Radio Aids

Wavelength > distance in cycle, frequency= cycles/sec, amplitude[height]

With a vertical polarised signal, the electric wave is vert, the magnetic wave is horizontal
After 15-18kHz > propagation > will induce an A/C current in receiver
C= 3x108 m/s OR 186 000 sm/sec OR 162 000 nm/sec

V L M H V U S E > Very Lovely Maidens Have Very Useful Sewing Equipment

VLF > LF > MF > HF > VHF > UHF > SHF > EHF > wavelength shorter, higher frequency
3-30 kHz 30-300 kHz 300-3MHz 3-30MHz 30-300MHz 300-3GHZ 3-30 GHZ 30-300GHz > frequency

NDB HF VHF(VOR/ILS Local) DME (ILS Glide) Wx Radar

C= λ * F; λ=wavelength, F=frequency
If in phase > enhance signal(gets louder)
BFO – Beat frequency oscillator > generates A/C at 1kHz from incoming signal, can hear the diff
AM > amplitude modulating ⅔ of power in carrier >
Depth of modulation > peak amplitude of audio/peak amplitude off carrier x100% > 90%
FM > > simple tx, less power, static free, Horiz polar, rx complex, wide bandwidth, multiple sidebands
Noise is man made, static(vert polarise) is from atmosphere
Precipitation static > signal to noise ratio > gain/loss (dB) > 20*log(signal/noise)

18.4 kHz > 18k4

A= Double sided A= Tele/Aural ident reception
H= Half, single sided, full carrier B= Tele/ Auto reception
J= Single sided, suppressed carrier D= Data
M= Modulated in phase/position E= Telephony/sound
W= mix

1= no modulation, 2= modulation, 3= analogue, 9= mix

ILS= A2A, VOR=A9W, NDB=A1A,A2A, VHF=A3E, HF=J3E, Transponder/tacan=M1D

In water > goes faster, follows GC, attenuates less on H2O, x2 range > x4 power
Surface & Atmosphere attenuation > for hi frequencies attenuates more
Ionosphere attenuation > more with low frequencies

From sea to land > bends to go more inland > changes wavelength, increase with speed
From land to sea > bends to follow coast

Atmospheric refraction < density decrease with alt, wave stays/curves to most dense
Diffraction > curves around earth > best with lo frequencies > surface waves
Space waves > direct waves + Ground reflected waves
VLF > more power, bigger aerials (half wavelength), static

Range nm = 1.25 √(tx height in ft) + 1.25√(rx height in ft)

Duct propagation > inversion with steep decrease of humidity with alt> for VHF & higher more range

Ionosphere by UV rays, thicker/denser has lower alt in day

D – Layer – 75kms, disappears at night
E – Layer – Kenelly Heavyside 125kms, (140-160kms at night)
F – Layer – Appleton 250kms, (300-400kms at night) has two layers in the day
Refraction in ionosphere, bent, if at crit angle, will reflect back to earth, more attenuation with LF
Greater the density > greater the AoA of wave, max at day > so at night its half
NDB is unstable in sunrise/sunset > layers move
More attenuation at day
Sporadic E reflections(scatter propagation) > in sunspot > hi ion density > makes weak sky waves
Skip distance > between tx & first sky wave,, dead space > between direct wave & first sky wave
Low frequencies have more attenuation on a whole cause of ion
Max usable frequency > MUF > lower then optimum for unknown ionosphere > short skip > night is ½

If make the frequency more > the critical angle will be more
For LF > need less density to reflect,, HF> longest range at night
Fading > when receiving surface & sky wave, if 180° out, will cancel each other
Polarization fading > when the signal twists

VHF > use 118MHz- 136MHz > 25kHz spacing = 720channels

HF > night is half of day frequency > 2-22kHz
Emergency frequencies > 121.5MHz, 243MHz.. intl distress > 500kHz, 2182kHz.. other > 8364kHz

ADF > Follow GC > vert polarised LF to mainly MF,, QMD=RBI+HDG

190kHz-1750kHz (200-500kHz is common)
used in 10nm range beacon/markers > 75MHz, can go 1000nm over sea but is usually 300nm
Has less range at night > cause of night effect, lo frequencies go further.. x2 > x4

A1A > Carries wave, idents carrier wave > more range > flickers with listening to ident
A2A > Single tone amplitude modulated for ident > less range > recommended by ICAO

Loop(vert) aerial > determine directions but is ambiguous, sense aerial removes ambiguity
When loop at right angles > both sides receives same/null signal >cos 0°, 180° > ambiguity
With sense aerial has a cardioid shape, null is more accurate for measuring
Sense aerial is omni..

REC/ANT button > uses sense aerial for tuning and ident, have to switch to ident
In ADF mode > for normal operation
BFO > for A1A > for identing A1A frequencies > resultant is audible tone > not for A2A
Relative bearing cannot be plotted > only with heading, no drift
RMI/ Gyro/ remote compass > has deviation on ADF > indicates QDMs

Night effect > skywaves are present at night, at night, can be refracted, worst at twilight > fading
Thunderstorm effect > not dangerous > points to thunderstorm abit
Mountain effect > multi path error > reflect by hills > by 10°
Coastal effect > use beacon on coastline >
Quadrantal error > on NE, NW, SE, SW > metal of A/C bends NDB > not problem
Main interference from other stations > promulgated range > set the max range for day
Range > less@ night > more over sea > more with power > more with lo frequency
Needle points to wind, wind will make the A/C follow a downwind path, Port=Left

Time to station = 60 * (mins between HDG change) Distance to station = GS * mins flown
Degrees of bearing change ° of HDG change
When finding the intercepting angle > get QDM first > convert everything to QDR >
+/- intercept angle to Intercept HDG requred
Relative Bearing at intercept = Intercept angle +/- 180° or 360° > track is no HDG/ VAR only drift

VDF > VHF Direction finder

QDL = for all bearings/ HDG’s

Class A – accurate to 2° & 5nm

Class B – accurate to 5° & 20nm
Class C – accurate to 10° & 50nm

VOR A9W > not affected by Wx, static, night > gives limacon, sum strength at null
Ref FM > 9960Hz is varied at 30Hz
Direction/variable signal > AM > spins at 1800RPM (30Hz) > can use four poles with goniometer
Or use a rotating horizontal dipole with a resonant cavity
At magnetic North > 0° phase diff
Use horizontal dipole aerial > horizontally polarised
From top, to bottom > for current radial… HDG and top of VOR must be same for TO/FROM to work
OBS > omni-bearing selector, set inbound HDG at bottom, use Douglas protractor for TO/FROM
With 5 dot > each dot is 2°, with 4 dot > each dot is 2.5°

VOR > use station Variation, with ADF > use A/C variation + A/C Deviation
VOR > 108MHz – 117.95MHz >> 108 > 112MHz use even decimals, 112 > 117.95 all VOR
Has 150 channels > broadcast ident every 6mins, standby VOR takes time has no ident
Has protection range & alt in the Designated Operational Coverage > DOC
Has scalloping > multi-path error from hills > cone of confusion >

Tx error = 1°, Rx error= 3°, CDI error = 4°, VOR Test for A/C=4°
Use RVR > REF then VARIABLE then goes RIGHTWAY AROUND/clockwise

ILS > precision approach > any form of lighting from IF to VFR
Has fan Markers > 75MHz, glidepath = Glideslope + Localiser
Localiser (AM/VHF)> 25m wide x 4m hi, 300m upwind of rwy > has Blue/150Hz on right
Works on Difference in Depth Modulation > DDM
Has coverage of 10° in 25nm and 35° in 17nm, vert coverage of 7° up to 6250ft,
Accuracy check for 10/16nm > Coverage is protected from interference

Glideslope > Tx + 2 aerials > 10m hi of ground, 300m upwind of threshold, 150m to the side
Upper lobe > 90Hz > yellow,,, lower lobe > 150Hz > blue > in UHF

Coverage > 8° either side of centreline out to 10nm, vertically > 0.45*GS angle to 1.75*GS angle
For 3° slope > from 0.45*3°= 1.35° to 1.75*3° = 5.25

Fan marker beacons > 75MHz, ADF needle topples over them, works to 3000ft
Outer marker > 3-6nm low pitch > 400Hz - - - 2/sec > Blue
Middle marker > 3500ft hi pitch > 1300Hz - ●- ●- ● > 3/sec > Amber
Inner marker > 250-1500ft v hi pitch > 3000Hz ●●●● > 6/sec > White

CDI > course deviation indicator > don’t need OBS in ILS mode > but need it for flight director
Localiser > full scale at 2.5° > 0.5°/dot
Glideslope > full scale at 0.7° > (safe is 0.35° > half scale)
Monitored if localiser move 35ft, Glideslope change by 0.075*GS angle, or if there’s 50% less power
Ground control/precision approach > GCA

ILS > A2A for Localiser, Glideslope, fan markers

Localiser > VHF > 108.10MHz – 111.95MHz plus odd decimals > 40channels > has ident
Glideslope > UHF > 329.15MHz – 335MHz > 40channels > paired to localiser

IRD > ILS Ref datum > at 50ft

CAT I > 200 above IRD, 800m RVR,,, CAT II > 50 above IRD, 400RVR,, CAT III > GND

Back course marker > correct for missed approach, not tailwind landing, no GS, only localiser, QDM
Offset localiser > to one side of rwy

False Glideslope > with 150Hz lower lobe, lies at surface, makes it appear at 6° glidepath > no prob
ILS can with interfered with by other A/C, landing rate is low, one A/C at a time

ROD > Tan GS° = Height (ft) = GS° * Kts * 100 = Speed (fpm) * GS° > (1/6 rule)
Speed (fpm) 60 60

Basic Radar > basic radio detection & ranging > by Mr. watt > VHF > line of sight > Wx affects it
Pulse > transmission of continuous wave (CW) in pulses, then rests to listen
Pulse width > length of a pulse > or pulse length, very short
Pulse Recurrence Period > PRP > distance between pulses
Pulse Recurrence Frequency > PRF/ PPS > number of pulse in one sec

1/P = F,,, 1/F=P > 1 second = 1000 000μsec’s > millionths 1sec * 1x10 6 = 1μsec

For 9375MHz > 9375 000 000 in 1 sec > 9375 in 1μsec (divide 1000 000)
Convert to MHz > answer is pulses per 1μsec

Primary radar > sum of radio wave will be reflected as echo

Secondary radar > needs 2 tx & rx

Range = convert 1μsec to sec (divide by 1000 000) * 3x108 ms DIVIDE BY TWO
To double range > x16 the power..

PRF > Determine max range (how far it goes in one pulse)
A distance of 185km > must travel 370km >> 370km/ 3x105 km/s> *1x106 > 1233μsec
Must work in PRP > how long it is, not how much in 1sec

Increase in PRF > Less Range > Less PRP

Pulse width > determines Min range > 300m in 1μsec > travel 150m and back, tx still tx if to soon
1-2 μsec > med range,,, 5 μsec > long range
CRT > Cathode > Source is electrons > coated with Barium oxide > covers heater
Grid > controls brilliance by (-) grid bias > surrounds cathode, catch eˉ, sends to anode >
Anode > focus by 2nd (-) anode, has 3electrodes > other two accelerates & focus (+)
Deflector plates – Attract/repel eˉ for X/Y spot
In side of tube > graphite, attracts slow extra eˉ, prevents cloud
Fluorescent coating on screen > can glow… Saw-tooth voltage for time base
Fly back less when cathode made more (-) cuts off beam > Prevents late echo’s

DME > 100 channel > with VOR > use 2ndary radar > Tx and Rx at diff ±63MHz, max range 200nm
DME Distance > minus 50μsec for time taken to process > THERE AND BACK > DIVIDE 2
Gnd station tx 2700 pps > Constant duty cycle >
Rx in A/C must receive 300-400pps then interrogates > A/C tx pulse pairs (12μsec apart) at random
intervals > the A/C random PRF
Initial interrogation starts at 150pps for A/C for 15000 pulses, then 60pps
Gnd station Rx, amplifies and tx at 63MHz less > A/C DME rx all signals, looks for own random PRF
Once A/C finds own random PRF > then locks on, changes to 25-30pps > usually 27pps PRF

Search Mode > tries diff time delays (corresponding to under 200nm) to find own Random PRF
Keep lock > changes time delays due to moving A/C to keep lock on
Memory mode > when signal is blocked > prevented from search for 10secs

DME Saturation > cause of GND station > 2700pps > max 100 A/C, Station only keeps closer A/C
Ident every 37.5secs > UHF > 962MHz – 1213MHZ > 252frequencies > 126 channels
Channels 1-63 > tx 63MHz higher > 64-126 > tx 63MHz lower… channels 1-16 for military

X-channels > has 12μsec spacing between pulses, new Y-channels has 30μsec spacing
With associated VOR/DME = 100ft apart > 100-2000ft for en-route > over 2000ft > ident with Z
VOR idents 3 times a min, DME idents same every min > DME ident has diff tone >
If only hear 1 tone a min > VOR failure > if only hear 3 per min > DME failure
TACAN > only use DME > not VOR

ATCRBS > radar > Gnd interrogates at 1030MHz, A/C transponder reply at 1090MHz
Mode A > two pulses - 8μsec apart
Mode B > two pulses - 17μsec apart
Mode C > two pulses - 21μsec apart > has altitude info
Mode D > two pulses - 25μsec apart > experimental

A/C replies1090MHz in frame bracket > has 2 framing pulses 20.3μsec apart then 12pulses (squawk)
Squawk ident > has 4.35μsec pulse after frame,, Lo sense > for close A/C
Altitude reporting > mode C > on 1013.25mb , A/C will always reply to Mode C > up to 128 000ft

I – 7500 – interference (hijacking)

C – 7600 – com’s lost
E – 7700 – Emergency

Main signal (P1&P3) is stronger then side lobes, Generates P2 (Side lobe suppression) SLS
SLS omni-directional > P1&P3 is greater then P2, P2 is greater then Side lobes, P2 tx 2μsec after P1
Garbling > Close (2-3nm) A/C can generate false targets from 20.3μsec frame > need killer circuits
De-fruiting > A/C interrogated by 2 stations > has fruit > need de-fruiting circuits, Gnd have diff PRF
Radio Alt > use up to 2500ft > SHF > uses frequency modulation > 4300MHz at ±50MHz
If terrains changes > changes frequency > ±3% > 1 foot accurate
Mushing error > changes in A/C attitude or banking 5ft error,, fixed error > 5ft by pointer

Wx radar > ASR Airborne service radar> primary radar > SHF > shows where visible water is moving
Wavelength = 3cm > cant see other A/C, only for water drops

Conical pencil beam > sweeps 120° side to side, stabilised by gyro to earth, move 15° up/down
MAP mode > for ground > 85° down, 3.5° wide > 65nm > cosecant beam
Wx mode > for clouds > STC (sensitivity time control) shows all clouds in range with same brightness
Has vertical overspill under A/C with conical pencil beam
Calculating cloud tops with pencil beam > tilt angle (5°) minus half base(height) (4°) > (2°) =
3°
Relative height = 3°x 45nm (range) / 60 = 2.25nm/13 680ft
Hail > seen as strong echo’s, sudden growth on fringes of cloud
Strength of echo depends on size/concentration of droplets, cant pick up CAT, Gnd gives
strong echo

ELT > emergency locator beacons > more then 5g’s , 87nm range on 121.5MHz or 243MHz

RNAV > uses CLC (course line computer) > solves triangles > creates “station” rho-theta> DME-VOR
CDI > full scale > 1.25nm up to 25nm range > 5nm up to 100nm range > over 100nm use 10°-normal
Cosine law > a2 = b2 + c2 -2ac * CosA,, sine rule > a/Sin A = ?/Sin B > ?=a Sin B/Sin A

GPS > 24 satellites > orbit on 6planes > Tx on 1575.42MHz, tx course acquisition code at 1023MHz
Is randomly spaced set of numbers for 1 μsec > Pseudo – Random – Noise > PRN is unique to sat
Four satellites > unique position fix
Differential GPS works with stations in the area
PDOP > Position dilution of precession > or DOP, where the spheres overlap > cocked hat
RAIM > receiver autonomous monitoring > monitor itself > rx figures whats bad
Cant get jammed or interfered by Wx, but wing can block

TCAS > normal straight & level > 700ft above & below > or 1200ft in climb/descent
White/cyan diamond > A/C not a threat, amber > to close, red > danger
Caution > 8-10nm not within 6nm, if other A/C is not mode C > assumes on the same FL