diseases: diseases characterized by a

gradual decline in the function of an organs as a result of
ageing or too much stress on the organ e.g. arthritis and
coronary heart disease.

(iv) Environmental Diseases: Diseases resulting from the

presence of pollutants in the environment e.g. bronchitis,
emphysema and lung cancer resulting from the presence
of tar in the air.

(v) Mental Disorders: Disorders of the mind caused by

chemical or physical factors e.g. schizophrenia.

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 (vi) Self-inflicted and Social Diseases: These include
conditions like drug addiction.

Disease Causative Agent Signs and Methods of Treatment

Symptoms Transmission and
Methods of
Control

Bilharzias Schistosoma (S. Anaemia, Exposure to Sanitary

(Schistosomiasis) Mansoni, S. tiredness, cercaria larvae disposal of
in water urine and
Haematobium and blood in faeces;
S. Japonicum) urine and in boiling or
treatment of
faeces (eggs
water before
of use;
Schistosoma treatment
have hooks with drugs
that manage
blood vessels
of bladder
and gut)

AIDS A virus called Loss of Sexual Avoid

(Acquired human weight; skin intercourse unprotected

Immune immunodeficiency cancer, with an casual sex;

virus HIV tiredness; infected be faithful
Deficiency opportunistic partner; to one
infections contact with sexual
Syndrome)
such as infected partner;
pneumonia, blood; mother avoid
tuberculosis to child sharing
and transmission piercing
diarrhoeal and cutting

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 diseases utensils;
screening of
blood before
transfusion;
no cure yet.

Malaria A protozoon Headache; Bite from Treatment

called fever; female with
plasmodium Anopheles antimalaria
anaemia, mosquito drugs;
pain in controlling
or killing of
muscles and
mosquito
joints; bites
shivering
and sweating

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Cholera A bacteria called Vomiting Taking Sanitary
and contaminated disposal of
Vibrio cholera
diarrhoea food and faeces;
(rice water water; contact boiling or
like stool with infected chlorination
dehydration person of drinking
water
warming
and
covering of
food;
quarantine
of patients;
treatment
with
antibiotics
and
replacement
of salts and
water using
oral

rehydration
salt (ORS)

5. Describe ways of HIV transmission

HIV can be transmitted through unprotected sexual intercourse. It can
also be transmitted through mother to child during birth that’s if the
mother is infected. Through blood transfusion that’s if the donors blood
is contaminated with HIV virus. HIV can also be transmitted using
unsterilized hospital utensils such as needles and razor blades and by
sharing contaminated body fluids.

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6. Explain the dangers of having multiple sexual partners
Contracting HIV and AIDS and STIs.
7. Describe ways of safe sexual practices
• By using condoms, staying faithful to one partner

8. Identify the causes of stigma to people living with HIV and AIDS
• Fear
• Ignorance
• Myths
• Lack of family support.
9. Describe ways of reducing discrimination to people living with HIV
and AIDS
These include: educating the public, support groups or community support
groups.
10. Investigate the importance of the immune system and describe
the factors that reduce immunity to pathogenic diseases
• Immunity is important for prevention of diseases. Factors that
reduce immunity include poor diet, development of resistant
strains of pathogens, intake of immune-depressant drugs and
infection by HIV that destroys the lymphocytes.

11. Describe the life cycle of a house fly

• Life Cycle of a House Fly
• Like the mosquito, the housefly also undergoes complete
metamorphosis during its life cycle. Its life cycle is summarised in
the following diagram:

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The female housefly lays eggs in rotting material after mating. The eggs
normally hatch into larvae (commonly) called maggots) 8-24 hours after
being laid. The larvae feed on rotting material by sucking the nutrients and
move using pads on the lower side of their bodies after 4-5 days, the larvae
develops into pupae which are immobile and do not feed. Although the
pupae are immobile, a lot of metabolism occurs inside of them and the
imago takes shape within the pupa case known as the puparium. 3 to 4
days later, the imago breaks out of the puparium. It takes an imago 14
days to reach sexual maturity and the cycle starts all over again.

12. Describe the life cycle of a mosquito

Life cycle of a Mosquito

• The mosquito undergoes complete metamorphosis. This is a type

of life cycle where the different stages of the cycle have different
body forms (morphologies) from each other and different
behaviours and nutritional requirements the stages of a mosquito
life cycle are egg larva, pupa and adult (imago) as summarised in
the following diagram.

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 • Eggs are laid in water by female mosquitoes after matting and they
hatch into larvae (singular: larva). Larvae can swim and they feed
on phytoplankton and zooplankton. They eventually develop into
pupae (singular: pupa) which are a less active stage that
continually undergoing internal changes. After some time, the
adult insect emerges out of the pupa case (puparium). The adult
flies and feed mainly on plant juices. However, when female
mosquitoes are carrying fertilized eggs, they develop a desire for
animal blood which they need for egg development.

• Because of blood sucking, the female anopheles mosquito is a

vector for malaria in humans. A vector is any organism that
transmits from one host to another. Mosquitoes are said to be
biological vectors. A biological vector is one that carries parasites
inside its body systems and the parasite undergoes part of its life
cycle inside the vector.

13. Relate the control of malaria to the life cycle of the mosquito
• Control of mosquitoes (in order to control malaria) can be targeted
against the different stages of the life cycle in the following ways:

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• Draining all stagnant pools of water to eliminate eggs, larvae and
pupae

• Spraying stagnant water with insecticides and/or oil. Insecticides

such as DDT kill the eggs, larvae and pupae directly. Oil blocks
the oxygen supply from the eggs, larvae and pupae, thereby killing
them.

• Biological control (the use of one type of organism called the

control agent to get rid of another – called the target organism –
which is a nuisance). The control agent must be a natural energy
(predator or parasite) of the target organism. Biological control
may also involve interfering with reproduction by use of radiation
or chemicals and the artificial synthesis of chemical substances
normally produced by the target organism to be used in traps.
Examples of biological control against mosquitoes include:

• Use of a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis which infects and

kills mosquito larvae.

• Use of insectivorous fish from the genus Gambusia that feeds on

mosquito pupae and larvae.

• Use of insecticide – treated mosquito nets to trap and kill adult

mosquitoes.

• Clearance of bushes and tall grass where adults normally live

before entering houses

• Physical killing of adult mosquitoes.

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GRADE 11 SECTION

TRANSPORT AND STORAGE IN PLANTS

1 Describe the external and internal structure of roots and stems
External structure of the root
The apical meristem located next to the root cap consists of
undifferentiated cells which are continually dividing to give rise to new
cells. The root cap protects the meristem from mechanical damage as the
root penetrates through the soil particles.

Internal structure of the dicot root

The internal structure of the root consists of the epidermis, root hairs,
cortex, endodermis, pericycle and vascular bundles. The epidermis
protects the stem. Root hairs absorb water and mineral salts. The
cortex is made up of vascular bundles and cells that give the plant
mechanical strength. The endodermis contains water Casparian strips
that control water flow in the vascular tissue. The vascular bundles
consist of the xylem and phloem. The xylem transports water and
mineral salts. The phloem transports manufactured food. The
cambium is an activity diving layer of cells.

Internal structure of monocot root

The epidermis on the outside of the root consists of a single layer of cells.
Some of the epidermal cells have root hairs. The cortex forms the layer below
the epidermis and is made up of thin-walled parenchyma cells. It contains water

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proof Kasparian strips that control water flow into the vascular tissue. The
endodermis forms the innermost layer of the cortex.
Xylem and phloem vessels are found in the central part of the root.

External structure of the stem

The apical bud consisting of meristematic cells is found at the tip of the
stem. Leaves, branches, flowers, fruits and seeds are borne on the stem.
The leaves receive sunlight to photosynthesize. Flowers get pollinated. The
fruits are held on the stem in such a way that the ripe fruit and seeds can
be scattered easily. The stem also stores food, transports water from the
roots to the leaves, and transports carbohydrates to the roots and some
stems.

Internal structure of the dicot stem

The epidermis is the outer layer of cells that covers the stem. The cortex is
made up of collenchyma cells that provide support and parenchyma cells
that store food. Vascular bundles are scattered throughout the cortex
tissue. Each vascular bundle is oval in shape. Phloem tissue is located at
one end of the oval, with xylem tissue making up the rest.

2. Describe the absorption of water and the uptake of mineral salts

by roots.
The cell sap in the vacuole of root hair cells has a high concentration of
dissolved mineral salts and sugars. The presence of these solutes
makes the cell sap hypertonic to the water found between soil
particles. Because of this concentration gradient, water molecules
move from the soil through the electively permeable membrane of root
hair cells by osmosis.
Mineral salt are absorbed as mineral ions from the surrounding soil for
land plants, or water for aquatic plants. The concentration of salts in
the cell sap of the root hair cells is higher than that in the soil or
water. Mineral salts are taken up by active transport against their
concentration gradient. This process requires energy. Once the

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 mineral ions are absorbed into the xylem, they are transported in
dissolved form to other parts of the plant.

3. Describe the movement of water and transport of mineral salts

from the roots to the leaves
From the roots, water moves up the stem in the xylem vessels and then
into the leaves. Most water escapes into the atmosphere through the
stomata in form of water vapour by transpiration. The continuous
column of water in the xylem flowing from roots, up the stem and into
the leaves is called the transpiration stream. The column of water is
maintained by root pressure, capillarity and transpiration stream.
Root pressure is the force created by active transport of mineral ions
into the xylem vessels by cells of the endodermis. The mineral ions
create a region of high solute concentration in the xylem. Due to the
osmotic gradient created, water is drawn from the cortex into the
xylem vessels.
The movement of water through the xylem vessels by capillarity occurs
due to cohesion and adhesion forces. Cohesion causes water
molecules in the xylem vessels to attract each other and stick together
as they move upwards. Adhesion causes water molecules to be
attracted to the xylem causing them to move upwards in the xylem.
During transpiration, water evaporates from the leaves of the plant.
More water from the xylem is drawn to offset the osmotic. This creates
a suction pressure that maintains continuous movement of water.

4. Describe the movement of organic solutes in phloem

Organic solutes include sucrose and amino acids dissolved in water.
Food materials from photosynthetic cells move into adjacent sieve tube
elements by active transport. Once in sieve tubes the food substances
move by diffusion, active transport and cytoplasmic streaming.
More soluble food substances such as sugars move from one sieve tube
to the next by diffusion. The food substances diffuse from a region of

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 high concentration in the leaves to a region of lower concentration
such as the roots.
Some food substance move against concentration by active transport.
Some of the organic food substances move along the cytoplasmic filaments
which are continuous from one sieve element to the next.

5. Demonstrate the process of transpiration

Opening and closing of stomata
The water evaporates from cells into the air spaces in the leaf and then
diffuses out through the stomata. Water evaporates from a high
concentration in the plant to a low concentration in the atmosphere
outside the leaf. The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells.
Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of bean shaped guard cells. The
guard cells absorb water, swell and pull open the stomata. When the
guard cells lose water they shrink and close the stomata. Stomata
open during daylight hours while light is available. This enables
carbon dioxide in, so that photosynthesis can take place. Stomata
close when it is dark, when carbon dioxide is not required. This
reduces the amount of water lost by the plant at a time when it is not
needed for photosynthesis. If plants lose water faster than it is
replaced by the roots, the stomata can close to prevent wilting and
further water loss. There are more stomata on the ventral side of a leaf
(underneath). This is to prevent the guard cells from opening too wide
during the day. This prevents water loss in the plant

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Use of photometer

When using the photometer it is assumed that water uptake is equal to water
loss through transpiration.

6. Investigation the factors that affect the rate of transpiration

 Humidity: the higher the humidity, he lower the transpiration

rate because high humidity lowers the concentration gradient
between the leaf and the atmosphere. High humidity causes the
air in the leaves and the outside to contain about the same
amount of water vapour. The rate of transpiration is thus
decreased.
 Light intensity: the higher the light intensity, the transpiration
because high light-intensity causes opening of the stomata.
 Wind: the higher the wind speed, the greater the rate of
respiration. When the air is still, a layer of water vapour forms
over leaf and reduces transpiration rate. But when there is wind, a
layer of vapour is blown away thereby increasing diffusion rate.
 Temperature: an increase in environment temperature results
into increased rate of transpiration. This because increased
temperature leads to increased kinetic energy of water vapour
molecules which therefore escape faster from the leaves hence
increasing transpiration rate.

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7. Describe the adaptive features of a leaf to reduce excess loss of
water
 Shedding of leaves in severe conditions (summer) reducing the
number stomata so that no water loss can occur.
 Reducing size of leaves (needles-shaped leaves) – minimizes surface
area over which transpiration takes in the leaf.
 Reduces number of stomata – most terrestrial plants have very few
or no stomata on the upper surfaces of the leaves to reduce the
rate of transpiration. Some plants have sunken stomata.

8. Explain the significance of transpiration in plants.

Creates transpiration pull that facilitates absorption of water by the
plant. Evaporation of water from a leaf has a cooling effect which helps
prevent hot direct sunlight from damaging the cells in plants, provides
water one of the main raw materials of photosynthesis and facilitates
absorption of mineral ions from the soil. When water evaporates from
the leaf it condenses and forms clouds in the water cycle.

TRANSPORT IN MAN

1. Identify the composition of blood

The solid part of blood is made of red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets. Plasma which is the liquid portion of blood consists of water
and contains many important dissolved substances, including the
products of digestion, such as glucose, fatty acids, glycerol, amino acids,
vitamins and minerals, plasma proteins such as fibrinogen and
antibodies, hormones and waste materials, such as urea and carbon
dioxide.

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2. Explain the functions of blood

Transport functions
Soluble products of digestion and absorption such as glucose, amino
acids, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals are transported from the gut to
the liver and then to the general circulation.
Waste products of metabolism such as urea are transported from sites of
production to sites of removal, such as the liver and kidneys.
Respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported from sites
of uptakes or production to their site of use or removal.
Hormones such as insulin are transported from their sites of production
in the glands to the target organs where they have their effects.

Regulatory functions:
Water plays a part in distribution of heat between heat producing areas
such as the liver and areas of heat loss such as the skin.

Protective functions:
Platelets, plasma protein like fibrinogen and many other plasma factors
such as calcium ions protect against loss of blood and entry of
pathogens by clothing mechanisms. White blood cells protect against
disease-causing micro-organisms. Phagocytes engulf the bacteria
while lymphocytes produce and secrete specific antibodies against
them.

3. Distinguish between red and white blood cells.

Red blood cells are biconcave in shape while white blood cells have no
definite shape. Red blood cells contain haemoglobin while white blood
cells do not contain haemoglobin. Red blood cells lack the nucleus while
white blood cells have the nucleus. Red blood cells transport oxygen
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 and small amounts of carbon dioxide while white blood cells defend the
body against disease – causing micro-organisms.

4. Identify the sites where the blood cells are produced

White blood cells are made in the bone marrow, lymph nodes, tonsils,
thymus and spleen. Red blood cells are in the bone marrow, particularly
the ends of the long arm and leg bones, in the ribs, and in vertebrae in
adults but can also be made by the liver in babies
5. Explain the process of blood clotting
When platelets are exposed to injured body tissue, they release as
enzyme called thromboplastin. Thromboplastin acts on a plasma
protein called prothrombin changing it to an active form called
thrombin. Thrombin acts on another plasma protein called fibrinogen
changing it into an insoluble form called fibrin. This reaction occurs in
the presence of calcium ions. The fibrin forms a mesh over the wound.
This mesh traps red and white blood cells, leading to the formation of a
clot over the wound.
6. Describe the ABO blood groups
There are four main blood groups namely blood groups A, B, AB, and O.
Two types of antigens found on the surface of red blood cells are
antigen A and antigen B. The antigens determine the blood groups as
shown in the table below.

BLOOD GROUP ANTIGEN

A Have antigen A

B Have antigen B

AB Have both antigen A and antigen B

O Lack both antigen A and antigen B

Antibodies found in blood plasma interact with antigens on the red blood
cells. The two antibodies are antibody b. a person with a specific antigen
does not possess the complimentary antibody.

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 BLOOD GROUP ANTIGENS ON RED ANTIBODIES IN
BLOOD CELL PLASMA

A A B

B B A

AB A and B None

O None a and b

7. Explain the importance of determining the blood groups and

Rhesus factors
Safe blood transfusion is only important if blood groups and Rhesus
factors are determined. This reduces the chances of agglutination in
the event of blood transfusion. Transplant of tissues and organs
require determination of blood groups and Rhesus factor. Some tissues
may be rejected by the recipient because they would act like antigen
causing antibody – antigen reaction. Determination of Rhesus factor
prevents disorders, such as haemolytic disease of the foetus.

8. Explain the donor-recipient compatibility of blood groups.

An antigen reacts with a corresponding antibody making the blood
cells to clump together. The antibody-antigen B and antibody b will
also cause agglutination. A person with blood group AB does not have
antibodies in the blood plasma. Therefore blood group AB is a
universal recipient. A person with blood group O lacks antigens and
he is a universal donor. Blood group A can only receive blood from
blood group A and O. blood group B can only receive blood from blood
group B and only donate blood to blood group B and AB. Blood group
AB can only donate blood to blood groups B and AB. Blood group O
can only receive blood from blood group O.

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9. Explain the importance of screening the blood for the purpose of
transfusion
Screening is important to ensure blood is safe and ni disease causing
micro-organisms are present that could cause disease in the recipient.
Screening would minimize transmission of diseases such as HIV and AIDS,
syphilis and hepatitis B.

10. Haemophilia: this is an inherited disease where a person bleeds for

longer periods than normal due to poor clotting of blood due to absence
of blood clotting proteins.
Leukaemia: it is the cancer of white blood cells. The patient makes an
abnormally high number of immature white blood cells.
Anaemia: an inability to transport enough oxygen can be detected by
noting a lower normal number of red blood cells. Describe the structure
of the human heart.

11. Describe the structure of the human heart

The heart is made up of cardiac muscles which contract and relax,
without getting tired. The heart is enclosed in a pericardium
membrane which secretes a fluid that lubricates the heart when it is
in pumping action. The coronary artery supplies the heart with blood.
The four chambers of the heart are: the right atrium and left atrium
the right ventricle and left ventricle. The atria receive blood. The right
atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the vena
cave. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood through he pulmonary
vein.
The ventricles pump blood out of the heart. The right ventricle pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The
left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body through
the aorta. The left ventricle is much thicker than the right ventricle
because the left ventricle pumps blood with a pressure to all parts of
the body. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs which is a
shorter distance away. The valves in the heart that prevent back flow
of blood include: the semi-lunar valves found at the base of pulmonary
75 | P a g e
 artery and aorta, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves found between the
atria and ventricles.

12. Describe how the heart functions

During atrial systole, the atria contract squeezing blood into the
ventricle. The bicuspid and tricuspid valves are opened while semi
lunar valves remain closed. During atrial systole, the ventricle is
relaxed and fill up with blood. When the ventricles are full, the
bicuspid and tricuspid valves close while the semi lunar valves open.
The ventricles contract thereby pumping blood into arteries. The
contraction of the ventricles is called ventricular systole. When the
atria contract, the ventricles relax to receive blood from the atria. The
relaxation of the ventricles is called ventricular relax diastole. This
short phase is followed by the relaxation of the atria. The relaxation of
the atria is called atrial diastole. The relaxed atria draw blood from
the veins. Blood from the right ventricle flows to the lungs through the
pulmonary artery where it is supplied with oxygen and becomes
oxygenated. The oxygenated blood then flows to the heart through the
pulmonary vein. From the left ventricle, blood is pumped to the whole
body leaving the heart through the aorta.

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 The heart beat is made up of one systole and one diastole. The
contraction of the muscles of the ventricles arises from within the
heart muscle in a small area in the right atrium called the pacemaker.
The pulse is the thumping sensation in the blood vessels. It is as a
result of blood flowing in wave-like movement as pumped by the heart.
The pulse rate is the same as heart beat.

13. Explain the causes of the coronary heart diseases

Excessive intake of fatty foods causes coronary heart diseases. Fatty
foods are easily converted to cholesterol which in turn blocks the
coronary arteries. Cigarette smoke contains a stimulant called
nicotine which tends to promote the accumulation of cholesterol in the
blood. When you are emotionally stressed, the body secretes high
levels of adrenaline which tends to promote accumulation of
cholesterol in the blood stream. Inhalation of harmful gaseous
compounds, for example carbon monoxide when the environment is
polluted increases the chances of suffering from a coronary disease.

14. Describe the ways of preventing coronary heart diseases

Avoid excessive intake of fatty foods. Regular exercise improves blood
circulation and reduces chances of accumulation of cholesterol in arteries.

15. Describe the structure of the lymphatic system in relation to

blood circulatory
The lymphatic system is made up of lymphatic capillaries that join to
form large lymphatic vessels. The vessels finally drain into the blood
system at the vena cava just before it enters the heart. The lymph move
along the vessels by contraction of muscles surrounding them.
The vessels have valves at intervals to prevent back flow of lymph.
Lymphocytes produced in the lymph nodes defend the body against diseases
by producing antibodies and antitoxins. Lymph nodes have a network
of fibres that trap bacteria which are then destroyed by the lymphocytes.

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16. Compare tissue fluid and lymph to blood

Blood contains blood cells while tissue fluid and lymph lack blood cells.
Blood contains plasma proteins such as fibrinogen while tissue fluid
and lymph lack plasma proteins.
17. Describe the flow of lymph
Lymph drains into the lymphatic vessels. The lymph vessels bring the
lymph back to the heart through the vena cava. Lymphatic vessels is at
very low pressure, the contraction and relaxation of muscles help to
squeeze the lymph back to the heart. In addition, inhalation causes
the negative pressure in the chest cavity which helps the lymph to
drain towards the heart.
18. Describe the structure of lymph vessels
Lymphatic vessels are vessels that transport tissue fluid away from the
tissues. The smallest lymphatic vessels are the lymph capillaries. The
lymph capillaries have closed ends and thin walls to allow tissue fluid
to easily enter the lymphatic vessels. Lymphatic capillaries join to
form larger vessels called lymphatic vessels.
19. Describe the functions of lymph nodes in disease prevention
White blood cells called lymphocytes are produced in the lymph nodes.
Lymphocytes produce antibodies that destroy bacteria.

20. Describe types of blood circulatory system

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 The two types of circulatory systems are closed and open circulatory
systems. In closed circulatory system, the circulating fluid or blood is
always enclosed within tubes called blood vessels which transports
towards and away from the heart. This can be single or double
circulation. In open circulatory system, blood is pumped by the heart
into the body cavity which is a series of body spaces collectively known
as haemocoel.
21. Describe double circulation
Blood passes through the heart twice during one complete circulation
around the body. It involves pulmonary circulation and systemic
circulation. In pulmonary artery, blood from the lungs to the left atrium
through the pulmonary vein. The main purpose of this circulation is to
oxygenate the blood and remove carbon dioxide from the blood through
the lungs. In systemic circulation, blood flows from the left ventricle to
the rest of the body through the aorta and from the rest of the body to
the right atrium through the vena cava.
The purpose of this circulation is to distribute oxygen around the body and
to collect carbon dioxide from body tissues.

22. Distinguish between the single and double circulation

In single circulation, blood flows through the heart once to make a
complete circulation while in double circulation, blood flows through the
heart twice to make a complete circulation.

23. Identify the main blood vessels in the double circulation

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24. Compare the structure and functions of arteries, veins and
capillaries

Arteries have thick and muscular walls to withstand high pressure

which cause rupture. The inner layer has elastic fibres to allow them
dilate so as to accommodate blood that flows in pulses. Arteries have a
narrow lumen. They carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary
artery away from the heart.
Veins have thin and less muscular walls since they carry blood under
low pressure. Blood flows steadily in vein. They have a wider lumen
and have valves at intervals. They carry deoxygenated blood except the
pulmonary vein towards the heart.
Capillaries are thin walled minute blood vessels which run through the
tissues. They have walls that are one cell thick to allow substances to
move in and out of them by diffusion.

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EXCRETION
1. Describe the process of excretion
This is the removal of toxic metabolic waste products from the bodies of
living organisms. The products of excretion are called excretory
products while the organs used to remove them are called excretory
organs.
2. Explain the significance of excretion in animals
Unwanted toxic substances of metabolic and by-products are removed
from the body of an animal. If left to accumulate, these waste products
become poisonous and harm the organism’s normal body functions.
Removal of waste products from the body of the animal results in
maintenance of a constant internal environment that is required for
normal physiological processes to occur. These include regulation of
osmotic potential of body fluids, regulation of pH and blood sugar
levels.
3. Identify the internal structure of the kidneys.

4. Explain the mechanism of excretion in the kidneys

During ultra-filtration, small molecules such as water, mineral salts,
glucose and urea from the glomerulus are filtered into the Bowman’s
capsule of a nephron. It is caused by a build-up of pressure in the
glomerulus. The pressure builds up due to the following reasons: the

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 afferent end of the glomerulus is wider than the efferent end and blood
from arteries is under high pressure. During ultra-filtration, the red
blood cells and large molecules such as plasma proteins remain inside
the glomerulus. The liquid that collects in the Bowman’s capsule is
called the glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate drains from the
Bowman’s capsule by the renal tubule.
During selective reabsorption useful substances are reabsorbed from
the glomerular filtrate in the renal tubule into the blood stream. The
first (proximal) convolution reabsorbs salts and water. Water is
reabsorbed by osmosis while mineral ions, glucose and mineral salts are
reabsorbed by active transport.
Osmoregulation takes place in the loop of Henle. If the body has very
little water in it, the anti-diuretic hormone is secreted by the pituitary
gland in the brain. It causes water to be reabsorbed from the
glomerulus into the surrounding cells. This results in the production
of small volumes of concentrated urine. But if the body has enough
water, anti-diuretic hormone is not secreted and huge volumes of dilute
urine are produced.
5. Identify the common disorders and diseases associated with the
kidney.
Common disorders and diseases include kidney failure and acute renal
failure. The malfunctioning of the kidneys as a result of partial or
complete damage of the nephron caused by bacterial or viral infection
leads to kidney diseases known as nephritis. Glomerular nephritis
originates from the infection of other body parts like throat causing an
antibody – antigen complex that blocks the glomeruli. The blockage
hinders normal functioning of the kidney such that urea is not
excreted from the blood. This can result in mental disorientation,
vomiting and confusion. Remedies of kidney failure include: use of a
broad spectrum of antibiotics, controlled diet, for example adequate
intake of salt and intake of fluids that can be used to rectify kidney
failure.

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 Acute renal failure is a sudden decline in renal functioning caused by a
drop in pressure due to excessive blood loss, kidney infections and
stones, trauma and shock.
High blood pressure can also lead to kidney failure. Arteries in the
kidneys are unable to regulate blood pressure hence more arteries are
blocked and stop functioning.
Kidney failure may be treated using two ways: kidney transplant and
using a dialysis (kidney) machine. Kidney plant involves a surgical
operation during which a normal kidney from a donor is added to an
individual experiencing kidney failure. The transplanted kidney must be
compatible with the recipient; otherwise there will be tissue rejection.
A kidney machine is made of a dialysis tubule through the patient’s
blood passes. The tubule is long and coiled in order to increase the
surface area for diffusion. The tubule is also thin and selectively
permeable to allow small molecules such as glucose, urea, salt and water
to pass through but prevent large ones from doing so.
The dialysis machine also contains dialysis fluid which is a solution of
salts and glucose in water and its concentration equal to the normal
concentration of the blood to prevent loss of glucose or any other essential
mineral salt from the patient’s blood. The patient’s blood is led from the
vein in the arm and pumped through the dialysis tubule, as blood flows
through the dialysis tubule molecules of small size such as urea and salts
diffuse out of the blood into the dialysis fluid.
6. Investigate the role of the lungs I excretion
Lungs excrete carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is excreted during the
process of gaseous exchange in the alveoli. Carbon dioxide diffuses from
the blood into the alveoli across the alveolar walls.

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7. Identify the structure of the human skin

8. Describe the role of the human skin in excretion

The skin plays a role in excretion of excess water, mineral salts and traces
of urea through sweat.
HOMESSTASIS AND OSMOREGULATION
1. Describe what homeostasis is
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
The conditions in the internal environment which need to be kept
constant include temperature, blood sugar, contents of tissue fluid, salt
and water.
2. Identify important organs in homeostasis
Important organs in homeostasis include the kidney, the skin and the
liver.
3. Describe the role of the kidney in maintaining the balance of
water and salt ions
When the osmotic pressure of the body rises due to low amount of
water caused by dehydration and reduced water intake the pituitary
gland is stimulated by the hypothalamus to secrete ant diuretic
hormone. Anti-diuretic hormone causes kidney tubules in the nephron

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 to be more permeable to water, more water is reabsorbed into the
bloodstream, restoring osmotic pressure of body fluids.
When the amount of sodium ions in the blood is low, the adrenal
glands secrete aldosterone hormone which causes the distal
convoluted tubule to reabsorb more sodium ions into the blood stream.
When the concentration of sodium ions in the blood is adequate,
adrenal glands are less stimulated; hence less sodium ions are
reabsorbed.
4. Describe the mechanism of thermoregulation by the skin

In cold temperature the skin reduces loss of heat in the following ways:
 Erector muscles contract causing the hairs on the surface of the
skin to stand upright. Air which is a bad conductor of heat is
trapped between the hairs preventing heat loss from the body.
 Vasoconstriction (narrowing of skin arterioles) occurs to reduce
the amount of blood passing through the skin. This reduces heat
loss.
 Shivering that is the rapid muscular contraction of skeletal
muscles in the limbs. Heat is leases due to respiration that takes
place in the muscles. Body temperature is hence brought back
to normal levels.
In hot temperature the skin promote heat loss in the following ways:
 Erector muscles relax causing the hair to lie flat on the skin.
This increases heat loss from the body by conduction since no
layer of still air forms.
 Vasodilation (widening of skin arterioles) occurs increasing the
amount of blood passing through the skin. This allows more
heat to be lost from the body by conduction.

 Sweating-sweat glands become more active and produce more

sweat. The water in sweat absorbs heat from the body in order to
evaporate, thereby cooling the body.

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5. Describe the role of the liver in the regulation of blood sugar and
body temperature
When the glucose level is above normal in the blood, the pancreas is
stimulated to produce insulin which lowers the level of glucose in the
following ways: stimulates cells of the liver and muscles to convert
excess glucose to glycogen which is stored in the liver and muscles and
causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess glucose to fats.
It also stimulates liver cells to oxidize glucose to release energy.
When glucose levels are too low in the blood, the pancreas secretes
glucagon which increases glucose levels in the blood in the following ways:
cause the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose and
cause fats (glycerol) and amino acids to be changed into glucose.
The liver produces and distributes heat because of many metabolic
reactions that take place in it and the network of blood vessels.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. Describe what a hormone is
Hormones are regulatory chemicals transported by blood to target organs.
2. Identify the endocrine glands in a human being

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3. Identify the hormones produced by the pancreas, adrenal, thyroid
and pituitary glands
• Pancreas: Insulin and glucagon,
• Adrenal: adrenaline,
• Thyroid: Thyroxine,
• Pituitary: Anti diuretic hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone,
follicle stimulating hormone, growth hormone
4. Describe the functions of thyroxine, insulin, glucagon and
adrenaline

Hormone Function

Thyroxine • Controls the basal metabolic rate

• Controls normal development of the
skeleton

• Controls normal growth of the brain

Insulin • Converts glucose to glycogen to glucose
• Promotes convection of carbohydrates of
fats

• Slows down the conversion of protein to

carbohydrates

Glucagon Converts glycogen to glucose

Adrenaline Prepares the body for emergency situations

Effects of over secretion of adrenaline

• Increase in blood sugar level
• Hypertension
• Excessive sweating and exhaustion
Effects of under secretion of adrenaline
• Reduction in blood sugar level
• Rapid weight loss
Effects of over secretion of thyroxine
• Abnormally high metabolic rate
• Thin, restless and irritable

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Effects of under secretion of thyroxine
• Goitre-swelling of the neck due to enlargement of the thyroid gland
• Retardation in physical and mental development in children
• Low metabolic rate
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE ORGANS

1. Identify main parts of the nervous system in a human being

The Nervous system

2. Describe what neurones are

• Neurones or nerve cells are specialised cells through which
information is carried in the nervous system

• Sensory neurones transmit impulses from receptor to the central

nervous system.

• Motor neurones transmit impulses from the central nervous

system to the effectors.
• Relay neurones connects sensory and motor neurones. Relay
information from sensory to motor neurones.

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3. Explain the path taken by an impulse through a spinal reflect are
• A receptor detects a change in a condition (stimulus). A message
is carried from the receptor to the central nervous system by a
sensory neurone. After processing, a message is sent from the
central nervous system to an organ (an effector) that carried out a
response. A motor neurone carries this message.

Receptor sensory neurone central nervous system motor neurone

effector
4. Describe what the spinal cranial and the conditioned reflex actions
are
• Spinal reflex action
Simple spinal reflex actions are inherited or inborn responses
which produce the same response for a given stimulus e.g.
knee, jerking.
• Cranial reflex action

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 Cranial reflexes are mediated by the brain and pass along the
cranial nerves. Examples are constriction and dilation of the
eye pupil, blinking of the eye, salivation in response to slight or
thought of food.
• Conditioned reflex action
Conditioned reflexes are learned reflexes in which the final
response has no natural relationship to the stimulus. In an
experiment, a Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov rang a bell when he
fed dogs. The dogs then salivated in response to the bell, even
then no food was given. The natural stimulus the food had
been replaced by an unnatural one (the sound of the bell).
Conditioned reflexes can be unlearned – if the unnatural
stimulus is not repeated with the natural one – if the food was
produced without a bell over a period of time, the dogs would no
longer salivate at the sound of the bell.
5. Identify the main parts of the brain of a human being.

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6. Explain the functions of the forebrain and the hindbrain
Cerebrum
• Determines the level of intelligence, thinking, memory and
imagination

• Control voluntary movements such as movement of limbs, mouth,

lips, tongue, neck, abdomen and so on.

• Responsible for the sensation of pain, temperature, touch, sight

and hearing.
Hypothalamus

• Controls temperature and water

• Controls feedings, talking and eating
• Stimulates the pituitary to secrete hormones

Cerebellum
• Maintenances of balance or equilibrium through coordinated
muscle movements.

• Maintenances of normal body posture

Medulla oblongata
Controls the unconscious body actions such as swallowing, salivation,
vomiting, and respiration, breathing process, contraction and dilation
of blood vessels
7. Describe the effects of abuse of drugs on the nervous system
• Affect the breathing centre of the brain (depressants); destroy the
neurones, and increase reaction time.

• Induce relief from pain, fatigue and alleviate depression

• lack of sleep and reduced sexual urge
• Leads to loss of appetite
8. Explain the effects of tetanus infection
Tetanus toxin is a neurotoxin which inhibits transmission of impulses
in the nervous system leading to muscular tenseness. The tetanus
toxin exerts its effect on the brain cells resulting in the formation of
lesions especially in the cortical region hence inhibiting brain
functions. The tetanus toxin inhibits interneuron communication by

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 hindering synthesis and release of a neurotransmitter substance
called acetylcholine. The tetanus toxin induces muscular contractions
leading to severe muscle spasms that are powerful enough to tear the
muscles. This could result in paralysis. The toxin also affects
muscles that control breathing resulting in difficulty in breathing and
subsequent suffocation.
SENSE ORGANS
1. Identify the external and internal structures of human eye
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EYE

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2. Explain the functions of the parts of eye

Part of eye Function

Pupil Allows light to enter the eye

Iris Expands and contracts to control the amount the light

entering the eye

Sclera Protects the eye against damage

Retina Contains light sensitive cells, the rods and cones/this is

where images are formed

Cornea Transparent layer responsible for most of the refraction of

light

Tear gland Particles or foreign bodies it contains enzymes lysozyme

which attach bacteria.

Conjunctiva It protects the cornea. Its transparent and protective

membrane that covers

eyeball The exposed part of the eye

3. Describe the accommodation of the eye

Accommodation is the automatic change in shape of the lens to ensure
that a clear image is formed on the retina
Accommodation of near objects
To bring the image of the near object to focus, the lens should be made
thicker or more convex. This is achieved through the contraction of
ciliary muscles and relaxation of suspensory ligaments.
Accommodation of distant objects
To bring the image of distant object to focus, the lens should be made
thinner or less convex. This is brought about by the ciliary muscles
relaxing while the suspensory ligaments becoming tight (contract) thereby
pulling the edge of the elastic lens.

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4. Describe the causes of short and long sightedness
Causes of long-sightedness:
This is an eye defect caused either due to the eyeball being too short or
the lens being too thin. The shortness of the eyeball leads to focusing
the rays behind the retina. The thinness of the lens makes it not able
to converge the light rays on the retina. Instead the image is formed
behind the retina.
Cause of short-sightedness:
This is an eye defect in which either the eyeball is longer than normal
such that the parallel rays from distant objects are brought to focus in
front of the retina or the lens is too thick that it bends the parallel
rays of light from an object converging them to focus in front of the
retina. This leads to formation of blurred image.
5. Explain the correction of short and long sight
Correction of long – sightedness:
Long a sightedness can be corrected by wearing spectacles with convex
lens which bends the light rays inward the process called convergence.
The rays are now focused on the retina hence the image is clear.
Correction of short sightedness:
This is done by wearing spectacles with concave lenses, also referred to
as diverging lens. Concave lenses diverge the light rays ensuring that
they are focused on the retina hence the image becomes clear.
6. Investigate the common causes and methods of preventing
blindness
Causes of blindness
Vitamin A deficiency affects the rods (which are sensitive to low light
intensity) leading to less synthesis of retinal; a photo chemical substance.
The rods eventually get damaged.
• The adult filarial worm migrates through the subconjunctival
tissues in the eyes of humans and find their way to the retina
affecting the rods.

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 • Diabetes mellitus due to excess levels of sugar in the blood and high
blood pressure damages the blood vessels in the eye.
Prevention of blindness
• Eating foods rich in Vitamin A, surgery can be conducted to remove
adult worms and taking antibiotics to treat filarial worms.
7. Describe the structure of the human ears

The human ear is made up of outer, middle and inner ears.

Outer ear
The pinna directs sound waves into the external auditory canal. The
external auditory canal has hair and some cells that secrete wax which
trap dust and micro-organisms preventing from reaching the inner
part of the ear.
Middle ear
The ear drum vibrates under the impact of sound waves. The ear
ossicles namely hammer (malleus), the incus (anvil) and stirrup
(stapes) amplify the vibrations. The Eustachian tube balances pressure
on both sides of the ear drum.

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 Inner ear
The cochlea is fluid filled, coiled tube that transmits vibrations from the
middle ear to the sensitive nerve cells, where they are converted into a
nerve signal.
Semi-circular canals are fluid – filled canals that play an important role
in balance and orientation in human body.
The auditory nerve carried impulses from the ear to the brain.
8. Explain the functions of the parts of the ear

Part of ear Function

Ear drum Vibrates under the impact of sound. Forms

the boundary between the outer ear and
the middle ear.

Ear ossicles The ear ossicles amplify the vibrations and

forms a sound transmitting bridge from the
ear drum across the middle ear cavity to the
inner ear. It connects the eardrum to the oval
window.

Eustachian tube Connects the middle ear t the pharynx. It

allows entry or exit of air into or out of the
middle, which balances the air pressure on
both sides of the eardrum.

cochlea The cochlea is fluid filled, coiled tube that

transmits vibrations from the middle ear to
the sensitive nerve cells, where they are
converted into a nerve signal.

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 Semi-circular canals Contains hairs which detect changes in the
position of the head relative to gravity. It is
specialise in maintaining balance and
posture.

9. Describe causes and methods of preventing deafness

Deafness refers to the loss of hearing due to defective ears
Causes of deafness
• Infection of the ear
• Injury to the hearing in the brain, cochlea, and auditory canal.
• Damage to the ear drum or cochlea due to very loud music loud or
quarry blasts

• Hereditary abnormality of the ear ossicles which cause

nonconduction of the sound from the outer ear.
Preventing of deafness
• Avoid loud noise
• Use of good cleaning method
Describe the role of the skin as a sense organ
• The skin contains sensory cells which can be stimulated by changes
in temperature and pressure. Some are sensitive to touch and pain.
When stimulated the sensory cells send nerve impulses to the brain.
The brain then gives the response either in the form of the reflex
action or record an impression by which an animal is aware of the
stimulus.

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THE SKELETON AND LOCOMOTION
1. Identify various types of skeleton
Types of skeleton:
• Endoskeleton
• Exoskeleton
• Hydrostatic skeleton

2. Describe the functions of the skeleton

Functions of skeleton
The skeleton support the body by providing a rigid frame work against
such forces as compression, tension and gravitational force. It gives shape
to the body and provides points of attachment to form muscles.
The skeleton rotects delicate internal organs against physical injury.
e.g. the heart and lungs protected by the rib cage, the brain protected by
the skull, spinal cord by the vertebral column etc.
Structure and locomotion-muscles which contract to cause movement are
attached to the skeleton.
The skeleton of an insect

1. Investigate the structure and composition of an exoskeleton

The exoskeleton of an insect is completely external to the body.
Covering the body surface is a layer called a cuticle. This is a
nonliving structure secreted by the layers of the epidermis. The cuticle
is divided into two main layers, the epicuticle (outer layer) and
procuticle (inner layer). The epicuticle is a very thin layer and is
covered with wax. Theprocuticle is further divided into two sub-layers,
called the exocuticle and endocuticle. Both contain chitin, which
strengthens the exoskeleton. Beneath the procuticle is a single layer of
cells called the epidermis.
The epidemis produces cells for the upper layers of the cuticle. The
epidermis enables the insect to form a new exoskeleton when it has shed
the old one.
2. Identify joints and muscles in the limbs of a grasshopper.

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 Joints and attachment of muscle (flexons and extensors) in the limbs
of a grasshopper
The mammalian skeleton

1. Identify the bones of the axial and the appendicular skeletons

Types of Skeleton

The axial skeleton

Skull
Sternum
The rib cage
Vertebral column

The appendicular skeleton consists of the:

Pectoral girdle-scapula (shoulder bone), clavicle (collar bone)
Pelvic girdle
Upper limbs-humerus, ulna, radius
Lower limbs – femur, tibia, fibula

2. Explain a bone as a living tissue

A bone is considered a living tissue because it contains blood,
lymph and nerves. The spongy bone is filled with red bone marrow
that forms red blood cells. The central cavity is filled with yellow bone
marrow which makes white blood cells. Abnormal division of cells is
the bone marrow leads to cancer or leukemia. The tuberculosis
bacteria can enter an infected person’s bone marrow and stay
dormant even after they have been treat with antibiotics for the
disease.
TB bacteria are particularly likely to attack the vertebrae of the spine and
the ends of long bones. If not treated, the vertebrae may collapse and
cause paralysis in the limbs.

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 Muscles and joints
3. Describe the structure of a skeleton muscle
A skeleton muscle is spindle shaped i.e. tapes at both ends. Each
muscle has long fibres. When seen under a microscope its fibres are
seen to have stripes running over them. They are striped as such they
are striated hence the name striated muscles. For a muscle fibre to
contract it requires energy. Each muscle fibre contains many and
large mitochondria that supply energy to the muscle through cellular
respiration.
4. Demonstrate the action of antagonistic muscles
Muscles always work in pairs to bring about movement. They have an
opposite effect o each other and are called antagonistic muscles.
When one muscle contracts, the other muscle relaxes. The biceps and
triceps muscles in the upper arm forms an antagonistic pair. The
contraction of biceps and relaxation of triceps bends the arm. The
contraction of the triceps and relaxation of the biceps straighten the
arm.
The iris consists of circular and radial involuntary muscles that are
antagonistic. When light intensity is high the circular muscles of the
iris contract while the radial muscles relaxes. The pupil constricts
(becomes smaller) and less light enters the eye. When light intensity is
low, the circular muscles of the iris relax while the radial muscles
contract. The pupil dilates (becomes wider) and more light enters the
eye to enable you to see in less light.
5. Compare the ball and socket joint and the hinge joint
A ball and socket joint is one which allows movement in all plans
(directions) including rotational movement. The rounded head of one
bone fits into a cavity in which the head of the other bone moves freely
while a hinge joint is a joint which permits movement in one plane
only. The depression in one bone allows the smooth condyles of
another bone to fit and articulate.

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 Gout is the form arthritis with the following symptoms: sudden
inflammation, swelling, tenderness and severe pain in one or more
joins. Gout is caused by the built of uric acid in the blood. Uric acid is
made when the body breaks down certain foods e.g. mushroom, meat,
alcohol and converts some of the amino acids into uric acid. Gout
attacks are more common in cooler parts of the body and also in areas
that experience more use of joints such as the foot.

6. Identify the parts and functions of the synovial joint

Functions of the synovial joint:

• Cartilage prevents friction and the grinding of bone against bone.
It acts as a shock absorber.

• Ligament connects bone to bone and prevent dislocation of the

joint. They keep the joint stable

• Synovial fluid is a lubricating fluid that reduces friction in the joint

and allows free movement. It also supplies nutrients and oxygen to
the parts of the joint and removes waste products.

• Synovial membrane secretes the synovial fluid.

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7. Compare the joints, muscle attachment and movement in
endoskeletons with those of exoskeletons
In endoskeletons synovial joints allow free movement in all directions.
Antagonistic muscles are attached by tendons to the living bones.
The relatively light, hollow bones allow efficient movement. Movement
takes place in several directions and in different environments, such
as water, land and the air.
In exoskeletons joins allow movement in one direction only.
Antagonistic muscles are attached to special parts on the inside of the
cuticle of the exoskeleton. Small inserts with exoskeleton can move fast
on land, in water and in the air. Large animals with exoskeleton will
move slowly because a bigger exoskeleton is heavy.

TROPIC AND TOXIC RESPONSES

Tropic responses
1. Describe what tropic response is
Tropic response or tropism refers to a growth movement by a plant in
response to environmental stimulus, e.g. water, light gravity and
chemicals. The direction of growth is dictated by the direction of the
stimulus. This means that, a plant organ grows either towards or away
from the source of stimulus.
2. Demonstrate growth responses exhibited by plants
(a) Phototropism
This is the growth movement or bending of a plant in response to
light coming from one direction. The direction or orientation of a
curvature is dependent on the direction from which light
originates. If the plant bends towards the direction of light, it is
referred to as positive phototropism while if the curvature is
away from the light it is referred to as negative phototropism.

(b)Geotropism
This is a growth response towards the force of gravity. Roots are
positively geotropic while stems are negatively geotropic.
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 (c) Hydrotropism
This is the growth of the plant in response to water. Roots are
positively hydrotropic because they grow into the soil, which
provide the constant water and mineral ions.
(d) Chemotropism refers to growth movement in response to
chemical substances. If the substances are not distributed
uniformly in a given medium, growth curvature occurs in the
direction of the concentration gradient. If the curvature is
towards the higher concentration the growth response is said to
be positively chemotropic while if it is towards the lower
concentration, the growth response is said to be negatively
chemotropic.
3. Explain the effects of light energy and gravity on the growth of
plants
If a plant is exposed to light from one source the auxins migrate to the
darker areas away from light. The bending of the shoot tip is caused
by differential growth rates of the shoot on the different sides. There
is reduced growth on the illuminated side and an increased growth on
the shaded side. This is because the shaded side has higher
concentration of auxin which stimulates higher growth by
encouraging cell division and cell elongation. The illuminated side has
a lower concentration of auxin hence a relatively lower growth rate.
In a horizontally oriented root, there is lateral displacement of auxin
due to force of gravity leading to the accumulation on the lower half of
the root. The high concentration of auxin inhibits cell division and cell
elongation so the upper has a higher rate of cell division and
elongation leading to a growth curvature of the root downwards.

Toxic Responses
1. Describe what toxic response is
This is the movement of the whole organism in response to the direction
of an external stimulus. A taxis involves orientation and movement
directly to or away from one or stimuli such as light.

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2. Explain responses exhibited by invertebrates
Woodlice and cockroaches move away from light to avoid exposure and
desiccation. Cockroaches and wood lice show negative phototoxic
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth in Plants
1. Explain the meaning of growth
Growth: Increase in number of cells, dry mass, complexity and size
2. Identify the regions of growth in stems and roots

3. Identify differentiated cells in plants

Ground Tissue Parenchyma Collenchymas Sclerenchymas

Tissue Tissue Tissue*

Function Photosynthesis Support in young Rigid support

Food storage stems, roots, and Protection
Healing and petioles
tissue
regeneration

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Cell Types in this Parenchyma Collenchymas Sclereid cells &
Tissue cells fibre cells

4. Explain the differentiation of primary and secondary tissues in

plants
Collenchyma
Differentiation: cell walls are unevenly thickened with cellulose and cells are
tightly packed together
Function in the plant: provides strength and flexibility for stems and leaves

Parenchyma
Differentiation: cells have thin walls and large vacuoles
Function in the plant: used for storage of sugar, water and starches; some
contain chloroplast for photosynthesis.
Cambium
Differentiation: vascular cambium is found between the xylem and phloem
in vascular bundles and contains meristematic cells.
Function in the plant: responsible for the growth of xylem secondary growth
and can be seen as annual rings in older stems.
Sclerenchyma
Differentiation: cells are usually dead and hollow the cells walls contain lignin
to make the cells strong
Function in the plant: provides the stems of plants with strength and support

Phloem
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Differentiation: consist of long columns of sieve tube cells (with no nuclei) and
companion cells (other living cells)
Function in the plant: transport of sugars
Xylem vessels
Differentiation: Develop into long hollow tubes (dead cells with no nuclei or
cytoplasm) and strengthened with lignin
Function in the plant: Transport of water and strengthening of the organs
Germination and development

1. Distinguish the structure of a dicotyledonous and a

monocotyledonous seed

Structure of a dicot and a monocot seed

2. Investigate conditions necessary for germination
A water supply-germination starts with seed take up water. The seed
swells up as water moves through it the increase in water increases the
metabolism inside the seed.
Presence of oxygen-as the metabolism of the seed increases,
respiration increase. This requires more oxygen. Although the seed
respires anaerobically at first, it switches over to aerobic respiration as
more energy is used by the growing seed.

Favourable temperature-seed usually germinate in the warmer spring

months. Enzymes need a favourable temperature to work efficiently

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3. Demonstrate hypogeal and Epigeal germination
Hypogeal germination refers to the elongation of the hypocotyls in
monocots. As the shoot develops, the cotyledons the seed remain
underground.

Epigeal germination refers to the elongation of epicotyls in dicots. In seed, such

as the bean see, the cotyledons grow above the ground during germination, and
they become the first photosynthetic leaves.

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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in Fungi, Amoeba and Bacteria
1. Describe the different types of reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
• Produce offspring from a single parent without fusion of gametes

• Produce offspring by mitosis

• New organism exactly like its parent
Sexual Reproduction
• Provides a mean of survival of the species under unfavourable
conditions

• Have a different genetic make-up from their parents

• A good chance for some of the offspring to adapt to the new
environment

• Sex cells & gametes are produced by meiosis

• Sometimes an organism can produce both male & female gametes
(hermaphrodite)

• Fertilization (male gamete + female gamete) takes place which

produce a zygote

2. Describe asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms

Binary Fission (e.g. Amoeba)
1. Pseudopodia withdrawn
2. Nucleus divided into two
3. Two daughter Amoebas formed
Budding (e.g. Yeast)
1. Parent cell produces small outgrowth
2. Outgrowth detaches from parent cell
3. A new cell formed

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3. Describe the sexual and asexual reproduction in fungus
Asexually fungi reproduce by means of spores. Once the spores are
dispersed from the parents they germinate, if conditions are suitable.
Sexually fungi reproduce by means of haploid cells from two different
mycelia. The nuclei of the two different mycelia fuse to form a diploid
zygote then meiosis occurs to form haploid spores.

Asexual reproduction in bread mould (Nshima mould)

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Structure of Rhizopus

4. Explain the importance of fungi and bacteria

• Decomposition of organic matter and nutrient recycling

• Disease causing effects such as ringworm and bacillary dysentery
• Production of food and alcohol, source of food (mushroom)

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VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
5. Describe different methods of natural propagation
Different methods of natural propagation: Runners, rhizomes, corms,
buds, suckers, stem tubers, root tubers, bulbs

Runner

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6. Investigate different methods of artificial propagation
Budding, cutting, grafting, layering
Budding
1. A new bud is developed on parent plant
2. Adventitious roots formed and absorbed water and mineral salts for
young plant
3. Parent plant develops green leaves for photosynthesis
4. Food stored in a specialized underground storage organ (not
transport to parent plant)
5. Bud formed for growth in next growing season
6. Aerial shoot dies down in dry season
7. Underground storage organ remains dormant till next year.
Cutting: a process by which a piece of branch, stem, root or leaf when
planted grows into a new individual.
Other methods: Grafting and Layering.
Plants which can use cutting: Cassava, African Violet,
Procedures:
 Select a healthy leaf
 Use a razor blade /sharp knife to cut it off
 Insert the leaf stalk into a small pot containing some suitable soil
 Tiny new plant will be formed within 6-8 weeks

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of vegetative propagation

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 Advantages Disadvantages

Rapid rate of reproduction Overcrowding may occur which

leads to competition for water,
space & light

Can retain desirable characters No genetic variation occurs which

as offspring are genetically decreases the ability to adapt to
identical to parent changes in the surroundings

Large food reserves are provided Diseases of the parent plant are
for daughter plants rapidly transmitted to the
offspring

Does not involve external agents

or another plant

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

1. Identify the parts of a typical flower

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2. Describe the functions of various parts of a flower

3. Distinguish between two different types of pollination

Self-pollination this is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to
the stigma of the same flower or different flower of the same plant
species while cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anthers to the stigma of another plant of the same species.
Note self-pollinated flowers have the following characteristics
Bisexual, hermaphrodite flowers, for example marigold
Anthers and stigmas ripens at the same time e.g. tomatoes Flowers
remain closed until fertilisation has taken place e.g. garden peas
The flowers are buried in the ground e.g. groundnuts

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4. Distinguish between wind and insect pollination

Wind-Pollinated Flower Insect-Pollinated Flower

• generally small & inconspicuous • generally larger & conspicuous

• green or dull coloured, or no • brightly coloured, often with
petals at all insectguide
• no nectar • nectarines often present at the base
of flower which produces nectar
• no scent • often strongly scented
• anthers hanging out of the flower • anthers found inside the flower
• stigma is large & feathery, stigma found inside the flower
exposed for catching pollen grains

• having large number of pollen • having small number of pollen

grains which are lighter & with grains which are rougher & heavier
smooth surface with spikes
• flowers sometimes appear in • flowers appear in warmer season
colder & drier season

5. Describe the process of fertilization in flowers

FERTILIZATION
Fusion of male gamete & female gamete to form a zygote
Process
• Pollen grain lands on a stigma and then secretes sugary solution

• Stimulates the development of pollen tube which grows down the

style & ovary

• Secretes enzyme to digest a pathway through style

• Liberates male gamete in ovary & fuse with egg cell
6. Investigate ways in which seeds and fruits are dispersed. Seed and
fruit-dispersal is mainly by water, wind, animals and self-mechanism.

7. Explain the adaptation of fruits and seeds to mode of dispersal

There are different types of dispersal:
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 By animal
 Possess spines & hooks which cling to animals’ fur
 Protected by hard seed coat which resists the action of animals’
digestive juice after eaten
By wind
 Some fruits are light & have large surface area to catch wind
Others: by explosion, by water

8. Explain the importance of fruit and seed dispersal

Importance of dispersal: For plant propagation, plant preservation and
survival.

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REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

1. Describe the process of reproduction in a frog
Frog reproduce in water, male frogs call to attract females. It induces the
female to release her eggs in water and the male frog releases the sperms
over the over the eggs. This is called external fertilization because it
takes place outside the females’ body.
2. Identify male and female reproductive organs in human beings

3. Explain the functions of the different organs of the human

reproductive system

FALLOPIAN TUBES (OVIDUCT): the fallopian tubes are about 12 cm

long and have ends that are funnel shaped. These ends collect the egg
after ovulation. Cilia and peristalsis move the egg along the tube.
The egg will die in the tube if it is not fertilized.
UTERUS: The uterus, also known as the womb, is made of involuntary
muscle. It is lines with the endometrium this lining thickens with
cells and blood every month. This happens in order to nourish the
embryo (if present).

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 CERVIX: The opening of the uterus is called the cervix .the cervix
separates the vagina from the uterus.
VAGINA: The vagina is a muscular tube which allows the sperm to enter
the female as well as the baby to exit. It is lined with mucous secreting
cells.
URETHRA: The urethra opens near the vagina. The vagina is
protected by folds of skin called the vulva. The hymen partially blocks
the entrance of the vagina. It is broken by sexual intercourse or with
the use of tampons.
4. Describe the biological changes associated with sexual
development in human beings

• At puberty, oestrogen causes the primary female sexual

characteristics of the growth of the sex organs.

• At puberty both oestrogen and progesterone cause the secondary

female characteristics.
They include:
• The enlargement of the breasts
• Widening of the hips
• Increased body fat
• Growth of public and underarm hair
• General growth spurt in height

Male secondary sexual characteristics include:

• Hair growth on the face, underarm, chest and public region
• Enlarge larynx producing a deeper voice
• Wider shoulders
• Greater skeletal muscular development
• Growth in height and weight
5. Describe the menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle occurs every 28days from puberty to menopause
(the end of the female’s reproductive life). It occurs only if fertilization of
the egg has not taken place.
The typical events of the menstrual cycle are:

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 Day 1 to day 5-
 The endometrium breaks down and is shed from the body.
This is called menstruation.
 Meiosis occurs in the ovary to produce anew egg surrounded by
the Graafian follicle. Day 6 to day 13
 Oestrogen is produced by the Graafian follicle. Oestrogen also
stimulates the endometrium to thicken again. One Graafian
follicle with one egg develops.
 Oestrogen stimulates the production of LH (luteinising hormone)
Day 14
 The surge of LH stimulates ovulation.
 the egg enters the funnel of the Fallopian tube. It can be fertilized
for the next 48hours.
Day 15 to day 26
 The corpus luteum (yellow body) develops from the remains of the
Graafian follicle. This produced progesterone and some oestrogen.
The progesterone causes the endometrium to continue to thicken.
It also prevents new eggs from forming.
 The egg that was released at day 14 will die if it is not fertilized. If
fertilization did not take place the corpus luteum begins to
degenerate.

Day 26 to day 28
 Oestrogen and progesterone levels decline
 The endometrium begins to break down  Day one of the cycle
begins.

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6. Explain the processes of fertilization and implantation in human
beings
Copulation is also coitus or sexual intercourse. During this process
the penis moves into the vagina in order to deposit semen which
contains sperm cells. The depositing of the semen is called
insemination

FERTILISATION (EVENTS OF FERTILISATION)

a. After insemination the sperm will move up the Fallopian tubes
b. If ovulation has occurred and an egg is present the egg will release a
chemical that attracts the sperm. This is called chemotaxis
c. The sperm that reaches the egg will use an enzyme in its acrosomen
to make an opening in the membrane of the egg.
d. Once one sperm enters the egg (only the head enters) the egg forms
a membrane that prevents other sperm from entering.
e. The nucleus of the egg fuses of the egg. A diploid zygote forms.
f. Fertilization may take place during days

IMPLANTATION
About 6-9 days after fertilization the fertilized egg becomes embedded
into the lining of the uterus. The zygote has now become an embryo.
A membrane called the amnion develops around the embryo. This

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 membrane will contain amnion fluid which surrounds and protects the
embryo.

6. Identify causes of infertility in human beings

MALE INFERTILITY
The most common cause of male infertility is the low production of
sperm. There are many causes of sperm production. Alcohol and drug
abuse, high temperature of the testes, and low testosterone production
are all causes
FEMALE INFERTILITY
Female infertility is the inability to conceive by fertilisation failure or
implantation failure. Egg cell formation or ovulation may not occur
due to a hormone imbalance. The egg cell may not be able pass to the
uterus due to blockage of the Fallopian tubes. Treatment with
hormones may be successful. In-vitro fertilisation and implantation is
often used to treat female infertility.
7. Describe development of the embryo in the uterus

EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE ZYGOTE

1. The zygote divides many times by cleavage (increase in the
number of cells by division but no overall increase in size) to
double its cell number. A solid clump of about 100 cells called the
morula is formed.
2. About 5 days after fertilisation the morula develops into a hollow
ball called a blastocyst. The outer cells of the blastocyst form the
trophoblasts. This will become the membranes around the
embryo. The inner cells, called the inner mass will become the
embryo.

3. The blastocyst is pushed down the fallopian tube and into the
uterus for implantation.

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DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO (HIGHER LEVEL)
The mesoderm cells further develop into the muscles and blood, the endoderm
develops into the digestive tract and lungs, and the ectoderm develops into
the skin, nerves and brain.
The Gestation period is the length of time from fertilisation to birth. In humans
it is generally 266 days (38 weeks/9 months).
8. Describe health risks associated with foetal development
Health Risks: Poor nutrition, smoking, alcohol and drugs/herbal
medicines during pregnancy.
9. Describe healthy pregnancy and safe child birth
Healthy pregnancy: Antenatal services, good nutrition, exercise, giving
birth at a health facility.
BIRTH CONTROL
10. Explain some methods of birth control

• Method of birth control include mechanical (Condoms, IUDs) surgical,

hormonal and natural.
Describe the benefits and possible risks of using contraceptives
• Benefits and Risks of Contraceptives: Benefits planned families,
Risks: side effects
(Disturbed menstrual cycle, weight gain, and hormonal imbalance

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GENETICS
Genetics: the study of how characters are transferred or inherited from one
generation to the next

Variation in Plant and Animal Species

1. Describe terms used in the study of genetics

Terms used in the study of genetics

• Gene: A gene is a short length of DNA on a chromosome which is

a unit determining an inherited character

• Alleles: Alternative forms of genes on the same position of the

homologous chromosome which control the same character but
have different expressions

• Chromosome: Genetic materials found inside the nucleus of a

cell

• Genotype – the genetic composition

• Phenotype – the external appearance
• Homozygous - (pure-breeding) with the same alleles in the same
character

• Heterozygous - (hybrid) with different alleles

• Dominant gene - (or character) which expresses its effect even I

heterozygous condition

• Recessive gene - (or character) which expresses its effect only in

homozygous condition

• Pedigree - It shows the inheritance of one or more characters in

different generations Test cross
- Cross the organism with dominant character to an
organism with homozygous recessive character

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  To test whether the organism with the dominant character is
homozygous or heterozygous
1. Back cross
Cross an organism with one of its parent

2. Describe the variations in human beings

Variation: the differences between individuals of the same species

Variation in human being: Eye colour, skin colour, finger print, tongue
rolling, height.

Observe variations in flowering plant: Fruit structure and scent, height

(tall, dwarf. Include leaf size, shape, and weight)

3. Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variations

Continuous variation
 With a continuous range of intermediate values
 e.g. height, weight, intelligence quotient, heart beat

Discontinuous variation
 The character is clear-cut & not showing intermediates
 e.g. tongue rolling, ear lobes and colour of corn

4. Describe the factors that cause variations among plant and

animals of the same species

• Meiosis
• Homologous chromosomes separate independently from each
other and pass into a different gamete (INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT). As a result, a great variety of gametes are
produced
• Random Fertilization
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 • Since fertilisation is a random process, there are many
possible different combinations of genes in a zygote

• Mutation
• Genetic make-u may suddenly change
• Sometimes occur naturally
• Rate may greatly increase if the organism is exposed to
radiation, certain chemicals or neutron bombardment

• Most mutation are harmful

Environmental Factors
Cause variation in characters with continuous variation Factors that cause
variations include climatic factors, nutrition and soils.

CELL DIVISION AND CHROMOSOMES

5. Describe the stages of cell division

First Meiotic Division

• Chromosomes become visible

• Nuclear membrane disappears
• Homologous chromosomes pair up (not in mitosis)
• Crossing-over (not in mitosis) may occur between homologous
chromosomes

• Homologous chromosomes line up in the middle of cell randomly

• The 2 members of each homologous chromosome separate from each

other and move towards the opposite poles of the cell

• Nuclear membrane reforms

• Followed by cytoplasmic cleavage

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 Second Meiotic Division
Separation of chromatids of each chromosome
4 daughter cells with half of the chromosome number of the parent cell
are formed
Occurrence of meiosis
Plants: anthers and ovules
Mammals: tests and ovaries
6. Explain the importance of mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis

Number of division 1 2

No. of daughter cells 2 4

produced

Type of cells produced Somatic (body) cells Gametes (sex cells)

Chromosome number of Same as parent cell Half of parent cell

daughter cell (diploid) (haploid)

Pairing of homologous No Yes

chromosomes

Occurrence Growing tissues Reproductive tissues

(gonads)

Role For growth and For gamete formation

replacement

• Produce haploid gametes which, after fertilization, can restore

normal diploid conditions

• Produce genetic variations

Inheritance
7. Explain what a monohybrid inheritance is
Monohybrid Inheritance: The inheritance of just one pair of contrasting
characters.
Cross 2 pure breeding parents with contrasting characters

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Demonstrate the inheritance of characteristics using the crossings

8. Explain the factors that determine the sex of a human being

• In humans, sex is determined by sex chromosomes

• male: XY Chromosomes
• female: XX chromosomes
• Chromosomes other than sex chromosomes somatic
chromosomes which control normal body characters

• 22 pairs are identical in both sexes (human)

• autosomes
The 23rd pair is different in male and female

• sex chromosomes
9. Explain the inheritance of sex linked characteristics
All the genes carried on the sex chromosomes are transmitted along with
those determining the sex of an organism-a characteristics is sex linked
if the gene that controls it is found on the X or Y chromosome.
Examples of sex linked characteristics in humans include red-green
colour blindness, haemophilia and hairy ears.

10. Describe the mechanism of ABO blood groups inheritance

The A, B, AB or O phenotype is determined by three alleles designated 1A,
1B and 1O, 1A and 1B are both dominant to 1O, but 1A and 1B are co-
dominant. Therefore individuals with alleles 1A and 1B will have AB
blood group.
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11. Describe what mutation is
Permanent changes in structure of chromosomes and genes

IDENTIFY THE CAUSES OF MUTATION

12. Explain effects of mutation

Causes of mutation: Natural radiation (nuclear emission, and x-rays,
ultra-violet light
13. Describe the uses of mutations
Uses of mutations: induced mutation in Agriculture. (Polyploidy plants)

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Classification:
Classification is the grouping of living organisms according to similar structures
and functions.
Taxonomy: the science of describing, naming, and classifying organisms.
1. Identify various types of plants
Types of plants: Chlorophytes (Algae), Bryophytes (mosses, ferns),
coniferous plants and flowering plants
2. Identify various types of animals
Types of mammals: reptiles, amphibians, birds, arthropods and protozoa.
3. Formulate a simple key for classification of plants and animals
Simple key for classification is known as Dichotomous keys
It is a tool used by biologists to identify an unknown organism
It is simply a series of paired statements of anatomical description that
lead to an identification
4. Use a simple classification key to identify plants and animals
Dichotomous key for identification of animals
1. a) animal has a spine ………………………………. Go to 2
b) animals has no spine……………………………. Invertebrate
2. a) animal has no gills and fins …………………… Go to 3
b) animal has gills and fins……………………….. Fish

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 3. a) animal has scales…………………………………. Go to 4
b) animal has scales ………………………………… reptile

4. a) animal has feathers………………………………. Bird

b) animal has no feather …………………………… Go to 5

5. a) animal has hair …………………………………… mammal

b) animal has no hair ………………………………. Amphibian
Dichotomous key for identification of plant

1a Fruits occur singly …………………………………….. Go to 3

1b Fruits occur in clusters of two or more……………. Go to 2

2a Fruits are round………………………………………… Grapes

2b Fruits are elongate …………………………………….. Bananas

3a Thick skin that separates easily from flesh ……… Oranges

3b Thin skin that adheres to flesh ……………………… Go to 4

4a More than one seed per fruit …………………………. Apples

4b One seed per fruit ……………………………………….. Go to 5

5a Skin covered with velvety hairs ………………………. Peaches

5b Skin smooth, without hairs ……………………………. Plums

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 THE SOIL

1. Demonstrate soil composition.

Soil composition: Air, micro-organism, soil particles, humus
2. Describe the types of soil and their properties
Types and Properties of soil: types; Clay, Loam and sandy soils
3. Describe factors that make soil fertile
Factors that make soil fertile: Air, microorganisms, moisture, mineral
elements, organic matter, pH

4. Investigate causes of loss of fertility in soil

Causes of loss of fertility in soil: Deforestation, poor farming methods, late
burning, overgrazing, leaching, harvesting.
5. Explain methods of improving and retaining soil fertility
Methods of improving and retaining soil fertility: Suitable pH weeding,
application of fertiliser, crop rotation, conservation farming.

ECOLOGY

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC INTERACTIONS

1. Explain the term ecology
Ecology: is the study of relationships that organisms have with each other
and their environment
2. Explain the terms used in ecology
Habitat: the place where an organism lives. An organism in any habitat
is never an independent unit.
Ecological niche: the function of an organism or the role it plays in the
habitat.
Population: a group of individuals of the same species occupying a given
area at a given time.
Community: when different populations of plants and animals live
together and interact within the same environment

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 Ecosystem: an ecological system formed by the interaction of living
organisms and their non-living environment (both biotic and abiotic
factors)
A functioning ecosystem uses both energy and materials (inorganic
nutrients)
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS AND ENERGY FLOW

3. Design a food chain

PLANT RABBIT FOX

4. Design a food web

5. Describe the way energy flows along food chains and food webs.
Energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy that other
organisms can eat as food. This means that it is transferred through the
entire food chain until it reaches the top most consumers.
6. Describe the efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels
In the process of being transferred from trophic level to another, energy
is also lost. How does this take place? Other uses after an herbivore
eats some food, it produces faeces. So the energy in the undigested
food is not passed on to the primary carnivores which are at the next

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 trophic level. The remaining chemical energy/food is used by the
herbivore for a number of functions such as cellular respiration, tissue
repair, body movement and cell division/growth.
• The ratio of energy at one level compared to the next higher level
is called the conversion efficiency

• 10% as the average conversion efficiency from one trophic level to

the next.
7. Construct pyramids of numbers, bio-mass and energy
Pyramids are graphic representations of the relative amounts of
energy or matter at each trophic level. May be: Energy
Pyramid, Biomass Pyramid OR Pyramid of Numbers

Pyramid of Numbers: These allow you to compare the number of

organisms present in each trophic level at a particular time.
They are usually upright but may be upside down.

Biomass Pyramid
This shows the amount of dry mass at each trophic level.

Energy pyramid

Pyramid of energy allows us to compare the amount of energy

passing through each trophic level. They are always upright.
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POPULATION
8. Explain the term population
The number of different species in a community

9. Investigate factors that cause change in population size

Factors that lead to changes include natural disasters, disease,
immigration, emigration, and wars.
CARBON AND NITROGEN, WATER CYCLES
10. Describe how carbon and nitrogen are cycled within an
ecosystem.

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The carbon cycle

11. Describe what the water cycle is

12. Investigate key features of an ecosystem

Features of an ecosystem: Community and Non-living part of
environment (Use a pond as an example)

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 13. Explain the effects of Agriculture on an ecosystem
Leads to water, soil and air pollution.
14. Describe the effects of deforestation on soil stability and
climate
Effects of deforestation: soil erosion, global warming
POLLUTION
15. Describe the undesirable effects of pollution
Undesirable effects of pollution on water, air and land.
16. Determine measures to prevent pollution
Measures to prevent pollution: waste management. Use of
filters in chimneys. Include the conversion of sulphur dioxide to
sulphuric acid by passing it through a tank of water.

CONSERVATION
17. Identify the importance of conserving plant and animal
species
Importance of conserving plant and animal species is that it
helps to maintain biodiversity and also helps to prevent
endangered species from going into extinction

18. Explain how to reuse, reduce and recycle materials

3Rs: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

19. Investigate the importance of sustainable use of resources

Sustainable use of resources: Avoid deforestation, over fishing,
over hunting; encourage game keeping.

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BIO-DIVERSITY

Investigate diversity of organisms in a given locality.

1. Investigate the importance of diversity of organisms in given
locality
Equilibrium of organisms in the ecosystem
2. Explain how some organisms are adapted to the environment
Adaptive characteristics of fish, insects, mammals and plants.
3. Investigate the impact of human activity on organisms
Impact of human activities on organisms:

• Refer to hunting, fishing, and charcoal production.

• Also refer to the threatened extinction of the African elephant.
4. Describe the economic reasons for maintaining bio-diversity.
For tourism, medicinal plants and animal, source of food.

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