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Section A

1. Define Database Management System.

A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that allows

users to create, retrieve, update, and manage data in a database. It serves
as an interface between the database and the end-users or application
programs, ensuring data is organized and easily accessible.

Example: MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle Database.

2. List any five applications of DBMS.

1. Banking: For account management, transaction processing, and

online banking.
2. Healthcare: Managing patient records and hospital information
systems.
3. Education: Maintaining student records, course management, and
attendance systems.
4. Retail: Inventory management and online shopping platforms.
5. Social Media: User account management and content delivery.

3. What are the disadvantages of the file processing system?

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1. Data Redundancy: Duplicate data storage leads to

inconsistencies.
2. Lack of Data Integrity: Inconsistent data can compromise system
reliability.
3. Poor Security: Difficult to implement robust security mechanisms.
4. Limited Data Sharing: Not easily shareable across systems.
5. Difficulty in Accessing Data: Complex to retrieve data from files.

4. Define Data Model.

A Data Model is an abstract framework for organizing and defining the

structure of a database, including its constraints and relationships.

Example: Entity-Relationship Model, Relational Model.

5. What are attributes? Give an example.

Attributes are properties or characteristics of an entity in a database.

Example:
Entity: Student
Attributes: Student_ID, Name, Date_of_Birth, Address.
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Section B

6. Compare generalization and specialization with examples.

Aspect Generalization Specialization

Combining multiple entities Creating sub-entities from a
Definition
into a single generalized entity. higher-level entity.
Adding detail or specific
Purpose Reducing redundancy.
attributes.
Entities: Car, Bike → Entity: Employee → Sub-
Example
Generalized Entity: Vehicle entities: Manager, Clerk.

Diagram:

7. Explain primary key, super key, and foreign key.

 Primary Key: A unique identifier for a record in a table.

Example: In a Student table, Student_ID is a primary key.
 Super Key: A set of one or more attributes that can uniquely
identify a record.
Example: {Student_ID, Email}.
 Foreign Key: An attribute in one table that refers to the primary
key of another table.
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Example: In an Enrollment table, Student_ID is a foreign key

referencing the Student table.

8. What is normalization?

Normalization is a process of organizing data in a database to reduce

redundancy and improve data integrity.

Steps:

1. 1NF: Eliminate repeating groups.

2. 2NF: Remove partial dependency.
3. 3NF: Eliminate transitive dependency.

Section C

9. Draw an ER diagram for a small marketing company database.

Requirements:

 Employees with details like Name, Employee_ID, and Department.

 Products with attributes like Product_ID and Price.
 Customers with Customer_ID and Name.
 Orders connecting Customers and Products.
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Diagram:

10. Describe the classification of database languages. Which type of

language is SQL?

1. Data Definition Language (DDL): Defines the structure of the

database.
Example: CREATE, ALTER, DROP.
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML): Manipulates data in the
database.
Example: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
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3. Data Query Language (DQL): Queries data from the database.

Example: SELECT.
4. Data Control Language (DCL): Manages access permissions.
Example: GRANT, REVOKE.

SQL is a combination of DDL, DML, and DQL.

11. Explain the following:

1. DDL Commands:

Used for defining database schemas.

 CREATE: Creates a new table.

 ALTER: Modifies an existing table.
 DROP: Deletes a table.

2. DML Commands:

Used for data manipulation.

 INSERT: Adds new records.

 UPDATE: Modifies existing records.
 DELETE: Removes records.
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12. Explain data independence with its types.

Data Independence: The ability to change the schema at one level

without affecting the schema at another level.

 Logical Independence: Changes in the logical schema do not

affect the application.
 Physical Independence: Changes in the physical schema do not
affect the logical schema.

Who are Data Administrators?

They are professionals responsible for database management and

security.

Functions:

1. Database design and implementation.

2. Backup and recovery management.
3. Ensuring data security.
4. Performance tuning.
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Section A

1. What is functional dependency? Explain it briefly.

Functional Dependency describes the relationship between attributes in

a relation, where one attribute uniquely determines another attribute.

Example:
If A→BA \to BA→B, then the value of AAA uniquely determines BBB.
In a Student table, Roll_No→NameRoll\_No \to
NameRoll_No→Name, meaning the roll number uniquely identifies the
student's name.

2. What is a transaction? Explain it.

A transaction is a sequence of database operations that performs a

single logical unit of work.
Properties of Transactions (ACID):

1. Atomicity: All operations complete, or none do.

2. Consistency: The database remains consistent after the transaction.
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3. Isolation: Transactions do not interfere with each other.

4. Durability: Changes persist even after a system failure.

Example: Transferring money from one account to another.

3. Define primary key, NOT NULL key, and unique key.

 Primary Key: Uniquely identifies each row in a table. Cannot be NULL.

Example: Employee_IDEmployee\_IDEmployee_ID in an Employee table.
 NOT NULL Key: Ensures a column cannot have NULL values.
Example: Name column cannot be NULL in the Customer table.
 Unique Key: Ensures that all values in a column are unique. Allows one
NULL value.
Example: Email in a User table.

4. Explain hashing in brief.

Hashing is a technique to convert a key into a unique hash value using a

hash function, which is then used to locate the data in a hash table.

Example:
A hash function H(k)=kmod 10H(k) = k \mod 10H(k)=kmod10 maps
keys to a table of size 10.
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5. Explain the advantages of DBMS over file-oriented systems.

1. Data Integrity: Ensures consistency and correctness.

2. Data Security: Provides controlled access to data.
3. Data Redundancy: Reduces duplicate data.
4. Concurrent Access: Supports multi-user environments.
5. Backup and Recovery: Automates data backup and restoration.

Section B

6. Explain specialization and generalization concepts in ER

diagrams with suitable examples.

Aspect Generalization Specialization

Combining multiple entities into a Creating sub-entities from a

Definition
single generalized entity. higher-level entity.

Adding detail or specific

Purpose Reducing redundancy.
attributes.

Entities: Car, Bike → Generalized Entity: Employee → Sub-

Example
Entity: Vehicle entities: Manager, Clerk.

Diagram:
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7. Why should normalization be performed on a table, and what are

its benefits? Explain 3NF.

Normalization organizes data to minimize redundancy and dependency.

Benefits:

1. Reduces data redundancy.

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2. Enhances data integrity.

3. Simplifies database maintenance.

3NF (Third Normal Form): A table is in 3NF if:

1. It is in 2NF.
2. It has no transitive dependency.

Example:

Student_ID Course_ID Instructor_Name

101 CSE101 Dr. Smith

102 CSE102 Dr. Brown

Here, Instructor_Name depends transitively on Course_ID.

8. What are the pitfalls of lock-based protocols?

1. Deadlock: Circular wait among transactions.

2. Starvation: Some transactions may never get access to resources.
3. Overhead: Managing locks increases processing time.
4. Concurrency Issues: May reduce system performance due to high lock
contention.
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Section C

9. Write SQL queries for the given tables:

Given Tables:

1. Employee (ENO, NAME, DOB, ADDRESS (CITY), SALARY, GENDER,

DNUMBER)
2. Dept (DNUMBER, DNAME, MEMPNO, M-START DATE)

SQL Queries:

1. Display the age of 'male' employees.

sql
Copy code
SELECT NAME, YEAR(CURDATE()) - YEAR(DOB) AS AGE
FROM Employee
WHERE GENDER = 'male';

2. Display the name of the highest salary paid 'female' employee.

sql
Copy code
SELECT NAME
FROM Employee
WHERE GENDER = 'female'
ORDER BY SALARY DESC
LIMIT 1;

3. Display the name of the department of employee 'xyz'.

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sql
Copy code
SELECT DNAME
FROM Dept
WHERE DNUMBER = (SELECT DNUMBER FROM Employee WHERE NAME =
'xyz');

4. Display all employees belonging to the same address (city).

sql
Copy code
SELECT *
FROM Employee
GROUP BY ADDRESS(CITY)
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;

5. Which employee is the oldest manager in the company?

sql
Copy code
SELECT NAME, MIN(DOB)
FROM Employee
WHERE ENO IN (SELECT MEMPNO FROM Dept);

10.1 Why is concurrency control needed? Explain it.

Concurrency control ensures multiple transactions occur without

conflicts, preserving ACID properties.
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10.2 Describe different methods of indexing.

1. Single-Level Index: Maps key values to data blocks.

2. Multi-Level Index: Index of indexes for large datasets.
3. Clustered Index: Orders table rows by key values.
4. Hash Index: Uses hash functions for fast access.

11. Define ER Diagram. Draw an ER diagram for a library

management system.

ER Diagram: A diagram representing entities, attributes, and

relationships in a database.

Library System ER Diagram:

Entities:

 Books (ISBN, Title, Author)

 Members (Member_ID, Name, Address)
 Transactions (Issue_Date, Return_Date)

Diagram:
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12. Explain the three-level architecture of DBMS.

1. External Level: User's view of the data.

2. Conceptual Level: Logical structure of the database.
3. Internal Level: Physical storage of data.

Diagram:
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Section A

1. What are the advantages of file processing systems that are

removed by DBMS?

1. Data Redundancy and Inconsistency: DBMS minimizes duplication by

centralizing data.
2. Difficulty in Data Access: DBMS provides structured query languages for
easier data retrieval.
3. Data Isolation: DBMS integrates data for efficient access.
4. Security: File systems lack advanced access controls; DBMS ensures data
security.
5. Backup and Recovery: DBMS automates backups, unlike file systems.

2. Give examples of a simple and composite attribute of an entity.

 Simple Attribute: Cannot be divided further.

Example: Employee_NameEmployee\_NameEmployee_Name in an
Employee entity.
 Composite Attribute: Can be divided into smaller parts.
Example: Full_AddressFull\_AddressFull_Address → Street,City,StateStreet,
City, StateStreet,City,State.

3. What do you mean by referential integrity?

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Referential Integrity ensures that foreign key values in a table

correspond to primary key values in the related table.

Example:
If DNUMBERDNUMBERDNUMBER in the Employee table
references DNUMBERDNUMBERDNUMBER in the Department
table, any value in Employee.DNUMBER must exist in
Department.DNUMBER.

4. What do you mean by DML and DDL?

 DML (Data Manipulation Language): Manages data in a database.

Examples: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
 DDL (Data Definition Language): Defines and manages database schema.
Examples: CREATE, ALTER, DROP.

5. What are anomalies in 1NF?

Anomalies in 1NF arise when a table is not properly normalized:

1. Insertion Anomaly: Cannot add data without redundant information.

2. Deletion Anomaly: Deleting data unintentionally removes critical
information.
3. Update Anomaly: Changing data in one place requires updates everywhere.
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Section B

6. What do you mean by a key to a relation? Explain the difference

between super key, candidate key, and primary key.

 Key: An attribute or set of attributes that uniquely identifies a row in a

relation.

Type Definition Example

A set of attributes that uniquely {Student_ID}, {Student_ID,

Super Key
identifies a row. Name}.

Candidate Minimal super key; no subset can

{Student_ID}.
Key uniquely identify a row.

Primary Key A candidate key chosen as the main key. {Student_ID}.

7. Define functional dependency. What do you mean by lossless

decomposition?

 Functional Dependency: Describes a relationship where one

attribute uniquely determines another.
Example: Roll_No→NameRoll\_No \to NameRoll_No→Name.
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 Lossless Decomposition: Ensures decomposing a relation does not

lose data when joined.

Example:
If Relation RRR is split into R1R1R1 and R2R2R2, joining R1R1R1 and
R2R2R2 must yield RRR.

8. Define normal forms. List the definitions of first, second, and

third normal forms.

 Normal Forms: Guidelines to reduce redundancy and improve data

integrity.

1. 1NF: No repeating groups or arrays.

2. 2NF: In 1NF and no partial dependency.
3. 3NF: In 2NF and no transitive dependency.

Section C

9. What is a transaction? Draw a state diagram of a transaction

showing its states.

A transaction is a sequence of operations representing a single logical

task.
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Transaction States:

1. Active: Transaction is executing.

2. Partially Committed: Final operation executed.
3. Committed: Changes are permanent.
4. Failed: Transaction aborted due to an error.
5. Aborted: Rolled back to the previous state.

Diagram:

10. Explain ACID properties of a transaction with suitable

examples.
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1. Atomicity: All operations succeed or fail together.

Example: Fund transfer between two accounts.
2. Consistency: Database remains consistent after a transaction.
Example: Balance in both accounts remains correct post-transfer.
3. Isolation: Concurrent transactions do not interfere.
Example: Two users accessing the same database simultaneously.
4. Durability: Changes persist despite system crashes.
Example: Record updates remain after power loss.

11. What are schedules? What are the differences between conflict
serializability and view serializability?

 Schedules: The order in which transactions are executed.

Aspect Conflict Serializability View Serializability

No conflicting operations Equivalent result as serial

Definition
between transactions. execution.

Conflict Does not consider conflicts

Considers read/write conflicts.
Consideration directly.

Performance Easier to determine. Harder to determine.

12. What are distributed databases?

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A Distributed Database is a collection of interconnected databases

spread across different locations, appearing as a single system to users.

Advantages:

1. Reliability and availability.

2. Faster data access.
3. Scalability.

Example: Banking systems with databases in multiple branches.

13. Describe the major problems associated with concurrent

processing with examples.

1. Lost Updates: Two transactions overwrite each other's changes.

Example: Concurrently updating the same account balance.
2. Dirty Reads: Transaction reads uncommitted data.
Example: Reading data from a failed transaction.
3. Non-Repeatable Reads: Data changes between two reads of the same
transaction.
Example: Stock quantity changing during order placement.
4. Phantom Reads: New data added during a transaction.
Example: Counting rows while new rows are added.