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THE FACTS ON FILE
PHYSICS
HANDBOOK
Revised Edition
THE FACTS ON FILE
PHYSICS
HANDBOOK
Revised Edition

THE DIAGRAM GROUP

The Facts On File Physics Handbook, Revised Edition

Copyright © 2006, 2000 by Diagram Visual Information Ltd.

Diagram Visual Information Ltd

Editorial directors David Harding, Moira Johnston
Science editor Eleanora von Dehsen
Editors Nancy Bailey, Jean Brady, Paul Copperwaite, Eve Daintith,
Bridget Giles, Jane Johnson, Reet Nelis, Jamie Stokes
Design Richard Hummerstone, Edward Kinsey,
Design production Anthony Atherton, Carole Dease, Oscar Lobban,
Lee Lawrence
Artists Susan Kinsey, Lee Lawrence, Kathleen McDougall
Research Peter Dease, Catherine & Neil McKenna
Contributors Michael Allaby, Martyn Bramwell, John Daintith,
Trevor Day, John Haywood, Jim Henderson, David Lambert,
Catherine Riches, Dr. Robert Youngson

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without
permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact:

Facts On File, Inc.

An imprint of Infobase Publishing
132 West 31st Street
New York NY 10001

For Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data,

please contact Facts On File, Inc.

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Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk
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Cover design by Cathy Rincon

Printed in the United States of America

VB DIAG 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

INTRODUCTION
THE FACTS ON FILE PHYSICS HANDBOOK, Revised Edition offers students a full view of this
vital branch of science, in the form of a one-stop reference.
The Revised Edition expands greatly on the information available in the previous edition, with the
inclusion of four new sections—an A–Z of key advances in the field of physics; a list of Nobel Prize
winners in physics; listings of important science and physics associations; and key science and physics
Web sites. The biography and chronology sections have been updated and the glossary expanded to
include charts and graphs illustrating important concepts. Finally, the index has been extended and
completely revised to make searching even easier. THE PHYSICS HANDBOOK, Revised Edition
features the following components:
GLOSSARY
More than 1,300 entries, many accompanied by illustrations and now including 21 new large diagrams
and charts, are provided in this section, to aids students’ understanding of specialized terminology.
BIOGRAPHIES
Biographies of more than 275 people—not only the giants of physics, such as Sir Isaac Newton, but
also many of those whose achievements may have gone unnoticed, yet whose discoveries have pushed
forward the world’s understanding of physics. Now updated to 2005.
CHRONOLOGY
Covering nearly 8,000 years of events in the history of physics that have influenced our lives more than
wars, political changes, and world rulers. Updated through 2005.
KEY ADVANCES
An entirely new A–Z list of over 150 important advances in physics, enabling students to find quick
information on who invented or discovered what and when.
NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS
This entirely new list of Nobel Prize winners in physics is complete to 2005. Each entry includes the
award citation as well as the nationality and the birth and death dates of the winners.
CHARTS & TABLES
This section brings together important charts and tables in key areas of physics. Two new pages have
been added in the Revised Edition.
ASSOCIATIONS
An entirely new section, providing the names, addresses, telephone numbers, and Web addresses of 30
important associations in the field of physics, and in general science.
WEB SITES
Another entirely new guide, to 50 selected Web sites for students, teachers, and library patrons.
CONTENTS

SECTION ONE Glossary 7

SECTION TWO Biographies 155

SECTION THREE Chronology 207

SECTION FOUR Key advances 227

SECTION FIVE Nobel Prize winners 237

SECTION SIX Charts & Tables 249

SECTION SEVEN Associations 257

SECTION EIGHT Web sites 261

INDEX 265
SECTION
ONE
GLOSSARY

7
GLOSSARY A(r) – AC

A(r) The symbol for relative atomic mass.

ab- An abbreviation for the word absolute and a prefix applied to
practical electrical units, such as volt (abvolt), ampere (abampere),
or coulomb (abcoulomb), to convert them to units in the absolute
electromagnetic system of units.
aberration A defect in the image produced by a lens or mirror caused when
rays do not converge accurately to the focus. It is technically difficult
to produce a lens or mirror without aberration. See also chromatic
aberration, spherical aberration.
absolute code Computer program code in a form that can be used directly by
the central processing unit. More commonly known as machine code.
absolute zero The lowest possible temperature. Zero on the Kelvin scale
or –460°F (–273°C). Absolute zero is unattainable, but
temperatures within one millionth of a degree have been reached.
At temperatures approaching absolute zero matter exhibits some
unexpected properties. Electrical conductors become
superconducting and some fluids lose their viscosity (superfluidity).
In the Kelvin scale, which has no negative figures, the symbol for
degrees in not used after the number. So the freezing point of water
Metal disc Silvered is 273K, not 273°K.
secured metal absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) The energy absorbed in body tissue by
with wax surface
ionizing radiation; unit of measurement, the gray (joule per gram).
Blackened
metal Metal absorption (1) The assimilation of radiation into a body with its partial or
surface disc complete conversion into another form of energy (such as heat, light,
sound, etc.).
(2) The way in which certain wavelengths in a beam of radiation are
removed when passing through a substance. The resulting spectrum
of radiation can be used in spectroscopy to analyze the substance.
(3) The process by which one material, e.g., water, is taken up by
another, e.g., a sponge.
absorption factor Energy absorbed by a body depends on the nature of its
surface. Shiny, light-colored surfaces absorb less than dark, matte
Heat surfaces.
source
absorption spectrum The spectrum that forms when radiation with a range
Absorption factor of wavelengths passes through a sample. Some wavelengths are
absorbed by the sample, leaving gaps in the spectrum.
AC Abbreviation for alternating current.

GLOSSARY A(r) – AC

8
acceleration – access time GLOSSARY

acceleration A measure of how the velocity of a body changes with time. It

occurs if there is a change in the body’s speed or direction of motion;
a force is required to effect such a change. A falling body whose
motion is solely governed by the downward force of gravity is said
to be in free fall. The body moves with constant acceleration. In SI
units, acceleration is expressed in meters per second per second. It
can be calculated by subtracting the final velocity from the initial
velocity and dividing the result by the time. Acceleration is a vector
quantity. If velocity is plotted against time on a graph, the acceleration
at any moment is given by the slope of the graph at that moment.
acceptors Atoms of an element such as boron added to a silicon lattice to
affect the conducting properties of semiconductors. The acceptor
atoms create holes in the valence band to carry current; this is a
p-type (positive carrier) semiconductor.
access time The time taken to retrieve a small item of data from any form of
storage in, or connected to, a computer. Access time from RAM may
Acceleration

Acceleration zero—motion at constant speed

Distance
Speed

Time Time

Acceleration constant—motion with constant increase in speed

Acceleration

Distance
Speed

Time Time Time

acceleration – access time GLOSSARY

9
GLOSSARY accommodation – acoustic coupler

be a very small fraction of a second; from large storage devices it

may be several minutes. Floppy disk drives have longer access times
than hard disks, and most CD-ROM drives also have longer access
times than hard disks.
Crystalline accommodation The adjustment of the focus of the eye so that, whatever the
Normal eye lens range of gaze, a sharp image is formed on the retina. Accommodation
viewing Iris Retina is achieved by the internal crystalline lens, which in young people is
distant object
naturally so elastic that it would tend to approximate to a sphere, but
for the pull all around its equator by delicate ligaments that suspend it
from a circular muscle. When this muscle contracts, the circle
Cornea becomes smaller and the pull on the lens is less, thus making it a
more powerful converger of light and allowing focusing of the image
from near objects. When the ciliary muscle relaxes, more distant
objects can be focused. The stimulus for accommodation is the
Accommodation degree of convergence of the rays of light, which can be detected by
to close object
the variations in depth to which the rays penetrate the light-sensitive
Accommodation cells of the retina.
accumulator (1) An electric battery in which the passage of an electric current
from an external source brings about a reversible chemical change
by which energy is stored. When the electrodes are joined, a current
flows and the previous chemical state is restored.
(2) In computing, an accumulator is a small memory or buffer that
briefly holds the results of successive operations by the arithmetic
and logic unit of the central processing unit.
AC electric motor An electric motor that operates from an alternating electric
current supply.
achromatic lens A lens that is free from chromatic aberration. An achromatic
lens is constructed from two types of glass, each having a different
refractive index, so that the dispersions cancel each other. This form
of double lens has the effect of reducing the dispersion of light of
different wavelengths, producing a sharper focus with greatly
reduced color fringes around the edges of the image. See also
chromatic aberration.
acoustic coupler An early form of modem that can be temporarily attached to
a normal telephone. The digital signal to be transmitted is converted
into a two-tone sound that is emitted by a small loudspeaker pressed
to the telephone microphone. The received signal is picked up by a
microphone held close to the telephone earpiece. The system allows

GLOSSARY accommodation – acoustic coupler

10
actinic radiation – address GLOSSARY

modem communication from any location where there is a

telephone, but the speed of transmission is low. Acoustic couplers
are now seldom used.
actinic radiation Radiation, especially light and ultraviolet radiation, that can
cause a chemical change, such as the latent image on a photographic
emulsion or the breakdown of biological or other molecules. The
Sun is a major source of actinic electromagnetic radiation.
actinium series A series of radioactive elements each of which derives from
the radioactive decay of its predecessor and ends in a stable atom.
The actinium series starts with uranium-235 and ends in an isotope
of lead. Two other such series occur naturally, one of them starting
with uranium-238 (uranium series) and the other with thorium-232
(thorium series), both also ending with an isotope of lead.
action at a distance Forces such as gravity and magnetism can affect objects
not in direct contact with the force. The space through which the
forces operate is called a field. For example, a gravitational field is a
region in which there are gravitational forces.
activation energy The energy barrier to be overcome in order for a reaction to
occur. Many chemical reactions require heat energy to be applied to
reactants in order to initiate a reaction.
active device A component in an electronic circuit that consumes power to
effect a change, such as amplification or current switching.
Transistors are active devices; resistors, capacitors, and inductors are
passive devices that do not consume power.
activity (of a radioactive source) The number of ionizing particles emitted
per second from a radioactive source, measured in becquerels.
activity series A listing of elements where the position of an element shows
how reactive it is. Its position is governed by the ease with which the H H H H
element releases electrons.
C C C C
▼

addition reaction An addition reaction occurs when at least two molecules

react together to form a single molecule (e.g., the polymerization
of alkenes). H H H H
address A known location in a computer memory at which a single item of Addition reaction
data, usually a byte, can be found. The address is simply a number (polymerization)
that identifies the location. A computer instruction might be to take
the number held in a particular address, multiply it by the number in

actinic radiation – address GLOSSARY

11
GLOSSARY adiabatic change – algorithm

another address, and put the answer in a third address. An address

bus is a set of wires along which signals travel to reach addresses.
Data can then be taken from these addresses by way of a data bus.
adiabatic change A change that occurs without thermal transfer to a system.
When a change of volume is made very quickly, without allowing
any transfer of thermal energy, the change in volume is an adiabatic
change. Adiabatic work is work done on a system that does not gain
or lose heat to the surroundings.
admittance The reciprocal of impedance.
adsorption The process by which molecules of gases, liquids, or finely
divided solids become attached to the surface of another substance to
Reactant Reactant form a very thin layer, often only one molecule thick. Adsorption
involves interaction between molecules at a surface. Powdered
activated charcoal is a highly effective adsorbent and will remove
color from liquids, poisons from liquids in the intestines, and
Catalyst poisonous gases from air passed through it. In contrast, in
absorption, the absorbed substance is taken up by the absorbing
Adsorption
substance and distributed throughout it, in the manner of blotting
paper drawing up water by capillary action.
aeration The purification of a substance by exposure to the mechanical or
chemical action of air.
aerial The part of a radio or television system that transmits or receives
radio waves. See antenna.
aerodynamics The study of the dynamic motion of gases, particularly the
branch of science studying the motion and control of bodies in air.
affinity The attraction of two substances for each other, leading to the
substances combining together.
algol A high-level computer programming language designed primarily
for producing problem-solving programs for mathematical and
scientific use. The name is an abbreviation of the term algorithmic
language. Algol passed though several generations, introduced a
number of important new concepts, and was highly influential in the
development of programming languages.
algorithm A sequence of instructions to be followed with the intention of
finding a solution to a problem. Each step must specify precisely
what action is to be taken and, although there may be many
alternative routes through the algorithm, there is only one starting

GLOSSARY adiabatic change – algorithm

12
allotrope – amphoteric GLOSSARY

point and one end point. Various nodes occur at which decisions
must be made and these are decided by questions that can be
answered “yes,” or “no.” The direction taken at these nodes is
determined by the answer. A computer program commonly involves
algorithms, and the preliminary studies for a program are often
expressed in a particular set of symbols known as a flow chart. This
is also an algorithm.
allotrope An element that can exist in different physical forms while in the
same state. Carbon can occur as two common allotropes, diamond and
graphite. (A third, buckminsterfullerene, has been discovered
recently.) The physical properties of these allotropes are very different.
alloy A metallic material made of two or more metals or of a metal and
nonmetal. By mixing metals in certain proportions, alloys with
specific properties can be made. Allotrope
(buckminsterfullerene)
alphanumeric characters The 26 letters of the alphabet and the decimal
digits 0 to 9. Each of these, and many other characters, are
represented in computers by a code such as the ASCII code.
alpha particle (α particle) A particle released during radioactive decay. It
consists of two neutrons and two protons and is the equivalent of the
nucleus of a helium atom. Energy is released by this change, most of
it accounted for by the kinetic energy of the alpha particle, which
moves away at high speed but which rapidly loses energy by
collision and ionization of other atoms and molecules and is easily
stopped by a piece of paper. Their range in air is only a few
centimeters and shielding against them is easy. Alpha rays are
streams of fast-moving alpha particles.
alternating current (AC) A continuous electric current that varies in strength,
regularly reversing its direction.
amines A group of organic compounds containing the amino functional H H O
group –NH2.
H C C C
amino acid A group of organic compounds containing both the carboxyl
group (–COOH) and the amino group (–NH2). H N O H
amorphous Lacking form, shape, or crystal structure; amorphous substances H H
have no fixed melting point. Amino acid
ampere SI unit of electrical current, equal to one coulomb per second. Example of structure

amphoteric Exhibiting properties of both an acid and a base. An amphoteric

compound reacts with both acids and bases to form salts.

allotrope – amphoteric GLOSSARY

13
GLOSSARY amplifier – angle

amplifier An electronic device for increasing the strength of a varying

electrical signal, ideally with minimal alteration to its
characteristics (minimal distortion). Amplifiers use low-power
transistors to amplify voltage and power transistors to amplify
current. Many amplifiers now consist of integrated circuits except
for the power output stages. Negative feedback is used to reduce
distortion and increase the frequency range over which the amplifier
will work well.
amplitude The size of the maximum displacement from the equilibrium
Signal
position of an oscillation or wave. For an alternating current, the
amplitude is the peak value of the current. For a pendulum, the
Carrier amplitude is half the length of the swing.
amplitude modulation (AM) Used in radio transmissions in the long,
Modulated carrier medium, and short wavebands. A second wave motion is added to a
carrier wave to carry the signal to a receiver. The characteristics of
this audio-frequency signal vary the amplitude of the carrier wave.
analog In physical science, a continuous representation, of any kind, of a
varying quantity. Thus, the movement of the needle of an electric
Amplitude modulation meter over the scale as the current varies is an analog representation
(AM)
of changing voltage. Compare digital.
analog to digital converter An electronic device that converts a varying
signal, especially a voltage, to a series of numbers. This is done by
sampling the signal repeatedly at short intervals, usually many
times a second, and expressing each momentary magnitude as a
number that can be represented in the form of binary digits. Since
almost all information processing is now done by digital computers
and almost all information derived from natural sources is analog,
the importance of analog to digital conversion can be appreciated.
anechoic chamber An irregularly shaped room in which the walls are
covered with small cones or wedges of sound-absorbent material so
as to avoid the formation of stationary waves and hence echoes and
resonances. Anechoic chambers are acoustically “dead” and are used
to test various instruments, such as microphones, and to conduct
research into noise and other acoustical phenomena.
anemometer An instrument for measuring windspeed.
angle A measure of the space between two straight lines diverging from a
common point of contact.

GLOSSARY amplifier – angle

14
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