GEOGRAPHY FORM ONE LESSON NOTES

GEOGRAPHY

FORM ONE

LESSON NOTES

PREPARED BY ZACHARY A. NYANGARESI

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UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY
 Geography is derived from two Greek words.
 Geo – which means earth
 Graphein – This means to write, to draw or to describe.
 Thus the two words put together become Geographia – which means the
description of the earth.

Definition of geography

 Geography is the scientific study of distribution and interrelationship of natural and

human phenomena on the earth’s surface.

Definition of terms

a. Environment
 Environment is the surrounding/external conditions surrounding an organism.
 Environment can be divided into two parts:
i. Physical environment: - Refers to natural features, i.e. features not created
by human beings that may influence human activities.
ii. Human environment: - it comprises of human activities on the earth’s
surface.
b. Ecology
 Ecology is a set of external surrounding that influence the development and
behavior of specific living organism.
c. Habitat
 The home that provides the physical conditions under which certain plants and
animals live
d. Ecosystem
 Refers to a community of living organisms called producers, consumers and
decomposers.

Branches of Geography

i. Physical Geography
 It is mainly concerned with the land forming processes that shape the surface
of the earth and the resultant features.
 It also involves the study of weather and climate.
 Physical Geography is further divided into:
a. Geomorphology: The study of landforms.
b. Climatology: The study of weather and climate.
c. Biogeography. The study of the geographical distribution of living
things.

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d. Pedology: The study of soils.

e. Geology: The study of rocks.
f. The earth and the solar system.
ii. Human geography
 It is the study of human activities on the earth’s surface.
 It puts emphasis on the distribution of natural resources and the effects of
their exploitation.
 Human geography involves the study of the following:
a. Forestry.
b. Wildlife, tourism and fishing.
c. Mining, energy, and industries.
d. Population and urbanization.
e. Trade, transport and communication.
f. Agriculture.
g. Management and conservation of the environment.
h. Settlement.
iii. Practical Geography
 It is a branch of geography that aims at giving learners an opportunity to
develop practical skills which includes:
a. Mapwork: map interpretation techniques.
b. Photograph work: photograph interpretation techniques.
c. Statistics: study of statistical techniques.
d. Fieldwork: Collection, recording and presentation of field data.

Geography and other subjects/disciplines

Geography relates widely with other subjects as follows:

i. Agriculture.
 Agriculture is the study of crop growing and livestock rearing.
 Geography considers farming systems, distribution of agricultural activities
and the factors influencing agriculture.
 Geography looks into positive and negative impact of agriculture on the
environment.
ii. Biology
 Biology is the study of living things.
 Geography explains the distribution of organisms and factors influencing
their distribution on the earth’s surface
iii. Chemistry
 Knowledge if chemistry will help in understanding the chemical composition
of soils and rocks, chemical weathering processes etc.
iv. Meteorology and climatology
 Geography uses meteorological information in the study of weather and in
classifying climatic regions and mapping them.
 Climatology is the scientific study of climate.

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 Geography as a subject deals with all elements of weather and the

distribution of climatic zones of the world.
v. Civil engineering.
 Civil engineering deals with building and maintenance of structures like roads,
bridges, dams, airports etc.
 Geographical knowledge is necessary in designing the above projects/structures.
vi. Mathematics
 Mathematical techniques are used in geography in drawing graphs and pie charts
and mathematical formulae are used in geography to calculate distances, areas,
population density, population densities, etc.
vii. Physics
 Knowledge of physics is useful in understanding geographical aspects of air
pressure, wind movement, ocean current movement, magnetic field of the earth
force of gravity evaporation and condensation process, etc.
viii. Geology
 Geology is the study of rocks.
 Geological information helps geographers with knowledge of chemical composition,
thickness and shape of rock masses.
ix. Economics
 Economics deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and
services.
 Geographers are interested in the costs and benefits of any economic undertaking,
e.g. location of an industry, power station, etc. hence the development of the sub-
branch economic geography.
x. History
 Geographers need historical knowledge to know how the earth was formed, the
distribution of people and their past economic activities.
 History uses geographical tools like maps, charts and graphs to show where past
events took place e.g. the movement of people in the past.
xi. Demography
 Demography is the statistical study of human population.
 It deals with the general characteristics of a given population which includes. The
number of people living in an area, their age, gender, birth and death rates.
 All these aspects are also covered I population geography, a sub-branch of human
geography.
xii. Medicine
 Medicine is the science of treating and understanding diseases.
 It deals with diseases, their causes and possible cures.
 Medical geography explores the factors that influence the distribution of pests and
diseases, how these factors affect human activities on earth.
 Geography contributes to the field of medicine by explaining why some diseases are
common in particular areas and give advice on suitable areas for settlement.

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Importance of studying Geography

i. It helps a learner to develop a variety of skills, e.g. observation, map interpretation,

analysis and interpretation of photographs, charts, diagrams and statistical data.
ii. Geography helps the learner to appreciate different environmental influences hence
understanding people’s way of life.
iii. Geography encourages international awareness and co-operation because it teaches
interdependence among the people and geographical phenomena.
iv. The study of geography through fieldwork teaches the learner on proper time
management.
v. The study of geography assists in the attainment of national goals of education such
national unity, personal and national development.
vi. The skills and knowledge acquired in studying geography are helpful in contributing
to local, regional and national development.
vii. Geography creates awareness of the importance of the environmental management
and conservation by fostering positive attitudes towards the environment.
viii. The study of geography helps the learner to be informed of the origin of the
earth, solar system and the universe which is useful in appreciating aviation and
space exploration activities.
ix. Geography is a career subject leading to various professional such as surveyor,
urban planner, civil engineering, pilot, geologist, meteorologist, etc.

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UNIT TWO
THE EARTH AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Definition of the solar system

 The solar system is made up of the sun with the eight planets orbiting around it.
 The other heavenly bodies (celestial) in the solar system include:
 Comets.
 Asteroids.
 Meteors.
 Meteorites.
 Satellites.

The origin of the solar system

 Several theories have been advanced to explain the origin of the solar system.
 Two theories are most commonly used which are:
i. Passing star theory/big bang theory.
ii. Nebula cloud theory.

Passing star theory

 Advanced by Jeans and Jeffreys.

 It states that a star with a greater gravitational pull than the sun passed close to the
sun
 It pulled off a steam of gaseous materials.
 The gaseous materials then split up into portions/smaller portions.
 The smaller portions cooled, condensed and solidified to form planets and other
heavenly bodies.

Weaknesses

i. Chances of another star approaching the sun are minimal.

ii. Gaseous material of high temperatures drawn from the sun would disperse rather
than condense.
iii. It does not explain where the sun and the passing star came from.

Nebula cloud theory

 According to this theory the solar system formed from a cloud/nebula of gas and
dust.
 As the cloud rotated, it flattened into a disc with a high concentration of materials at
its center where the sun formed.
 The flattening of the cloud was due to the centrifugal force.

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 In the outer regions of the disc methane and ammonia condensed while hydrogen
and helium remained as gas forming Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
 The accumulation and condensation of the materials formed other planets.

Weakness

 The origin and cause of nebula are not explained.

Composition of the solar system

a. The sun
 It is a star.
 It radiates solar energy.
 It produces its own light.
 It is formed of very hot gases mainly hydrogen and helium.
 It has temperatures of 6000 c
 The sun has layers, .e. corona, chromosphere, photosphere and the core.
b. The planets
i. Mercury.
 Nearest from the sun
 The smallest planet.
 Its 58m km from the sun
 Has no satellites
 Takes approximately 88 earth days to revolve around the sun
ii. Venus
 2nd planet from the sun
 It’s 108m km from the sun
 One of the brightest planets
 Can be seen clearly with naked eyes
 Takes approximately 248 earth days to revolve around the sun
 Slightly smaller than the earth
 Has no satellites
 Together with the earth they are called twin planets due to having many similarities
iii. Earth
 The 3rd planet from the sun
 The earth and the heavenly bodies make the universe
 The only planet that supports life
 The home of man
 Approximately 149m km from the sun
 Takes 365 ¼ days to revolve around the sun
 Has one moon.
iv. Mars
 Also called The Red Planet because when it’s observed through a telescope it
appears reddish.
 The 4th from the sun has 2 moons
 Slightly smaller than the earth

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 Approximately 228m km from the sun

 Takes 687 earth days to revolve around the sun
 Between Mars and Jupiter there are small celestial bodies called planetoids.
v. Jupiter
 5th planet from the sun
 Approximately 778m km from the sun
 Largest planet in the universe
 Rotates on its own axis at very fast speed
 Has flattened poles due to its fast speed of rotation
 Has very thick layers of ice on its surface
 takes 12 earth years to revolve around the sun
 Has 13 moons
 Has a red spot.

vi. Saturn
 6th planet from the sun
 Second largest planet
 Has three rings.
 Approximately 1427m km from the sun
 Takes 29 ½ earth years to revolve around the sun
 Has a ring around it
 Has 8 moons
vii. Uranus is the 7th planet which rotates very fast. It is greenish in colour.
 7th planet from the sun
 About 4 times bigger than the earth
 Approximately 2870m km from the sun
 Also rotates very fast
 Also has flattened poles due to fast speed of rotation
 It appears greenish for being surrounded by methane gas
 Has 5 moons
 Takes 84 earth years to revolve around the sun
viii. Neptune
 One of the farthest from the sun
 8th planet from the sun
 Approximately 4497m km from the sun
 Has 2 moons
 Has a horizontal axis.
 Takes 165 earth years to revolve around the sun
 Greenish in colour.
ix. Pluto
 9th planet from the earth
 Farthest from the sun
 1/6 the size of the earth
 Approximately 5900m km from the sun
 Takes 248 earth years to revolve around the sun
 Has one moon.
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 Very little is known about it

N/B all planets have moons except Mercury and Venus.

Other Celestial Bodies

c. Asteroids
 Also known as planetoids.
 They are small planet-like objects/small rocky masses.
 Orbit around the sun between mars and Jupiter.
 They are about 1500 in number.
d. Comets
 Heavenly bodies with a head and a long tail.
 Made up mainly of dust particles, rocks and frozen gases.
 They have tails of gases pointing away from the sun because of solar wind influence.
 Have long oval orbits with the sun at one end instead of a central location.
 Originates from oorts cloud.

e. Meteors
 Also known as shooting stars.
 They are rocky pieces that break off from heavenly bodies and leave and leave a
streak of light as they fall through space due to friction.
 Heavenly bodies that enters the earth’s atmosphere from the universe at very fast
speed.
 Appear as glowing objects that quickly move across the sky before they burn up and
disappear.
 They burn up in the outer space.
 They can be seen during clear night.
f. meteorites
 These are meteors that fail to burn up completely pass through the atmosphere and
land on the earth’s surface as large rocks/meteorites.
 These rocks are rich in minerals especially iron.
 The spot where they land usually leaves behind a large depression similar to a
crater.
g. The moon
 It is a natural satellite which that it has no light of its own.
 It receives light from the sun and reflects it onto the earth.
 The earth has only one moon revolving around it in its own orbit that is almost
circular in shape.
 Has no atmosphere or surface water.
h. Gallaxy
 A cluster of stars.

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The origin of the Earth

 The earth is the 3rd planet from the sun in the solar system.
 It rotates on its own axis while at the same time revolving around the sun on its own
path known as an orbit.
 Many scientists believe that the earth could have been formed approximately 4600
million years ago.
 A hot mass of gases was thrown off the sun.
 These gases cooled to form a liquid.
 The heavier materials collected at the centre to form a core of heavy liquid metal
 Around the core collected less and less heavy materials to form the mantle and the
crust.
 As cooling continued, the outer part of the earth hardened faster to form the crust.

The size of the Earth.

 The circumference of the earth is about 40,000 kilometres.

 Equatorial diameter is 12,762 km.
 Polar diameter is 12,722 km.
 Equatorial circumference is 40,085 km.
 Polar circumference is 39,955 km.

The shape of the Earth.

 The general shape of the earth is spherical; however it is not a perfect sphere.
 The exact shape of the earth is geoid/oblate spheroid.
 The earth is slightly flattened at the poles and bulges out at the equator.

Forces responsible for the shape of the earth

i. Gravitational force
 It affects all parts of the earth pulling everything towards the centre.
 It gives the earth rounding shape.
 This force also explains why things over the earth’s surface don’t fall off instead
they are constantly pulled towards the centre of the earth.

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ii. Centripetal force

 It pulls poles towards each other.
 It causes slightly flattening at the poles.
iii. Centrifugal force
 It pulls poles away from each other.
 It causes the bulging at the equator.

Proofs that the earth is spherical

i. Circumnavigation: It is possible to travel around the earth following one direction

say east and coming back to the same point of origin.
ii. The gradual appearance of the ship approaching land as observed from a high
ground. The smoke is seen 1st; then the upper part and finally the entire ship as it
negotiates the curvature.
iii. As the earth rotates from west to east, the sun appears earlier in the east than west.
It the earth was flat all places would have the same time.
iv. The spherical/round shape of the shadow cast on the moon by the earth during the
lunar eclipse.
v. The earth’s horizon appears circular when observed from a very high point like a
tower.
vi. Photographs taken by the artificial satellites at great distance away from the earth
shows that the earth is spherical in shape.
vii. All the planets are spherical so the earth being one of them is also spherical.

Movements/motions made by the earth.

a. Rotation of the earth and its effects.

 Rotation is the movement of the earth on its own axis.
 An axis is an imaginary line through the center of the earth from North Pole to South
Pole.
 The axis of the earth is inclined at an angle of 23 ½
 The earth spins on the axis in an anti-clockwise direction.(west to east)
 It 24 hours to make a complete rotation.

Effects the earth’s rotation

i. It causes day and night.

ii. It causes time difference of 1 hour between meridians/longitudes at 150 apart.
iii. It causes deflection of winds and ocean currents.
iv. It causes the rising and falling of ocean tides.
v. It causes variation in the speed of air masses.

Calculation of local time

 The earth rotates from west to east taking 24 hours to make a complete rotation
through 3600 of longitudes.
 24 hours – 3600.

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 1 hour – 360/ 24 =150.

 60 minutes –150
 150 – 60 minutes.
 10 – 60/15 = 4 minutes.
 Places on the same longitude record the time, i.e. local time.
 The Greenwich mean time (GMT) is the time on longitude 00
 Local time is the time based on longitude position.
 Standard time refers to the time of places based on 24 standard time zones.
 Time zones are not always 150 longitude wide, they are arranged to fit political
boundaries.
 One of the 24 regions of the earth in which noon is set as the time when the sun is
the highest over the center of the region.

Example

Supposing the GMT is 12hours. What is the local time at Watamu on longitude 400 E?

 Find the angular difference between the two places, i.e. 400 - 00
 Multiply the difference by 4 minutes, i.e. 40 x 4 = 160 minutes. Which 2hours 40
minutes
 Watamu is to the east of prime meridian; therefore add 2hours 40 minutes to
12hours which is equals 14.40hours, 2.40 pm.
 If the place is to the west, 400 w, the time is subtracted, i.e. 12.00 –
2.40=09.20hours or 9.20 am.

NB

 If places are on the same side of the prime meridian, then subtract the degrees to get
the angular.
 If one place is to the east of the prime meridian and another to west of the prime
meridian then add the degrees of their longitude to get the angular distance.

Examples

1. Time at Los Angeles on longitude 500 w is 1500hours. What is the time at

Washington DC on longitude 280
 500 – 280 = 220
 22 x 4 = 88 minutes,i.e. 1 hour 28 minutes
 15.00hours + 01.28hours = 16.28hours or 4.28 pm.
2. Time at town X on 300 W is 10.00 am. What is the time at town Y on 450 E?
 450 +300 = 750
 75 X 4 = 300 minutes
 300/60 = 5hours
 1000 + 0500 = 15hours or 3.00 pm.
3. What is the time at Hola on 400 E. when the time at Tema on 00 is 12.00 noon?
 400 -00 = 400
 40 X 4 = 160 minutes.

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 160/60 = 2hours 40 minutes

 Hola is east of the prime meridian therefore ahead of time we therefore add.
 1200 hours + 0200 hours = 1440hours or 2.40 pm.
4. Suppose the time at GWM is 12 noon what is the local time at Watamu 40◦E?
Time gained=40×4=160min=2 hours 40min
Local time at Watamu is 12.00+2.40=14.40-1200=2.40pm.

5. At Dar-es-Salaam 40◦E time is 12pm what is the time at Ecuador 40◦W?

40◦+20◦=60◦
60×4=240min=4hours
Ecuador is behind in time =12.00-4=8 am.

Calculation of Longitude

1. What is the longitude of place x whose local time is 8 am when local time at GWM is
noon?
Time difference =12.00-8=4 hours
Degrees=4×15=60◦
Since x is behind in time its then 60◦W.
2. What is the longitude of Lamu whose local time is 7.00pm when the local time at
Jinja (40◦E) is 1.00pm
Time difference = 7.00-1.00 = 6 hours.
Degrees = 6×15 = 90◦
Since Lamu is ahead in time add 90◦ to 40◦ = 130◦E

International Date Line

 It is an imaginary line on the global running from North Pole to South Pole on
crossing it one has to adjust his/her clock forward or backwards by 24 hours.

Effects of Crossing International Date Line

 One gains a day when he crosses it from W to E and has to adjust the clock
backwards by 24 hours.
 One loses a day when he crosses it from E to W and has to adjust the clock ahead by
24 hours
b. Revolution of the earth and its effects
 Revolution refers to the movement of the earth around the sun on its orbit once in
year.
 An Orbit is the path in space followed by a planet as it revolves around the sun.
 A complete revolution takes 365 ¼ days.
 Every 4th year has 366 days (leap year)
 Other years have 365 days.
 The earth is tilted a angle 66 ½ ◦to the plane of its orbit and always points into space
in the same direction.

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Effects of the earth’s revolution

i. Causes Changes in the position of the midday sun at different times of the year.
ii. Causes varying lengths of day and night at different times of the year.
iii. Causes four seasons.
iv. Causes lunar eclipse.

Changes in the position of the midday sun at different times of the year.

 The position of the midday sun varies in the two hemispheres depending on the
position of the earth at different times of the year.
 On 21st June the sun is overhead at midday along the tropic cancer (23 ½ N). At this
time the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun.
 On 22nd December the sun is overhead at midday along the tropic of Capricorn (23
½). At this time the southern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun.
 On 21st march and 23rd September the sun is overhead at midday along the equator.

Varying length of the day and night

 The length of day and night varies depending on the apparent path of the sun
between the northern and southern hemisphere.
 When the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, regions north of the
equator have longer days and shorter nights.
 On 21st June the sun is overhead along the tropic of cancer; all latitudes in the
northern hemisphere have their longest day in the year.
 The length of the day increases as latitude increases until there is a continuous day
of 24 hours north of the Arctic Circle. It is a northern summer solstice characterized
by longer days and shorter nights.
 Areas south of the equator have shorter days and longer nights with areas south of
the Antarctica circle having 24 hours of darkness. It is a southern winter solstice.
 The vice versa occurs when the southern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun on
22nd December thus areas south of Antarctica have a 24 hour day. It is a southern
summer solstice while in the north it is a northern winter solstice.
 When the sun is overhead the equator on 21st march and 23rd September all places
on the surface of the have equal length of day and night. It is equinox time.

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N/B

i. Solstice is a time when the length of day and night differ greatly.
ii. Equinox is a time when the length of day and night is equal.

Four seasons

 There are four main seasons as follows:

i. Summer.
ii. Winter.
iii. Autumn/fall.
iv. Spring.
 Two main seasons are summer and winter.
 Spring and autumn are transitional seasons lasting a shorter period.
 The seasons are characterized by drastic changes in temperatures.

When the northern hemisphere faces the sun, it is summertime with the southern
hemisphere experiencing winter.

Eclipse

 An eclipse is a shadow that results when the sun rays are blocked from reaching the
earth’s and the moon’s surface.

Lunar eclipse

 A lunar eclipse occurs when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon.
 The shadow of the earth is therefore cast on the surface of the moon as it blocks the
sun’s ray.

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 The Umbra refers to the darkest part while the penumbra is the lightest part of the
shadow.

Solar eclipse

 It occurs when the moon comes in between the sun and the earth.
 The moon casts its shadow unto the earth’s surface.

The structure of the earth

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 The structure of the earth is divided into parts, i.e. internal and external structure of
the earth.
1. Internal structure of the earth
a. Lithosphere/crust
 It consists of two parts i.e.
i. The outer crust (sial).
ii. The inner crust (sima).
 The lithosphere varies in thickness from 16 – 24 km up to 70 km in mountainous
areas.
i. Sial/outer crust/continental crust
 It is made of lighter rocks.
 Its density is between 2.6 – 2.7gm/cm3.
 Consists mainly of silica and aluminium minerals.
 Consists mainly of granitic materials.
 It forms the continents.

ii. Sima/ inner crust/oceanic crust

 Made up of heavier rocks.
 Consists mainly of silica and magnesium minerals.
 Consists mainly of basaltic materials.
 It has rock density of between 2.9 – 2.0 gm/cm3.
 It forms the ocean floor.

Mohorovicic discontinuity

 It is a boundary between the crust and the mantle.

 It was discovered by a Yugoslav scientist Andrija Mohorovicic in 1909 while
studying a Balkan earthquake.
 It has temperatures of about 4000 C.
b. Mantle/Asthenosphere
 It encircles the core.
 Composed mainly of silicate rocks.
 Rich in iron and magnesium
 The upper mantle is made up of hard rigid rocks.
 The inner mantle is made up of liquid ultra-basic rocks.
 Mantle extends to depth of 2900 km.
 Temperatures may reach up to 50000C.
 The high temperatures generate convectional currents responsible for earth’s
movements.
 The rock density is about 3.3gm/cm3

Gutenberg discontinuity

 This is a boundary between the mantle and the core.

 Some earthquakes waves are absorbed here.
c. Core/Barysphere/Centrosphere

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 Composed of very dense rocks made up of nickel and iron.

 The core is divided into 2 zones, i.e. the outer core and inner core.
 The outer core is in a hot semi – molten state.
 The inner core inner is solid and composed of hard rocks.
 Has a temperature of about 55000 C.
 Extends to a depth of 6371 km. is hot

Reasons why the interior of the earth

 The interior cooled at a slower rate than the outer part therefore it retains much of
its original heat.
 The radio activity process which initiates nuclear fission hence release of heat.
 The weight of the overlying materials exerts pressure on the interior hence the high
temperatures.

How we study the interior of the earth.

i. By studying the earthquake waves.

ii. By studying volcanic materials from the earth’s interior.
iii. Crustal boring/deep drilling into the earth’s interior that reveals the contents into
the interior.
iv. Studying man’s generated waves into the interior for instance when prospecting for
soil.
v. Studying the temperatures of deep ocean waters.

2. External structure of the earth

a. Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is a thin layer of gases surrounding the earth.
 These gases are held by the earth’s gravitational force.
 The atmosphere is composed of the following:
 Gases-exist as a mixture
 Smoke particles
 Dust particles
 Water vapour
 The gases in the atmosphere include:
i. Nitrogen – 78%
ii. Oxygen - 21%
iii. Water vapour – 1%
iv. Argon – 0.94 %
v. Carbon (iv) oxide – 0.03 %

The structure of the Atmosphere

 It’s divided into 4 layers/zones namely:

i. Troposphere.
ii. Stratosphere.
iii. Mesosphere.

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iv. Thermosphere.

Troposphere

 It is the lowest level of the atmosphere.

 It extends to a height of 8 km at the poles and 13 km around the equator.
 It contains the weather making constituents.
 It is a life supporting layer.
 Temperatures decreases with increase in height, i.e.
positive/normal/environmental lapse.
 Pressure deceases with increase in height.
 The effect of gravity decreases with increase in height.
 The speed of wind increases with increase in height.

Tropopause

 It is a layer of discontinuity (boundary) between the troposphere and stratosphere.

 It has a zero lapse rate, i.e. temperature is constant as the height increases/it is an
isothermal layer.

Stratosphere

 It extends 30 km from the Tropopause.

 Contains very little dust and water vapour hence no clouds in this layer.
 Temperature increases with increase in height, i.e. negative lapse rate.
 It has the concentration of ozone layer which absorbs the ultra-violet radiation.
 Very light winds.
 Low atmospheric pressure since the air is dry.
 It shields the earth surface from meteorites.

Stratopause

 It is a layer of discontinuity/boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere.

 It has zero lapse rate/it is an isothermal layer.

Mesosphere

 It extends from 50 – 80 km.

 Temperature decreases with increase in height (positive lapse rate).
 Temperatures fall quickly since there is no water vapour, cloud, dust/ozone to
absorb in-coming solar radiation.
 It experiences the atmosphere’s lowest temperature of -900 C and strongest winds
of 3000 km/hr.

Mesopause

 It is a layer of discontinuity between mesosphere and the thermosphere.

 Has zero lapse rate.

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Thermosphere/ionosphere

 Extends from 90 – 120 km.

 Contains electrons and ions that influence radio waves.
 Temperature increases rapidly with increase in height.
 It absorbs incoming short ultra-violet radiation from the sun.
 It reflects electromagnetic waves back to the earth (radio signals) facilitating radio
transmission.
 Atmospheric gases are ionized by in-coming solar radiation.

Significance of Atmosphere

i. Animals and plants breathe in from it oxygen for respiration.

ii. Plants use carbon dioxide from it for photosynthesis.
iii. Water vapour in the atmosphere condenses to form clouds which give us
rain.
iv. Ozone layer in the stratosphere shields us from ultraviolet radiation which
may cause skin cancers.
b. Hydrosphere
 It refers to the part of the earth’s covered by water masses, e.g. oceans, rivers, lakes,
rivers, swamps, seas, and even underground water.
 It occupies about 75%of the total surface area of the earth.

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UNIT THREE
WEATHER
Meaning of weather

 Weather is the atmospheric condition of a given place at a specific time or over a

short period time.

Elements of weather

i. Temperature.
ii. Humidity.
iii. Precipitation.
iv. Wind.
v. Air pressure.
vi. Sunshine.
vii. Cloud cover.

Temperature

 Temperature is the measure or degree of hotness in an object or a place.

 Air temperature refers to the degree of sensible heat within the atmosphere.
 The sun is the source of heat energy on the earth’s surface.
 The sun’s energy is transmitted in the form of rays, i.e. the solar
radiation/insolation.
 The atmosphere is warmed/heated in 3 ways as follows:
i. Radiation
 This is the process in which a body emits (radiates) energy in form of electro-
magnetic waves.
 The sun heats the earth’s surface in form of short wave radiation and the earth
emits the same heat energy back into the atmosphere in form of long wave
radiation.
iii. Conduction
 The atmosphere is heat by being in direct contact with the earth.
 The air molecules in the atmosphere are heat without moving.
 The lower atmosphere is heated by the earth’s surface and transmits the same heat
to the upper atmosphere.
iv. Convection
 The transfer of heat from the lower atmosphere to the upper atmosphere by
movement of air molecules upwards.

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 This takes place when the air near the earth’s surface is heated, becomes light and
begins to rise as it transfers the heat into the upper atmosphere in form of
convectional currents.

Why warm air cools as it rises

 As the air rises, it expands and its molecules spread out to occupy a large surface
area and therefore cool.

Note: Lines drawn on a map joining places of the same temperature are known as
isotherms.

Factors which influence the amount of solar radiation that reaches the earth’s
surface.

 The intensity of the sun’s rays in space.

 The transparency of the atmosphere.
 The position of the earth on its orbit.
 The area and nature of the surface on which the rays fall.

Factors influencing temperature

i. Latitude
 Length of distance through the atmosphere.
 Angle of sun’s rays striking the earth’s surface.
 Surface area.
ii. Length of day
 The longer the period of solar insolation the greater the quantity of radiation
received at a given place on the earth’s surface.
iii. Altitude
 High altitude areas have low temperatures while low altitude areas have high
temperatures.
iv. Aspect
 Refers to direction of slope.
 Slopes facing the sun for a longer period of time has high temperatures and vice
versa.
v. Winds
 They transfer heat from one place to another.
 Brings a warming influence to a place if they carrying warm or a cooling
influence if they come from cool or cold zones.
vi. Ocean currents
 A warm ocean current causes a warming effect while a cold ocean current causes a
cooling effect.

Measurement of temperature

 Temperature is measured using the following thermometers:

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 Maximum thermometer.
 Minimum thermometer.
 Six’s thermometer.

Maximum thermometer

 It is used to determine the highest temperature of the day.

 It uses mercury.
 When the temperature rises the mercury in the bulb is heated and expands.
 The expanding mercury pushes the metal index in the capillary tube forward.
 When temperature falls, the mercury contracts and withdraws towards the bulb
leaving the metal index behind.
 The reading of the maximum temperature is gotten from point of the metal index
that was last in contact with mercury.
 The thermometer is reset using a magnet that drags the metal index towards the
mercury.

Minimum thermometer

 It is used to determine the lowest temperatures of the day.

 It uses alcohol.
 When temperature falls, the alcohol contracts pulling the metal index towards the
bulb.
 When temperature rises the alcohol expands and flows upwards leaving behind the
metal index.
 The minimum temperature of the day is obtained by reading the scale at the end of
the index which was last in contact with the alcohol meniscus.

Six’s thermometer

 It is a U shaped thermometer.
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 It contains both alcohol and mercury.

 It measures both maximum and minimum temperatures.
 When temperature rises, the alcohol on the left hand side expands and pushes the
mercury up the right-side.
 The mercury in turn pushes the metal index upwards till the highest temperature is
reached.
 The highest temperature is read from the right hand side.
 When the temperature falls, the alcohol on the left hand side contracts and pulls the
metal index along the tube.
 When temperature rises, the alcohol expands leaving behind the metal index
 The minimum temperature is read from the scale on the left hand side.
 The part of the index touching the mercury gives the minimum temperature
reading.

The figures of the maximum and minimum temperature are used to calculate.

i. Mean daily temperature

 Obtained by finding the average between maximum and minimum temperatures
of the day
ii. Daily/diurnal range of temperature
 This is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperature of the
day.
iii. Mean monthly temperature
 Is the average temperature of the month.
 Obtained by adding all the mean daily temperature and dividing by the number
of days in that month.
iv. Mean annual temperature
 Is the average temperature for the year.
 Obtained by adding all the monthly means and dividing by 12.
v. Annual range of temperatures

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 Is the difference between the highest and lowest mean monthly temperatures in
a given year.

Humidity

 Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour or moisture present in the

atmosphere.
 This moisture is obtained from various sources such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers
and dams.

Significance of water vapour in the atmosphere.

i. Determines how much precipitation a given area is likely to receive.

ii. Regulates the heat lose from the earth’s surface.
iii. Determines the amount of energy stored in the atmosphere to enable the
development of a storm.

Types of humidity0

i. Absolute humidity
 This is the actual amount of water vapour present in a given volume of air at a
particular temperature.
 It is expressed in gm/cm3.
ii. Relative humidity
 This is the ratio between absolute of a given mass of air and the maximum amount
of water vapour that can be held at the same temperature.
 It is expressed as a %.
 R.H.=A.H/Maximum amount of water the air can hold at the same temperature.
 Example: If the air at 20◦c contains 10g/m3 and given air can hold a maximum of
20g/m3.calculate the relative humidity.
10×100/20=50%

Factors influencing humidity

i. Temperature: Warm air produces more moisture than cold air.

ii. Air pressure: compressed air warms up, expanding air cools.
iii. Distance from water bodies: Places which are near large water bodies such as
oceans, lakes, rivers tend to be humid especially if the temperature is high causing a
lot of evaporation.
iv. Latitude: Humidity is higher in low latitude than high latitude regions. This is
because of the greater rate of evaporation in lower latitudes.
v. Winds: moist winds blowing to region brings about higher humidity than dry wind.
vi. Aspect: wind ward slopes of mountains have higher humidity because they receive
warm moist air while the lee ward slopes have lower humidity because they receive
dry cold air.
vii. Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents allow warm moist air to reach the coastal
lands hence increasing humidity.

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Measurement of humidity

 Humidity is measured by a hygrometer.

 A simple hygrometer/pschrometer/thermo-hygrometer
 It consists of two thermometers i.e. dry bulb thermometer and wet bulb
thermometer.
 The wet bulb thermometer has its bulb covered with a muslin bag immersed in
water to keep it moist.
 The dry bulb thermometer has no muslin.
 The difference in the readings indicates the relative humidity.
 When the air is dry a lot of evaporation takes place around the wet bulb cooling it
and recording a lower temperature compared to the dry bulb.
 When there is a lot of water vapour in the atmosphere there is little evaporation
around the wet bulb, therefore a minimal difference between the readings of the dry
bulb thermometer and wet bulb thermometer.
 If the readings are the same then the air is saturated i.e. relative humidity is 100%
 If the difference is small the humidity is very high.
 If the difference is very big then humidity is very low

Precipitation

 This is general term used to describe the forms of moisture which fall from the
atmosphere.
 It also refers to the moisture that forms due to the condensation of water vapour.
 Condensation occurs when air is cooled below its dew point.
 Dew point is the temperature at which air becomes saturated.

Major forms of precipitation

i. Dew
ii. Frost
iii. Snow
iv. Mist and fog
v. Rainfall
vi. Sleet

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vii. Hail

Dew

 Forms at night when the air in the lower part of the atmosphere gets cooled and
water vapour in it condenses into droplets which are deposited on objects on
ground such as grass, trees, buildings rocks, etc.
 Dew form under the following conditions.
i. The air should be calm so that it can remain to be cooled below its dew point.
ii. Daytime should be warm to accelerate evaporation and thus provide a lot of
water vapour in the air.
iii. A cloudless night to accelerate the rate at which the earth losses the heat
gained during the day.

Frost

 Refers to tiny ice crystals deposited on objects on the ground.

 Formed when temperatures fall below freezing point.
 Water vapour then condenses into small ice crystals which are then deposited on
the ground objects.

Snow

 The precipitation that falls in the form of flakes of numerous tiny ice crystals.
 Formed in the upper under very low temperature.

Mist

 Mist is a mass of tiny water droplets suspended immediately above the ground.
 It forms when air is cooled below dew point but the resultant water droplets remain
suspended.
 This causes cloudiness which reduces visibility to1 – 2 kms.

Fog

 Fog similar to mist and form in the same way but is denser.
 It reduced visibility to less than 1 km.

Types of fog

i. Radiation fog: Forms when air in contact with the ground is cooled as a result of
terrestrial radiation. When mixed with smoke is known as smog.
ii. Advection fog: Forms as a result of warm moist air passing over a cooler land or
water surface.
iii. Hill fog: This is a type of advection fog which forms a low sheet of cloud on hills as a
result of moist air steam advancing inland from the sea.
iv. Frontal fog: forms at a point where cold air masses meet with warm air masses. The
cold air causes moisture in the warm air to condense to form fog.

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v. Steam fog: This is a fog associated with cold air passing over the surface of warm
water. As the warm water is cooled, it appears to be steaming.

Factors necessary for fog formation

i. Calm/windless conditions.
ii. Clear skies for maximum terrestrial radiation.
iii. A lot of moisture in the lower atmosphere.
iv. Air must be cooled below dew point.

Rainfall

 This is a form of precipitation from the clouds in the form of drops of water.
 Rain forms when water vapour in the high troposphere condenses and forms clouds.
 Clouds form when moist air is cooled below its dew point at considerable heights.
 A cloud becomes dense and danker as the water droplets increases in size and
amount.
 Large water droplets become too heavy to be suspended in the atmosphere and falls
as rain
 Line drawn on a map joining places of the rainfall amount are known as Isolytes

Types of rainfall

i. Relief/orographic rainfall
ii. Convectional rainfall
iii. Cyclonic/frontal rainfall.

Relief/orographic rainfall

 It occurs in areas where onshore winds rise over hilly or mountainous regions lying
parallel to coasts.
 It forms when warm moist air rise over a hilly/ mountainous region.
 As the air rises it expands and cools.
 The moisture condenses and forms clouds.
 The dense water droplets in the clouds fall as rain on the windward side.
 The wind after dropping moisture continues to descend on the other side of the
mountain called leeward side or rain shadow which has little or no rain.

Characteristics of relief rainfall

 Falls in light showers over a long period of time.

 In Kenya it is experienced in highlands.

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Convectional rainfall

 Intense heating of earth’s surface warms up the air which rises up in form of
convectional currents.
 Nearness to a water body increases moisture content in the rising warm air.
 The moisture cools and condenses when the air reaches the high atmosphere.
 Thick clouds form in the late afternoon after intense heating.

Characteristics of convectional rainfall

 It is usually accompanied by thunder and lightning.

 It lasts for a short period of time usually 15 – 30 minutes.
 It is sometimes accompanied by ice pellets/hailstones.
 It falls mainly in the late afternoon.
 It is common in the lake and coastal regions.

Problems associated with convectional rainfall.

 Leads to flooding that destroys property.

 Lightning cause destruction property and loss of life.
 Hailstones destroy crops.

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Cyclonic rainfall

 It is also known as frontal rainfall.

 It forms when warm moist air is forced to rise over cold air.
 The warm air cools on rising up and the moisture in it condenses to form clouds.
 The heavy water droplets fall as rain.
 The point where the two air masses meet is called a frontal zone.
 Cyclonic rain is usually heavy and accompanied by thunder lightening.

Factors influencing types and amount rainfall

i. Relief
 Relief features such as mountains and hills results in the rising and cooling of moist
winds to form relief rainfall.
ii. Air masses/winds.
 When warm and cold air masses meet frontal rainfall is formed.
iii. Forests and water bodies.
 Areas near forests and large water bodies experience higher rainfall and more often
due to high rate of evaporation.
iv. Aspect
 Windward slopes which are on the path of rain bearing winds receive heavier
rainfall than leeward slopes which face away.
v. Air pressure
 High pressure areas receive low rainfall than low pressure areas due to pushing of
air masses from high pressure to low pressure. The high pressure areas have
descending dry air.
vi. Ocean Currents
 It influences rainfall whereby coasts washed by warm ocean currents experience
heavy rainfall when moist onshore winds are warmed by the current and made to
hold on to moisture which they release on reaching the land.
 The coasts washed by cold ocean currents on the other hand experience low rainfall
as a result of moist winds being cooled and moisture in them condensed resulting in
rain falling over the ocean thereby bringing little or no rain to the coastal areas. This
is the cause of western margin deserts e.g. Kalahari and Namib deserts.
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Measurement of rainfall

 The instrument used to measure of rainfall is a rainfall.

 It consists of a cylindrical container containing a glass jar for collecting rain water.
 A standard size funnel is placed at top to direct water into the jar.
 The rain gauge is sunk into the ground with the top of the funnel being 30cms above
the ground level to prevent splash and surface run off.
 Water is emptied into a measuring cylinder after every 24 hours.
 The reading of the amount of rainfall is got from the measuring cylinder in
millimeters.
 The figure represents the millimeters of water falling on each square millimeter of
the ground.
 The rain gauge is placed open space far from trees/buildings to ensure that water
does not drip into the funnel.
 The outer case is sunk into the ground prevent evaporation.

Atmospheric pressure/air pressure

 It refers to weight exerted on the earth’s surface by the atmosphere.

 Lines drawn on a map joining places of the same atmospheric pressure are called
isobars

Factors influencing atmospheric pressure.

i. Altitude.
 Pressure decreases with increase in altitude because the column of air becomes
shorter hence it exerts less weight.
ii. Temperature.
 When air is heated it expands and exerts pressure over a large area resulting in
reduced pressure.
 When it’s cooled it contracts and exerts pressure over a small area resulting in
increased pressure.

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iii. Earth’s rotation

 Rotation pushes air masses from poles towards the equator causing air to spread
out and occupy more space causing it to expand making pressure to decrease.
 When air from the equator moves towards the poles it occupies less space causing it
to contract resulting into high pressure.

World distribution of air pressure zones

1. Equatorial low pressure zone (ITCZ)

Characteristics

i. Found between 23 ½ ◦N and 23 ½◦S

ii. Experiences High temperatures.
iii. Experiences High humidity.
iv. Zone of convergence of the south east and north east trade winds.
v. A zone of low pressure and doldrums (light and intermediate winds).
vi. It is migratory to the north and south of equator with the apparent movement of the
overhead sun.
vii. Associated with convectional rain and thunderstorms.
2. Sub-tropical high pressure zone.
i. Found within 30◦N and 30◦S.
ii. A zone of high pressure.
iii. A region of calm descending air.
iv. Source of Trade Winds and Westeries.
v. Zone of divergence of trade winds and Westeries.

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3. Temperate low pressure zone.

i. Found within 60◦N and 60◦S.
ii. A low pressure zone.
iii. Zone of convergence of Westeries and polar easteries.
4. Polar high pressure zone.
i. Found over the poles 90◦N and 90◦S.
ii. A high pressure Zone.
iii. Zone of descending calm air of low temperature.
iv. Source of polar easteries.
Measurement of atmospheric pressure

 Barometer is used.
 The units of measurement are millibars.
 There are two types of barometers.
i. Mercury barometer.
ii. Aneroid barometer

Mercury barometer

 Consists of a glass tube about 1 m long.

 It is enclosed at one end and filled with mercury.
 The open end is immersed into a bowl full of mercury.
 Changes in the atmospheric pressure are reflected in the changes in height of
mercury in the glass tube.
 When atmospheric pressure is low, the mercury is at a specific height.
 Increase in atmospheric pressure pushes on the mercury in the bowl and up the
glass tube hence raising the height of mercury in the glass tube.
 The height of mercury in the tube is proportional to the atmospheric pressure.
 The readings are taken in mmHg.

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Aneroid barometer

 Consists of an air tight metal box which is a partial vacuum.

 The box responds to changes in air pressure by expanding when pressure falls and
collapsing when pressure increases.
 The movements are transferred to the levers connected to a needle/pointer that
indicates on a dial/graduated scale.

Sunshine

 This refers to the direct ray of sunlight received on the surface of the earth.
 Sun rays can reach the surface if there are no clouds.
 The type of cloud determines amount and duration of sunshine.
 Lines drawn on a map joining places of the same sunshine amount are called
isohels.

Factors influencing sunshine

i. Latitude
 The amount of sunshine received reduces with increase in latitude.
 Low latitude areas receive intense sunshine.
 This is because at the equator, the sun’s rays cover a short distance to reach the
earth’s surface.
ii. Revolution of the earth
 The revolution of the earth causes different seasons.
 Summer receives intense heating because the sun’s rays cover short distance to
reach the earth’s surface.
 Winter receives low amount sunshine, because of the long distance between the sun
and the earth’s surface.
iii. Cloud cover
 The presence of clouds leads to low intensity of sunshine while the absence of
clouds leads to high intensity of sunshine.
iv. Aspect
 The slopes that faces the sun receives high amount of sunshine than the slope that
faces away from the sun in high altitude areas.

Measurement of sunshine

 Sunshine recorder/Campbell stokes is used to measure sunshine.

 Consists of a glass ball sphere that that concentrates the sun rays on sensitized
paper mounted on a metal frame.
 The paper is graduated into hours and minutes.
 The rays burn a line on the paper which is measured /read off a scale on the paper
to find out the hours of sunshine.
 The total hours of sunshine is got by adding all the burnt sections from calibrations
on the side of sensitized paper.
 Continuous sunshine will produce a continuous burnt line on the paper.

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 The sensitized paper is changed every day.

Cloud cover

 A cloud is a mass of tiny visible particles of water/ice which is formed by

condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere.
 The water particles condense around a nucleus of hygroscopic particles, i.e. dust,
smoke particles, salt particles, pollen grains or negative ions in the atmosphere.
 Clouds are classified on the basis of:
i. Altitude/height of their base. E.g. low, middle and high clouds.
ii. Appearance/shape. E.g. feathery clouds.
iii. Colours. E.g. grey dark.
iv. Formation. E.g. globular, bumpy.

Classification of clouds based on height.

1. High clouds
 Range from 6000 – 12000 m.
 They are as follows
a. Cirrus clouds..
 Milky white clouds made of tiny ice crystals.
 They are fibrous or wispy, resembling feathers.
 Appear in bands or patches.
b. Cirro-stratus
 Thin sheets.
 Tend to cover the whole sky.
 Milk appearance.
 Give sun and moon a halo.

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 Associated with fair weather/approaching storm.

 Almost transparent.
c. Cirro-cumulus
 White clouds consisting of white ice crystals.
 Have thin base.
 Globular/ripples in appearance.
2. Middle clouds
 Range from 2100 – 6000 m.
 They are as follows:
a. Alto-stratus
 Contain water droplets.
 Sheets of grayish is in colour.
 Uniform in layers.
 Spread over part or whole sky.
 Transparent
 May produce light continuous precipitation.
b. Alto cumulus
 Uniform sheets of thin flakes/flattened globular masses.
 Composed of water droplets.
 Often precedes rain/thunderstorm.

3. Low clouds
 Below 2100 m.
 They are as follows:
a. Strato-cumulus
 Soft grey clouds.
 Loose globular masses.
 Big but vary greatly in size and shape.
 Associated with fair weather.
 May change into nimbo-stratus.
b. Stratus
 Form a uniform grey layer.
 Resembles fog.
 May cover the entire sky.
 Associated with light drizzle.
 Has low base
c. Nimbo- stratus
 A rain cloud.
 Shapeless cloud.
 Dark grey
 Dense cloud.
 Spreads over all the sky in a low uniform layers.
d. Cumulus
 A convection cloud.
 Large white globular masses.
 Has a clear outline with a flat horizontal base.
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 Protruding tops that are dome shaped.

 Thick vertical development that results into precipitation.
e. Cumulo-nimbus
 Big, dense, heavy masses of cloud.
 Causes heavy rain or thunderstorms.
 Dark at the base and white on the sides.
 Have dark vertical development towering like mts.

Measurement of cloud cover

 It is observed by eyes
 Amount of cloud cover is given oktes.
 Estimation of the fraction/percentage of sky covered by clouds.
 Cloud chart is used to help in estimating and recording cloud cover.
 Use of remote sensing.
 Use of computerized satellites

N/B lines drawn on a map joining places of the same amount of cloud cover are called
isonephs.

Winds

 Wind is defined as moving air over the earth’s surface.

 Its characteristics are expressed in terms of speed and direction.
 The movement of wind is caused by difference in pressure, i.e. air moves from areas
of high pressure to those of low of low pressure.

Local winds

 Local winds affect a small/limited area.

 They occur for a short period of time.

Example of local winds

i. Land and sea breezes.

ii. Anabatic winds.
iii. Katabatic winds.
iv. Chinook winds
v. Harmattan winds
vi. Leveche and sirocco winds.
vii. Berg and Fohn winds.
a. Sea breeze
 Occurs during the day.
 During the day the land surface is heated faster than the water surface.
 Air over the land is warm and rises upwards hence low air pressure.
 Air over the sea is cool and dense and sinks downwards hence high air pressure.
 Air/wind from the sea moves to the land to replace the rising air.

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 This is known as sea breeze

b.Land breeze
 Occurs during the night.
 At night the land losses heat faster than the water surface.
 The air over the land is cool and dense sinks downwards hence high air pressure.
 The water surface retains the heat hence the air over it is warm rising upwards thus
low air pressure.
 Air/wind from the land moves to the sea to replace the rising air.
 This is the land breeze.

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c.Anabatic winds
 It is known as valley breeze.
 These are cold winds which blow from the valley bottoms upwards to the hill tops.
 In the temperate lands, they blow in the afternoon during summertime.
 During the day the hills tops/upper slopes receive direct solar radiation before the
valley bottoms.
 The upper slopes therefore have low atmospheric pressure while the valley bottoms
have high atmospheric pressure.
 Cool air blow from the valley bottoms upwards to replace rising warm air.

Katabatic winds

 Also known as mountain breeze.

 These are cold winds that blow downhill from the hill tops
 At night, the air at the hill tops cools faster than air in the valley bottoms.
 The air is therefore dense and atmospheric is higher at the upper slopes.
 In the valley bottom the air is warmer and has low atmospheric pressure.
 The cool dense air blows downhill by gravity.

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Read on the following winds

i. Harmattan winds.
ii. Leveche or sirocco.
iii. Berg and Fohn winds.

Factors influencing wind direction and speed

a. Pressure Gradient
 If the pressure difference between high and low pressure areas is high the winds
blow at high speed (strong) but if it’s low they blow at high speed (are gentle).
b. distance between Places of High and Low Pressure
 if the high and low pressure areas are near each other winds blow at high speed but
if distant from each other is long winds blow at low speed.
c. Rotation of the earth
 Rotation of the earth deflects winds to the right in the N. hemisphere and to the left
in the S. hemisphere.
d. Frictional Force
 If the surface of the earth is rugged or has obstacles such as hills, mountains, valleys
or vegetation the wind is blocked causing speed reduction and its direction of flow
is also changed.

Measurement of wind

a. Wind vane
 Used to determine wind direction.
 It consists of a horizontally rotating arm with a pointer pivoted on a vertical
shaft.
 The arrow points the direction from which the wind is blowing.

b. Windsock
 Used to determine wind direction and strength.
 It is a cylindrical cloth bag attached to a ring.
 The bag stretches out in the direction that the wind is blowing.

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 Not kept in a weather station because it doesn’t give the accurate direction of
wind.
 Seen near airstrips for the benefit of pilots.

c. Anemometer
 Used to measure the speed/velocity of wind.
 Has 3 or 4 metal cups which rotate as winds blows.
 The number of rotations is recorded on the meter in km/hr. or knots.

A weather station

 It is a place that is set aside for the purpose of observing, measuring and recording
weather elements.
 The information obtained is used to describe the weather of a given place.

Factors considered when siting a weather station.

i. It should be located in an open space where there is free flow of air.

ii. The place should be far from objects such as buildings, vegetation, trees, etc. that
might cause obstruction.
iii. The site should be relatively flat and free from flooding.
iv. The site should be secure.
v. The site should have a wide view of surrounding landscape and sky.
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Stevenson screen

 It is a white wooden box mounted on 4 legs used to house thermometers and

hygrometers
 It has louvered sides/overlapping openings to allow circulation of air. This enables
to obtain room temperature.
 The box is painted white to reflect away direct heat from the sun that might
interfere with temperature readings.
 It is mounted on metallic legs to avoid destruction by termites.
 It is raised to height of about 121cms above the ground to prevent contact with
direct radiation from the earth’s surface.
 Has double roof which acts as an insulator to prevent direct heating from the sun.
 Well ventilated to allow easier flow of air inside it.
 Instruments found in the Stevenson screen include:
i. Maximum thermometer.
ii. Minimum thermometer.
iii. Six’s thermometer.
iv. Hygrometer.

Purpose of the Stevenson screen

i. To keep delicate instruments safe.

ii. To provide shade conditions required for accurate temperature readings.

Weather forecasting

 Refers to the prediction of the weather situation for a given place within a short
period of time like an hour, a day, a week, a month or a year.
 Observation of the following is necessary in weather forecasting:
i. Wind direction and speed.
ii. Atmospheric pressure.

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iii. Temperature.
iv. Cloud cover.

Methods of Weather Forecasting

Traditional Methods

 Prediction of weather based on traditional beliefs and facts.

 Migration of birds during dry season indicates the coming of rains.
 Plants shedding leaves indicates period of drought.
 Changes in wind direction during dry season indicate the coming of
rains.
 Warming up of water kept in a pot indicate that it will rain.
 Migration of butterflies during dry season indicates the coming rain.
 Croaking of frogs during dry season indicate it is going to rain.
 Flowering of certain plants indicates the onset of rainfall.
 High intensity of solar radiation indicates that it will rain.
 Old men complaining of paining joints indicate the coming rains.
 The rainbow indicates that the rains are disappearing.
Advantages of traditional methods
i. They require less skills to use.
ii. They are cheap to acquire.
iii. They require less training to achieve them.
Disadvantages of traditional methods
 They are less accurate.
 They appear to be only aiming at rainfall leaving out other elements.
Modern Methods

 Prediction of weather using modern instruments and new technology of collecting,

transmitting, processing and analyzing weather data.

Instruments Used

i. Satellites-electronic devices which orbit the earth which collect and transmit
weather data which is interpreted by computers.
ii. Radar-an instrument used to see cloud formation.
iii. Sensors/radiosodes-instrument fixed on a balloon used to measure atmospheric
pressure, temperature and humidity.
iv. Computers-electronic device used to store, analyze and display weather
information.
Advantages of modern methods
 They are fairly accurate in terms of time, duration and amount of weather elements
received.
 They are able to predict all weather elements.
Disadvantages of modern methods.
 The equipments are expensive to acquire.

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 They require specialized skills to use which are inadequate.

 Training personal takes long and is expensive.
Importance of weather forecasting

i. Enables farmers to plan their farming activities.

ii. Helps to determine suitable clothing.
iii. Helps to determine time for air and sea travels.
iv. Helps in planning sporting activities.
v. Helps in planning of military activities.
vi. Helps in planning tourist’s activities such as when to visit game parks.
vii. Helps to determine fishing habits.

Factors that hinder adequate weather forecasting.

i. Inadequate data on some elements.

ii. Inaccurate data which is unreliable limits accuracy in prediction.
iii. Intervening factors, e.g. slopes, vegetation, soil moisture etc. hence varying
conditions in places adjacent to each other.
iv. Inadequate trained personnel in developing countries.
v. The use of defective and obsolete equipment.
vi. Vagaries of nature such as storms and earthquakes tend to be unpredictable.
vii. Human error.
viii. Poor sitting of instruments

Factors influencing weather

a. Altitude
 Temperature decreases with increase in altitude.
 However, this only limited to the troposphere.
 Pressure decreases with rise in altitude.
b. Nearness to water bodies.
 Areas near large water bodies receive high amounts of precipitation.
 The air currents from such water bodies also lowers temperature of the
surrounding areas.
c. Aspect
 Direct sunshine facing slopes are warmer than the opposite slopes which face
away from the sun
d. Inter-tropical convergence zone.
 This is a zone of low pressure.
 It causes heavy rainfall wherever it passes.
e. Latitude.
 Temperature decreases with increase latitude.
 The sun says covers a shorter distance at lower latitude.
 The sun’s rays strike the lower latitudes at right angles hence covers a smaller
surface area leading to great concentration.

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f. Cloud Cover
 Clouds reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface by absorbing,
scattering and reflecting solar radiation.
 When there are clear skies during the day the temperature is higher due to the
earth receiving maximum solar insolation.
 During clear nights there are very low temperatures due to a lot of terrestrial
radiation being lost to the outer space.
 Cloudy nights on the other hand are warmer due to clouds radiating to the earth
heat absorbed during the day.
g. Length of Day
 The longer the period of solar insolation the greater the quantity of radiation a
place receives and hence the more the heat that will be generated by the earth
and vice versa.

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UNIT FOUR
STATISTICAL METHODS
Definition of statistics.

 The term statistic originates from a Latin word statis which means state.
 Statistics refers to facts and figures collected and arranged in a systematic manner.
 It also refers to the exact numerical facts and figure collected systematically for a
particular purpose.

Statistical data

 This refers to the actual facts and figures collected from various areas and arranged
in an organized manner.
 Also refers to information presented in numerical form and arranged in an
organized manner, e.g. temperature records in a weather station.

Statistical methods

 These are techniques of collecting, recording, analyzing, presenting and interpreting

statistical data for the purpose of drawing valid and useful conclusions from them.

Significance of statistics

i. Statistics are useful in illustrating relationship between 2 varying

quantities/variables, e.g. amount of rainfall and amount of maize harvest.
ii. They are useful in summarizing geographical information which save time and
space.
iii. Statistical data enables the explanation of geographical phenomena, e.g. climatic
data explains vegetation type.
iv. It enables an individual to make comparisons between phenomena.
v. It enables us to make predictions about future trends.
vi. Statistics clearly show changes through time.
vii. Statistics are useful in planning at local and national level.

Types of statistical data

i. Primary data
 Refers to facts and figures collected first hand.
 This is original information from the field.
ii. Secondary data/derived data
 Refers to the facts and figures collected and recorded.
 The information is compiled by other people and recorded in textbooks,
journals, magazines and other written materials.

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Characteristics of statistical data

i. Discrete data
 Refers to data which is non-continuous over time.
 It may be given in whole numbers, e.g. population of living things. We talk of 100
people, 16 elephants.
ii. Continuous data
 Refers to data that is continuously distributed over time.
 Value can be expressed in fraction and decimals, e.g. 25.20 C, 54 ½ km.ie they
take any value.
iii. Individual data.
 Refers to exact values for individual/each item.
iv. Grouped data
 Values are given in ranges/groups, e.g.

Age group number

15-19 years 32 boys
20-24 years 8 boys
Sources of statistical data

i. Primary sources
 Collected first hand through different methods like oral interview, direct
observation and questionnaire.
 It is an original data.
ii. Secondary sources
 Refers to materials in which information that was gathered by other people is
stored, e.g.:
 Textbooks.
 Statistical abstracts.
 Census reports.
 Newspapers.
 Journals.
 Magazines.
 Video and audio tapes.
 Photographs.
 Films.

Methods of collecting data

 These are techniques employed to obtain the required information.

 They are as follows:
1. Observation
 This method involves direct visual observation of geographical phenomena.
 It entails use of eyes/sight to obtain information.

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 It is most useful where the phenomenon under research is not able to

communicate verbally. E.g. observation of rocks landscape, vegetation type, soil,
cloud cover.etc.

Advantages

i. Provides first hand data.

ii. Provides reliable data.
iii. Saves time
iv.

Disadvantages

i. It is tiresome and expensive, i.e. requires a lot of travelling.

ii. It is difficult to use when the weather is bad such as on a rainy days.
iii. Visual impairment limits its use.
iv. It may be possible to collect data on past activities.

2. Interviewing/oral interview
 Information is obtained by asking respondents questions directly, face to face or
over the phone.

Advantages

i. Gives a chance to dispel fear and create rapport.

ii. Can be used to acquire information from illiterate people.
iii. Provide instant and first-hand information.
iv. Interviewer can seek clarification incase of ambiguity of answers.
v. Interviewer can gauge the accuracy of responses.

Disadvantages

i. Time consuming since one person can be handled at a time.

ii. Expensive and tiresome as extensive travelling is required to meet the respondents.
iii. May encounter language barrier if the respondent doesn’t speak the same language
as the interviewer.
iv. A respondent may lie, exaggerate or distort facts leading to collection of wrong
information.

3. Administering questionnaires
 A questionnaire is a list of questions related to the topic of being research on.
 The questions are used for the purpose of collecting information.
 There are two types of questionnaires as follows:
a. Open-ended questionnaires: the respondent gives the answers freely.
b. Rigid/closed questionnaire: The respondent is given a choice of answers to
select from.

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Advantages

i. Seek clarification through supplementary questions.

ii. Inspire confidence in respondents.
iii. Comparisons can be made since questions are similar.
iv. Useful source of first-hand information.
v. Posting of questionnaires reduces fieldwork expenses.
vi. A lot of information can be collected

Disadvantages

i. Expensive, e.g. travelling costs, mailing, printing, etc.

ii. Time consuming.
iii. Ineffective with illiterate respondents.
iv. Insincere and inaccurate answers.
v. When mailed may never reach the respondent.
vi. Difficult analysis due to different answers.
4. Taking measurements
 We take measurements of distances, height, etc.
 Pacing.
 Estimating.
 Counting.
 Use of instruments, e.g. ruler, thermometer.

Advantages

i. Easy to measure and read information shown in the instruments.

ii. Data obtained is accurate.
iii. Quick way of collecting data.

Disadvantages

i. Sometimes the data may be read inaccurately.

ii. Errors are likely to occur when using pacing or estimating.
iii. Faulty instruments.
5. Experimentation
 This is an act of conducting a test to provide evidence for or against a theory.
 In geography experiments can be done to determine the following:
 The chemical composition of rocks and density.
 The moisture content on a soil sample.
 Soil ph.
 The specific gravity of a substance.

Advantages

i. First-hand data is obtained.

ii. Gives accurate results when properly conducted.

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iii. Can lead to further discoveries.

Disadvantages

i. May be expensive as it involves use of expensive equipment.

ii. May be time consuming.
iii. Use of defective instruments may lead to inaccurate results.
iv. Improper handling of equipment and chemicals may lead to accidents.
6. Content analysis/use of secondary sources
 Involves library search from textbooks, newspapers, video, films, etc.

Advantages

i. Easy to collect data.

ii. Cheap as there isn’t extensive travelling
iii. Saves time as all information is in one place.
iv. Gives access to old/past information.

Disadvantages

i. Biased information.
ii. Inappropriate format.
iii. Difficult to verify accuracy of data
iv. Data may be irrelevant to current trends
v. Up to date data may not be readily available
7.
Sampling
It is the process of selecting a sample from a population/selection of a

representative portion of the phenomena under research.
 A sample is a small part of a whole selected as a representative of the whole.
 There are 3 main types of sampling techniques as follows:
i. Random.
ii. Systematic
iii. Stratified.

Random sampling

 Selection of members of a group haphazardly where every item has an equal chance
of being selected e.g. to select 5 students to go for a tour from a class:
 Class members write their names on pieces of paper
 They are folded and put in a basket
 The basket is shaken and fives papers are taken out
 Useful when the phenomena under research are not distributed in any order.
 It minimizes bias tendencies.

Systematic sampling

 Useful when the phenomena are large and evenly distributed.

 Objects for study are selected at regular intervals, e.g. every 4th object.
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Stratified sampling

 Involves the selection of study on the basis of groups or categories of similar

elements.
 Classification can be based on age, sex, tribe, level of education, etc.
 For example to select 6 students to go for a tour:
 Break the class into boys and girls
 Select 3 student from each group by random or systematic sampling
 Combine units from each group to form the required sample.

Advantages of sampling

i. Less expensive.
ii. Saves time.
iii. Avoids bias.

Disadvantages

i. A poorly selected sample can lead to misleading information.

ii. Not suitable to an unevenly distributed population especially systematic sampling.

Methods of recording data

i. Field sketching
 Summarizing information observed in the field by making a rough drawing of
landscape and labeling the essential information.

ii. Mapping
 Drawing of a rough map of an area of study and labelling in words or symbols
accompanied by key.

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iii. Tabulation
 Drawing of tables and filling in data systematically e.g. weather recording sheets.

Month J F M A M J J A S O N D

Temp(◦c) 24 24 23 22 19 17 17 18 19 20 22 23

Rainfall(mm) 109 122 130 76 52 34 28 38 70 108 121 120

iv. Tallying.
 Making 4 vertical or slanting strokes and the 5th across the 4 to record data
obtained by counting or measuring similar items.

v. Note taking.
 Writing in a note book what is being observed, answers during interviews and
then notes are compiled in school or office when writing report.
vi. Taking photographs
vii. Tape Recording
 Recording image of an object or landscape on a film which is processed to get a
photograph then the photographs are labeled to avoid mix up during storage.
viii. Labeling of samples
 Recording conversations during interviews on audio tapes using a tape recorder.
 Permission should be got from the respondent to record his/her responses.

Advantages

i. It’s used if responses are too many to be recorded on a note book.

ii. It allows smooth flow of discussion as asking respondents to repeat answers
would irritate them.
ix. Filling in questionnaires.
 Filling answers in questionnaires which are responses from a respondent by an
interviewer or respondent himself which he/she then sends back.

Analysis of data

 Statistical analysis refers to the examination of the recorded figures and facts in
close detail.
 It aims at explaining the meaning and the features of the data.

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Methods used to analyze statistical data.

i. Calculation of percentages
E.g. in location A 36 out of 144 farmers keep livestock
When expressed in percentages it will be as follows:
36/144 X 100 = 25%
ii. Measures of central tendency
 Central tendency is the outstanding general characteristics of the data.
 The main measures of central tendency are:
 Mean
 Median
 Mode

Mean

 Also known as arithmetic mean/average.

 It is obtained by adding the values in a given set of data and dividing by the number
of observations.
 E.g. temperature of town Z
Jan-23
Feb-24
Mar-26
Apr-28
May-29
Jun-28
Jul-26
Aug-26
Sep-26
Oct-30
Nov-28
Dec-25

Median

 It is the middle value in a given set of data arranged in rank order.

 All values have to be arranged in ascending/descending order.
 The value in the middle of the set is determined, e.g.
75, 43, 69, 81, 39, 24, 18, 56, 42
18, 24, 39, 42, 43, 56, 69, 75, 81
Thus median is 43.
 In a set that has even number of observations , the middle two values are added and
the sum divided by
e.g. 23, 24, 25, 26, 26, 26, 26, 28, 28, 28, 29, 30
Then two middle values are 26 and 26
= 26 + 26 divide by 2

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Mode

 This is the value which occurs most frequently in a set of data.

 It is also referred to as modal value, e.g. in the data on temp in town X above the
Modal value is 26 since it occurs 4 times.

iii.
Measures of dispersion
 Shows how the data provided is spread out.
 Range is the main measure of dispersion.
 The higher the range, the more dispersed the data is and the lower the range, the
less dispersed it is.
 Range is obtained by subtracting the lowest value from the highest value.

Statistical presentation of data

 Data presentation refers to the conversion of numerical data into other forms that
are purely figurative that brings out meaning to other people.
 It involves making a visual impression of figures in comparative sizes, rates of
change, relationships between phenomena and continuity of data.

Graphs

 A graph is a planned drawing consisting of lines/bars showing how two or more

sets of values are related to one another.
 Varying quantities represented on the graph are known as variables.
 There are two types of variables.
i. Independent variables
 These are variables which change steadily and regularly, e.g. time and
distance.
 The change is not dependent on other value.
 Independent variables are always plotted on the horizontal/X-axis.
ii. Dependent variables.
 These are variables that change more irregularly and may even be controlled
by the independent variables, e.g. temperature, air pressure, rainfall amount,
etc.

Simple line graph

 This is a one dimensional diagram that shows the relationship between two
variables.
 A line graph is a drawing on which the dependent variables are represented
by a line or a smooth curve.
 The dependent variable may show some variation.

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Construction steps

i. Draw X and Y axes on a graph paper.

ii. Choose a suitable scale based on the values based on the values to be represented.
iii. Plot the independent values against the corresponding dependent values.
iv. Join the plotted points with a pencil.
v. Label the X and Y axes.
vi. Provide a suitable title.

Assignment: Using a scale of 1cm to represent 40 tonnes, draw a line graph to represent
the data in the table below.

COFFEE EXPORTED FROM KENYA

YEAR 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

000,s 120 160 160 140 150 180 210
tonnes
Advantages of a simple line graph

i. Simple to construct.
ii. Easy to interpret the information.
iii. It is an ideal method for representing continuous data.
iv. It enables easy comparison of variation in the association between 2 variables.
v. It is easy to read the exact values against the plotted points.

Disadvantages

i. It is difficult to obtain exact values from the graph.

ii. It shows no comparisons between two or more sets of data.
iii. The fluctuation of the values may be exaggerated due to poor choice of vertical scale.
iv. It gives false impression of continuity of the data.
v. The precise visual impression on actual quantities does not come out clearly.

Simple bar graph

 Also known as a bar chart/histogram.

 It is a statistical diagram on which quantities are represented by a series of columns.
 It is suitable for representing discrete data.
 It is a two dimensional diagram.

Construction steps

i. Draw X and Y axes.

ii. Decide on the width of the bars and the width of the space to separate the bars.
iii. Find a suitable vertical scale so that the bars do not become too long or to short.
iv. Plot in the values.
v. Neatly draw the outlines of all the bars and label them if necessary.

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vi. Where there is continuity, e.g. rainfall amount, the bars should have no gaps, i.e. they
should touch each other.
vii. Shade the bars to give a clear impression.
viii. Label both axes.
ix. Provide a suitable title.

COFFEE FROM KENYA

YEAR 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

TONES 120 160 160 140 150 180 210
IN 000,S

Advantages of bar graphs

i. Easy to construct.
ii. Easy to read and interpret.
iii. Give a clear visual impression of the definite quantities of data.
iv. Clearly show the individual amounts and clear comparisons of different quantities.

Disadvantages

i. Does not show the production of various commodities at the same time hence
comparison not easy.
ii. Does not show variation of production over time.
iii. One cannot establish the causes of variation of the phenomena.
iv. Poor choice of the vertical scale leads to exaggeration of the length of the bars.

Combined line and bar graph (polygraph)

 In this method a bar graph is drawn alongside a line graph.

 It is significant where there is a co-relation between one set of data and another
different set of data, e.g. temperature and rainfall of a particular place in a year.

MONTH JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP
TEMP IN 0 19 21 21 20 18 18 17 17 19
C
RAINFAL 55 119 207 168 35 27 27 14 75
L IN MM

CONSTRUCTION STEPS

i. The bar graph is drawn to represent the rainfall amount. The bars should touch
each other because it is a continuous data.
ii. A line graph is drawn above the bar graph to represent temperature.
iii. The left vertical axis is labeled to represent rainfall amount.

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iv. The right vertical axis is labeled to represent temperature values.

v. Vertical scale for rainfall must start at zero, however the vertical scale for
temperature should not necessarily start at zero.
vi. Leave enough space above the bars for the temperature line graph.
vii. Draw the bars to correspond with the rainfall value; and plot the dots to
represent temperature value and join the dots in a smooth curve.
viii. Label both vertical and horizontal axes.
ix. Provide an appropriate title.

Advantages

i. Easy to construct and read.

ii. Shows the relationship between two types of data such as temperature and rainfall.
iii. Climatic characteristics can be described from the two graphs.

Disadvantages

i. It does not show relationships between the same type of data such as temperature
or rainfall amounts of more than one place.
ii. It is difficult to choose a suitable scale when the value for each variable differs by a
great magnitude.
iii. The cause of variation in the variables cannot be established from the graph.

Wind Rose

 This is a chart on which data on wind direction for a period of time, e.g. a month is
recorded.
 The central part is either a circle/octagon.
 Each side represents the eight points of the compass.
 From each side columns of equal width but varying lengths are drawn to represent
frequency is wind direction.

Construction steps

i. Draw an octagon at the centre of a piece of paper. It should be at most 1.5/2 cm in

diameter.
ii. Choose a suitable scale to represent the data in the frequency table.
iii. From each side draw a bar at right angle in proportion to the number of times the
wind blew from that direction (frequency)
iv. The total number indicated as calm is written at the centre of the octagon.
v. Draw the compass points besides the wind rose to determine directions.
vi. The bars should be of the same thickness.

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WIND DIRECTION FOR THE MONTH OF MAY

DIRECTION N NE E SE S SW W NW CALM
OF WIND
NUMBER 5 2 4 3 2 6 4 2 3
OF DAYS

Advantages of a wind rose

i. Easy to construct.
ii. It gives a good visual impression of wind flow.
iii. It is easy to read and interpret

Disadvantages

i. It does not show the wind speed.

ii. It does not show a comparison of wind direction in various places or for various
months.

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UNIT FIVE
MAPS AND MAPWORK
DEFINITION OF TERMS

a. A map
 A map is a representation of a part or the whole of the earth’s area on a flat surface.
 The surface can vary from a sheet of paper to a chalk board.
 A map shows the area of land as it appears when viewed directly from above.
 The outline of objects on the ground is shown.
b. A plan
 A plan is large scale map of a small place.
 It is drawn accurately to scale.
 A plan is drawn for specific purpose.
 It shows the position and size of features.
 A plan may be of a house, estate, town, farm, etc.
c. A picture
 A picture is an image of a real object.
 It can in the form of a photograph, drawing/painting.
 A picture varies in size, it can be smaller than, equal to or bigger than the original
object.

MAP PLAN PICTURE

1. Covers large area. 1. Covers small areas. 1. Covers images of
2. Small, medium and 2. Only large scale. objects
large. 3. Shows above/sides. 2. Not drawn to scale.
3. Shows top parts of 4. Selected features 3. Shows front view.
features are visible and show 4. Features hidden
4. Symbols used to many details. behind other
show hidden 5. It shows selected features.
features. features 5. Shows everything
5. Shows specific 6. Less expensive captured by camera.
features according 7. Main features are 6. Cheaper and faster.
to the scale used. labeled in a plan and 7. No features are
6. Expensive. key shows other named on the
7. Main features details. pictures.
named on map/key
are to show minor
features.

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Types of maps

 Classification of maps is based on the purpose for which each map is drawn and the
different scales used.
 There are three major categories, namely:
a. Sketch maps.
b. Atlas maps.
c. Topographical maps/survey maps.

a. Sketch maps
 They are commonly used in textbooks and other reference books.
 They are simple line drawing showing the general outline of the areas being
represented.
 They are rough sketches of a place.
 They may not be drawn to scale hence lack proportion to the actual area being
represented.

Characteristics of a good sketch map.

i. It should be clear and neat.

ii. It should have a resemblance to the original area/map.
iii. It should be enclosed in a frame.
iv. It should have a title.
v. It should have a key that explains the meaning of different signs and symbols used.
vi. It should have a compass point showing the appropriate position of the north
direction.
b. Atlas
 An atlas is a collection of maps in the form of a book.
 They are drawn to cover a large ground on a small sheet of paper, i.e. they are small
scale maps.
 They contain a wide range of information.
 Atlas maps show different aspects of geography as follows:
i. Relief maps: - show position of physical features such as hills, mts, valleys,
plains, etc.
ii. Climatic maps: - show information in temperature, rainfall, winds and
atmospheric pressure.
iii. Political maps: - show political divisions/boundaries, e.g. may show towns.
iv. Population maps: - show the distribution of people, settlements and towns.
v. Geology maps: - shows rock structure of the area.
c. Topographical maps
 The term topography refers to the surface features of any area.
 It shows selected physical and human features and their positions in the area.
 The common physical features shown on a topographical map include:
 Slopes.
 Hills valleys.
 Ridges.

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 Plateaus, etc.
 Some of the human feature include:
 Roads.
 Farms.
 Settlement
 Building, etc.
 Topographical maps are drawn with the help of aerial photographs and ground
survey of a small area.
 A small portion of a country represented on a sizeable sheet of paper.
 They are medium/large scale maps.
 They are accurately drawn after survey.

Uses of maps

a. Sketch maps
i. It summarizes information.
ii. Easy and quick to reference.
b. Topographical maps.
i. Travellers use them to find their way.
ii. Planners use them to properly plan specific areas.
iii. They are used to locate features such as mountains.
iv. They are used to calculate the distance from one point to another.
c. Atlas (projected) maps.
i. Used to locate places on the earth’s surface.
ii. Used to compare the sizes and shapes of different land and water masses.
iii. They provide information such as climate vegetation population,etc.
iv. They used for planning.

Marginal information

 These refer to the facts/information outside the borders on a map sheet.

 They give additional information which helps the map user to use the map
effectively.
a. Map name and sheet title.
 The regional/country title is printed at the top left hand side and includes the map
scale.
 The name of the map sheet is printed in bold at the top centre of the map.
b. Map identification
 It is the information about the identity of the particular map according to the map
indexing system.
 It includes:
 Map series: - This is a number that identifies a particular map from other
sheets in the same group.
 Sheet number/sheet index: This is the number given to each sheet to
identify it in relation to adjoining sheets.
 Sheet edition: This indicates the year when the map was last published.

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c. Grid system number

 They represent the values of the grid lines (eastings and northings).
 They appear in the inner margins of the map.
 It consists of two numbers i.e. 99.
 It is the larger figures that are used in giving grid reference.
d. Latitudes and longitudes
 They represent a lineal position; however they are marked on the map by short
dashes along the east and west, and north and south borders.
 They are labeled in degrees and minutes, e.g.
e. Compass direction and magnetic variation
 This is a declination diagram indicating the true north, magnetic north and grid
north.
 The diagram also shows the magnetic declination/variation which is the angle
between the true north and magnetic north.
f. Administrative boundaries
 A summary of the administrative divisions is shown in the margin.
 It is used to identify the administrative units shown on the main map.
g. Index to adjoining sheets
 It is a box diagram of nine squares with the centre square representing the map
sheet at hand.
 The index number and name of each map sheet in the block is indicated in the
squares.
h. Publisher and copyright, e. g. Directorate of overseas surveys (DOS) or the survey
of Kenya.
i. Key
 It is also known as a legend of the map.
 It is within the bottom margin of the map.
 It contains symbols and signs for the natural and human features.
 A key is general for all maps.
 Some of the symbols shown in the key may not appear on the actual map being
studied.
 Against each symbol/sign, its meaning is given.
 Names that cannot be written in full are abbreviated and explained in the key.
 The units of height used on the map are indicated against the symbol that indicates
contours within the key/above the frame of the key box.
j. Conversion table
 This is a scale for converting height from one unit to another, e.g. converting feet to
metres.
k. scales
 Most topographical maps show two forms of scales.
 The ratio/representative fraction scale is shown at the top left margin of the map.
 It is also shown at the centre just below the southern outer margin.
 The linear scale is given below the southern margin of the map.
 There is a scale in imperial units ( miles and feet)while the other is in metric units
( kilometres and metres)

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Scales
 A scale is a ratio of the distance on a map to the corresponding distance on the
actual ground.
 It is the ratio between the length on a map and the corresponding length on the
ground.

Types of scales
i. Statement scale
 The scale is expressed in words.
 One centimeter represents ten kilometres.
 1cm represents 10km.
 1cm to 10km
 Note that the standard unit of measurement on a map in the metric system is
a centimeter while on the ground it is a kilometers.
 When giving a statement scale always give the map distance as 1cm.
ii. Representative fraction scale ( R.F)
 In this type of scale the distance on the map is expressed as a fraction of the
actual distance on the ground.
 In the R.F scale, the numerator represents the distance on the map while the
denominator represents the actual distance on the ground.
 The numerator must always be 1.
 The units of the numerator and denominator must be the same, e.g.
1/100,000
 Thus 1 unit on the map represents 100,000 units.
 The representative fraction can be expressed in ratio form as 1:100,000.
iii. Linear of scale
 This form expression uses either a short line/ long line that is subdivided.
 There are two types of linear scales.
a. A short line scale
 It is about 1 to 2cm in length.
 On one end it is marked zero while on the other end is the actual
ground distance that the length of the line represents.
b. A long line scale
 It has two sides.
 The one on the right hand side of the zero mark is the primary
scale.
 The one on the left hand side of the zero mark is the secondary
scale.
 The units shown on the scale are actual ground distances while the
intervals are map distances.

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Conversion of scales
Conversion of scales refers to expressing one type of scale as another type of scale.

a. Converting a statement scale into a representative fraction scale.

 For example: 1cm represents 2km.
 Since in the R.F scale the units on both sides have to be the same, hence we
convert the kilometres into centimetres.
 1km = 100,000cm.
 2x 100,000 = 200,000cm
 Therefore the R.F is written as 1/200,000 or 1: 200,000
b. Converting a R.F into a statement scale.
 For example: 1/200,000.
 Convert the measurement for the ground /denominator into kilometres by
dividing the denominator with 100,000.
 200,000/100,000 = 2km.
 Therefore statement scale is 1cm represents 2km.
c. Converting a linear scale into a statement scale.
 Measure a unit distance of one interval on the linear scale.
 The measurement should be done in centimetres.
 State what 1cm unit represents according to the linear scale.
d. Converting a linear scale into a representative fraction.
 Start by converting the linear scale into a statement scale.
 Then convert the statement scale into a R.F.
e. Converting a R.F into a linear scale.
 Convert the R.F into a statement scale.
 Draw a line 12 cm and divide it into centimetres.
 At every interval of the division, write the value of the distance.

Assignment:

1. Convert the following statement scales into Representative fraction.

a) 1cm represent 0.5km.
b) 1cm represents 15km.
2. Convert the following R.F into statement scales.
a) 1/ 500,000.
b) 1/25,000.
3. Convert the following into linear scales.
a) 1/1,000,000.
b) 1/20,000,000

Sizes of scales
i. Small scale maps
 The area represented on a small scale map is large.
 It shows more area with few details.

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 Any scale ranging from 1:250,000 and above is a small scale.

 E.g. 1:1,000,000, 1: 500,000
 World maps are drawn to small scale.
ii. medium scale maps
 These fall between small and large scale maps.
 It represent relatively smaller areas on a given size paper.
 More details are shown compared to small scale e.g. 1:50,000, 1: 100.000.
iii. Large scale maps
 The area represented on a large scale map is small.
 They show many details
 E.g. 1:10,000.
 Large scale maps range from 1:25,000 and below.

Uses of scales
i. It is used to measure distances on maps.
ii. It is used to calculate area on maps.

Measuring distance on maps

a. Measuring distance along a straight line.
i. Use a sheet of paper
 Mark the 2 points XY on the map and draw a pencil line joining them.
 Place the edge of a sheet of paper along the ruled line and on it mark the length of
the distance XY.
 Read the distance by placing the edge of the sheet of paper against the linear scale.
ii. Use a pair of dividers.
 Make sure that the map is laid out flat on the desk.
 Mark the 2 points on the map and draw a pencil line joining them.
 Open the pair of dividers spanning the distance to be measured.
 Carefully transfer the dividers onto a linear scale or ruler and then read the
distance.

NB: for distances which are longer than the span of the dividers the following steps
are followed:
 Open your dividers to span a convenient number of whole units on the linear scale.
 Rotate the dividers along the line to be measured and carefully note the number of
rotations.
 Multiply the distance of the span by the number of rotations to get the distance of
the line between the 2 points

b. Measuring distance along a curved line.

i. Use a piece of string.
 Mark the required length of the road AB
 Place one end of the string at point A and mark it using ink

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 Then lay the string carefully along the road till point B is reached and mark it on the
string in ink.
 Stretch out the string and place it against the linear scale and read the distance.
ii. Use a straight edge of paper.
 Take a piece of paper; fold it to obtain a firm edge.
 Using a pencil, mark off the straight stretches along the road.
 Place the edge of the paper at point A and mark this point on the paper.
 Turn the paper about point A till it lies along the next straight stretch.
 Repeat the same till point B is reached.
 The piece of paper with distance AB is placed along the linear scale and distance is
read.
iii. Use of a pair of dividers
 Mark the required length of the road into straight stretches.
 Using a pair of dividers measure each marked part and read the ground distance
straight away on the linear scale and record the distance.
 Add up the recorded distances to get the distance between AB.

NB: When using the linear scale, any distance less than the unit on the primary scale part of
the scale is read by placing the distance on the secondary scale, left of zero.

Finding areas of regular and irregular shapes

To find areas of regular shapes

 Areas of regular shapes can be calculated using standardized mathematical

formulae, e.g.:
 Squares and rectangles: area = LXW.
 Triangles: Area = ½ base X height.
 Circle :area =
 NB Always state the length in terms of Km before finding the areas.

To find areas of irregular shapes

i. The use of rectangles and triangles

 Divide the area into a rectangle and triangles.
 Measure the dimensions of the rectangle and triangles.
 Convert the dimensions into actual ground distance using the linear scale provided.
 Find the areas of the rectangle and triangles.
 Add the areas of the areas of rectangles and triangles.
 The total gives you the area of the irregular shape given.
ii. The use of strips
 Cover the entire area with strips of convenient width.
 Care should be taken to ensure the area left out balance with the areas included.
 Measure the dimensions of the strips.
 Convert the dimensions into actual ground distance using linear scale provided.
 Find the area of each strip.

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 Add the area to get the total which gives you the total area of the irregular shape.

iii. Use the grid squares which is 1km x 1km.

 Count all complete squares and number them.
 Count the incomplete square
 Each incomplete should be considered as a half a square.
 Divide the incomplete squares by 2 to convert them into full squares.
 Get the total of the figure

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UNIT SIX
FIELDWORK
DEFINITION

 Fieldwork is the scientific study of geography which applies practical techniques

using the environment as the laboratory and source of information.
 Fieldwork allows the learners to interpret for themselves what they see and confirm
the facts and ideas that they acquire in the classroom

Types of fieldwork

i. Field excursion
 It is a sight-seeing outing
 It is mainly aimed at relaxing the people involved.
 It does not require the formation of objectives or collection of data.
ii. Field study
 It is aimed at collecting data in order to achieve specific objectives.
 The study is conducted by an individual or a group of people.
 It is based on a specific theme such as a study of a local farm.
iii. Field research
 It is a problem solving activity.
 The research is conducted by experts set out to identify the causes and
possible solutions.

Importance of fieldwork

i. It teaches the geographer a variety of skills, i.e. be observant and describe what
is observed accurately.
ii. Enhances what is learnt in the classroom making geography real.
iii. It improves the visual memory, i.e. one easily remembers what was seen than
what is heard.
iv. It enables one to apply the knowledge learnt in the classroom.
v. It enables one to understand the relationship between physical and human
geography
vi. It breaks classroom monotony.
vii. It encourages critical thinking.
viii. It develops positive attitudes towards the environment.
ix. Develop co-operation as they work in groups.
x. It is an important source of primary data and knowledge.
xi. Due to exposure in the field, the learners are assisted in understanding problems
on a larger scale.

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FIELDWORK PROCEDURE

 A procedure is an established way of doing things.

 The fieldwork procedure involves a series of activities to be completed in order
to achieve certain objectives.
 The following are steps/procedure of fieldwork:
a. Identification of the topic of study
 This refers to the title of the field study that is to be carried out.
 Also known as the problem especially in field research.
 The title can be drawn from a topic that has already been studied in the classroom.
 It should be stated in a short, clear and precise statement.
 . E.g. a study of weather station, a study of Mudete market.
b. Statement of objectives,
 Objectives are the aims/purpose for carrying out the field study.
 Objectives must be relevant to the topic of study, i.e. it directs the actual activities to
be carried out during the study.
 Objectives should be stated in short clear sentences, e .g:
 To find out how the factory was established.
 To find out methods of farming in a local farm.
 To identify the cattle breeds in the farm
 To investigate the problems facing the farm.
 To investigate the relationship between landforms and soils
depth in the area.
 To identify the market out for the processed tea in the factory.
 NB A good objective should be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time
bound (SMART)
c. Formulation of hypothesis.
 A hypothesis is an idea/guess/suggestion.
 It is a tentative answer to the problem in question.
 It is therefore a theory that has not yet been proved.
 The researcher makes guess on the basis of any knowledge they have in the
area of study.

Types of hypotheses

1. Null hypothesis
 This is stated negatively, e.g. there are no cereals sold in the
market.
2. Alternative or substantive hypothesis
 This is stated positively. E.g. all the goods sold in the market are
cereals.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

i. It has an element of comparison, whereby two or three items are compared.

ii. The quantitative words used are easily measurable, e.g. more, most, majority, all.
Avoid the use of words like a lot, many or few.
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iii. The hypothesis leaves room for “yes” or “no”.

iv. It must be related to one or more of the objectives in question.
v. A hypothesis should not be obvious.

Examples of oh hypotheses used on the study of landforms

 Most of the landforms have resulted from internal earth

movements.
 The highest point in the area is at the top of mt. Longonot.

N/B hypotheses may also be stated in question form.

d. Preparation for the fieldwork

 Students and researchers should prepare adequately before going out for a field
study.
 The sequence of activities involved in the preparation is as follows:
i. Seek permission
 Preparation for fieldwork begins with the seeking of permission from the
relevant authorities, and/or the acquisition of a research permit.
ii. Conduct a reconnaissance
 This is a short visit to the place of study prior to the actual day of study
 The teacher selects a small group of students who conducts a
pre-visit/reconnaissance to the intended place of study.
 Importance of reconnaissance
 It familiarizes the researcher with the area of study.
 It introduces the researcher to the authorities and respondents in the
area of study. This makes it easier to extract information from people
already known.
 It helps the researcher to identify and decide on the methods and tools
to use in collecting information during the study.
 It helps to determine the suitability of the area of study.
 It helps to identify any problem the researcher is likely to encounter
during the study. This gives him an opportunity to prepare on how to
cope up with the situation.
 It enables the researcher to estimate the cost of study and plan
accordingly.
 It is useful is designing a working schedule.
iii. Revision of objectives
 After the reconnaissance, the researcher will revisit the objectives and
hypotheses and make any necessary adjustments in accordance with the
findings of the reconnaissance.
iv. Methods of data collection
 Suitable methods of data collection are then chosen.
v. Assemble necessary tools
 The tools needed for the study should be assembled early to eliminate the last
minute rush and forgetfulness.

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 Such tools may include: maps, writing materials, a camera, tape recorder.
Compass, tape measure, plastic bags, geological hammer, etc.
 The choice of tools is determined by the topic of study and the methods to be
used to collect the data.
vi. Working schedule
 It is a timetable to be followed on the day of the field study.
 It includes a plan of activities for each day of study.
 It shows specific time during which particular activities should be conducted.
 Importance of a working schedule.
 It gives ample time to each activity so that no activity is forgotten.
 It reduces the tendency to waste time.
 It provides an estimate of time needed for the study.
 It provides a basis for evaluating the fieldwork while it is still in
progress.
 It provides a framework that guides the researcher to remain within
the scope of the topic.
vii. Divide the students into groups.
 The teacher divides the students into groups and appoints a group leader.
 Group work allows the researchers to accomplish all that they are set to do
faster.
e. The actual field study
 It takes place on the day chosen for the study.
 On this day, the students should rise up early especially if the study is to be
conducted in a place far from the school
 The schedule should be observed from step one.
 Delays in waking up may interfere with the day’s schedule.
 The main activity in the field study is the collection of data.
 The data to be collected is aimed at satisfying the objectives and testing the
hypotheses outlined earlier.
 Collect data using relevant methods.
 Record all the relevant data.
 After the data is recorded, it is then analyzed and presented.

Follow Up Activities

 After data is collected and recorded it’s summarized in the following ways:
i. Discussing the findings in class giving reports through group leaders
ii. Writing reports in essay form
iii. Calculation of percentages, means, medians and modes
iv. Laboratory testing of samples
v. Presentation of data using methods such as graphs, pie charts, etc.

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Problems likely to be encountered during field work

i. The researcher may fall sick during study.

ii. The respondents may become unco-operative or may fail to keep time.
iii. Language barrier: If the researcher and the respondent do not speak a common
language a lot of data may not be collected.
iv. Transport problem, e.g. the vehicle in which the researchers are in travelling may
break down.
v. Bad weather, e.g. heavy rains can interrupt the study making it impossible. Very hot
weather makes it uncomfortable.
vi. The researcher may be attacked by wild animals.
vii. Steep slopes may be difficult to climb.
viii. Thick vegetation may be difficult to penetrate.
ix. Dishonest respondents may lead to collection of inaccurate data.
x. Financial constraints may bring the fieldwork to a standstill.
xi. Accidents in the field may delay the study.
xii. A lot of noise interferes with data collection during interviews or tape recording
sessions.

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UNIT SEVEN
MINERALS AND ROCKS
Definition of minerals

 A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic substance that has a definite chemical

composition and crystal structure.
 Minerals are formed from the main chemical elements of:
 Oxygen.
 Silicon.
 Aluminum.
 Iron.
 Calcium.
 Magnesium.
 Sodium.
 Potassium.

Characteristics of minerals

i. Minerals have different degrees of hardness. The hardness of a mineral is its

residence to scratching. E.g. some are very hard e.g. diamond while others are very
soft e.g. talc.
ii. Some minerals aggregate into distinct shapes, e.g. crystal quartz is a six-sided prism.
iii. Some minerals such as gold, copper, diamond and silver are composed of one
element, while others such as bauxite and feldspar have two or more elements.
iv. Minerals have different textures.
v. Different minerals have different colours, e.g. gold is yellow while copper is blue.
vi. Minerals have lustre. Lustre is the way a mineral reflects light, the quality of being
bright, e.g. iron is dull and opaque while mica is glassy.
vii. Different minerals have different specific gravity. Specific gravity is a measure of the
relative weight of a substance.
viii. Different minerals have different tastes and solubility.
ix. Minerals have different cleavage forms. Cleavage refers to the way minerals breaks.
x. Minerals have different tenacity. Tenacity refers to the resistance of a mineral to
crushing and breaking.

Types of Minerals

i. Metallic minerals. E.g. diamond, copper, aluminium, gold, lead

ii. Non-metallic Minerals-, coal, petroleum, and uranium.

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Definition of rocks

 A rock is any naturally occurring agglomeration of mineral particles forming part of

the earth’s crust.

Classification of rocks

 Rocks can be classified into 3 categories as follows:

 By their mode of formation or origin.
 By their physical and chemical characteristics.
 According to their age.

Classification of rocks according to the mode of formation or origin

These include:

 Igneous rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks.
 Metamorphic rocks.
a.Igneous rocks
 They are formed by cooling and solidification of magma (semi-liquid material) from
the interior of the earth.
 Igneous rocks can further be sub-divided into:
 Intrusive igneous rocks
 Extrusive igneous rocks

Intrusive igneous rocks

 Rocks formed when magma cools and solidifies within the earth’s crust, i.e.
underneath the earth’s surface.
 Have coarse texture as a result of slow cooling giving minerals more time to form
large crystals
 Example of intrusive igneous rocks: granite, diorite, syenite, gabbro, peridotite,
dolerite etc.
 Intrusive igneous rocks are classified further into two:
i. Hypabyssal rocks- intrusive igneous rocks which are near the earth’s surface.
ii. Plutonic rocks-intrusive igneous rocks which are deep below the surface.

Extrusive igneous rocks

 They are also known as volcanic rocks.

 Formed when magma cools and solidifies on the earth’s surface.
 When magma reaches the earth’s surface it is known as lava.
 Have fine texture due to fast cooling giving minerals less time to collect together to
form larger crystals.

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 Extrusive igneous rock are classified further into two:

i. Volcanic ejecta
 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed in the following ways:
 When ash and lava ejected from underground as they fall on the earth’s
surface e.g. pumice.
 When dust and ash ejected settle on the ground and get compressed to
form a rock e.g. tuff.
ii. Lava flows
 Extrusive igneous rocks formed when basic lava flows over a considerable
distance then cools and solidifies e.g. basalt and obsidian.
b. Sedimentary rocks
 These are rocks formed from sediments by cementation or other processes acting at
ordinary temperatures at or near the earth’s surface.
 Sediments originate from pieces broken from pre-existing rocks, remains of living
organisms and precipitates of chemical processes and deposited by water, wind and
ice.
 Over time the sediments are compressed and hardened into due to pressure from
the overlying materials.
 Many sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers known as stratified rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks are non-crystalline and some contain fossils.
 The separation surface of two sedimentary layers is known as bedding plane or the
plane of stratification.
 Sedimentary rocks can be classified into main groups depending on how they are
formed.
 Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks
 Organically formed sedimentary rocks
 Chemically formed sedimentary rocks

Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks

 These are known as clastic rocks because they are derived from existing rocks.
 Formed from deposition, compaction and cementation of sediments or pieces of
rocks laid down layers (strata) in water land.
 The sediments are derived from existing rocks through weathering and erosion.
 Sediments are transported by agents of erosion, i.e. water, wind and glaciers.
 Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks can be further classified according to the
size of their constituent particles.
i. Arenaceous rocks (0.02 mm to 2mm)
 Formed mainly from particles of sand, e.g. sand stone and grit.
ii. Argillaceous rocks (less than 0.02 mm)
 Formed from very small particles such as those of mud and clay, e.g.
shale, mudstone, Claystone, siltstone and loess.
iii. Rudaceous rocks (more than 2mm)
 Formed from rock particles which are larger than the size of sand, e.g.
conglomerates, breccia and boulder clay.

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Organically formed sedimentary rocks

 Formed from the remains of dead animals and plants.

 These remains accumulate in lakes, seas, oceans/buried on land over a long period
of time to form various types of organically formed sedimentary rocks.
 These rocks are further classified according to their composition and mode of
formation.
i. Calcareous rocks
 Rich in calcium carbonate
 Formed from shells or skeletons of dead organisms, e.g.
limestone/chalk.
 Limestone is rich in fossils called coral.
ii. Ferruginous rocks
 Formed in lakes and marshes by precipitation of hydrated iron oxides
from water, e.g. ironstone.
iii. Siliceous rocks
 Formed by the accumulation of remains of organisms like
radiolarians, diatoms and sponges whose skeletons are rich in silica
 Found in places which were under water but are dry now, e. g.
diatomite.
iv. Carbonaceous rocks
 Rich in carbon.
 Formed from the accumulation of remains of plants which have been
buried.
 Once buried they change gradually, e.g. coal

Chemically formed sedimentary rocks

 Mineral particles are dissolved from land and carried in solution form into water
bodies such as lakes and seas.
 The mixing of water of different types may result into chemical reactions followed
by precipitation of sediments.
 These accumulate at the bottom of the water body and are compressed to a rock.
 Rocks forming as a result of evaporation are known as evaporates.
 These are further classified into:
i. Carbonates
 Mainly made of carbonate compounds, e.g. travertine (calcium
carbonate), dolomite (magnesium and calcium carbonate), and trona
(sodium carbonate).
ii. Sulphates
 Mainly made of Sulphates compounds.
 Formed as a result of evaporation from waters of shallow desert lakes,
e.g. gypsum( calcium sulphate)
iii. Chlorides
 The common rock in this class is rock salt ( sodium chloride)

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iv. Silicates
 Form from deposition of silica, e.g. flint, sinter, and chert.
v. Ironstones
 Deposition of iron in water and the resultant compression has led to
the formation of such rocks as limonite, haematite and siderite.

a. Metamorphic rocks
 The term metamorphic is derived from two Greek words:
 Meta-meaning change.
 Morphe-meaning form.
 Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have undergone a change from their original form
and characteristics.
 Changes in the rocks can be brought about by heat, pressure and a combination of
heat and pressure.
 When igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to great heat and pressure, they
are transformed to metamorphic rocks.
 Metamorphism occurs particularly during earth movements.
 There are 3 types of metamorphism as follows:

i. Dynamic/kinetic/regional metamorphism
 This is caused by the action of great pressure.
 The pressure results from great compressional forces within the rocks.
ii. Thermal/contact metamorphism
 This is caused by the action of great heat.
 The heat results from rocks getting into contact with hot molten magma.
iii. Thermal-dynamic metamorphism
 This caused by a combination of heat and pressure

 Metamorphism leads to the following changes in rocks:

i. Fusion and rearrangement of minerals leading to the formation of new
minerals.
ii. Recrystallization.
iii. Compactness.
iv. Reduction/increase to resistance of erosion.
 The table below shows the original rock and the corresponding metamorphic rock

Original rock Metamorphic rock

Granite Gneiss
Limestone marble
Claystone/mudstone Slate/schist
Shale schist
Sandstone quartzite
Coal graphite
Augite hornblende

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ROCK CYCLE
 The rock cycle refers to the continuous changing state of the rocks.

A summary of major characteristics of rocks

Igneous rocks

i. Formed from molten rock materials (magma).

ii. Are generally crystalline ( large/small crystals)
iii. Have a glassy appearance.
iv. Have a complicated chemical composition.
v. Can be classified according to their chemical composition, i.e. acidic and basic.

Sedimentary rocks

i. Formed from sediments.

ii. Occur in layers/strata.
iii. Occurrence of fossils (remains of flora and fauna)
iv. Mainly non-crystalline in nature.
v. Ripple marks and mud cracks.

Metamorphic rocks

i. Have differing degree of foliation.

ii. Generally harder than original rocks.
iii. May contain valuable minerals.

Methods of determining the rock ages

i. Stratigraphy/relative dating: Older rocks underlie younger rocks

ii. Absolute dating: Counting of laminae in some rocks, e.g. shale. Laminae are the
thinnest layers of deposits in a sedimentary rock.
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iii. Radio carbon dating: It is used in determining the age of young rocks. It entails
determining the proportion of carbon present in fossils. Geological periods
associated with fossils are divided into eras, periods, epochs, etc.

Distribution of major types of rocks in Kenya

Draw the map on page 114 KLB geog book1

Eastern Kenya region

 The major rocks are metamorphic rocks e.g. marble in parts of Machakos and schist
and gneiss in parts of Kitui.
 Volcanic rocks in Yatta plateau and Kapiti plans.
 Sedimentary rocks e.g. limestone rocks used in Bamburi for cement manufacturing.
Coastal Region

 Major rocks are sedimentary rocks e.g. limestone used in Bamburi for cement
manufacture.
 There are volcanic rocks in Tsavo rich in ground water resources.
Northern and N.E Region

 Dominated by sedimentary sands.

 There are volcanic rocks in Mt. Marsabit and around Rift Valley.

Rift Valley and Kenya Highlands

 Dominated by volcanic rocks

 There are metamorphic rocks which have resulted from changing of igneous rocks.
L. Victoria Basin

 Granite and gneiss dominate Western Kenya where they form high rocky hills called
granitic tors common in Kisii, Maragoli and Bunyore areas.
 Sedimentary rocks deposited by rivers e.g. Nyando, Nzoia, Yala and Sondu
Significance of rocks

i. Some rocks form spectacular sceneries which act as tourist attraction sites, e.g.
crying stone in Kakamega.
ii. Certain type rocks (aquifers) act as water reservoirs and store a lot of underground
water,
iii. Rocks provide parent material for soil formation when they undergo weathering
influencing agricultural practices.
iv. Some rocks are used in the building and construction of industry. E.g. limestone-
manufacture cement.
v. Some rocks contain minerals and the minerals are mined to earn income to
individual/a country, e.g. diatomite, trona coal, etc.
vi. Rocks play an important role in influencing landscape and landscape features

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UNIT EIGHT
MINING
Definition of mining

 Mining refers to the process of extracting valuable minerals from the earth’s crust.
 Minerals occur in different types of rocks known as ores.
 An ore is rock/rock material which can be profitably mined for the purpose of
mineral extraction.
 Gangue refers to the waste left after a mineral is extracted from the ore.
 Valuable minerals extracted from rocks include:
i. Gold.
ii. Copper.
iii. Lead.
iv. Tin.
v. Silver.
vi. Zinc.
vii. Aluminium.
viii. Manganese.
ix. Diamond, etc.
Factors influencing the occurrence of minerals-
a) Vulcanicity: It leads to solidification of minerals in cracks and crevices. If minerals are
found in small quantities, they are said to occur in veins and those in large quantities are
in lodes. Minerals found in veins and lodes are copper, lead, zinc, tin and silver.
b) Weathering: It exposes minerals near the earth surface. This makes some minerals to
occur as weathering products e.g. nickel, iron, manganese and aluminium.
c) Erosion: It loosens minerals and transports them eventually depositing them as alluvial
deposits. Minerals due to alluvial deposition are gold and diamond.
d) Sedimentation: Deposits, accumulates and concentrates minerals in specific areas
making them occur in layers, beds and seams e.g. coal and iron.
e) Metamorphism: Leads to change into new mineral/formation of minerals e.g. diamond.
f) Evaporation: Enhances crystallization leading to formation of salts and other minerals
like soda ash and gypsum.
g) Leaching : It results into concentration of minerals in the crust e.g. bauxite, nickel, iron
and manganese.

Assignment: find out the various uses of the minerals mentioned above.

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Occurrence of minerals

a. Veins and lodes

 Minerals are deposited in crystalline form in cracks, crevice/faults.
 Veins refer to the occurrence of minerals in small quantities while lodes refer
to the occurrence of minerals in large quantities.
 When lodes and veins are exposed at the surface, they are referred to as
reefs.
 Some of the minerals that occur this way include: copper, lead, zinc, silver,
etc.
b. Beds and seams
 Minerals can be deposited/accumulated in a horizontal strata/layer, e.g. coal,
salts, gypsum trona, etc.
 The layers form as a result of long periods under great heat and pressure.
c. Alluvial deposits
 Mineral particles may be eroded and be carried off by running water and
deposited in the flood plains, valleys bottoms, etc.
 Diamond and gold occur as alluvial deposits in some areas.
d. Weathering products
 Deep weathering of rocks under tropical conditions can lead to the formation
of minerals, e.g. bauxite, iron, nickel and manganese.

Factors influencing the exploitation of minerals

i. The value of minerals

 Valuable minerals such as gold, diamond and uranium can be extracted at
whatever cost because they fetch very high prices.
 Less valuable minerals cannot be mined if the cost of mining will be higher
than the returns.
ii. The size of the mineral deposit
 Large deposits are more likely to be mined than smaller deposits considering
the investments needed.
iii. The quality of the ore
 High quality ores are more economical to mine than low quality ores.
iv. Transport cost
 Deposits that occur near the coast/industrial center enjoy cheap transport
compared to lands deposits which have to be transported by road.
v. Technology
 Mining process needs advanced technology.
 This technology lacks in developing countries leading to the employment
experts.
vi. Capital
 Mining involves a large capital outlay.
 Most developing countries have inadequate capital to exploit their minerals
hence the need of foreign investors.

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vii. Methods of extraction

 Occurrence of the mineral and availability of capital and technology
determines the method to be used and further determines whether mining
will take place.
vii. Labour
 The availability of both skilled and unskilled labour makes mining easier and
cheaper.
viii. Political influence
 Border location of minerals may hinder mining due to the possible conflict
over the possession of the mineral.

Methods of mining

The mining method adopted depends on the following:

i. Mode of occurrence of minerals

ii. The expense to be incurred
iii. The value of the mineral
iv. Available technology.

The most common methods of mining are as follows:

a. Open cast mining.

b. Underground mining.
c. Alluvial mining.

Open cast mining methods

 Also called surface mining/ open- pit mining method.

 Method of extracting minerals which occur near the earth’s surface.
 Characteristics-
i. It is cheap
ii. It requires simple machines
iii. Little capita input is needed
 There are two open cast mining methods
 These are stripping and hill slope boring.
i. Stripping
 It is the cheapest method of mining.
 Used when the mineral deposit is close to the surface.
 Involves the stripping off the unwanted material lying on top of the mineral
deposit.
 Bulldozers/simple implements are used.
 The mineral ore is dug up/explosives are used to break it up and.
 The ore is loaded on lorries/rail wagons and taken to the factory for processing.
 The method is commonly used in quarrying stones/rocks, mining surface coal,
copper and iron ore.
ii. Hill-slope boring.

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 Used when the mineral ore outcrops on hill side.

 Digging implements/augers are used to dig out the mineral ore.
 The ore is then loaded on trucks.
Negative effects of open cast mining on the environment
i. The land is left with gaping quarries which are ugly interfering with the natural beauty of
the landscape.
ii. The heap of rock waste hinder any form of land use/ creates a landscape that is expensive
to rehabilitate.
iii. The dust produced during the mining pollutes the atmosphere. It is a health hazard.
iv. It causes shortage of land hindering settlement/ leads to displacement of people/ hinders
agriculture.
v. Large scale blasting of rocks leads to instability of the basement rocks.
vi. Water collects in the hollows left creating ponds which becomes habitat for disease
causing organisms.
vii. It interferes with the natural vegetation which is cleared before extraction of the mineral
begins to take time to generate.
Underground mining methods

 They are used when the mineral ore lies very deep below the earth’s surface.
 Characteristics-

i. It is expensive
ii. It requires heavy capital investment
iii. It requires advanced technology/ complex equipment
 These methods include:
i. Deep shaft mining method.
 Used when the mineral occurs in steeply inclined seams.
 Vertical shafts are sunk into the earth.
 From the shaft horizontal tunnels/galleries are dug towards the mineral ore.
 The roof of the tunnels is supported by steel/concrete beams to prevent collapse
of loose materials.
 Ventilation is done to keep the air clean and cool.
 Light railway tracks/conveyor belts are used to transport to the surface by lifts.
 It is commonly used in mining valuable minerals such as gold and diamond in
South Africa.

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Problems associated with shaft mining method 149

i. Sometimes mines get flooded with sub-terrain water.
ii. There is occasional emission of poisonous gases in the mines.
iii. The dust produced causes respiratory diseases.
iv. Sometimes tunnel collapse causing deaths of the miners.
ii. Drift/adit method
 Used when the minerals occur in gently sloping veins/seams exposed on the
hill/valley side.
 Horizontal tunnels are constructed from the hill/valley side up to the mineral
ore.
 A railway line may be constructed into the mine.
 It is commonly used in mining copper in Kilembe western Uganda.
iii. Solution method
 Pipes with superheated steam/water may be drilled down to the deposits.
 The minerals dissolve in water which is then pumped to the surface.
 At surface the water is evaporated and the mineral extracted.
 Minerals such as salt, potash and sulphur can be mined through this method.
iv. Drilling method
 Crude oil and natural gas are mined using this method.
 Wells are drilled to the deposits.
 The petroleum/gas is brought to the surface under its own pressure or by
pumping.

Alluvial mining (placer mining)

 Minerals which occur as alluvial deposits are extracted by this methods.

 They are as follows:
i. Panning
 Simplest, small scale method.
 Involves digging out the sand and gravel from the river bed.
 Miners swirl water with the mixture to wash out the impurities.
 The heavier mineral particles remain at the bottom of the pan.
 Used to mine gold in river Morun beds in West Pokot and diamond in Orange
River.
Effects of panning method on the environment
 It leads to water pollution hence unfit for human and animal use.
 It leads to land dereliction interfering with the natural beauty of landscape.
 It leads to destruction of vegetation as miners clears the land to access the area with
minerals.
 It leads to loss of biodiversity/ destroyed the ecosystem.
ii. Dredging
 A dredger machine is used.
 The dredger floats on large water is body digging up the waterlogged
alluvium/mineral material.
 The material is sorted out within the machine which extracts the minerals as the
waste materials are washed out with water.
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 Used in mining soda ash at the lake Magadi.

iii. Hydraulic mining
 Involves the use of powerful jets of water under high pressure to dislodge gravel
and minerals exposed on a valley side.
 The materials collect at the bottom of the valley where the mineral grains are
picked/sorted out.
 Used in tin mining in Malaysia.

Significance of minerals in Kenya

i. It leads to the development of industries, e.g. Bamburi factory mining limestone,

magadi soda mining soda ash.
ii. It leads to the development of transport and communication, i.e. roads and railways
are constructed, e.g. the Konza railway line connects the magadi company to
Mombasa.
iii. Creates employment opportunities, e.g. engineers, administrators, secretaries,
casual workers, etc.
iv. It leads to the development of settlements/towns/urbanization, e.g. Magadi town
has grown due to the trona mining in Lake Magadi.
v. Mining activities encourage the development of social amenities such as schools,
hospitals which are established by the mining companies benefiting the
surrounding communities.
vi. Minerals are exported to other countries earning the country foreign exchange, e.g.
soda ash is exported to Japan, India, etc.
Explain three ways in which mining promotes industrialization in Kenya.
 Some minerals provide essential raw materials for some manufacturing industries.
 Minerals are exported to earn the country foreign exchange used for development of
industries.
 Mining stimulates development of roads/ railway which promotes industrial growth.
 Mining attracts settlement/ development of towns which attract industrial development.
 Mining has stimulated the growth of related industries that supply inputs/ services.
 Mining creates employment raising the living standards of people creating demand for
industrial products.
Distribution of major minerals in East Africa.

country mineral Area mined Method of

mining

Kenya Trona Magadi Dredging

Copper Macalder Open-cast
Gold Kakamega Open-cast
Fluorspar Kerio valley Open-cast
Limestone Bamburi, Athi river Open-cast
Diatomite Kariandusi Open-cast/adit
Salt Ngomeni, Magadi Open-cast
Natural carbon iv oxide Kereita (uplands) Open-cast
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Gemstone Mwatate Open-cast

Titanium Kwale Open-cast
Soapstone Kisii Open-cast
Tanzania Diamonds Mwadui Open-cast
Gold Geita, Mpanda Open-cast
Limestone Wazo hill, Tanga Open-cast
Phosphate Majingo hill Open-cast
Salt Uyinza Open-cast
Tin Kyerwa Open-cast
Mica Morogoro Open-cast
Iron Chunga Open-cast
Uganda Copper Kilembe Adit
Limestone Tororo, Kilembe Open-cast
Phosphate Tororo Open-cast
Salt Lake Kitwe Open-cast
Tin s. west Ankole, Kigezi Open-cast

Problems facing mining industry in Kenya

i. Inadequate capital for prospecting and mining minerals.

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ii. Remoteness and poor transport system in some parts of the country such as North
Eastern and north parts of Kenya.
iii. Insufficient skilled personnel, i.e. few mineralogists and petrologists.
iv. Occurrence of small mineral deposits which are uneconomical to work on.
v. Control by multinational/foreign companies. As a result much of the export revenue
is remitted to foreign countries as salaries and dividends.
vi. Risks of death as walls collapse on miners e.g. in Ikolomani walls collapsing on gold
miners.
vii. Pollution of the environment, e.g. diatomite spreads dusty particles in the
environment.
viii. Lack of electric power supply in some areas.
ix. Land conflict, e.g. the titanium mining in Kwale has stalled because of the conflicts
between Tiomin Company and local people.

Effects of mining on the environment

i. Land dereliction
 Derelict land is the land that has been abandoned after being damaged by
mining.
 Dereliction of land leads to the following:
a. Waste of agricultural and industrial land in that the rugged land can
no longer be cultivated or settled on.
b. Scenic pollution, i.e. the land looks ugly after mining.
c. Health hazards, i.e. accidents occur as people and animals fall in the
holes left after mining. Water accumulates in the holes leading to
breeding of mosquitoes and snails.
ii. Environmental pollution
 Toxic gases may be emitted during mining.
 Water is polluted by the dumped wastes.
 Noise pollution from heavy machinery and explosives.
iii. Loss of bio-diversity
 Bio-diversity refers to the variety of plants and animals.
 During mining vegetation may be cleared to pave way for the exploitation
of minerals leading to loss plant life and scaring away of animals.
iv. Soil erosion
 The soil is loosened making it vulnerable to erosion.
v. Landslides
 Occurrence of landslides as the heavy machinery and use of explosives
destabilize the land triggering off mass-wasting.
Ways in which mining derelicts can be reclaimed
 Planting trees.
 Creating a park to attract tourists.
 Introducing aquaculture.
 Landscaping for settlement or farming.
 Refilling the holes.

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Exploitation of minerals in selected countries

Trona mining on Lake Magadi in Kenya.

Occurrence of trona

 The deposits occur in Lake Magadi as a combination of different salts.

a. Sodium sequicarbonate.
b. Sodium chloride.

Mode of formation

 Rain water percolates into cracks on the rift valley floor.

 High underground temperatures (due to volcanic activity) heat the water which dissolves a
lot of salts in the rock strata.
 The solution drains/flows into Lake Magadi.
 Due to the high temperatures around Magadi, the water evaporates leaving
behind solid crystals of Trona on the surface of the lake.

Extraction and processing

 Dredging method is used.

 The dredger excavates the trona the lake.
 The crystals are fed into crushers and mixed with a solution of liquor from the
Lake.
 The mixture is pumped through a pipeline to the factory.
 The trona crystals are cleaned and the liquor pumped back to the lake.
 The cleaned crystals are heated and converted into soda ash.
 The soda ash is then reduced into required sizes and packed for export.

Uses of soda ash

 It is a raw material for making glass.

 It is used in making detergents/soaps.
 It is used in some chemical industries.
 It is used as a water softener.
 It is used in de-sulphurising steel.
 It is used in paper industries.
 It is used in textile industry.


Marketing

 Locally sold to related industries.

 Exported to Japan, India, etc.

Benefits to the economy

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i. It has led to growth of Magadi town (urbanization).

ii. It has contributed to the development of social amenities such as schools,
hospitals, etc.
iii. It has stimulated the development of infrastructure, e.g. tarmac road to Nairobi,
railway to Konza.
iv. It has created employment opportunities for many people, e.g. engineers,
administrators, secretaries, casual workers, etc.
v. It has led to the improvement of living standards of the local Maasai people
(piped water)
vi. The export soda ash earns the country foreign exchange.
vii. It provides raw material for development of related industries like glass making
industry.

Problems

 Stiff competition from developed countries with large soda deposits, e.g. USA
and Israel.
 Low value of salt which cannot meet its production costs.
 High labour costs due to the hostile environment.
 Located in remote areas with poor transport and communication links.
 There is inadequate fresh water supply for use in the factory and domestic purposes.
 The area has no permanent inhabitants to provide reliable labour.

Gold mining in the Republic of South Africa

 Gold is a shiny yellow mineral.

 Gold occur in grain form in rocks known as banket
 The mineral ore is found in quartz veins, metamorphic rocks or redistributed
sediments.
 The mineral deposits are located in Orange Free State and Transvaal.
 The main mining towns are:
 Witwatersrand (Johannesburg)
 Odendaalrus
 Lydenberg

Extraction

 Vertical shafts are sunk underground from where horizontal tunnels are dug in the gold
ores.
 Gold bearing rock (banket) is blasted using explosives.
 Gold ores are transported to the surface using rock cages and conveyor belts.
 The ore is transported to the factory for processing.
 Processing & marketing
 The ground pulp is mixed with cyanide which dissolves the gold.
 The cyanide solution is then mixed with zinc dust causing the gold to precipitate
leaving out uranium in the mixture.
 The gold is sieved out to be melted and moulded into bars (ingots).

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 The gold is exported to other countries and sold to local industries that use it as raw
materials.
Uses of Gold
 Gold is used in the jewellery and ornament industries.
 It is used in dentistry.
 It is used in mintage (making coins to use as money).
 It is used in making medals.
 It is used by central bank as a form of security for national reserves.

Contribution to the economy of South Africa.

 The gold is exported to other countries earning the country foreign exchange.
 It has created employment opportunities to many people such as miners, engineers,
etc.
 Gold mining has led to the development of infrastructure and social amenities.
 It has led to the widespread urbanization.
 Gold mining has to the development of related industries.

Problems facing gold mining in the RSA

i. Increase in mining costs as the mines deepen.

ii.Labour shortage as the mines sectors compete with gold mining for labourers.
iii.
Shortage of water supply since gold requires a lot of water to process.
iv.Exhaustion of the good quality ore with the remaining being of low quality ore that
is uneconomical to work on.
v. Exhaustion of the mineral.

Diamond mining in the republic of South Africa.

 The formation of diamond is connected with volcanic activity and metamorphism.

 It therefore commonly occurs in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 Coal/graphite subjected to great pressure and great heat may change into diamond.
 Exposed reefs are eroded leading to the occurrence of alluvial diamonds.
 Diamond deposits occur and Kimberly, Jagersfantein, Koffie and Pretoria.
 Deep shaft mining method is used to work on the deep deposits.
 Open-cast methods are used in new mines where the deposits are close to the
surface.
 Alluvial mining (panning) is undertaken by individual prospector along the Orange
River.

Processing and marketing

 The mineral ore is blasted and lifted to the surface.

 At the surface the ore is crushed into small pieces.
 It is then washed to remove some of the dirt.
 The material is passed over a rotating table covered with grease.
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 The waste slides off the table while the diamond sticks to the grease.
 The diamond is picked off the table by hand.

Uses of diamond

i. Cutting and polishing metals.

ii. Making drill bits.
iii. Making jewelry.

Contribution to the economy

i. Earns foreign exchange.

ii. Creation of employment.
iii. Development of infrastructure and social amenities.
iv. Development of related industries.
v. Development of urban centers.

Problems facing diamond mining.

i. Fluctuation of prices on the world market.

ii. Low mineral content in the ore/poor quality ore which are uneconomical
iii. High costs of mining and processing of diamond.
iv. Competition for labour with other sectors.
v. Depletion of mineral ore.

Petroleum mining in the Middle East

 Petroleum is the oil that comes from the earth’s crust in the crude form.
 Natural gas is the gas found with crude oil.

The major oil producing Countries in the Middle East include:

i. Saudi Arabia.
ii. Iraq.
iii. Iran.
iv. Kuwait.
v. United Arab Emirates.
Conditions necessary for the formation of petroleum
 Presence of porous rocks in between two non-porous rocks.
 Deposition of remains of flora and fauna over a long period of time.
 Presence of non-porous rocks underneath the deposits of flora and fauna.
 Deposition of the other layers of rocks/ non-porous over the remains of flora and fauna.
 Compression of the remains of flora and fauna due to folding of the layers of rocks.
 Presence of sedimentary rocks.
Mode of formation

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 Oil forms from the remains of many small creatures that lived in shallow lagoons of
the sea/lakes millions of years ago.
 The decaying remains mixed with the mud at the bottom as sediments.
 Over the years the sediments pile and the animal remains gradually converted into
oil & gas.

Method of extraction

 Intensive study is done by geologists on the rock type.

 Information on rock types is obtained by setting of explosives and recording the
shock waves on special instruments.
 The result enables the geologists to make a decision to drill wells or not.
 If oil is present drilling leads to the oil to gush out if it is under pressure.
 Metal pipes are put into line the wall.
 Oil may be pumped out if the pressure is low.

Processing of petroleum oil

 Crude oil is a thick black and sticky liquid.

 Refining of the oil place near the market.
 The oil is refined into many by products such as:
i. Petrol.
ii. Paraffin.
iii. Lubricating oils.
iv. Dyes.
v. Fertilizers.
vi. Plastics.
 It is cheaper to transport the crude oil than the refined products separately.

It is done by the fractionating tower/ column.

Crude oil is heated before entering the tower.

It is turned into vapour/ gas.

As vapour rises through the tower, it gradually cools, condenses and collects on various
trays and then allowed to overflow until it reaches an outlet.
 The heaviest oils condense first and settle below the light one.
- Petroleum is used in making of:
 Paints  Explosives
 Plastics  Synthetic fibre
 Batteries  Synthetic rubber
 Detergents  Grease
 Candle wax
 Asphalt
Contribution to economy

i. Revenues earned has enabled Arab investments overseas to increase immensely

hence creating wealth.
ii. The countries have high per capita income.

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iii. Creation of employment opportunities.

iv. Development of related industries.
v. The countries earn foreign exchange through exportation of oil.
vi. It leads to development of social amenities like electricity, schools and hospitals
improving the living standards of people.
vii. It leads to development of transport and communication networks like roads that easens
movement of goods.
viii. Income from petroleum mining has led to development/ growth of towns which are
centre for economic development.
Problems

i. Conflicts between Arabs and Israel disrupt oil production and export.
ii. Petroleum oil is associated with environmental pollution and global warming hence
its use is being discouraged.
iii. Wastage of oil occurs in the event of leaks from the pipes which also lead to
environmental pollution.
iv. Insecurity e.g. wars between Iraq and Kuwait in 1990 disrupted oil industry.
v. Shortage of labour due to small populations.
vi. Price fluctuations in the world market.
vii. Invasion by international companies which exploit oil reserves demanding high pay.

Distribution of Minerals in E. Africa

i. Phosphates used in the manufacture of fertilizer-Tororo in Uganda and Majingu Hill

in Tanzania.
ii. Limestone used in cement manufacturing-Hima in N.W Uganda, Tanga in Tanzania,
Athi River and Bamburi in Kenya.
iii. Fluorspar a source of fluorine used in chemical industries-Kerio Valley in Kenya.
iv. Common salt used for consumption-Kilifi and Magadi in Kenya and L. Kitwe in
Uganda.
viii. Diatomite used in making insulators –Kariandusi near Gilgil and Gicheru in
Nyandarua.
ix. Stones in Machakos, Mutonga and Mbeere.
x. Carbon dioxide used in making dry ice and in beer and soft drinks industry-
Esagari in Baringo and Kagwe in Kiambu.
xi. Diamond used to make ornaments, glass cutters and drills-Mwadui in Tanzania.
xii. Titanium used in the manufacture of insulators for aircraft- Kwale district.
xiii. Gemstones near Voi and Mwatate.
xiv. Soapstone used for sculpture-Tabaka in Kisii.
xv. Copper used to make electrical wires and coins-Kilembe in Uganda.
xvi. Gold used to make medals and jewellery and as a basis of world currency-Musoma
in Tanzania, Kakamega and Migori in Kenya.
xvii. coal used in smelting of iron and generation of thermal electricity-in Ruvuma River
Basin and Kivira
1) Give three reasons why Kenya import crude oil.

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 It is cheaper than when already refined.

 Refining of crude oil creates employment.
 Kenya exports its refined petroleum products.
 Waste products from refined oil e.g. bitumen is used for road surfacing.
 Kenya gets by-products which are raw materials for other industries e.g. manufacture of
plastics.

2) Why is mining regarded as a robber industry?

 Minerals are exhaustible and once exploited cannot replenish.

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