SECURITY DIMENSIONS

ISSN 2353–7000
NO. 21; 2017 (142–158)
DOI 10.24356/SD/21/8

S ubculture of S tadium H ooligans –

P athology or C rime ?

Andrzej Czop, Ph.D.

University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, Poland

Agnieszka Juszczak, M.A.

University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, Poland

ABSTRACT

Aggressive behaviour of hooligans is not a new phenomenon, but has its roots in ancient
times. From that era it developed and evolved, with particular dynamics at the turn
of the 1950s/60s of the last century. In Poland this phenomenon and the violence appeared
later, in the 1970s. Authors also presented classification of the fans by presenting
the attributes and characteristics of particular groups. These often brutal and violent
behavior have also been analised in this article –authors have presented the most spectacular
tragedies caused by aggression of hooligans. It was showed that modern groups of football
hooligans in Poland often have criminal nature, and are an important part of organised
(often international) crime, connected with smuggling and drug trafficking.

ARTICLE INFO

Article history
Received: 10.02.2017 Accepted 21.03.2017

Key words
Scarfers, hooligans structure, collective violation of public security, organized crime

One of the serious threats that appear in public space, especially large
cities, are ultras, due to scarves worn on neck in colours of the club, also
known as “scarfers” [pol. “szalikowcy”]. They are perpetrators of serious
collective distortion of order and security. To restore order the Police is
 Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime?

forced to use regular subunits, which often use coercive means such as wa-
ter1, horses2, non-penetrating bullets3 or incapacitating chemicals4. Such
arsenal is necessary to control riots, which participants are armed with
stones, batons, and sometimes cleavers or machetes. Riots occur not only
in stands during the match, but in the streets when the feuding groups are
reaching the stadium or leaving it. Increasingly mass organized fights [pol.
“ustawki”] are arranged – their participants agree on a regular battle that
is fought in public places, often using dangerous tools. It is not surprising
that this kind of excesses ends with not only the destruction of stadium
infrastructure, whether the destruction of public transport vehicles and
cars parked in the streets but also people may suffer serious injury, and
sometimes even die.
Authors considered that such an important, from the point of view
of public security, negative phenomenon which is the activity of hooligans,
requires providing research, to formulate some solutions both in sphere
of prevention and its effective eradication. For this purpose they have
formulated the main research problem: whether it is possible to improve
efficiency of actions of the Police in combating hooligans’ crime. To find
the answer to this question authors have also identified specific questions
to be resolved in this article. The rest is going to be analised in the next
publication, which will present results of provided research. Detailed re-
search problems that authors decided to settle in this article are:
– Whether the aggressive behaviour of hooligans is a new phenomenon
or evolves?
– Does ultras are a homogeneous group?
– Does football hooligans’ behaviour have criminal nature?
It turns out that roots of such behavior date back to ancient times.
In 1300 BC Egyptian fans as a result of the so-called stadium “war” led
to the outbreak of civil war, which resulted in the overthrow of Pharaoh
Fikas. Similar way of rooting had also place in the Roman Empire during
the Colosseum chariot racing. About the fact of the first murder on sports
arena we find out from the ancient Roman chronicles.

1
 Art. 12 par. 1 pt. 8 of Ustawa z dnia 24 maja 2013 r. o środkach przymusu bezpośred-
niego i broni palnej, Dz.U. 2013 poz. 628.
2
 Ibidem, art. 12 par. 1 pt. 10.
3
 Ibidem, art. 12 par. 1 pt. 11.
4
 Ibidem, art. 12 par. 1 pt. 12.

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 Andrzej Czop, Agnieszka Juszczak

A consequence of such negative behavior was the introduction of a num-

ber of security procedures, some of which are applied until present times.
An example of such preventive action was introduced in 450 BC in the city
of Delphi – prohibition of bringing in alcohol into the stadium5.
“Scarfers” is a specific subculture associated with sport, and the name
of such groups is derived from the scarf with the name and logo of be-
loved team. Their members are the biggest problem among fans of foot-
ball teams. They behave in a very brutal way, using obscene language and
commit acts of vandalism. These groups are characterized by the most
aggressive attitudes and provocative style of being.
The origins of the modern stadium hooliganism have been reported
already at the turn of 50s and 60s of the last century in the UK. There
fights between fans of opposing teams occurred during football matches.
Aggressive fans, wearing club colours, firstly began to cheer their team
only in the United Kingdom, and later in the whole Europe.
On the unofficial website of the ARKA Gdynia “Ultra Hools” you read
that hoolingans’ behavior in the stadium lasts more than one hundred
years, and that at the end of the 19th century at the head of the hoolingans’
gang stood Irish magnate Edward Hooligan and his life full of excesses
gave rise today commonly term “hooligans”6.
A guiding spirit role for stadium hooliganism played in the UK mainly
the Chelsea fans – “head hunters” and fans of the Manchester United –
“Red Army”. Ultras of Chelsea for a very long time were the most danger-
ous and unpredictable fans in the UK, causing deaths, coming on stadiums
with dangerous items such as knives or axes.
In Poland “szalikowcy” appeared at stadiums later, in the mid-70s
of the last century7. At that time tv started to broadcast English league
matches, and these broadcasts showed Polish fans a whole new world,
new forms of rooting and supporters wearing the club’s colours, with fan
attributes i.e. scarvers and flags of favourite club.
Another important factor for creation of ultras subculture in Poland
was that fans began to travel for matches with their teams, thus creating
integrated group with informal leaders.
5
 Comp. P. Piotrowski, Szalikowcy. O zachowaniach dewiacyjnych kibiców sportowych, Wy-
dawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2000, p. 15.
6
 J. Dudała, Fani-chuligani. Recz o polskich kibolach studium socjologiczne, Wyd. Akademic-
kie „Żak”, Warszawa 2004, p. 27.
7
 J. Dudała, Kibic to potęga. Część I, „Sport”, 7.03.2001.

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 Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime?

For the moment, supporters of some clubs are ongoing a dispute, who
in Poland was the first to organise such forms of team support. Łukasz
Staniek, in an article on a website shows his own observations8.
In his opinion “scarfers” of the ŁKS were the avant-garde. A group
of students dressed in scarves, armed with flags, meet every match in the same
place, singing songs and chanting lyrics on ŁKS (…). To be the precursors
of “scarfers” movement candidate, in addition to fans of the ŁKS, aspire
at least three club teams: Polonia Bytom, Legia Warszawa and Lechia
Gdańsk. The fact is that at the beginning of the 70s fans of the ŁKS
were the largest, most colourful and the most active group. Immediately
after them were supporters of Lech Poznań, Legia Warszawa, Lechia
Gdańsk, Wisła Kraków and Polonia Bytom. Soon they were joined
by supporters of: ARKA Gdynia, Pogoń Szczecin, Silesia Wroclaw and
GKS Tychy9.
Of course, as the most hardcore were the groups whose roots reached the be-
ginning of the 1970s. However, there were no fully consolidated groups, that
made being a fans an essence of their life. Everywhere there was a scheme
that fans after leaving the army went in privacy. Others got married and
also disappeard from stadiums. At the beginning of the 1980s, this stereotype
slowly began to disappear. Until then, as the biggest football hooligans were
seen those who could showed themselfs on the matches away in places, where,
as the locals sang, “death was waiting for them”. Then no one could count on
that militiaman will take care about carnality of visiting. He had only to rely
on his own strength. Who was strong at the end of the decade of the prop-
aganda success? Surely Silesia. To show twice in Szczecin, also in Poznan,
Warsaw before 1976, when there were a consent with Legia, require a consid-
erable courage. We are talking about the departure of groups of fans, and not
trips of coaches handled by industrial companies. Because in those days such
matches also happen. It was possible to show for some clubs: Pogoń Szczecin,
Polonia Bytom, Wisła Kraków, Lechia, Zawisza Bydgoszcz, Lechia and Arka
of the Three-City, Zagłębie Sosnowiec, Ruch and Górnik. Surely ŁKS, Legia.
The forerunners of stadium fanaticism10.

8
 http://www.kibice.net/kibice.
9
 P. Sielecki, P. Sobiech, Szalikowcy- podstawy informacyjne, Zakład Taktyki i Techniki
Interwencji, Szkoła w Katowicach 2006, p. 10.
10
 J. Dudała, Fani- chuligani Recz o polskich kibolach studium socjologiczne, Wyd. Akade-
mickie „Żak”, Warszawa 2004, p. 33.

145
 Andrzej Czop, Agnieszka Juszczak

The value of competition of sports players is often determined by the num-

ber of viewers who are interested in it. The players, accepting their “service”
role stress that they play for the audience, and even that playing sports without
viewers does not make sense11.
A group of spectators watching sporting events at the stadium is,
of course, strongly varied, mainly they are differed by intensity of emotions.
You must extract the group of so-called “real audience”. This group
primarily consists of people in mature age, stabilised financial situation
and good social position. This group comes on the stadium mainly to par-
ticipate in a good sports show, and their behaviour is consistent with
the “fair play”.
Another group are the fans. This group, in contrast to the “real audi-
ence”, emotionally solidarises with their team. As a rule, these are young
people, identifying with their club. They like to watch match directly at
the stadium, and the result they treat in terms of personal success or failure.
The players of the opposing team, their fans, and often referees, are seen as
an obstacle that must be removed that “ours” won. Defeat is a highly frustrating
event and often leads to violent acts of retaliation. The goal is a humiliation
of rival – “a stain on the honor”, which is a lost on the pitch, can be taken away
even on the stands or in after-match clashes12.
The last group are so-called hools or hooligans. Hools are aggressive,
come at the stadium mainly to satisfy the need for strong sensations, ex-
perience the adventure and make a riot at the occasion of the match. This
group is often completely not interested in what happens on the pitch
because they really not not have an emotional bond with the team.
“Scarfers” subculture is certainly the most numerous group of stadium
subcultures. They are mainly young people aged 15 to 25 years, mostly
bald or with very short haircut, dressed in sports clothes of reputable com-
panies. On necks they are wearing scarves, flags in their hands, and hats in
the colours of own club.
The “scarfers” group is characterized by the crime associated with sports.
They are the people with high aggression in both words and deeds. Their
behaviour is destructive and is a result of sense of impunity, anonymity and
the “distraction” of responsibility. These young people often commit acts,

11
 P. Piotrowski, Szalikowcy-o zachowaniach dewiacyjnych kibiców sportowych, wyd. Adam
Marszałek, Toruń 2000, p. 9.
12
 Ibidem, p. 10.

146
 Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime?

which they would never had committed alone. Often during commitment
of these acts they are under influence of alcohol or other drugs.
For “scarfers” the most important is the club membership and the abil-
ity to show in a group, which, according to them, means something. An
important factor is also the desire to be the most important in the group.
The primary attribute of fan is of course scarf, and its loss is the largest
humiliation of a member of such informal group. The amount of acquired
scarves of the opposing team is meticulously recorded in the fan-zones
because it shows hooliganic strength of the group. Later such “gained”
scarves are hung on the fences of stadiums, next to one another as a trophy.
Sometimes they are put on fire.
The strength of the club is also measured by number of designs
of scarves. The most numerous groups of supporters have even more than
100 designs of this club attribute13. As a rule, scarves are made on orders
of fan-clubs or militias. It was only at the beginning of the 90s of the last
century when have appeared scarves produced by specialized companies,
from computer-made subtitles or crests.
The meeting point of this subculture is a stadium and a place called
“mill” or “boiler”, mostly “vis a vis” tribune of honour. “The mill” has its
own name, usually from the determination of the sector in which it is lo-
cated. And so the fans Wisła Kraków “mill” call – “X Sector”, and Legia
Warsaw fans – “Razor”.
The size of the “mill” is very important, because it shows the level
of fans. When assessing the “mill” counts its abundance, quality, flags, and
age fans. While the team that does not have it, in general, is not taken into
account in the creation of the so-called Polish fan society maps.
Each “mill” has also its commander and bandleaders leading the ap-
plause. “Mills” often change their place and sometimes at the stadium
there are from two to three of them.
Among “scarfers” there is always the leader – the commander, which
manifests the courage, bravery and loyalty to other hooligans. He is also
known among football hooligans from other teams and does not take a di-
rect part in fights. His responsibilities include organization and liaising
with leaders or representatives of other groups of football hooligans. As
a rule, it is he who decides with whom his group has an alliance and who

 Authors: comm. P. Sielecki, comm. P. Sobiech, Szalikowcy- podstawy informacyjne,

13

Zakład Taktyki i Techniki Interwencji, Szkoła w Katowicach 2006, p. 18.

147
 Andrzej Czop, Agnieszka Juszczak

is most hated. It also happens that the leader leads cheering and intonates
song sung or chanted slogans.
“Scarfers” in “mill” keep cheering, singing songs, chant slogans to re-
lieve atmosphere, support players or offend fans of the opposing team.
They sing club songs during public transport rides on the way to the sta-
dium. Each group of supporters of particular football team has its own
repertoire and its anthem.
Supporters of Wisła Kraków for years are singing:
Jak długo na Wawelu
Zygmunta bije dzwon
Tak długo nasza Wisła
Zwyciężać będzie wciąż
Zwycięży Gwiazda Biała
Nasza wiślacka brać
Zasługa to niemała
Tych, co umieją grać14.
In turn, supporters of Legia Warszawa intone:
Mistrzem Polski jest Legia
Legia najlepsza jest
Legia to jest potęga
Legia CWKS15.
Club anthem is always sung before the beginning of each match, and
during the fans get up and keep spread scarves over heads or “sector flag”
[pol. “sektorówka”]. “Sektorówka” is a huge flag sometimes covering sev-
eral sectors, passed hand to hand by fans. Until recently, the largest sector
flag belonged to ŁKS Łódź.
When the result is unsatisfactory for the hooligans, they initiate fights,
trying to stop the match by throwing different pitches or burning flares on
the pitch. Often they also destroy stadium equipment, high chairs, side-
walks, fences and throw them in rivals, or in a competitive football players.
At this point it is worth mentioning about phenomenon known as
“kosa” [eng. scythe], which involves mutual combating of antagonised
groups of supporters. These are, first of all, fights taking place before
the game, during the match and after its ending. It is also a verbal aggres-

 Website http://www.wisla.koti.com.pl/.
14

 P. Sielecki, P. Sobiech, Szalikowcy- podstawy informacyjne, Zakład Taktyki i Techniki

15

Interwencji, Szkoła w Katowicach 2006, p. 20.

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 Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime?

sion of cries and songs insulting fans of the opposing team. In the frame-
work of the “kosa” can also be counted, for example, ambushes on the bus,
or train, with fans of another team. They are aimed at acquiring rivals’
fans attributes and later their destruction (usually by burning) during
the match.
Fans also have their code of honour, which make up the rules that force
specified behaviour, clearly specifying what can and what cannot a mem-
ber of the group do.
Here are the records of the informal but widely recognised fan’s code
of honour:
1. Fan does not cooperate with the Police, do not seek for their protection
against other fans, in conflict fan – the Police always supports the for-
mer (even if it would be a fan of the most hated group). This principle
is commonly obeyed.
– It is forbidden to blow the whistle to the Police on even most antago-
nistic opponents. “Scarfer” even heavily beaten, when asked by the Po-
lice to identify the perpetrator, should remain silent.
– If some scarves, flags, which previously have been taken away
by the Police officers, as their hands are disgraceful, can no longer be
hoisted at the stadiums. This rule is not strictly obeyed.
– When the Police, during intervention uses force against “scrafers”
even from the most hated club, the duty is to support them. In these
situations they sing: “Zawsze i wszędzie Policja jebana będzie” [“Al-
ways and everywhere the Police will be fucked]”.
– “Scrafer” has his honour and does not need Police protection. “Scrafers”
looking for Police protection are exposed to the greatest contempt. As
more valuable is even seen an escape from the field of battle, than this
type of action.
– Do not taking care of checking theirs’ identity papers by the Police.
Lastly such operations of the officers, as a rule, include recording
of the images.
2. The song “If you lose, or not, I still love you” [“Czy przegrywasz, czy
też nie, ja i tak kocham Cię”] is the most important section of the code
of fan: to be on good and bad with the club, regardless of the attitude
of players. The true fan is identified with the name of the club, its tradi-
tion, colours, coat of arms, and not with the players, sponsors or activists.
They often change. But there is no tolerance for sold and set matches

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 Andrzej Czop, Agnieszka Juszczak

or lazy players. They may lose, but they have to fight until the end. This
rule is obeyed.
3. A fight between fans – hooligans should be carried out on the bare fists,
and only in specific cases, with the agreement of both parties, by us-
ing the so-called “items”. The battle should be carried out in a seclud-
ed location to do not to fight others form “outside” of the group. This
rule absolutely is not obeyed. Hooligans are fighting using all available
and dangerous objects. Any prior agreements and contracts are bro-
ken, and the teams that violate these rules are not generally condemned
by the hooligans. After all, only the main objective counts, which is
to win and to humiliate the opponent. Defeated no one listens to. Dis-
honourable victory is valued higher than honoured defeat.
4. Hostile hooligans – you cannot take mobile phones, jackets, shoes
and other things not related to being a fan – the fans are not thieves.
The rule is not obeyed, now everything is stolen: money, watches, jack-
ets, cell phones, cameras. Some teams even boast how much money they
had “made”. Such an attitude also does not meet with condemnation
of the environment.
5. When a hostile fan will give a scarf or a flag and do not want to fight, he
should be let go, and when he is alone against a larger group, you can at
most offer “a solo fight”. You cannot ride roughshod over defeated op-
ponent. The rule is completely disobeyed. Several attackers beat a lone-
ly opponent often with dangerous items, so as to make him the greatest
harm. Often very young fans – children – are beaten up, causing a feeling
of “pride” of the fact that some oppononts had to be taken to hospital.
6. On the national team matches a truce should be respected by fans – all
we are cheering one and the same team. This rule is not obeyed.
7. Respect own “consent” and “settings”. Consent cannot be denied in any sit-
uation. Lastly in this field there are some ambiguities. Particularly in large
groups are subgroups having their own preferences and personal contacts16.
Albert Jawłowski from the Youth Research Centre, Institute of Ap-
plied Social Sciences of the University of Warsaw presented a different
typology of fans, constructed on the basis of slang expressions in this social
group. It shall be as follows17:

16
 P. Sielecki, P. Sobiech, Szalikowcy- podstawy informacyjne, Zakład Taktyki i Techniki
Interwencji, Szkoła w Katowicach 2006, p. 35‒37.
17
 A. Jawłowski, Zabawa na śmierć i życie, „Gazeta Wyborcza”, 7.04.2003.

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 Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime?

– Ordinary fans, otherwise known as “picnic participants” or buzzards.

This is a group of fans who come to the stadium to watch the match,
often with children, they react emotionally, but their expression ends at
this moment. They support the team when it is successful but as soon as
it is defeated, they distract. They treat match as entertainment and a way
to get away from daily duties. Specifying them as “ picnic participants “
comes from the fact that they are the fans, who only occasionally, with
family members, go with the team for the away match.
– Another group is ultras or fans, who are preparing the celebration
of game, fire flares, flags, develop banners, they throw streamers. They
take part in the show and take care of fiesta and show at the stadium.
The behaviour of ultras are often a threat to the other participants in
the match. Ultras do not attack fans of the opposing team but if they are
taunted and attacked they are taking part in a brawl.
– Animals – is a group of the most aggressive supporters, are the least in-
terested in what happens on the pitch, and the show is only a pretext for
them to participate in the “blowout” or street riots. Animals often do not
even know what teams played and what was the final score of the match.
According to this group of fans, match at the stadium is a sufficient op-
portunity for “blowout” and therefore do not go on away matches.
– Zadymiarz [“blowout” participant] – what differ them from the previ-
ous group is that they go on away matches, and remember who played
and what was the score. Therefore, “zadymiarz” is a little more conscious
than animals.
– Scarfer – is a real fan and a lover of the sport. He is watching retrans-
missions of matches on television, and is involved in fights only af-
ter being provoked. Scarfer has big respect for club colours, which he
demonstrates in appearance and fan attributes such as scarf, flag, t-shirt
or sweatshirt.
– Fan just like scarfer has a scarf, a flag and a very high knowledge
of the sport, from the television and press. Occasionally he goes on away
matches, not far from their place of residence, and at most incognito.
While at matches, in the area of his residence, trying to always be pres-
ent. Fan rather avoids fighting.
– Fanatic – does not take to match any accessories, and with his team
can run over the whole country, and even Europe. Fanatic condemns
the “hooligans” and “scarfers”.

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 Andrzej Czop, Agnieszka Juszczak

– Hooligans [pol. Pseudokibice] is the most dangerous group.

They include skinheads who treat match as an opportunity to fight
with other hooligans and the Police. Many famous Polish clubs have this
kind of militias, for example Wisła Kraków has “White Star Army”, and
Cracovia “Cops Hunter”. Hooligans is a group that has a lot of aggressive
behaviour and uses to fight dangerous items: machetes, brass knuckles,
baseball bats or sticks.
They also often use: firecrackers, smoke candles, serpentine, trumpets
or fire sirens. The latter are often now being replaced by orchestras, in
which “play” only hooligans.
Often they break the law by making a number of thefts, robberies, van-
dalism in the means of public transport at the time of travel for the match
or return to the place of residence. Also they commit acts such as throwing
people from trains and attacking people who, according to them, in some
way shared the beliefs of the opposing team.
Hooligans can also, during the intervention of the Police subunits,
quickly join forces with rivals of the opposing team to jointly confront
officers. They unify together with existing rivals by shouting, language and
style, because they believe that the Police are their biggest enemy. Hence,
if the Police are trying to neutralize aggressive fans, the opposing team
fans sympathize with them and come to their aid. By hools every person in
the stadium wearing uniform, is hated. For the attack on the “uniformed”,
insulting them or throwing in them dangerous items, hools gains addi-
tional respect in their group.
Hooligans travel in small groups, often by their private cars and using
cell phones they inform the other members of the planned attack, or so
called “entrance” on housing estate of the opposing team. Hools very often
carry out attacks also on routes leading to the stadium.
Hooligans live from match to match, and family life is for them on
the second plan. The most important are matches of the team, regardless
of results and its position in the table.
Their ideology is shortened in the words: a true fan always supports
the team in bad and good, with promotion and degradation, in local and away
matches, despite the hills and holes and no matter the cost18.
They were and are perpetrators of the most serious, often tragic con-
sequences of mass disruption of security and public order. The most spec-

 M. Coileman, Sfoulowany futbol, Warszawa 2000, p. 126.

18

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 Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime?

tacular event of security disruption on the sporting event was a meeting

at the Heysel Stadium in Brussels. Before the final match of the Europe-
an Cup there was a clash between fans of Juventus and Liverpool19. This
was made possible by the mistake of the organiser, who placed supporters
of the opposing teams in the sectors that were next to each other.
Another mistake of the organiser were the gates left insecure, resulting
in an excessive concentration of viewers in the sectors. Supporters of op-
posing teams were separated from each other only by 3-meters fence. Al-
ready before the meeting one could feel the atmosphere of a great compe-
tition. Fans had a verbal clash even before the referee began meeting. For
45 minutes before the first whistle, English fans began throwing pieces
of concrete at the fans of Juventus. When the Italian fans began to with-
draw, Liverpool fans armed with metal rods forced their way through
the fence and brutally attacked supporters of the opposing team. The Ital-
ians found themselves trapped, began to flee towards the three-meter
concrete edge, trampling each other. Pressing crowd caused the collapse
of part of the stands, which squashed Italian fans. 39 people were killed,
including 10-years old child, 425 people were injured, including 12 heavy.
Another tragedy, associated not so much with aggression but rather
with bad security, took place at the match between Spartak Moscow and
Dutch HFC Haarlem20. In winter, in frosty Russian evening on the Lenin
stadium pitch 1/8 final of the UEFA Cup was played. Bad weather has
made that at the stadium were less than 15 000 fans. Fans of both teams
were placed on one of the eastern stand. The other stands were not even
cleared of snow. To the stand led only one narrow and icy patch. At
the end of the match fans began to leave the stadium. When Spartak
scored at the end of the match, some fans wanting to see the joy of players
decided to go back to their seats. Dutch fans, after losing the meeting,
wanted to leave the stadium as soon as possible, while Russian fans wanted
to celebrate with their players and promotion to the next round. The pas-
sage got very crowded, fans began to push against each other and pushing
to the walls of tunnel. As resumes one of the best Russian tennis players
Andrei Chesnokov, there were no escape out of the tunnel. Fans tipped on
each other like dominoes, were trampled to death. Russian media report
that killed 67 fans. Unofficially, however, it is said to be up to 340 victims.
 See R. Cohn, J. Russell, Heysel Stadium disaster, 2012.
19

 See R. Edelman, Spartak Moscow: A History of the People’s Team in the Workers’ State,
20

Nowy York 2012.

153
 Andrzej Czop, Agnieszka Juszczak

Tragic consequences have also match in 1992 between Bastia and

Olympique Marsylie. At the stadium that could accommodate 8500 fans,
stand collapsed. As recounted by the French media in the stadium were
two times more fans than was provided for capacity. 18 people were killed,
2,357 were injured21.
In Poland there were no security risks due to the poor state of the object
or overpopulation. The biggest threat to the Polish stadiums were clashes
of hooligans. One of the biggest got in Wrocław in 2003 during a match
between Śląsk Wrocław and ARKA Gdynia. The first skirmish of fans
began even before the match. A mass fight broke out when supporters
of the Arka moved to match the Grabiszyńska Street. About 100 fans
of Arka were then attacked by Śląsk hooligans. According to Police infor-
mation, hooligans of both teams agreed there to fight “an organised fight”.
Fights moved to nearby housing estates. Police officers who intervened
were thrown stones. As recounts one of the witnesses, every few metres
one could see a lying unconscious man. After some time the Police took
control of the situation. At the Perec square layed in a row 100 hooligans
wearing handcuffs. As a result of those events, one person died and several
others were severely injured. Police detained 212 scarfers22.
In Warsaw in 2006 a match between Legia and Wisła was played.
Legia won, securing the Polish championship. Fans of Warsaw decided
to celebrate success of the team by demolishing the capital. At the Castle
Square hooligans had tried to invade the liquor store. During the Police
intervention officers were thrown bricks. As a result of clashes the Police
detained more than 230 people23.
Unfortunately the dynamics of these pathological behaviour is increas-
ing, and forces the entire security system to joint action, which is not only
to intervene but also emergency reconnaissance and prophylactic. The Po-
lice, to effectively prevent hooligans’ aggression, organises at voivodship
level specialized cells to gain information about planned excesses and con-
duct reconnaissance among football hooligans. This is particularly impor-
tant due to the fact that, in addition to organizing the riots, these groups
also lead criminal activities, such as distribution of drugs or their smug-

21
 https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophe_de_Furiani (accessed: 30.11.2016).
22
 http://kibole.wroclaw.pl/relacja2.html (accessed: 30.11.2016).
23
 http://www.polskieradio.pl/43/265/Artykul/370367,Najwieksze-zadymy-polskich-
pseudokibicow (accessed: 30.11.2016).

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 Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime?

gling from other countries. Often this criminal activity has the nature
of transnational organised crime. This means that it meets the criteria laid
down by the United Nations on 12 December, 2000 in the Convention
against transnational organised crime (the United Nations Convention
against Transnational Organized Crime), which was signed in Palermo
by one hundred and twenty-three states that are its signatories24.
In art. 2 par. 2 the Convention25 precise international nature of the crime,
recognizing that such character they have, when they have been made
in the area of more than one state or were committed in one state, but
an important part of the preparation, planning or directing took place
in another state. For any, it is also a crime committed in one country, but
in connection with organised crime group operating in more than one
state. Finally, the international character also has a crime committed in
one country if its important effects have occurred in the country. Accord-
ing to the cited Convention organised criminal group is a group that has
created the structure, and so was not random, it works for a while and it
works in consultation, with the aim of committing a serious crime, which
shall be prosecuted on the basis of the Convention. The purpose of such
criminal activity is to achieve financial benefit or other benefits. There is
no doubt that “scarfers” in large part correspond to the scope of the speci-
fied in regulations adopted by the United Nations. An example of such ac-
tivities carried out by hooligans was an attempt of smuggling from Spain
to Polish 65 pounds of marijuana valued at close to 2 million zł. Policemen
from the CBŚP arrested five people that were “hooligans” one of Krakow’s
clubs. Policemen have prepared an ambush at the transfer point. Detained
were in age from 28 to 40 years at the head of the group; in addition
to marijuana they had hashish, two cars, and seventy thousands zł. All
detained were accused by the prosecution of being members of organ-
ized criminal group and smuggling large quantities of drugs. According
to the speaker of the CBŚP comm. Agnieszka Hamelusz26 these drugs
were to be distributed among Krakow’s hooligans. So “scarfers” were in
this case in the double negative role, as drugs smugglers and traffickers
24
 See S. Redo, Uzbekistan i narody zjednoczone w walce z międzynarodową przestępczością
zorganizowaną, Warszawa 2001, p. 468.
25
 General Assembly resolution 55/25 of 15 November 2000.
26
 http://wiadomosci.dziennik.pl/wydarzenia/artykuly/529719,kibole-z-krakowa-
chcieli-przemycic-65-kg-marihuany-za-2-mln-zl-piec-osob-zatrzymanych.html (ac-
cessed: 22.11.2016).

155
 Andrzej Czop, Agnieszka Juszczak

and their consumers. So it is how contemporary picture of the environ-

ment looks like. Funds derived from drug crime are spent mostly on legal
and medical support as well as to pay for trips, or the provision of assis-
tance to the families of arrested hooligans.
In most cases, hooligans, who broke the law, are not captured and
brought to the court. This is due to the fact that among the hooligans is
the so-called “conspiracy of silence”. The buyer of drug not also do not
informs about it to avoid criminal liability. This causes these acts have
the highest “black rate” of crimes. The mass drugs selling that are willing
to reach the largest audience, mostly young people, requires dealers who
also recruit from the youth. It is the first contact with the criminal group,
most often motivated by the desire to obtain drugs for their own use.
Provided research allowed the authors to gain answers to detailed prob-
lems, which were formulated at the beginning of this publication. The au-
thors pointed out that aggressive behaviour of hooligans is not a new
phenomenon, but has its roots in ancient times. From that era it devel-
oped and evolved, with particular dynamics at the turn of the 1950s/60s
of the last century. In Poland this phenomenon and the violence appeared
later, in the 1970s. Then on Polish stadiums come young people dressed
in the colours of their clubs and fighting with supporters of other foot-
ball clubs. A way of manifesting their devotion to the team, and an arse-
nal of often illegal means to combat the antagonistic groups is constantly
evolving, which was described in details by the authors.
Authors have also given classification of the fans by presenting the at-
tributes and characteristics of particular groups. The same they showed
that the environment of fans is not homogeneous, and belonging to a par-
ticular group implies the characteristic behaviour of its members.
These often brutal and violence behaviour have also been analised in
this article – the authors have presented the most spectacular tragedies
caused by aggression of hooligans.
What is especially important, authors showed that modern groups
of football hooligans in Poland often have criminal nature, and are an im-
portant part of organised crime. The authors showed also that this crime
has international character, and especially is connected with smuggling
and drug trafficking.

156
 Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or Crime?

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zadymy-polskich-pseudokibicow

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 Andrzej Czop, Agnieszka Juszczak

Authors

Agnieszka Juszczak – graduated the Security Sciences and Socio-Le-

gal Faculty, degree course: internal security, at University of Public and
Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow. In October 2016 got a mas-
ter’s degree. She is an officer of the Voivodship Command of the Police
in Krakow with almost 20 years of experience. Professionally engaged in
infiltration of the environment of football hooligans. She has a very exten-
sive knowledge and practical experience in the area of crime committed by
this subculture.

Andrzej Czop graduated Faculty of Law ad Adminisration, Jagiellonian

University, Cracow. Previously he served in the Police, i. a. as Command-
er-in-Chief of the Police in Krakow and Head of the Prevention Depart-
ment in of the police in Krakow. Currently he also holds the position of
Vice-President of the Polish Employers’ Association “Protection”, Branch
of Malopolska. He is a lecturer at University of Public and Individual Se-
curity APEIRON in Krakow. The main purpose of its research activities is
to seek practical solutions to enhance the level of security for both people
and businesses. He gained a master degree (1 dan) in All Style Karate.

Cite this article as:

A. Czop, A. Juszczak, Subculture of Stadium Hooligans – Pathology or
Crime?, “Security Dimensions”, 2017, no 21, p. 142-158, DOI 10.24356/
SD/21/8.
Licence: This article is available in Open Access, under the terms of the Creative Commons Li-
cense Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0; for details please see https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any me-
dium, provided that the author and source are properly credited. Copyright © 2017 University
of Public and Individual Security “Apeiron” in Cracow

158