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 Basic
Dental Materials
 Basic
Dental Materials
Second Edition

Editor
John J Manappallil

Foreword by
V Surendra Shetty

JAYPEE BROTHERS
MEDICAL PUBLISHERS (P) LTD.
New Delhi
Published by
Jitendar P Vij
Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd
EMCA House, 23/23B Ansari Road, Daryaganj
New Delhi 110 002, India
Phones: 23272143, 23272703, 23282021, 23245672, 23245683
Fax: 011-23276490 e-mail: [email protected]
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Branches
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Basic Dental Materials

© 2003, John J Manappallil

All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the editor and the publisher.
This book has been published in good faith that the material provided by contributors is original. Every effort
is made to ensure accuracy of material, but the publisher, printer and editor will not be held responsible for
any inadvertent error(s). In case of any dispute, all legal matters to be settled under Delhi jurisdiction only.
First Edition: 1998
Second Edition: 2003
Reprint: 2004
ISBN 81-8061-153-1

Typeset at JPBMP typesetting unit

Printed at Gopsons papers Ltd., Noida
To our Planet and all its Living Creatures
Its their home too...
Let’s not destroy our forests
Let’s not pollute our environment
Let’s consume less and recycle more and….
Let’s control our numbers
Lest we be a plague upon the Planet
Let’s start now….
 List of Contributors

Atley George MDS

Consultant Prosthodontist
Loay Hospital, Thaif
Saudi Arabia

G Vinay Kumar MDS

Associate Professor
Department of Prosthodontics
College of Dental Sciences, Davengere

Satheesh S Pillay MDS

Associate Professor
Yenepoya Dental College and Hospital
Mangalore

Shubha Rao MDS

Associate Professor
Department of Prosthodontics
VYWF Dental College
Amravati

Rajshekhar Sangur MDS

Associate Professor
Department of Prosthodontics
Bapuji Dental College and Hospital
Davengere
 Foreword

It has been my fortuitous pleasure to write this foreword to the maiden venture
of my colleague Dr. John J. Manappallil, Asst. Professor in Prosthodontics at College
of Dental Surgery, Mangalore.
The advancement of dentistry and the quality of dental treatment are dependent
upon a thorough knowledge of the basic sciences. Certainly no basic science could
be more relevant to dentistry and dental specialty practice than materials used
in dentistry. The Science of Dental Materials is becoming widely recognized as an
important area of formal study for the dental graduates.
The dental science which is tremendously advancing, do absorb all the technical
aspects of all other basic sciences such as Physics, Chemistry and other advancing
sciences. The technical path of supremacy in science, education and training are
important and that has to be delivered in our own country. So far we have depended
on Western countries for education. Now we have Technocrat efficiency in India.
Still we lack the literature and books written by our own people.
It is a welcome sign that now books are forthcoming in our own country on
technical aspects. Dr. John J. Manappallil has written the first comprehensive book
on Basic Dental Materials. This can serve as a keystone to the understanding of
Dental Material Science in general and their application to clinical dentistry .
The sequential presentation of materials from the elementary principles to the
more complicated systems in a simple and orderly manner will allow both the students
and practitioners to gain a better understanding of their application in clinical
practice. The young author deserves to be congratulated for bringing out the first
book on Dental Materials in India. I wish him, the very best in this and all his
other professional endeavors.

Dr. V. Surendra Shetty

Professor and Head
Department of Orthodontics
Dean, College of Dental Surgery
K.M.C., Mangalore
 Preface

Dental Materials can appear quite dry and intimidating. Well, let us face the facts-
‘No Dental Materials - No Dentistry.’ One of the reasons why this might be
so is because of the inclusion of a lot of technical details. Unfortunately this is a
part of our profession itself. A successful dentist has to combine good technical
knowledge and skills along with medical knowledge. Dental Materials is the backbone
of dentistry. Knowledge of Dental Materials is one of the keys to a successful dental
practice. To the beginner the problems might appear insurmountable - so many
materials to study, some being entirely different, while others seem to be so alike
as to be confusing. Well this is quite normal and fortunately disappears with
familiarity. Dental materials does not end with first year of B.D.S, so don’t throw
away your books, you will need it at some point during the rest of the course and
for as long as you practice dentistry.
So what’s new in this edition? Well, besides the usual updates, some of the
chapters have been totally revamped. Two new chapters have been added. Also
included are lots of new pictures and diagrams. Evolutions of certain materials
have also been discussed. Revising the edition was quite a task. The good response
to the previous book did encourage me and I would like to thank all those who
wrote to me personally. I hope to receive more such letters. Please e-mail me at
[email protected]. All comments - are welcome and I would be most happy to
respond.
Today’s dentist is fortunate to have such a wide choice of materials. It had not
always been this good. In the past, the availability of materials in India was quite
limited greatly affecting the quality of both education and treatment. However,
thanks to the economic liberation of the 1980’s and 1990’s period, our market opened
out to a whole range of high quality western products. In spite of the appearance
of many new materials, the fact is that many basic materials have remained
unchanged since decades. Most of the changes have involved modifying existing
materials and improving their performances. A few of the materials have fallen
by the wayside and are no longer used because of the introduction of better materials.
Knowledge of the history of Dental Materials is useful because it helps us to
understand how these materials evolved and why newer materials were developed.
As in the last edition I have continued my emphasis on actual physical values of
the various materials. The knowledge of these values helps us to achieve a depth
 Basic Dental Materials

of understanding as well make comparison between the various materials. However

one must remember that these values are not necessarily absolute, variations can
occur between brands and methods of testing as well as due to climatic differences.
This includes properties like working time and setting time.
It is clear that Dental Materials is a dynamic subject. Thanks to journals,
conferences and the Internet, there is a whole lot of exchange of information between
xii individuals, transcending geographical barriers. Concepts are constantly changing
and knowledge keeps improving. Unfortunately some among us are still in a time
warp, clinging on to outdated ideas and concepts – both in our educational system
as well as clinical practice. An open mind is also essential for learning - especially
one open to new ideas as well as criticism and suggestions. Greatness begins with
humility, and without humility one cannot learn.
Thus far we have been importing knowledge as well as material. I hope the
time will come when research also becomes a norm in granting recognition to various
institutions. In time I hope our research, our journals, our materials, as well as
our professionals will be recognized and respected the world over. We need to
advance our current undergraduate training with improved techniques as well as
material and equipment. It is my fervent hope that a new generation of dentists
will emerge upholding the dignity of the profession, rather than fall for questionable
motives. It is my personal experience that we are as good as any in the West.
Let us begin our journey with Dental Materials.

John Joy Manappallil

 Acknowledgements
Acknowledgement to the First Edition
Every book has its share of contributors and influences and this book is certainly
no exception. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. V.K. Subba Rao, former
head of department of Dental Materials at Davengere. The many discussions and
her emphasis on simplicity of presentation and attention to detail were invaluable.
My gratitude goes to my former colleagues at Davengere who have contributed
to certain chapters in this book. They include: Shubha Rao, R. Sangur, Vinay
Kumar, Akshay Bhargav, Atley George, and Satheesh S. Pillay. I am also grateful
to R. Kotian and A. Shenoy for clarifications on certain aspects of the subject.
It is my honour and privilege to have the foreword written by Dr. V. Surendra
Shetty, Dean of the College of Dental Surgery, Mangalore and I thank him for
the honour.
No amount of knowledge would be complete without the experience and I am
indeed very fortunate to be associated with some of the foremost institutions in
the country. I am grateful to Dr. Sadashiva Shetty, Principal of Bapuji Dental
College and Hospital, Davengere, Dr. Surendra Shetty, Dean of College of Dental
Surgery, Mangalore and Dr KS Bhat, Dean of College of Dental Surgery, Manipal
for the excellent facilities and the opportunity to work with some of the most recent
materials in dentistry .
My deepest appreciation goes to my wife Divya for her help with and support
of this project. Thanks are also given to M. Yasin, N. Grover, and N. Gupta for
their help with the index. I would also like to thank my colleagues and staff at
the Department of Prosthodontics, Mangalore for their support and encouragement.
I thank Mr. Prem of Blue Chip computer school for preparation and correction
of the manuscripts. His patience and skill are deeply appreciated. Finally I would
like to thank the publishers and commend their excellent work and professionalism.
 Basic Dental Materials

Acknowledgement to the Second Edition

My sincere thanks to S. I. Bhalajhi for his invaluable help with the digital
photography and advice on various computer programs and applications. A special
thanks to the publishers and the team out there at Jaypee in New Delhi for the
wonderful job you have done.
I also take this occasion to once again renew bonds of friendship and affection
with all the contributors, my former colleagues and classmates, my teachers and
xiv with all those whom I have had the good fortune to be associated with. How can
I end this without mentioning my current colleagues and friends including our
technical staff at the Jahra Dental Center, Ministry of Health, Kuwait, for their
support and encouragement.
May God bless you all with health and happiness.
 Contents
1. Dentistry and Dental Materials ----------------------------------------------------- 1
2. Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials ------------------------- 4
3. Biological Considerations of Dental Materials --------------------------- 2 6
4. Rigid Impression Materials ---------------------------------------------------------- 3 1
5. Elastic Impression Materials—Agar and Alginate ----------------------- 4 6
6. Elastomeric Impression Materials ------------------------------------------------ 6 5
7. Gypsum Products ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8 2
8. Denture Resins and Polymers ----------------------------------------------------- 9 8
9. Restorative Resins ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 4 3
10. Dental Amalgam ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 7 4
11. Direct Filling Gold --------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 9 8
12. Restorations, Luting and Pulp Therapy—An Introduction ------- 2 0 6
13. Dental Cements -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 1 4
14. Liners and Varnish -------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 6 3
15. Model, Cast and Die Materials -------------------------------------------------- 2 6 7
16. Waxes in Dentistry -------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 7 4
17. Dental Casting Investment Materials ---------------------------------------- 2 8 9
18. Casting Procedures -------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 9 9
19. Dental Casting Alloys ---------------------------------------------------------------- 3 1 2
20. Dental Ceramics ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 4 6
21. Wrought Alloys -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 7 7
22. Soldering, Brazing and Welding ------------------------------------------------ 3 8 5
23. Abrasion and Polishing Agents ------------------------------------------------- 3 9 6
24. Tarnish and Corrosion -------------------------------------------------------------- 4 0 8
25. Dental Implant Materials ----------------------------------------------------------- 4 1 4
Appendix -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 1 9
Further Reading ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 2 3
I n d e x ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4 2 7
 CHAPTER 1
Dentistry and Dental
Materials

Dental treatment may be divided into 3 phases:

• Prevention,
• Restoration, and
• Rehabilitation.

PREVENTION
The preventive phase is probably the most important. This includes educating the
patient on how to maintain his oral hygiene through regular brushing, flossing
and periodic checkup at the dental office. Regular brushing with a suitable brush
and paste has been shown to be very effective at controlling caries as well as gum
(periodontal) problems. The role of fluorides and fluoride therapy in the control
of dental caries has been known to us for a long time. Fluoridation of drinking
water and fluoride therapy at the dental office has played a significant role in
reducing dental caries especially in children. Caries often begins in deep fissures
in teeth. Fissure sealants is another preventive measure especially in children to
prevent caries.

RESTORATION
The next stage is the actual development of dental caries and periodontal problems.
Caries involves the actual demineralization and destruction of tooth structure. Our
next focus is to arrest the caries process. This involves removing the carious enamel
and restoring the cavity with a suitable filling material. The famous silver filling
has been in use for more than a century and is currently the most widely used
filling material. The silver restoration would certainly look unpleasant if used for
the front (anterior) teeth. Therefore, we would like to restore anterior teeth with
an esthetic (tooth colored) material. Other ways to restore teeth involve the use
of gold inlays and ceramic inlays.
As caries progresses, it gets closer to the pulp, which can lead to pain (pulpitis)
and infection of the pulp. If the pulp is only mildly affected, pulp therapy is started
using special materials which have a beneficial effect on the pulp. These materials
 Basic Dental Materials

can be soothing and promote healing by forming a new layer of dentin (secondary
dentin).
Once the pulp is infected, we have no choice but to remove the pulp (pulpectomy).
This is the next step. This is known as root canal treatment popularly known as
RCT. After removing the pulp, the canal is made sterile and sealed using root canal
filling materials. The root canal treated tooth is fragile and can fracture if not
protected with a crown or onlay.
2 Sometimes the tooth structure is so destructed and weakened that a simple
restoration would not be sufficient. In such a case the tooth is covered with a crown
or an onlay. Before the discovery of tooth colored crown materials, metallic crowns
were given (the famous gold tooth). Today dentists are able to provide crowns that
are natural looking and pleasing. Many of these structures are processed outside
the mouth, in the laboratory. The dental technician uses an accurate model of the
teeth to fabricate these restorations. How are these models made? The dentist makes
a negative record of the mouth called an impression. This is sent to the laboratory
where the technician pours a mix of plaster or stone into the impression. When
the mix hardens we obtain a model.
If the coronal tooth structure is entirely gone or destructed, even a crown would
not stay. In this case the dentist has to place a post and core. The part placed
into the root canal is known as post and the rest of it is known as the core. The
crown is then constructed and cemented on to the core.

REHABILITATION
Unfortunately, the reality is that often patients come too late for any kind of
conservative treatment. Hopeless teeth have to be extracted. After extraction the
patient often desires that it be replaced with an artificial tooth. There are many
ways of replacing the tooth. Today implants have become very popular. A titanium
screw can be implanted into the jaw surgically followed by an artificial crown. The
implant is quite an expensive proposition and involves surgery.
The next choice is the fixed partial denture (bridge). Usually the teeth by the
side of the missing tooth is reduced in size (prepared) in order to receive the bridge.
The bridge is then cemented on to these teeth.
If too many teeth are missing, we might have to consider the removable partial
denture which replaces the missing teeth but is not fixed in the mouth. It can be
removed by the patient for cleaning and hygiene. The ideal removable partial denture
is usually made of a combination of metal and plastic (cast partial denture). It can
be made entirely of plastic also and is referred to as a treatment partial denture.
The final stage is of course when all the teeth have to be replaced. One is of course
familiar with the complete denture which is often seen in elderly individuals. These
artificial teeth replace the entire dentition and is usually of the removable type (fixed
complete dentures are also available which are supported and retained by implants).
 Dentistry and Dental Materials

The complete denture is usually made of a type of plastic called acrylic. The teeth used
in the denture can be made of acrylic or porcelain.
Besides all the materials mentioned above, different specialties in dentistry have
their special materials. Some of these are not covered in this book. For example,
endodontists use special medicaments to clean and debride the root canal. A variety
of root canal sealing pastes and medicaments are also available. The periodontist
uses different types of graft material to restore lost periodontal bone. Unfortunately,
not all the materials used in dentistry are within the scope of this book. 3
 CHAPTER 2
Basic Nature and Properties of
Dental Materials

All materials are made up of atoms. All dental restorations, whether they be ceramic,
plastic or metal are built from atoms. If the reaction of a material and its properties
are to be predicted, a basic knowledge of matter is essential.

FORMS OF MATTER
Change of State
Solid → Liquid → Gas
Matter exists in three forms—solid, liquid and gas. The difference in form is mainly
due to difference in energy. Matter is made up of atoms and for these atoms to
be held together there must be a force, e.g. when 1 gm of water is to be changed
into gaseous state at 100°C, 540 calories of heat are needed (known as heat of
vaporization). Thus the gaseous state has more energy than the liquid state.
Although the molecules in a gas have a certain amount of mutual attraction, they
can diffuse readily and need to be confined in order to keep the gas intact.
Although atoms may also diffuse in the liquid state, their mutual attractions
are greater, and energy is required for this separation. As is well known, if the
energy of the liquid is decreased by reducing the temperature sufficiently, a second
transformation in state occurs and energy is released in the form of heat (latent
heat of fusion). This decrease in energy state changes the liquid to a solid or freezes
it.
The reverse is true when solid is changed to liquid, i.e. heat is required. The
temperature at which it occurs is called fusion temperature.

INTERATOMIC BONDS
Atoms are held together by some force. These interatomic bonding forces that hold
atoms together are cohesive forces. Interatomic bonds may be classified as:
1. Primary bonds or
2. Secondary bonds.
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

Primary Bonds
These are chemicals in nature:
• Ionic
• Covalent
• Metallic
Ionic bonds These are simple chemical bonds, resulting from mutual attraction of
positive and negative charges. The classic example is Sodium Chloride Na+ Cl¯.
5
Covalent bonds In many chemical compounds, two valence electrons are shared.
The hydrogen molecule H2 is an example of covalent bonding. Another example
is methane. The carbon atom has 4 valence electrons that can be stabilized by
joining with hydrogen.
H
. .. ..
4H + C H : C : H
.. .
H
Metallicbonds One of the chief characteristics of a metal is its ability to conduct
heat and electricity. Such conduction is due to the mobility of the so called free
electrons present in the metals. The outer shield valence electrons can be removed
easily from the metallic atom, leaving the balance of the electrons tied to the nucleus,
thus forming a positive ion.
The free valence electrons are able to move about in the metal space lattice
to form what is sometimes described as an electrons ‘cloud’ or ‘gas’. The electrostatic
attraction between this electron ‘cloud’ and the positive ions in the lattice bonds
the metal atoms together as a solid.

Secondary Bonds
This weaker bond may be said to be more physical than chemical. It is also known
as Van Der Waals Forces.
Van Der Waals Forces This is due to the formation of dipole. In a symmetric atom
(e.g. inert gas) a fluctuating dipole is formed, i.e. within an atom there is accumulation
of electrons in one half leading to a negative polarity and on the other half a positive
polarity. This attracts other similar dipoles. A permanent dipole is formed within
asymmetric molecules, e.g. water molecule.

THERMAL EXPANSION
Thermal energy is due to the kinetic energy (internal energy) of the atoms or
molecules at a given temperature. At temperatures above absolute zero, atoms are
 Basic Dental Materials

in a constant state of vibration. The average amplitude of vibration depends upon

the temperature; the higher the temperature the greater will be the kinetic energy
and amplitude of the atomic (or molecular) vibration increases. As the amplitude
and internal energy of the atoms increase, the interatomic spacing increases as
well. The gross effect is an expansion known as thermal expansion.
If the temperature continues to increase, the interatomic spacing will increase
and eventually a change of state will occur (e.g. solid to liquid).
6
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Space lattice or crystal can be defined as any arrangement of atoms in space such
that every atom is situated similar to every atom. Space lattice may be the result
of primary or secondary bonds.

FIGURE 2.1: Crystal structure: A—Simple cubic, B—Body centered cubic,

C—Face centered cubic

There are 14 possible lattice types of forms, but many of the metals used in
dentistry belongs to the cubic system. The simplest cubic space lattice is shown
in Figure 2.1, the solid circles represent the position of the atoms. Their positions
are located at the points of intersection of three sets of parallel planes, each set
being perpendicular to other planes. These planes are often referred to as Crystal
planes.

NONCRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
In a crystalline structure the arrangement of atoms in the lattice is orderly and
follows a particular pattern. In noncrystalline structures or amorphous structures,
e.g. waxes, the arrangement of atoms in the lattice is disorderly and distributed
at random.
There is, however, a tendency for the arrangement of atoms or molecules to
be regular, for example, glass is considered to be a noncrystalline solid, yet its atoms
bind to form a short range order rather than long range order lattice. In other
words, the ordered arrangement of glass is localized with large number of disordered
units between the ordered units. Since such an arrangement is also typical of liquids,
such solids are sometimes called supercooled liquids.
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

STRESS AND STRAIN

The distance between two atoms is known as interatomic distance. This interatomic
distance depends upon the electrostatic fields of the electrons. If the atoms come
too close to each other, they are repelled from each other by their electrons charges.
On the other hand, forces of attraction keep them from separating. Thus, the atoms
are kept together at a position where these forces of repulsion and attraction become
equal in magnitude (but opposite in direction). This is the normal equilibrium position
of the atoms. 7
The normal position of the atoms can be changed by application of mechanical
force. For example the interatomic distance can be increased by a force pulling
them apart.
If the displacing force is measured across a given area it is known as a stress,
and the change in dimension is called a strain. In simple words, stress is the force
applied and strain is the resulting change in shape. Theoretically, a stress and
a strain exist whenever the interatomic distance is changed from the equilibrium
position.
If the stress pulling the atoms apart exceeds the resultant force of attraction,
the atoms may separate completely, and the bonds holding them together are broken.
Strain can also occur under compression. However, in this case, the strain
produced is limited because when the atoms come closer than their normal
interatomic distance, a sudden increase in energy is seen.

DIFFUSION
The diffusion of molecules in gases and liquids is well known. However, molecules
or atoms diffuse in the solid state as well. Diffusion rates depend mainly on the
temperature. The higher the temperature, the greater will be the rate of
diffusion.The diffusion rate will, however vary with the atom size, interatomic or
intermolecular bonding lattice imperfections. Thus every material has its own
diffusion rate.The diffusion rate in noncrystalline materials may occur at a rapid
rate and often may be seen.

SURFACE TENSION
Energy at the surface of a solid is greater than in its interior. For example inside
a lattice, all the atoms are equally attracted to each other. The interatomic distances
are equal, and energy is minimal. However, at the surface of the lattice the energy
is greater because there are no atoms on the outside. Hence there is only a force
from the inside of the lattice pulling the outermost atoms inwards. This creates
a tension on the outer surface and energy is needed to pull the outermost atoms
away. The increase in energy per unit area of surface is referred to as the surface
energy or surface tension.
 Basic Dental Materials

The surface atoms of a solid tend to form bonds to any atom that come close
to the surface in order to reduce the surface energy of the solid. This attraction
across the interface for unlike molecules is called adhesion. In summary, the greater
the surface energy, the greater will be the capacity for adhesion.

WETTING
It is very difficult to force two solid surfaces to adhere. However smooth their surfaces
8 may appear, they are likely to be very rough at the atomic or molecular level. When
they are placed together, only the ‘hills’ or high spots are in contact. Since these
areas form only a small percentage of the total surface, no adhesion takes place.
For proper adhesion, the distance between the surface molecules should not be
greater than 0.0007 micrometer, or micron (µm).
One method of overcoming this difficulty is to use a fluid that will flow into
these irregularities and thus provide contact over a great part of the surface of
the solid. For example, when two glass plates are placed one on top of the other,
they do not usually adhere. However, if a film of water is placed in between them,
it becomes difficult to separate the two plates.
To produce adhesion in this manner, the liquid must flow easily over the entire
surface and adhere to the solid. This characteristic is referred to as wetting.

CONTACT ANGLE
The contact angle is the angle formed by the adhesive (e.g. water) and the adherend
(e.g. glass) at their interface. The extent to which an adhesive will wet the surface
of an adherend may be determined by measuring the contact angle between the
adhesive and the adherend. If the forces of adhesion are stronger than the cohesive
forces holding the molecules of the adhesive together, the liquid adhesive will spread
completely over the surface of the solid, and no angle will be formed (e.g. water
on a soapy surface). If the liquid remains as a drop without spreading, the contact
angle will be high (e.g. water on an oily surface, Fig. 2.2).

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF DENTAL MATERIALS

To select and use a dental material one must know and understand its properties.

STRESS
When a force acts on body, tending to produce deformation, a resistance is developed
within the body to this external force. The internal resistance of the body to the
external force is called stress. Stress is equal and opposite in direction to the force
(external) applied. This external force is also known as load. Since, both applied
force and internal resistance (stress) are distributed over a given area of the body,
the stress in a structure is designated as a force per unit area.
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

FIGURE 2.2: Wetting angle; A: Low wetting angle indicates good wettability.
C: High contact angle indicates poor wettability

Force F
Stress = —–—— = ——
Area A
The internal resistance to force (stress) is impractical to measure, the more
convenient way is to measure the external force applied to the cross-sectional area.
Area over which the force acts is an important factor especially in dental
restorations in which areas over which the forces applied often are extremely small.
Stress at a constant force is inversely proportional to the area—the smaller the
area the larger the stress and vice versa.

Types of Stresses
• Tensile stress
• Compressive stress
• Shear stress

Tensile Stress
Results in a body when it is subjected to two sets of forces that are directed away
from each other in the same straight line. The load tends to stretch or elongate
a body.

Compressive Stress
Results when the body is subjected to two sets of forces in the same straight line
but directed towards each other. The load tends to or shortens a body.
 Basic Dental Materials

Shear Stress
Shear stress is a result of two forces directed parallel to each other. A stress that
tends to resist a twisting motion, or a sliding of one portion of a body over another
is a shear or shearing stress.

STRAIN
10 If the stress (internal resistance) produced is not sufficient to withstand the external
force (load) the body undergoes a change in shape (deformation). Each type of
stress is capable of producing a corresponding deformation in the body. The defor-
mation resulting from a tension, or pulling force, is an elongation of a body, whereas
a compression, or pushing force, causes compression or shortening of the body.
Strain is expressed as change in length per unit length of the body when a
stress is applied.
Deformation or change in length e
Strain = ———————————————— = ——
Original length l
It is a dimensionless quantity and may be elastic or plastic or a combination
of the two.

COMPLEX STRESSES
It is difficult to induce just a single type of stress in a body. Whenever force is
applied over a body, complex or multiple stresses are produced. These may be a
combination of tensile, shear or compressive stresses. These multiple stresses are
called complex stresses. For example, when a wire is stretched the predominant
stress is tensile, but shearing and compressive stresses will also be present because
the wire is getting thinner (compressed in cross section) as it elongates (Fig. 2.6).

POISSON’S RATIO
If we take a cylinder and subject it to a tensile stress or compressive stress, there
is simultaneous axial and lateral strain. Within the elastic range the ratio of the
lateral to the axial strain is called Poisson’s ratio.

PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
A tensile load is applied to a wire in small increments until it breaks. If each stress
is plotted on a vertical co-ordinate and the corresponding strain (change in length)
is plotted on the horizontal co-ordinate a curve is obtained. This is known as stress-
strain curve (Fig. 2.3). It is useful to study some of the mechanical properties. The
stress-strain curve is a straight line upto point ‘P’ after which it curves.
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

The point ‘P’ is the proportional limit, i.e. upto point ‘P’ the stress is proportional
to strain (Hooke’s Law). Beyond ‘P’ the strain is no longer elastic and so stress
is no longer proportional to strain. Thus proportional stress can be defined as the
greatest stress that may be produced in a material such that the stress is directly
proportional to strain.

11

FIGURE 2.3: Stress-strain curve: P-proportional limit, X-yield strength, S-offset

ELASTIC LIMIT
Below the proportional limit (point ‘P’) a material is elastic in nature, that is, if
the load is removed the material will return to its original shape. Thus elastic limit
may be defined as the maximum stress that a material will withstand without
permanent deformation (change in shape). For all practical purposes, the elastic
limit and the proportional limit represent the same stress. However, the fundamental
concept is different, one describes the elastic behaviour of the material whereas
the other deals with proportionality of strain to stress in the structure.

YIELD STRENGTH
Very few materials follow Hooke’s Law perfectly and some permanent change may
be seen in the tested material. A small amount of permanent strain is tolerable.
The limit of tolerable permanent strain is the yield strength. Thus yield strength
is defined as the stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation
from proportionality of stress to strain.

Determination of Yield Strength

How much of permanent deformation can be tolerated? This varies from material
to material and is determined by selecting an offset. An offset is an arbitrary value
put for a material. It represents the percent of total permanent deformation that
 Basic Dental Materials

is acceptable for the material. In dentistry 0.1% (1% offset) and 0.2% (2% offset)
are most commonly used.The yield strength is determined by selecting the desired
offset and drawing a line parallel to the linear region of the stress-strain curve
(Fig. 2.3). The point on the stress-strain curve where the offset meets is the yield
strength (point X).

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
12 It is also referred to as ‘elastic modulus’ or ‘Young’s modulus’. It represents the
relative stiffness or rigidity of the material within the elastic range.
Young’s modulus is the ratio of stress to strain. Since stress is proportional to
strain (upto the proportional limit), the stress to strain ratio would be constant.
Modulus of elasticity Stress F/A FI
or E = ———— = ———– = ———
Young’s modulus Strain e/l eA
It therefore follows that the less the strain for a given stress, the greater will
be the stiffness, e.g. if a wire is difficult to bend, considerable stress must be placed
before a notable strain or deformation results. Such a material would possess a
comparatively high modulus of elasticity.

Application
The metal frame of a metal-ceramic bridge should have a high stiffness. If the
metal flexes, the porcelain veneer on it might crack or seperate.

FLEXIBILITY
Generally in dental practice, the material used as a restoration should withstand
high stresses and show minimum deformation. However, there are instances where
a large strain is needed with a moderate or slight stress. For example, in an
orthodontic appliance, a spring is often bent a large distance with a small stress.
In such a case the material is said to be flexible. The ‘maximal flexibility’ is defined
as the strain that occurs when the material is stressed to its proportional limit.
The relation between the maximum flexibility, the proportional limit, and the
modulus of elasticity may be expressed as:
Proportional limit (P)
Maximum flexibility (Em) = ————————————
Modulus of elasticity (E)

Application
It is useful to know the flexibility of elastic impression materials to determine how
easily they may be withdrawn over undercuts in the mouth.
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

RESILIENCE
Popularly, the term resilience is associated with “springiness”. Resilience can be
defined as the amount of energy absorbed by a structure when it is stressed not
to exceed its proportional limit. For example when an acrobat falls on a trapeze
net, the energy of his fall is absorbed by the resilience of the net, and when this
energy is released, the acrobat is again thrown into the air.
The resilience of a material is usually measured in terms of its modulus of
resilience, which is the amount of energy stored in a body, when one unit volume 13
of a material is stressed to its proportional limit. It is expressed mathematically
as:
P2 (proportional limit)
R (Modulus of Resilience) = ——
2E (modulus of elasticity)
Resilience is also measured by the area under the straight line portion of the
stress-strain curve (Fig. 2.4).

FIGURE 2.4: Area of resilience in a stress-strain curve

IMPACT
It is the reaction of a stationary object to a collision with a moving object. Depending
upon the resilience of the object, energy is stored in the body without causing
deformation or with deformation.
The ability of a body to resist impact without permanent deformation is represented
the formula—KVR
Where, K = Constant of proportionality
V = Volume
R = Modulus of resilience
But we know R = P2/2E
KVP2
Therefore impact resistance = ———
2E
From the above formula we can conclude:
Impact resistance will be decreased with an increase in the modulus of elasticity,
which means that stiffer materials will have less impact resistance. Resilient materials
 Basic Dental Materials

will have better impact resistance (however, a high stiffness is also necessary to
provide rigidity to a material under static loads, e.g. a cement base should be able
to support an amalgam restoration).
Increase in volume leads to an increase in impact resistance.

IMPACT STRENGTH
It is the energy required to fracture a material under an impact force. A Charpy
14 type impact tester is used. It has a heavy pendulum which swings down to fracture
the specimen. Another instrument called Izod impact tester can also be used.

Application
Dentures should have a high impact strength to prevent it from breaking if
accidentally dropped by the patient.

PERMANENT DEFORMATION
Once the elastic limit of a material is crossed by a specific amount of stress, the
further increase in strain is called permanent deformation, i.e. the resulting change
in dimension is permanent.

Application
An elastic impression material deforms as it is removed from the mouth. However,
due to its elastic nature it recovers its shape and little permanent deformation occurs.
Some materials are more elastic than others. Thus, permanent deformation is higher
in hydrocolloids than in elastomers.

STRENGTH
It is the maximal stress required to fracture a structure.
The three basic types of strength are:
— Tensile strength,
— Compressive strength, and
— Shear strength.

Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is determined by subjecting a rod, wire or dumbell shaped specimen
to a tensile loading (a unilateral tension test). Tensile strength is defined as the
maximal stress the structure will withstand before rupture.
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

Tensile Strength of Brittle Materials

Brittle materials are difficult to test using the unilateral tension test. Instead, an
indirect tensile test called ‘Diametral compression test’ (or Brazilian test) is used
(Fig. 2.5). In this method, a compressive load is placed on the diameter of a short
cylindrical specimen. The tensile stress is directly proportional to the load applied
as shown in the formula.
2P (load)
Tensile Stress = ————— = ———————————— 15
π × D × T (diameter × thickness)

FIGURE 2.5: Diametral tensile test

Compressive Strength
Compressive strength or ‘crushing strength’ is determined by subjecting a cylindrical
specimen to a compressive load. The strength value is obtained from the cross
sectional area and force applied. Though the load is compressive in nature, the
failure is due to complex stresses.

Shear Strength

Shear strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before failure
in a shear mode of loading. It is tested using the punch or pushout method. The
formula is as follows:
 Basic Dental Materials

F
Shear Strength = ———
πd h
where, F is the force,
d is punch diameter
h is the thickness of the specimen.

Application
16
Used to study the interface between two materials, e.g. porcelain fused to metal.

Transverse or Flexure Strength

Transverse strength or modulus of rupture is obtained when a load is applied in
the middle of a beam supported at each end. This test is also called a 3 point bending
test (3PB) (Fig. 2.6).

FIGURE 2.6: Complex stresses produced FIGURE 2.7: Area of toughness

by three point loading of a beam in stress-strain curve

Application
Used to test denture base resins and long span bridges.

FATIGUE
A structure subjected to repeated or cyclic stresses below its proportional limit can
produce abrupt failure of the structure. This type of failure is called fatigue. Fatigue
behaviour is determined by subjecting a material to a cyclic stress of a known value
and determining the number of cycles that are required to produce failure. The
stresses used in fatigue testing are usually very low. However, the repeated
application causes failure.

Application
Restorations in the mouth are often subjected to cyclic forces of mastication. In
order to last, these restorations should be able to resist fatigue.
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

Static Fatigue
It is a phenomenon exhibited by some ceramic materials. These materials support
a high static load for a long period of time and then fail abruptly. This type of
failure occurs only when the materials are stored in a wet environment and this
property is related to the effect of water on the highly stressed surface of the material.

TOUGHNESS
17
It is defined as the energy required to fracture a material. It is a property of the
material which describes how difficult the material would be to break. Toughness
is also measured as the total area under the stress-strain curve (Fig. 2.7).

BRITTLENESS
A brittle material is apt to fracture at or near its proportional limit. Brittleness
is generally considered as the opposite of toughness, e.g. glass is brittle at room
temperature. It will not bend appreciably without breaking. It should not be wrongly
understood that a brittle material is lacking in strength. From the above example
of glass we see that its shear strength is low, but its tensile strength is very high.
If glass is drawn into a fibre, its tensile strength may be as high as 2800 MPA.

Application
Many dental materials are brittle, e.g. porcelain, cements, gypsum products, etc.

DUCTILITY
It is the ability of a material to withstand permanent deformation under a tensile
load without rupture. A metal that can be drawn readily into a wire is said to be
ductile. Ductility is dependent on tensile strength. Ductility decreases as the
temperature is raised.
Ductility is measured by three common methods:
• By measuring the percentage elongation after fracture.
• By measuring reduction in cross-sectional area of fractured ends in comparison
to the original area of the wire or rod and the method is called reduction in
area method.
• By using the cold bend test.

MALLEABILITY
It is the ability of the material to withstand rupture under compression, as in
hammering or rolling into a sheet. It is not dependent on strength as is ductility.
Malleability increases with rise in temperature.
 Basic Dental Materials

Toughness of a material is dependent upon the ductility (or malleability) of the

material than upon the flexibility or elastic modulus.

Application of Malleability and Ductility

Gold is the most ductile and malleable metal. This property enables manufacturers
to beat it into thin foils. Silver is second. Among other metals platinum ranks third
in ductility and copper ranks third in malleability.
18
HARDNESS
Hardnessisdifficulttodefinespecifically.Therearenumerousfactorswhichinfluence
thehardnessofamaterialsuchasstrength,proportionallimit,ductility,malleability,
etc. In mineralogy the hardness is described as the ability of a material to resist
scratching.Inmetallurgyandinmostotherfields,theresistanceto indentationistaken
as the measure of hardness. There are many surface hardness tests (Fig. 2.8).

FIGURE 2.8: Various hardness tests

Brinell
A hardened steel ball is pressed into the polished surface of a material under a
specified load. The load is divided by the area of the surface of the indentation
and the quotient is referred to as Brinell Hardness Number (BHN).
BHN = Load/Area of indentation

Application
Used for measuring hardness of metals and metallic materials.

Rockwell Hardness Number (RHN)

Just like the BHN test, a steel ball or a conical diamond point is used. However,
instead of measuring the diameter of the impression, the depth is measured directly
by a dial gauge on the instrument.
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

Application
The Rockwell test has a wider application for materials, since Brinell test is unsuitable
for brittle materials as well as plastic materials.

Vickers Hardness Test (VHN)

This is also similar to the Brinell test, however, instead of a steel ball, a diamond
in the shape of a square pyramid is used. Although the impression is square instead 19
of round. The load is divided by the area of indentation. The length of the diagonals
of the indentation (sides of the diamond) are measured and averaged.

Applications
Vickers test is used in the ADA for dental casting golds. This test is suitable for
brittle materials and so is used for measuring hardness of tooth structure.

Knoop Hardness Test (KHN)

A diamond identing tool is used. Knoop hardness values is independent of the
ductility of the material and values for both exceedingly hard and soft materials
can be obtained from this test.
The Knoop and Vickers tests are classified as microhardness tests. The Brinell
and Rockwell tests are classified as macrohardness tests.

The Shore and the Barcol

These are less sophisticated tests. They are compact portable units. A metal indenter
that is spring loaded is used. The hardness number is based on depth of penetration
and is read directly from a gauge.

Applications
Used for measuring the hardness of rubber and plastics.

ABRASION RESISTANCE
Like hardness, abrasion is influenced by a number of factors. Hardness has often
been used to indicate the ability of a material to resist abrasion.

Applications
It is useful for comparing materials in the same class, e.g. one brand of cement
is compared to another and their abrasion resistance is quoted in comparison to
one another. However, it may not be useful for comparing materials of different
classes like metals and plastics.
 Basic Dental Materials

The only reliable test for abrasion is a test procedure which simulates the condi-
tionswhichthematerialwilleventuallybesubjectedto, e.g.toothbrushabrasiontests.

RELAXATION
Every element in nature makes an attempt to remain in a stable form. If an element
is changed from its equilibrium or stable form by either physical or chemical means
it tries to come back to its original form.
20 When substances are deformed, internal stresses get trapped because of the
displacement of the atoms. The condition is unstable and the atoms try to return
to their original positions. This results in a change in shape or contour in the solid
as atoms or molecules rearrange themselves. This change in shape due to release
of stresses is known as relaxation. The material is said to warp or distort.
Examples Waxes and other thermoplastic materials like compound undergo
relaxation after they are manipulated.

RHEOLOGY
Rheology is the study of flow of matter. In dentistry, study of rheology is necessary
because many dental materials are liquids at some stage of their use, e.g. molten
alloy and freshly mixed impression materials and cements. Other materials appear
to be solids but flow over a period of time.

IMPORTANT TERMS AND PROPERTIES IN RHEOLOGY

Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance offered by a liquid when placed in motion, e.g. honey
has greater viscosity than water. It is measured in poise or centipoise (1 cp = 100 p).

Creep
Time dependent plastic deformation or change of shape that occurs when a metal
is subjected to a constant load near its melting point is known as creep. This may
be static or dynamic in nature.
Static creep is a time dependent deformation produced in a completely set solid
subjected to a constant stress.
Dynamic creep produced when the applied stress is fluctuating, such as in fatigue
type test.

Importance
Dental amalgam, has components with melting points that are slightly above room
temperature and the creep produced can be very destructive to the restoration,
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

e.g. glass tube fractures under a sudden blow but bends gradually if leaned against
a wall.

Flow
It is somewhat similar to creep. In dentistry, the term flow is used instead of creep
to describe rheology of amorphous substances, e.g. waxes. Although creep or flow
may be measured under any type of stress, compression is usually employed for
testing of dental materials.
21

SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN RATE

A liquid is placed between two plates and the upper plate is moved to the right.
The stress required to move the plate is called shear stress (= F/A or force applied/
area of plate). The change produced is called shear strain rate (= V/d or velocity
of plate/distance covered).

Newtonian
Shear stress and shear strain rate can be plotted. An ideal fluid shows a shear
strain rate that is proportional to shear stress. This behavior is called Newtonian
(Fig. 2.9).

FIGURE 2.9: Shear diagrams of pseudoplastic, newtonian and dilatant liquids

Pseudoplastic
If a material viscosity decreases with increase in shear rate it is said to exhibit
pseudoplastic behavior, e.g. elastomeric impression materials when loaded into a
tray shows a higher viscosity, whereas the same material when extruded under
pressure through a syringe tip shows more fluidity (Fig. 2.9).
 Basic Dental Materials

Dilatant
These are liquids that show higher viscosity as shear rate increases, e.g. fluid denture
base resins (Fig. 2.9).

THIXOTROPIC
These materials exhibit a different viscosity after it is deformed, e.g. latex paints
for ceilings show lower viscosity after it is stirred vigorously. Zinc oxide eugenol
22 cements show reduced viscosity after vigorous mixing. Dental prophy paste is another
example.

COLOR
Light is a form of electro-magnetic radiant energy that can be detected by the human
eye. The eye is sensitive to wave lengths from approximately 400 nm (violet) to
700 nm (dark red). The combined intensities of the wavelengths present in a beam
of light determine the property called color.
In order for an object to be visible, either it must emit light or it must reflect
or transmit light falling upon it from an external source. Objects of dental interest
generally transmit light. The incident light is usually polychromatic (mixed light
of various wavelengths). The reaction of an object to the incident light is to selec-
tively absorb and/or scatter certain wavelengths. The spectral distribution of the
transmitted or reflected light will resemble that of the incident light although certain
wavelengths will be reduced in magnitude.
Cone shaped cells in the retina are responsible for color vision. The eye is most
sensitive to light in the green-yellow region and least sensitive at either extremes
(i.e. red or blue).

THREE DIMENSIONS OF COLOR

Quantitatively color has come to be described as a three dimensional quality specified
by values for three variables: hue, value and chroma.

Hue
Refers to the basic color of an object, e.g. whether it is red, green or blue.

Value
Colors can be separated into ‘light’ and ‘dark’ shades, e.g. the yellow of a lemon
is lighter than the red of a sweet cherry. This lightness which can be measured
independently of the color hue is called value.

Chroma
Aparticularcolormaybedullormore‘vivid’,thisdifferenceincolorintensityorstrength
is called chroma. Chroma represents the degree of saturation of a particular hue (color).
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

In other words, the higher the chroma the more intense and mature is the color. Chroma
cannot exist by itself and is always associated with hue and value.

MEASUREMENT OF COLOR
One of the most commonly used method to define and measure color quantitatively
is the Munsell System. It is a co-ordinate system which can be viewed as a cylinder.
The lines are arranged sequentially around the perimeter of the cylinder, while
the chroma increases along a radius from the axis. The value coordinate varies 23
along the length of the cylinder from black at the bottom to neutral grey at the
center to white at the top.

METAMERISM
The appearance of an object depends on the type of the light by which the object
is viewed. Daylight, incandescent lamps, and fluorescent lamps are all common
sources of light in dental operatory. Objects that appear to be color matched under
one type of light may appear very different under another light source. This
phenomenon is called metamerism.

FLUORESCENCE
Natural tooth structure also absorbs light of wavelengths which are too short to
be visible to the human eye. These wavelengths between 300 to 400 nm are referred
as near ultraviolet. Natural sunlight, photoflash lamps, certain types of vapor lamps,
and the ultraviolet lights used in decorative lighting are all sources containing
substantial amounts of near U-V radiation invisible U-V light.

FIGURE 2.10: The Vita lumin shade guide. This famous shade guide has been in use for a
long time to select the color of artificial porcelain teeth
 Basic Dental Materials

24

FIGURE 2.11: The newer Vitapan 3D Master is just been introduced recently
and is the advanced version of the Vita lumin

FIGURE 2.12: Selecting the color using the new Vitapan system. The color is determined in 3
steps. The figure above shows step 1 (lightness or darkness). The guide is held along the patients
face at arms length. Step 2 determines the hue (basic color). Step 3 determines the chroma
(saturation)

This energy that the tooth absorbs is converted into light with larger wavelengths,
in which case the tooth actually becomes a light source. The phenomenon is called
fluorescence. The emitted light is primarily in 400-450 nm range, having blue white
color.
Flourescence makes a definite contribution to the brightness and vital appearance
of a human tooth.
 Basic Nature and Properties of Dental Materials

Importance
Some patients want their restorations to match natural tooth under U-V light
conditions, e.g. in stage shows and discotheques. Some manufacturers of porcelain
include fluorescence matching in their products.

CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Esthetics plays a very important role in modern dental treatment. The ideal
restorative material should match the color of the tooth it restores. In maxillofacial
25
prosthetics the color of the gums, external skin and the eyes have to be duplicated.
Clinically in the operatory or dental lab, color selection is usually done by the
use of shade guides (Figs 2.10 to 2.12). These are used in much the same way
as paint chips are used to select the color for house paint.
 CHAPTER 3
Biological Considerations of
Dental Materials

The science of dental materials must include a knowledge and appreciation of certain
biological considerations that are associated with selection and use of materials
designed for the oral cavity.
Strength and resistance to corrosion are unimportant if the material injures
the pulp or soft tissue. The biological characteristics of dental materials cannot be
isolated from their physical properties.

Biological Requirements of Dental Materials

A dental materials should:
1. Be non-toxic to the body,
2. Be non-irritant to the oral or other tissues,
3. Not produce allergic reactions, and
4. Not be mutagenic or carcinogenic.

Classification of Materials from a Biological Perspective

A. Those which contact the soft tissues within the mouth,
B. Those which could affect the health of the dental pulp,
C. Those which are used as root-canal filling materials,
D. Those which affect the hard tissues of the teeth, and
E. Those used in the dental laboratory which though not used in the mouth, are
handled and may be accidentally ingested or inhaled.

Examples of Hazards from Chemicals in Dental Materials

• Some dental cements are acidic and may cause pulp irritation.
• Polymer based filling materials may contain irritating chemicals such as unreacted
monomers, which can irritate the pulp.
• Phosphoric acid is used as an etchant for enamel.
• Mercury is used in dental amalgam, mercury vapor is toxic.
• Dust from alginate impression materials may be inhaled, some products contain
lead compounds.
 Biological Considerations of Dental Materials

• Monomer in denture base materials is a potential irritant.

• Some people are allergic to alloys containing nickel.
• During grinding of beryllium containing casting alloys, inhalation of beryllium
dust can cause berylliosis.
• Some dental porcelain powders contain uranium.
• Metallic compounds (e.g. of lead and tin) are used in elastomeric impression
materials.
• Eugenol in impression pastes can cause irritation and burning in some patients. 27
• Laboratory materials have their hazards, such as: cyanide solution for electro-
plating, vapors from low fusing metal dies, silicious particles in investment
materials, fluxes containing fluorides, and asbestos.
• Some periodontal dressing materials have contained asbestos fibres.
A biomaterial can be defined as any substance, other than a drug, that can
be used for any period of time as a part of a system that treats, augments, or replaces
any tissue, organ or function of the body.

PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING PULP HEALTH

Microleakage
One of the greatest deficiencies of all materials used for restoring teeth is that, they
do not adhere to tooth structure and seal the cavity preparation (except those systems
based upon polyacrylic acid and certain dentin-bonding agents). Thus, a microscopic
space always exists between the restoration and the prepared cavity. The use of
radioisotope tracers, dyes, scanning electron microscope, and other techniques have
clearly shown that fluids, micro-organisms, and oral debris can penetrate freely along
the interface between the restoration and the tooth, and progress down the walls of
the cavity preparation. This phenomenon is referred to as microleakage.

Microleakage Can Result In

1. Secondary caries The seepage of acids and micro-organisms could initiate caries
around the margins of the restoration.
2. Stain or discoloration can also develop.
3. Sensitivity Sometimes, because of microleakage, the tooth remains sensitive even
after placement of the filling. If the leakage is severe, bacterial growth occurs
between the restoration and the cavity and even into the dentinal tubules. Toxic
products liberated by such micro-organisms produce irritation to the pulp.

Thermal Change
Tooth structure and dental restorations are continually exposed to hot and cold
beverages and foods. Instantaneous temperature fluctuation during the course of
an average meal may be as great as 85°C.
 Basic Dental Materials

The temperature fluctuations can crack the restorative materials or produce

undesirable dimensional changes in them because of thermal expansion and
contraction.
Many restorative materials are composed of metals. Metals conduct heat and
cold rapidly. Patients may often complain of sensitivity in a tooth with a metallic
restoration when they are eating hot or cold foods. The problem is more in a very
large restoration, where the layer of dentin remaining at the floor of the cavity
28 may be so thin that it is not adequate to insulate the pulp against the temperature
shock.
Protection from thermal changes The Dentist must place a layer of insulating cement
(called base) under the restoration.

Galvanism
Another cause for sensitivity is the small currents created whenever two different
metals are present in the oral cavity (Fig. 24.1, Chapter 24). The presence of metallic
restorations in the mouth may cause a phenomenon called galvanic action, or
galvanism. This results from a difference in potential between dissimilar fillings
in opposing or adjacent teeth. These fillings, in conjunction with saliva as electrolyte,
make up an electric cell. When two opposing fillings contact each other, the cell
is short circuited and the patient experiences pain. A similar effect may occur when
a restoration is touched by the edge of a metal fork.
Studies have shown that relatively large currents can flow. The current rapidly
falls off if the fillings are maintained in contact, probably as a result of polarization
of the cell. The magnitude of the voltage is not of primary importance, but the
sensitivity of the patient to the current has a greater influence on whether he will
feel pain. Some patients may feel pain at 10 u amp and other at 110 u amp (average:
20 to 50 u amp). That is why some patients are bothered by galvanic action and
others are not despite similar conditions in the mouth.
The galvanic current magnitude depends on the composition and surface area
of the metals. Stainless steel develops a higher current density than either gold
or cobalt chromium alloys when in contact with an amalgam restoration. As the
size of the cathode (e.g. a gold alloy) increases relative to that of the anode (e.g.
amalgam), the current density may increase. The larger cathode can enhance the
corrosion of the smaller anode. Current densities associated with non Y2-containing
amalgams appear to be less than those associated with Y2-containing amalgam.

TOXIC EFFECTS OF MATERIALS

A few dental materials may contain a variety of potentially toxic or irritating
ingredients, e.g. phosphoric acid in zinc phosphate cements.
 Biological Considerations of Dental Materials

Materials to be utilized in the oral cavity must also be non-irritating to soft

tissue. For example, any material used to fabricate an artificial denture should
not produce an allergic reaction on the underlying tissue.

Toxicity Evaluation
Toxicity test are classified as:
29
Level I Tests (Screening Tests)
The material is first checked for acute systemic toxicity and for its cytotoxic,
irritational, allergic and carcinogenic potentials.
• Acute systemic toxicity test is conducted by administering the material orally
to laboratory animals. If more than 50% of the animals survive, the material
is safe.
• Cytotoxic screening may be done in vivo or in vitro. In vitro tests are conducted
on cultured cells like mouse L-929 fibroblasts and human Hela cells. There are
many in vitro tests. Example Agar overlay technique—Agar is spread over a
layer of culture cells in a culture plate. The test material is then placed on it
and incubated. A toxic material will show a clear zone of dead cells.
• Irritational properties are checked by placing the material beneath the skin
in rats or intramuscularly in rabbits. The animals are killed at different time
intervals. The tissue response is then examined and compared.
• Allergic potential The material is first placed inside the skin of guinea pigs.
Later, the material is placed on the skin surface. Erythema and swelling at the
site show allergic reaction.
• Carcinogenic potential (i) In vivo tests A material is placed beneath the skin
(subcutaneously) of mice. They are then killed after 1 and 2 years and examined
for tumors, (ii) In vitro tests Include Ames test. Here the material is tested with
the help of mutant histidine dependent bacteria.

Level II (Usage Tests)

The material is tested in experimental animals similar to how it is used in humans,
e.g. Pulp reaction is studied by placing the material into class V cavities in teeth
of primates (apes or monkeys). The teeth are then extracted periodically and
compared with negative controls (ZOE cement) and positive controls (silicate cement).

Level III (Human Trials)

Once the material has passed screening and usage tests in animals, it is ready
for trials in humans. The reactions and performance under clinical conditions are
studied.
 Basic Dental Materials

INFECTION CONTROL
There is increased interest in expanding infection control measures to the dental
laboratory. Concern over possible cross contamination to dental office personnel
by micro-organisms, including hepatitis-B virus and human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV), through dental impressions has promoted the study of the effect of disinfecting
techniques on dental materials.

30 Infection Routes
There are many ways by which micro-organisms can spread, e.g.
1. Contaminated instruments and needles
2. Direct splashing of saliva and blood into the mouth or on to wounds
3. Breathing of contaminated aerosol from the air-rotor handpiece
4. Through contaminated dental materials.
Except for contamination occurring through dental materials, the other routes
are beyond the scope of this book.

Disinfection of Dental Materials

Impressions are the main source of spread of infection among the dental materials.
However disinfecting impression materials is more complex. The disinfectant must
not affect its properties and accuracy. If the impression has not been disinfected,
we must disinfect the cast.
Materials may be disinfected by:
1. Immersion in a disinfectant
2. Spraying with a disinfectant
3. Incorporating the disinfectant into the material as part of its composition.
 CHAPTER 4

Rigid Impression Materials

A dental impression is a negative record of the tissues of the mouth. It is used

to reproduce the form of the teeth and surrounding tissues.
The negative reproduction of the tissues given by the impression material is
filled up with dental stone or other model materials to get a positive cast. The positive
reproduction of a single tooth is described as a “die”, and when several teeth or
a whole arch is reproduced, it is called a “cast” or “model”.

ADVANTAGES OF USING A CAST OR MODEL

1. Models provide a three-dimensional view of the oral structures, thus aiding in
diagnosis and treatment planning.
2. Many restorations or appliances are best constructed on casts. It may be
inconvenient to both dentist and patient if these have to be made directly in
the patient’s mouth.
3. Models can be used to educate the patient.
4. They serve as pre- and post-treatment records.
5. By using casts, technical work can be passed on to technicians, saving valuable
clinical time.

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF AN IMPRESSION MATERIAL

An impression material should:
1. Have a pleasant taste, odor and esthetic color.
2. Not contain any toxic or irritating ingredients.
3. Have adequate shelf life for storage and distribution.
4. Be economical.
5. Be easy to use with the minimum equipments.
6. Have adequate setting characteristics that meet clinical requirements.
7. Possess a satisfactory consistency and texture.
8. Have adequate strength so that it will not break or tear while removing from
the mouth.
9. Possess elastic properties with freedom from permanent deformation after strain.
10. Exhibit dimensional stability.
 Basic Dental Materials

11. Be compatible with the die and cast materials.

12. Faithfully reproduce the tissues of mouth.
13. Be able to be electroplated.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPRESSION MATERIALS

There are several classifications:
32
According to Mode of Setting and Elasticiy

Mode of Setting Rigid Elastic

Set by chemical reaction Impression plaster Alginate hydrocolloid
(irreversible or thermoset). Zinc oxide eugenol Non-aqueous elastomers,
e.g. Polysulfide polymer
Polyether, Silicone
Set by temperature change Compound Agar hydrocolloid.
(reversible/thermoplastic). Waxes

According to their Uses in Dentistry

Impression Materials used for Complete Denture Prosthesis
Impression plaster, impression compound and impression paste set to a hard rigid
mass and hence cannot be removed from undercuts without the impression being
fractured or distorted. Therefore these materials are best suited for edentulous mouth.
Impression Materials used for Dentulous Mouths
On the other hand alginates and rubber base impressions are sufficiently elastic
to be withdrawn from undercut areas. Such elastic impression materials are suitable
for impressions in removable partial denture prosthesis and crown and bridge work,
where the impressions of the ridge and teeth are required.

The Rigid Impression Materials

As mentioned earlier the rigid impression materials are:
1. Impression plaster
2. Impression compound
3. Zinc oxide eugenol impression paste
4 Impression waxes.
(Impression plaster is described in the chapter on Gypsum Products).

IMPRESSION COMPOUND
Impression compound is described as a rigid, reversible impression material which
sets by physical change. On applying heat, it softens and on cooling it hardens.
It is mainly used for making impressions of edentulous mouth.
 Rigid Impression Materials

CLASSIFICATION
ADA specification No.3 two types:
Type I — Impression Compound
Type II — Tray Compound
Type II: Tray compound is used to prepare a tray for making an impression. A
second material is then carried in it in order to make an impression of mouth tissues.
Since reproduction of the fine details is not essential, it is generally stiffer and 33
has less flow than regular impression compound.

SUPPLIED AS
Sheets, sticks, cakes and cones (Fig. 4.1).

FIGURE 4.1: Impression compound cakes and sticks

APPLICATIONS
1. For making a preliminary impression in an }
edentulous (mouth without teeth) mouth }
2. For individual tooth impression } Type I
3. Peripheral tracing or border moulding }
4. To check undercuts in inlay preparation }
5. To make a special tray } Type II

Single Tooth Impression

In operative dentistry, an impression is made of a single tooth in which a cavity
is prepared. The compound is softened and carried in a copper band. The filled
band is pressed over the tooth and the compound flows into the prepared cavity.
It is referred to as a tube impression. Tube impressions were also used to make
electroformed dies.
 Basic Dental Materials

Complete Denture Impressions

In complete denture fabrication it is common to make two sets of impressions—
the preliminary and the final impression. The preliminary impression is made in
a stock tray. A study cast is made from this is used to construct a custom tray or
special tray. The custom tray is used to make the final impression. The technique
of making a preliminary and final impression greatly improves the accuracy of
the complete denture.
34
REQUIREMENTS OF IDEAL IMPRESSION COMPOUND
It should:
• harden at or little above mouth temperature,
• be plastic at a temperature not injurious or harmful to oral tissues,
• not contain irritating or toxic ingredients,
• harden uniformly when cooled without distortion,
• have a consistency when softened which will allow it to reproduce fine details,
• be cohesive but not adhesive,
• not undergo permanent deformation or fracture while withdrawing the impression
from the mouth,
• be dimensionally stable after removal from the mouth and during storage,
• exhibit a smooth glossy surface after flaming,
• withstand trimming with sharp knife without flaking or chipping after hardening.
• should not boil and lose volatile components on flaming,
• should remain stable without losing soluble plasticizers when immersed in water
for long periods.

COMPOSITION
In general impression compound is a mixture of waxes, thermoplastic resins, organic
acids, fillers and coloring agents.
Ingredients Parts
Resin 30
Copal resin 30
Carnauba wax 10
Stearic acid 5
Talc 75
Coloring agent Appropriate amount

Plasticizers Bees wax is brittle, so compounds such as shellac, stearic acid and
gutta-percha are added to improve plasticity and workability. These substances
are referred to as plasticizers. Synthetic resins are being used in increasing amounts,
usually in combination with natural resins.
 Rigid Impression Materials

Fillers These are small particles of inert materials which strengthen or improve
the physical properties of many materials. Fillers are chemically different from the
principal ingredient. In such case, the filler particles are sometimes referred to as
the core and the surrounding ingredients as the matrix. For example, the waxes
and resins in impression compound being non-crystalline in character cause high
flow of the compound and low strength. Consequently a filler such as talc is added
to reduce the plasticity of the matrix material by frictional action. Other fillers used
are diatomaceous earth, soap stone and French chalk. 35

PROPERTIES OF IMPRESSION COMPOUND

Glass Transition Temperature and Fusion Temperature
When impression compound is heated in a hot water bath the material looses its
hardness at approximately 39°C. However, at this stage, it is still not plastic or
soft enough for making an impression. This temperature at which the material
looses its hardness or brittleness on heating or forms a rigid mass upon cooling
is referred to as glass transition temperature.

Fusion Temperature
On further heating at approximately 43.5°C, the material softens to a plastic mass
that can be manipulated. This is called the fusion temperature. It is the temperature
at which the crystalline fatty acids melt (or solidify).
Significanceoffusiontemperature Above this temperature, the fatty acids are liquid
and lubricate the softened material to form a smooth plastic mass, while the
impression is being obtained. Thus all impressions with compound should be made
above this temperature. Below this temperature an accurate impression cannot be
expected.
Significance of glass transition temperature Once the impression tray is seated,
it should be held firmly in position until first fusion temperature and later the glass
transition temperature is reached. Thus the impression is made above the fusion
temperature whereas it is removed from the mouth only after it cools down to its
glass transition temperature.

Thermal Properties
Thermal Conductivity
Impression compound has very low thermal conductivity, i.e. they are poor conductors
of heat.
 Basic Dental Materials

Significance
• During softening of the material, the outside will soften first and the inside
last. So to ensure uniform softening the material should be kept immersed for
a sufficiently long time in a water bath. Kneading of the material ensures further
uniform softening.
• Due to poor thermal conductivity, the layer adjacent to the mouth tissues will
remain soft. Removal of the impression at this stage will cause serious distortion.
36 Thus it is important to cool the compound thoroughly before removing if from
the mouth.

Coefficient of Linear Expansion (CTE)

The CTE of a compound is comparatively high because of the presence of resins
and waxes. The linear contraction from mouth temperature to room temperature
is 0.3%. This error can be reduced: (i) by obtaining an impression as usual and
then passing the impression over a flame until the surface is softened and then
obtaining a second impression. During the second impression, the shrinkage is
relatively slight, since only the surface layer has been softened completely, and
(ii) another way of reducing the thermal contraction is by spraying cold water on
the metal tray just before it is inserted in the mouth. Thus the material adjacent
to the tray will be hardened, while the surface layer is still soft. In both techniques,
the impression is likely to be stressed considerably and so the stone cast should
be constructed at the earliest.

Flow
Flow of the impression material could be advantageous as well as harmful. Good
flow is desirable during impression making. The softened material should flow into
all the details of the tissue contour. Once the compound hardens, it should have
minimum flow, otherwise it will get distorted.

According to ADA specification No. 4

Type I : Flow not more than 3% at 37°C (Mouth temperature).
Flow not less than 80% and not more than 85% at 45°C.
Type II: Flow not more than 2% at 37°C.
Flow not less than 70% and not more than 85% at 45°C.

Dimensional Stability
Since the release of strains is unavoidable, the safest way to prevent distortion
is to pour the cast immediately or at least within the hour. Another cause of warpage
is removal of the impression too early before it is thoroughly cooled in the mouth.
 Rigid Impression Materials

Reproduction of Detail
Surface detail reproduction is comparatively less because of its high viscosity and
low flow. Because of the viscosity, pressure has to be used during impression, which
compresses the tissues. Thus, the tissue are recorded in a distorted state.

MANIPULATION
Sticks 37
Small amounts of compound are softened over a flame. When a direct flame is
used, the compound should not be allowed to boil or ignite, otherwise, the plasticizers
are volatilized.

Cakes
When a large amount of compound is to be softened, it is difficult to heat the
compound uniformly over a flame. The compound is softened in warm water in
a thermostatically controlled water bath (Fig. 4.2) (usually in the range of 60 to
70°C). After the compound is removed from the water bath, it is usually kneaded
with the fingers in order to obtain uniform plasticity throughout the mass.

FIGURE 4.2: A thermostatically controlled water bath. This water bath maintains a steady
softening temperature and is ideal for softening impression compound

Precautions
• Prolonged immersion in a water bath is not indicated; the compound may become
brittle and grainy because some of the low molecular weight ingredients may
be leached out.
 Basic Dental Materials

• Over heating in water makes the compound sticky and difficult to handle.
• Avoid incorporating water while kneading.

Removal of Impression
The impression is removed from the mouth only after it has completely hardened.

38 Pouring the Cast and Cast Separation

The cast should be poured without delay. The cast is separated from the impression
by immersing it in warm water until it is soft enough. Excessively hot water is
avoided as it can make the material sticky and difficult to remove from the cast.

ADVANTAGES
1. The material can be reused a number of times (for the same patient only) in
case of errors.
2. Inaccurate portions can be remade without having to remake the entire
impression.
3. Accuracy can be improved by flaming the surface material.
4. The material has sufficient body to support itself to an extent especially in the
peripheral portions. It does not collapse completely if unsupported by the tray.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Difficult to record details because of its high viscosity.
2. Compresses soft tissues while making impression.
3. Distortion due to its poor dimensional stability.
4. Difficult to remove if there are severe undercuts.
5. There is always the possibility of overextension especially in the peripheral
portions.

ZINC OXIDE EUGENOL IMPRESSION PASTE

Zinc oxide and eugenol combination is widely used in dentistry:
• Cementing and insulating medium.
• Temporary filling.
• Root canal filling material.
• Surgical pack in periodontal surgical procedures.
• Bite registration paste.
• Temporary relining material for dentures.
• Impression material for edentulous patients (Fig. 4.3).
 Rigid Impression Materials

39

FIGURE 4.3: From left to right—a zinc oxide eugenol edentulous

impression in a custom tray and dentulous alginate and elastomeric
(putty reline) impressions in stock trays

CLASSIFICATION
ADA specification No. 16.
• Type I or Hard
• Type II or Soft

AVAILABLE AS
In paste form in two tubes (Fig. 4.4)
• Base paste (white in color).
• Accelerator or Reactor or Catalyst paste (red in color).

FIGURE 4.4: Representative zinc oxide eugenol pastes for

impression making and periodontal dressing
Other documents randomly have
different content
»Alors seulement, je revins à moi; je la repoussai; elle me laissa
faire. J'étais nerveuse, dès lors courageuse. Je devais être très
singulière avec mes yeux brillants de larmes que je retenais; avec
ma volonté nouvelle de le quitter; avec ma voix que j'avais peur
d'entendre moi-même parce qu'elle allait nous séparer. Je ne sais
pas comment j'ai eu le courage. J'ai été droit à lui, qui était debout
au milieu du salon.
»—Monsieur, voici un grand chagrin pour moi, et pour vous:
madame Gimel vient de me parler... J'ignorais ce qu'elle m'a appris,
je vous le jure. Elle a bien fait de me l'apprendre. Je ne dois pas, je
ne peux pas être votre fiancée.
»—Mais que vous a-t-elle appris, mademoiselle? Elle ne me connaît
pas. On m'a peut-être calomnié près d'elle? Qu'elle se renseigne. Je
n'ai pas à craindre. Mais ne dites pas des mots comme celui-là.
»—Oh! non, cela ne vous concerne pas.
»—Alors, comment une chose que vous ne saviez pas, et qui vous
concernait, mademoiselle, pouvait-elle avoir tant d'importance? Vous
l'ignoriez? Qu'est-ce que c'est! Vous ai-je dit que les questions de
dot n'entraient pas dans mes préoccupations? Vous seriez sans
mobilier et sans trousseau que je ne changerais pas d'avis. N'est-ce
que cela?
»—Non, hélas!
»—Mais parlez donc!
»—Je ne peux pas...
»—Vous le devez! Je ne vous quitterai pas sans savoir pourquoi vous
rompez. J'ai droit à une explication.
»—Et si je vous demande, monsieur, de ne pas vous en donner?
»—Je refuse... Vous voyez que je souffre cruellement... Je croirai
que j'ai été repoussé pour des raisons d'ambition, qu'on vous a fait
partager.
»—Non, par exemple! N'injuriez pas la petite, monsieur! Elle avait le
droit de choisir, en effet; mais elle avait choisi, et elle n'est pas
femme à se reprendre par ambition!
»C'était madame Gimel qui sortait à son tour de ma chambre,
animée, rouge, susceptible pour moi, qui n'étais que malheureuse.
J'ai étendu la main, pour arrêter la plaidoirie de cette chère
offensée. J'ai dit:
»—Vous avez raison, monsieur, il vaut mieux que vous sachiez la
vérité.
»—Quoi, Evelyne, tu vas lui dire?...
»—Tout. Monsieur Morand va voir, par là, combien je l'estime. Il
verra aussi que je ne puis pas être sa femme... Je suis une enfant
abandonnée, monsieur, une pupille de l'Assistance publique, adoptée
par madame Gimel... Comprenez-vous, maintenant? Cette femme,
qui m'a élevée, n'avait qu'à me laisser avec les autres: j'aurais grandi
dans une ferme de la Nièvre ou de la Normandie. Je suis sans père
ni mère... Vous voyez vous-même que je ne suis pas de celles qu'on
peut présenter à des femmes d'officiers. Dites le contraire!
»Il me regarda, et il m'aimait encore. Mais il ne répondit rien. Il
voyait que je ne mentais pas, que j'avais tout ignoré, que je ne
voulais pas pleurer, que je ne voulais pas qu'il restât... Et il a voulu,
lui aussi, être courageux; il ne m'a même pas demandé de lui tendre
la main; il a salué maman, le pauvre garçon, perdu d'esprit et
toujours correct; il l'a saluée, et puis il n'a plus eu la force de me
dire adieu. Je crois qu'il a essayé de commencer: «Pardonnez-moi»,
mais il n'a pas eu la force de finir, il a senti que tout s'écroulait et il a
quitté le salon... Je suis presque sûre qu'il s'est arrêté pour me
regarder, sur le palier. Je n'ai pas couru. La pupille de l'Assistance
publique n'avait aucune parole d'espérance à lui donner, aucune
illusion. Le bruit sec de la serrure, qui reprenait son rôle de
gardienne, nous a séparés.
»Madame Gimel m'a dit:
»—Viens, que je te raconte tout!
»Nous avons causé et pleuré jusqu'à deux heures du matin. Et,
maintenant, je n'ai plus de père, plus de mère, plus de nom à moi,
et plus de fiancé.»

III
LE NUMÉRO 149 007

A huit heures, Evelyne était debout. Elle avait fait son lit, balayé la
chambre, et mis à chauffer le lait que le laitier, à sept heures et
demie, tous les matins, déposait sur le paillasson de la porte, dans
un flacon cacheté, scellé avec une étiquette bleue: «Grand lait du
château de Perray.»
Elle apportait les deux tasses sur un plateau, dans la chambre de
madame Gimel.
—Merci, ma petite... Ne te presse pas. Tu as tout le temps. Là, pose
le plateau sur le guéridon. Va chercher le croissant... Bien...
Pourquoi as-tu mis ta robe noire, et ta cravate noire? Tu as l'air...
—En deuil. C'est ce que je veux.
—Oui, ma pauvre mignonne. Mais que diront-elles, à la banque, les
dactys?
—Je n'y vais pas.
—Comment! tu n'y vas pas?
—Non, nous allons toutes les deux faire une course pressée, et
j'envoie un mot à monsieur Amédée pour dire que je suis souffrante.
—S'ils apprennent que ça n'est pas vrai?...
—C'est plus vrai que si le médecin l'avait dit...
—En effet... Et où veux-tu?...
—A l'Assistance publique. Je vais redemander maman... Je veux
savoir son nom, qui elle est, la retrouver si elle n'est pas morte...
—Tu ne sauras rien, ma petite, puisque, moi, je n'ai rien su...
—Parce que vous êtes timide! Parce que vous êtes de Romorantin,
tandis que, moi, je suis Parisienne... Au fait, je ne suis plus sûre de
rien... Mais je vous assure qu'ils me le diront!
Elle avait l'air d'une toute jeune veuve qui déraisonne.
—Oui, ma chérie, ils le diront peut-être. Tu as raison. Bois ton lait. Je
vais mettre mon chapeau. Assieds-toi... Là, ne te dépêche pas...
Nous avons le temps... Je suis toujours ta maman, mon Evelyne.
Elle mit plus de temps que d'ordinaire à piquer son chapeau, la pâle
madame Gimel. Comme d'autres, quand elles ont un peu vieilli, elle
cherchait des mots pour consoler le chagrin d'amour qui ne voulait
pas être consolé, et qui s'avivait au bruit inutile. Evelyne, assise à
contrejour, près du guéridon, regardait dans le vide, au-dessus des
toits d'en face, qu'on apercevait par la fenêtre ouverte, et elle
oubliait de toucher au bol de lait qui fumait en spirale inquiète.
En arrière, madame Gimel, tout armée pour la promenade, ayant
même pris son ombrelle «habillée», qui avait une cerise au bout du
manche, se tint droite pendant un peu de temps. Elle plaignait
Evelyne; elle l'enviait, peut-être; elle travaillait sur la donnée de ce
roman vivant qu'elle avait sous les yeux, comme elle faisait, dans les
heures de solitude, quand elle avait achevé le feuilleton du Petit
Journal. Mais, cette fois, elle se heurtait, de tous côtés, à l'inconnu
et à l'impossible.
—Je suis prête, ma petite. Je t'attends.
Evelyne avala une gorgée de lait, et sortit la première.
Tant que les deux femmes marchèrent dans la rue, elles eurent les
yeux distraits, et même un peu le cœur. Il était encore de bonne
heure. Elles suivaient la rue de Rivoli, qu'elles avaient gagnée en
remontant la rue Saint-Honoré. Madame Gimel avait fait exprès de
passer sous les galeries des magasins du Louvre, afin de pouvoir
dire des mots qui ont une puissance sur l'esprit des femmes,—elle le
savait bien,—et où il y a de l'amour de soi, de l'autre, ou de l'enfant:
—Vois donc la jolie berthe en guipure; et cette robe de bains de mer,
«robe de plage», crois-tu! Et l'adorable layette...
Malgré son chagrin, Evelyne regardait. Elle n'allait pas jusqu'à
sourire, mais une petite caresse lui venait des choses qui lui
plaisaient, à l'étalage. Le cœur n'était pas tout fermé à la vie, mais
presque. Elle avait sa jupe noire, une ceinture de cuir souple, un
corsage blanc, et le canotier de tous les jours, d'où se levait une aile
de pigeon, une seule.
Lorsque madame Gimel tourna à droite, un peu avant l'Hôtel de
Ville, il y avait bien deux minutes qu'elle n'avait parlé. D'anciens
souvenirs et l'appréhension de ces bureaux, derrière lesquels est
assis l'État, l'assombrissaient. Evelyne, l'impressionnable Evelyne,
hautaine parce qu'elle avait honte, hostile d'avance à tout ce qu'elle
allait voir et entendre, hésitait, la tête levée, entre les deux façades
de monuments publics qui occupent presque toute la longueur de
l'avenue Victoria.
—C'est au 3, l'Assistance publique, dit madame Gimel. Je me
souviens, il faut entrer dans la cour... Ah! mon Dieu, voilà vingt-deux
ans, j'étais si contente quand je suis sortie de là, avec toi dans les
bras, et mon brave homme de mari qui ronchonnait en arrière: «Tu
la tiens pas bien. Passe-la-moi donc!» Ça me rappelle tant de
choses! Il y avait un employé, qu'est-ce que je dis, plusieurs chefs
de bureau et le directeur qui nous ont fait signer les papiers, ce jour-
là. J'en reconnaîtrais peut-être quelques-uns...
La mémoire du cœur n'est pas celle des yeux. Madame Gimel,
entrée dans l'immeuble numéro 3, avait pris son face-à-main et
considérait, sans pouvoir prendre parti, les perrons et les portes
distribués autour de la cour, quand Evelyne se dirigea, à droite, vers
la porte vitrée sur laquelle étaient inscrits ces mots: «Enfants
assistés.—Nouvelles et renseignements.» Les deux femmes
entrèrent, tournèrent à gauche, et passèrent devant un bureau où
causaient et péroraient, rendant compte de leurs recherches, les
employés enquêteurs de la banlieue de Paris. Elles arrivèrent alors
devant un guichet pareil à celui d'une banque, et derrière lequel se
tenait un homme gras, sérieux, rasé, qui avait les lèvres expressives
et qui le savait. Il ne broncha pas, en voyant madame Gimel et
Evelyne. Celle-ci ne s'approcha pas. Madame Gimel glissa le pied,
comme elle faisait chez Revillon en s'avançant au-devant d'une
cliente, et dit:
—Monsieur le chef de bureau?
Il répondit aussitôt:
—Vous avez le numéro de l'enfant?
—Non, monsieur, je ne l'ai pas sur moi, mais je me le rappelle très
bien: 149 007.
L'employé se tourna vers une table inclinée sur laquelle reposait un
registre. Madame Gimel voyait bien qu'il faisait erreur, mais elle
n'osait le dire, à cause de la crainte révérencielle que lui inspirait
tout fonctionnaire. L'employé écrasa sous son pouce et souleva d'un
mouvement preste, en virgule, cinq ou six feuillets, puis les laissa
retomber.
—Mais, dit-il, nous en sommes à 170 000. Il est vieux, votre numéro,
madame.
Une voix ferme, jeune, dit:
—C'est moi, monsieur, le 149 007!
Le gros scribe fut frappé de l'accent de cette voix, et, quand il eut
regardé Evelyne, qui s'était avancée à la droite de madame Gimel,
son étonnement devint de l'admiration. Les lèvres expressives eurent
une moue.
—Pardonnez-moi, mademoiselle, je ne pouvais pas me douter...
—Peu importe, interrompit la jeune fille. J'ai été adoptée, il y a vingt-
deux ans, par madame.
—Oh! Evelyne!
—Évidemment. Comment voulez-vous que je dise?... Je viens,
monsieur, pour avoir des renseignements sur mon origine.
Elle était nerveuse et décidée à être impertinente.
Le chef de bureau ne s'y méprit pas. Il fit l'économie d'un reste de
sourire, qui attendait son tour, et répondit:
—Bien, mademoiselle; alors, adressez-vous au bureau des
adoptions, escalier A, tout en haut.
Il saluait, avec une politesse administrative, et, cependant, avec une
nuance de réserve, à cause de la brusquerie de cette jeune fille.
Madame Gimel seule répondit. L'aile de pigeon avait déjà filé devant,
et passait en bordure des enquêteurs, qui clignaient l'œil sur le
sillage d'Evelyne.
Celle-ci, retraversant la cour, trouva l'escalier A, monta plusieurs
étages, et suivit un couloir sur lequel ouvraient des portes
numérotées. Elle frappa à l'une des dernières, et entra dans une
cellule chaude dont elle venait de réveiller le titulaire.
—Je ne le reconnais pas non plus, souffla madame Gimel, en
passant près d'Evelyne.
L'homme avait avancé deux chaises, les deux seules qui meublassent
la pièce. Il était de l'espèce intelligente et ardente qui se rue aux
emplois publics, invente, médite des réformes, fait des rapports,
espère de l'avancement et, n'en recevant que fort peu, enrage
quelquefois et, plus souvent, s'endort. Son large front, qui se
prolongeait en calvitie aux tempes, son menton pointu et sa
barbiche en virgule, lui faisaient une tête triangulaire. Il jeta un coup
d'œil sur les petits rideaux d'étoffe rouge qui encadraient la fenêtre,
sur la pendule Empire,—deux colonnes noires et un cadran d'or,—sur
les dossiers alignés devant lui, afin de s'assurer que tout était en
ordre, mit sur son nez, triangulaire aussi, un lorgnon d'écaille, et
demanda:
—Qu'y a-t-il, madame, pour votre service?
Evelyne ne laissa pas à madame Gimel le temps de répondre.
—Il paraît, monsieur, dit-elle, que je suis le numéro 149 007. J'ai
appris, hier soir, que je n'étais pas la fille de madame Gimel; que
j'étais pupille de l'Assistance publique. Je viens vous demander de
me nommer ma mère, de me permettre de la retrouver si elle vit...
Je suis extrêmement malheureuse... Surtout, je vous en prie, pas de
consolations et pas de banalités.
M. Heidemetz eut un regard approbateur, et répondit:
—Cela ne me paraît pas possible. Vous devez avoir, ou madame?...
—Gimel, monsieur; mon mari était adjudant dans la garde
républicaine.
—Madame Gimel doit avoir un certificat d'origine, établi par
l'administration.
—Oui, je l'ai vu, une pièce où il n'y a rien... Vous ne pouvez pas
admettre qu'on abandonne un enfant sans que la mère se nomme?
—Mais je vous demande pardon, mademoiselle.
—Sans qu'elle fasse connaître quel motif l'a conduite?
—Cela se peut, au contraire.
—D'où l'on sort, de quelle misère ou de quel vice? Car je ne peux
hésiter qu'entre les deux.
—Voyons, ma petite Evelyne... Calme-toi.
—Laissez-moi; je m'adresse à monsieur, qui voit que je veux savoir
tout ce qu'il sait lui-même... Et je trouve que ma prétention n'est pas
excessive...
La main de M. Heidemetz ôta le lorgnon, et eut l'air de le tendre.
—Elle l'est, mademoiselle. Vous n'avez droit qu'aux renseignements
contenus dans le certificat d'origine de l'administration. Cependant,
pour vous être agréable, je vais faire une chose exceptionnelle, tout
à fait exceptionnelle, dont j'ai vainement demandé qu'on fît une
obligation pour l'Assistance.
Il sonna un garçon de bureau.
—Allez demander, aux archives, ce dossier.
Il écrivit deux lignes sur un carré de papier, qu'il remit à l'employé.
Et, aussitôt, il s'informa, auprès de madame Gimel, des
circonstances de ce qu'il appelait: «Le placement sous réserve de
tutelle.» Madame Gimel rappelait avec complaisance les longues
discussions qu'elle avait eues avec M. Gimel avant de le décider à
adopter; l'indécision du mari, qui ne savait s'il adopterait un garçon
ou une fille; l'insistance qu'elle avait mise à demander «une petite»;
les photographies de «candidates» comparées; puis, la comparution
des deux époux, assistés d'un notaire, devant M. le directeur de
l'Assistance publique lui-même, «dans ce beau cabinet où il y a des
portraits de bienfaisants personnages de tous les temps».
Evelyne ne parlait pas, malgré les prévenances du jeune chef de
bureau, qui lui fournissait des explications qu'elle ne demandait pas.
Quand le garçon de bureau rentra, elle se leva, et s'approcha
vivement du meuble sur lequel il déposait un petit dossier jauni.
—Ah! laissez-moi voir!
—Voyez!
Evelyne était penchée, les mains appuyées sur la table. Elle suivait le
texte que M. Heidemetz lisait à demi-voix, rapidement. C'était une
feuille double, de grand format, couleur crème, qui portait, sur
chaque feuillet, au recto et au verso, un questionnaire imprimé, et,
en face, des cases, hélas! presque toutes vides:
«Bulletin de renseignements concernant un enfant présenté à
l'hospice des Enfants Assistés... Sexe de l'enfant: féminin. Nom et
prénom: Evelyne.»
—Alors, je n'ai pas de nom, monsieur?
—Evelyne, en tout, mademoiselle. Vous voyez. «Lieu et date de
naissance, département: Paris, 1er octobre 1886.»
—C'est au moins cela, dit Evelyne: je suis de Paris.
«Est-il légitime ou naturel? Naturel.—Reconnu par le père? Non.—Par
la mère? Non.—Lieu de l'accouchement? Néant.—Vœu des parents
quant au culte? Néant...»
—Ah! par exemple, elle a été baptisée, monsieur! interrompit
madame Gimel. J'ai eu soin de la faire baptiser, sous condition,
comme on dit. Et même je puis dire qu'elle a beaucoup de religion
pour une... Enfin, je sais ce que je veux dire: je l'ai élevée comme
mon enfant.
«Date du dépôt.»—Vous aviez douze jours, mademoiselle.
—«Explication détaillée des motifs qui ont amené l'abandon de
l'enfant...»
Ici, M. Heidemetz eut une attention délicate. Il avait le sentiment
que l'être jeune qui était là, tout près de lui, souffrait, et il ne lut pas
tout haut le motif écrit dans la case aux réponses, le motif en un
seul mot: misère. Evelyne lui en sut gré. Il tourna la page. La mère
n'avait voulu donner aucun renseignement sur elle-même qui pût la
faire connaître, et tout ce qu'elle avait consenti à dire, c'est qu'elle
n'avait pas eu d'autre enfant que celui qu'elle abandonnait.
La troisième page devait être la plus rude pour Evelyne, et le silence
fut complet, pendant qu'Evelyne lisait ces lignes cruelles:
«—A-t-on dit à la mère que l'admission d'un enfant à l'hospice des
Enfants Assistés ne constituait pas un placement temporaire, mais
bien un abandon?
»—Oui.
»—Et que les conséquences étaient les suivantes: ignorance absolue
des lieux où l'enfant serait mis en nourrice ou placé?
»—Oui.
»—Absence de toute communication, même indirecte, avec lui?
»—Oui.
La jeune fille détourna un instant la tête du côté de madame Gimel.
—Ma mère devait être bien malheureuse! dit-elle. Accepter cela!
Madame Gimel avait les yeux rouges, et ne pouvait répondre.
Evelyne lut cette dernière condition:
«Nouvelles de l'enfant données tous les trois mois seulement, et ne
répondant qu'à la question de l'existence ou du décès.»
Et il y avait encore «oui» dans la colonne des réponses.
M. Heidemetz replia la feuille, et le bruit de cassure du papier courut
d'un mur à l'autre, et régna seul, pendant quelques secondes, dans
cette mansarde, au-dessus du grand Paris, où trois personnes
revivaient une histoire vieille de vingt-deux ans. Evelyne demanda,
très bas:
—C'est tout ce que je saurai d'elle?
—C'est tout ce que nous savons, mademoiselle.
—Elle n'est pas venue demander des nouvelles de son enfant, après?
—J'ignore; il faudrait faire des recherches; pour vous obliger, je
puis...
—Non, je vous remercie...
Elle se recula; le chef de bureau feuilletait, un peu par conscience,
un peu pour cacher son émotion, le dossier 149 007.
—Ah! montrez ceci, monsieur, je crois me souvenir...
Madame Gimel, entre un rapport et le livret à couverture noire
d'Evelyne, avait aperçu une note de service, envoyée par l'agent de
Bourbon-l'Archambault; elle la saisit et la lut, pour consoler Evelyne,
pour se consoler elle-même:
—Tiens, petite, comme tu étais gentille déjà! Voilà ce qui a décidé
monsieur Gimel et moi. Oh! nous avons médité chaque mot: «Deux
élèves me paraissent avoir des chances différentes pour être
proposées en vue d'adoption: numéro 149 007. Belle enfant, blonde,
forte pour son âge.»
Elle rayonnait.
Evelyne, en arrière, dit:
—Venez, voulez-vous? Au revoir, monsieur!
—Mademoiselle!
Elle eut le sentiment qu'il demeurait dans l'ouverture de la porte, sur
le seuil, et qu'il suivait des yeux cette abandonnée qui souffrait, à
travers les années, de la faute d'une femme inconnue. Pauvre
Evelyne, la rieuse! Personne, du moins, ne l'avait vue pleurer; elle ne
pleurerait pas; elle allait très vite pour éviter les questions de
l'«adoptive», qui trottait en arrière. Dans l'escalier, deux infirmières,
un employé de l'Assistance et trois péronnelles qui montaient en
baguenaudant, s'écartèrent de la rampe, et se turent un moment
pour laisser passer cette douleur. Une des femmes dit même:
—Pourquoi est-elle en demi-deuil? Ça doit être tout récent. Elle a le
visage tout blessé par la peine.
Madame Gimel avait aussi sa large part de chagrin; elle souffrait
surtout de cette diminution de tendresse et de respect qu'elle
constatait, depuis la veille, chez la jeune fille.
—On essaie de faire la mère, songeait-elle; on se fait un cœur pareil
à celui des mères, mais le dévouement ne compte guère pour les
filles qu'on a seulement aimées: il faut les avoir portées...
Dans la rue, la conversation se borna à des mots échangés à la
hâte:
—Prends garde à l'auto.
—Je vois.
—Il va pleuvoir.
—Probable.
—Pluie d'orage.
—Oui.
Evelyne et madame Gimel, ayant descendu l'avenue Victoria, prirent,
pour rentrer chez elles, et sans y trop songer d'ailleurs, le quai de la
Mégisserie et le quai du Louvre. Là, comme Evelyne obliquait à
droite:
—Tu désires reprendre cette rue de Rivoli? C'est plus frais, ici.
—Non, je vais à Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois.
Madame Gimel fut stupéfaite. Elle le fut plus encore quand elle vit
Evelyne demander à un employé de l'église si le vicaire de service
était là, quand elle la suivit dans la sacristie et qu'elle entendit cette
conversation:
—Monsieur l'abbé, peut-on faire dire une messe pour une femme
qu'on n'a pas connue, dont on ne sait pas le nom, rien, rien?
—Sans doute, mademoiselle, il suffit qu'elle ait existé et que votre
pensée lui attribue le mérite.
—Alors, je vous prie de dire une messe pour ma mère inconnue.
—Bien, mademoiselle. Vous désirez un jour déterminé?
—Non.
Elle remit trois francs à l'abbé, qui dit:
—Mais c'est moins que cela, mademoiselle.
Evelyne était déjà sortie de la sacristie. A la porte, elle s'arrêta sur
les marches, devant la grille, et, quand elle se sentit rejointe par
l'ombre maternelle:
—Maman,—madame Gimel trouva doux le retour de ce mot-là,—je
vous demande pardon si je vous ai blessée, peinée, étonnée. Je n'ai
pas bien eu mon cœur ni ma tête à moi, depuis hier... Je vais me
retrouver... Je vous demande seulement de ne pas me plaindre. Ça
diminuerait mon courage... Et de ne pas même me demander à quoi
je penserai...
Madame Gimel l'embrassa, là, debout sur les marches, et ce fut sa
réponse, et sa manière de prêter serment.

IV
SUR LA PELOUSE DE BAGATELLE

Sur la pelouse de Bagatelle, à six heures du matin, le 12 août, trois

compagnies d'infanterie manœuvraient. Elles étaient fort réduites, et
l'un des trois témoins qui suivaient les évolutions des troupes,—je ne
parle que des témoins manifestes,—venait de compter, en tout, cent
cinquante-trois hommes, et il inscrivait ce chiffre sur un calepin, au
milieu de quelques notes en abrégé. C'était le colonel Ridault. Les
deux autres observateurs, qui ne prenaient pas de notes, étaient
deux apaches, couchés à l'entrée de la pelouse, les jarrets ployés,
l'espadrille faisant drapeau au bout des pieds balancés.
Le colonel, venu sans être attendu, ni invité, et qui avait laissé son
cheval sur la route, s'était placé en bordure de l'avenue qui monte
vers le château. Debout et de face, il avait encore une belle tournure
militaire; de profil, on voyait trop l'accent circonflexe. Il grossissait,
et le déplorait.
Mais il ne faisait rien pour ne pas grossir, et continuait de dîner
beaucoup en ville. On le recherchait. M. Ridault supportait le régime,
et n'en souffrait que dans ce qu'il appelait «sa ligne». Il savait que
ses opinions, surtout celles qu'on lui prêtait, l'arrêtaient dans sa
carrière. Quelles opinions avait, au juste, le colonel Ridault? Il eut
été lui-même embarrassé de le dire. Doué d'un esprit de
contradiction qu'il n'avait pas exercé sans perdre quelque chose de
ses idées les mieux raisonnées et les plus chères, on aurait pu dire
qu'il n'avait qu'une conviction, qu'une passion, qu'une idée dont il
n'eût jamais fait lui-même la critique: l'armée. Cela lui nuisait,
auprès des civils qui disposent des grades. Il était trop soldat dans
un temps où l'on ne se bat pas. Ce vieux garçon, qui ne manifestait
qu'une sympathie discrète pour les épreuves des gens du monde,
devenait paternel, ridiculement bon quelquefois, quand il s'agissait
d'un de ses officiers ou de ses soldats. Sa solde passait en prêts,
c'est-à-dire en dons. La tête ronde, la moustache droite, grise et
blonde, l'œil bleu, le menton toujours un peu haut, le colonel Ridault
ne riait jamais en tenue. Il ne se permettait d'avoir de l'esprit que le
soir, jugeant que c'était là, comme la bonne chère, le repos d'un
homme fort. On avait dit de lui, longtemps: «C'est un futur grand
chef.» On disait, à présent: «Dix-huit de ses jeunes ont passé devant
lui. Dans quinze mois, il sera retraité comme colonel. C'est fini.«M.
Ridault avait plus de mal que l'opinion publique à en prendre son
parti. Cependant, il commençait à exposer, entre amis, ses projets
pour cette époque prochaine. N'ayant d'autres parents que des
cousins éloignés, avec lesquels il s'était brouillé pour des questions
de chasse, le colonel se retirerait dans un bastidon, au soleil, près de
Villefranche, et, là, il ferait des économies relatives, pour pouvoir
passer trois beaux mois à Paris, au printemps. «En attendant, disait-
il, je continuerai le devoir de ma vie, qui est de faire de la
discipline.»
Le colonel inspectait attentivement les trois compagnies, depuis dix
minutes, lorsque, profitant d'un temps de repos, il cria:
—Lieutenant Morand?
Le lieutenant se détacha d'un groupe d'officiers et de sous-officiers,
et vint, au pas de course, la main gauche tenant le sabre. Ce fut vite
fait. Il sauta de la pelouse sur le sable de l'allée, et prit la position de
l'inférieur devant le chef.
—Vous faites fonction de commandant de compagnie?
—Oui, mon colonel, je suis le plus ancien.
—Combien d'hommes?
—Dans ma compagnie, quarante-huit; dans les trois, cent cinquante
et un.
—C'est une erreur; j'en ai compté cent cinquante-trois; vous avez
des malades?
—Cinq en tout, mon colonel; mais le service de place, les corvées,
les bureaux...
—La carotte aussi, n'est-ce pas? Vous m'enverrez, dès que vous
serez de retour, la situation d'effectif.
Le lieutenant fit un signe d'assentiment. Le colonel lui tendit alors la
main.
—Monsieur Morand, vous n'avez pas fait de pertes au jeu?
La physionomie grave du lieutenant se détendit une seconde.
—Non, mon colonel.
—Pas de difficultés avec vos chefs?
—Aucune.
—Rien dans le métier qui vous chagrine?
—Rien.
—Vous avez de la chance!... Tout de même, vous avez vos ennuis,
cela se voit, tout le monde le voit; votre capitaine m'a raconté que
vous ne disiez plus un mot en dehors du service... Je sais que ça ne
me regarde plus, les chagrins civils... Je n'ai pas de remède contre
eux, à moins que l'amitié d'un vieil homme puisse servir à quelque
chose... Et c'est rare.
Morand, qui avait un grand pouvoir sur lui-même, ne laissa d'abord
rien deviner de ce qu'il pensait. Puis, les yeux, tant surveillés,
s'adoucirent, quelque chose de glacé, un revêtement de fermeté et
de réserve tomba.
—J'ai, en effet, un conseil à vous demander, mon colonel.
—Venez, mon cher.
Il fit signe aux officiers, qui observaient, à cent pas, sur la pelouse,
de continuer l'exercice, et il se mit à marcher, sur le sable de l'allée
encore déserte, à droite du lieutenant, qui parlait en regardant les
lointains. Ils firent deux cents pas du nord au sud, revinrent,
repartirent. Le sous-lieutenant Léguillé, l'adjudant Prat, le lieutenant
Roy, se disaient, de loin: «Il en a une chance, ce Morand! Et, le pire,
c'est qu'il ne nous la racontera pas. On ne saura jamais si le colon lui
a confié le secret de la mobilisation, ou demandé des nouvelles de
son grand-père.»
M. Ridault ne racontait rien, ne demandait rien: il écoutait. Ni l'un ni
l'autre ne faisait de gestes. Un observateur attentif aurait noté
certaine parenté de tenue et d'allure, entre ce jeune homme svelte
et cet homme alourdi, mais entraîné encore, et surtout cet instinct
qui faisait lever la tête tantôt à l'un, tantôt à l'autre, et qui les portait
à chercher à l'horizon les points où des yeux tristes peuvent errer,
sans danger de larmes ou de trahison. C'est à peine si M. Ridault
relançait quelquefois Morand, d'un mot ayant un sens déterminé. «Et
après? Que dit votre mère?» Le plus souvent, il n'avait qu'un
monosyllabe encourageant: «Bien.»
Morand se tut et attendit le jugement, comme s'il avait été devant le
Conseil de guerre. Rien ne vint. Les mots restaient dans la gorge du
colonel et l'étranglaient.
—Je vous répète ma question, mon colonel: n'est-ce pas votre avis
qu'il n'y avait rien à faire, que je ne réussirais pas à faire admettre
une enfant trouvée dans le monde du régiment?
—Non, rien à faire que ce que vous avez fait. Je vous plains.
Donnez-moi la main. Et reprenez des fiançailles avec l'armée. Au
revoir!

V
LE 12 AOUT

Evelyne tenait parole: elle ne pleurait pas; elle ne parlait jamais de

l'épreuve si rude qui avait atteint sa jeunesse; elle ne se plaignait
pas même de la vie en termes vagues, afin de ne point entrer, par
cette large route, dans les chemins où chacun retourne si volontiers
se blesser aux mêmes pierres et aux mêmes ronces. Quelque chose
était mort, en elle: sa gaieté; malgré sa volonté si ferme, Evelyne ne
riait plus.
Ses deux camarades de la banque Maclarey l'avaient remarqué dès
le premier jour, mais elles ne s'étaient permis des allusions
blessantes que le deuxième, en voyant que cela durait. Mademoiselle
Raymonde avait fini par deviner qu'Evelyne souffrait d'une peine
sans remède, comme elle souffrait, elle-même, de l'usure de la vie.
Dans la première semaine d'août, à la fin d'une journée étouffante,
elle avait ri avec mademoiselle Marthe des «amours orageuses»
d'Evelyne Gimel. Celle-ci pianotait à la machine, et n'écoutait pas.
Tout à coup, mademoiselle Raymonde, qui déchiffrait une page de
sténographie, s'arrêta, froissa le papier, le jeta contre la muraille, et,
s'épongeant le front, les yeux, le cou, resta hébétée et haletante sur
sa chaise, comme une bête forcée. Elle fut une heure sans faire
d'autre geste que celui de la main droite, qui agitait le mouchoir
mouillé, comme un éventail, devant la face blême et tirée. Au
moment où six heures sonnaient, elle dit, s'adressant à Evelyne:
—Je suis finie; je n'ai plus qu'à faire la noce, je n'ai plus de courage.
Et vous?
—Oh! moi, quand je n'ai plus de courage, je fais comme si j'en avais.
La stupide Marthe avait ri. Mais Raymonde, comprenant que, seule,
une douleur profonde pouvait dire ces mots-là, était sortie avec
Evelyne.
—Ma pauvre amie, avait-elle dit, je connais les hommes, c'est tous
des canailles. Le vôtre vous a lâchée? Contez-moi ça; vous me ferez
du bien.
Evelyne n'avait rien raconté; mais, depuis ce jour-là, elle était
rentrée en grâce auprès de la «première dactylographe» de la
banque Maclarey.
A la maison, Evelyne et madame Gimel se retrouvaient, chaque soir,
avec la même joie apparente et les mêmes mots que par le passé.
La jeune fille avait repris l'habitude de dire: «Maman», et l'autre
n'avait pas un instant cessé de dire: «Mon enfant, ma fille.» Elles
mentaient toutes deux, elles ne pouvaient prononcer de tels mots
sans songer à la vérité, qui était autre et cruelle. Deux solitudes
voisines, voilà ce qu'était devenue, tout à coup, la vie familiale. Et
nulle volonté ne prévalait contre le souvenir à chaque seconde
rappelé. Evelyne se représentait les longs soins, la générosité, la
tendresse de madame Gimel. «Je l'aime toujours autant», pensait-
elle. Madame Gimel se demandait: «Ce qu'Evelyne a appris, moi, je
l'ai toujours su. Nous continuerons d'être l'une pour l'autre ce que
nous avons été.» Voisines, oui, mais déliées: l'air du dehors courait
entre elles. La conversation était devenue moins libre. On ne se
disait plus tout. Les deux peines, même, étaient différentes. Madame
Gimel, qui avait plus de tendresse que d'invention, crut que le
théâtre distrairait Evelyne. En cette saison de canicule, on ne pouvait
aller qu'au Théâtre-Français, l'Opéra-Comique étant fermé. Mais
Britannicus était bien sérieux, après une journée de dactylographie.
Et puis, ce public d'étrangers et de minces provinciaux intéresserait-il
Evelyne?
—Ce que je regrette Mignon, disait madame Gimel, et Lakmé!
Elle se rabattit sur les cinématographes et sur les petits théâtres
encore ouverts. On organisa quelques parties de troisième galerie,
ou de troisième loge de côté. Il fallut défoncer une tirelire en forme
de pomme, où dormaient des économies destinées à un voyage à
Dieppe. Evelyne s'amusa quelquefois, et, d'autres fois, parut si
parfaitement étrangère à la pièce qu'elle était censée écouter, que
madame Gimel songea:
—Pauvre petite, elle a sa pièce à elle, dans le cœur, et qui n'est pas
gaie.
Une promenade chez une tante qui demeurait à Charenton, un dîner
chez un ami de feu M. Gimel, du côté de Bercy, et des «surprises»
au dessert, quand on dînait rue Saint-Honoré, et des fleurs, des
roses, des œillets, une botte de réséda: rien ne ramenait plus le
sourire ancien, celui qui disait: «La vie est bonne, maman!
Regardez-moi vivre!»
Madame Gimel ne pensait plus à autre chose: «Un si beau parti! un
bel homme! Et officier! Le mien n'était qu'adjudant. Il est vrai que
c'était dans la garde! Tout cela manque, parce que le père et la mère
manquent, je veux dire leurs noms. Je comprends le refus d'Evelyne.
Car c'est elle qui s'est retirée, elle qui n'a pas voulu! Elle est fière,
mais ça la tue.»
Elle était tellement pénétrée de cette idée, et tellement malheureuse
de n'avoir personne à qui se confier, qu'elle alla, sans rien dire à
Evelyne, causer avec madame Mauléon. L'ancienne première
vendeuse, toujours «distinguée», et madame Mauléon, simplement
plaisante et accorte, se convinrent rapidement et bavardèrent
longtemps. Quand elle se retira, madame Gimel dit, d'un air assez
pincé:
—Ma chère madame Mauléon, faites-le si vous l'osez; moi, je
n'oserai jamais.
Le lendemain, cependant, elle retournait à la crèmerie de la rue
Boissy-d'Anglas. C'était au milieu de l'après-midi, pendant les heures
qui appartenaient aux mouches, au bruit de la rue et au sommeil
léger de la patronne. Madame Gimel se mit à gauche du bureau
blanc de la crémière,—où, si souvent, Evelyne s'était appuyée; elle
tira de son réticule un papier qu'elle déplia, et se mit à lire, avec un
peu de recherche et beaucoup d'émotion, articulant mieux qu'à la
Comédie, baissant la voix et soupirant sans l'avoir voulu, ponctuant
les phrases, quelquefois, d'un geste de sa main gantée de filoselle.
Madame Mauléon, grave, le menton sur ses poings, les yeux vagues
et prêts à se mouiller, écoutait. A mesure que sa nouvelle amie lisait,
la crémière s'exaltait; un sourire de contentement, de dégustation,
d'approbation, écarta ses joues et découvrit les dents, qu'elle avait
belles.
Il se passa, ensuite, quinze grands jours, pendant lesquels madame
Gimel fut étrangement agitée. Elle avait des distractions si longues
en regardant «sa fille» que celle-ci lui demandait:
—Qu'avez-vous? Où êtes-vous? Je suis sûre que vous n'avez pas
entendu un mot de ce que je vous ai dit?
C'était vrai. Elle dormait à peine, maigrissait, pâlissait, tellement
qu'Evelyne, un dimanche, viola elle-même la consigne qu'elle avait
imposée. Madame Gimel revenait d'une promenade assez courte,
qu'elles avaient coutume de faire toutes deux, entre quatre et cinq,
lorsque le temps était beau: Champs-Élysées, tour de l'Arc de
Triomphe et retour par l'avenue de Friedland. A l'angle de la rue du
Faubourg Saint-Honoré, elle s'arrêta, et, avisant un omnibus qui
descendait:
—Prenons les Filles-du-Calvaire, dit-elle, je n'en puis plus.
Alors, entre les deux femmes, secouées l'une à côté de l'autre sur la
même banquette, tout au fond de la voiture, quelques mots furent
échangés, que les voyageurs n'entendirent pas:
—Voyons, maman, c'est à cause de moi que vous souffrez?
—Oui.
—Vous ne blâmez pourtant pas ce que j'ai fait?
—Non, pauvre mignonne! Tu as agi comme une...
Elle chercha la comparaison, cela fit un petit silence.
—Comme une sainte.
—Vous ne blâmez pas davantage monsieur Morand?
—Non.
—Alors, puisque rien ne peut être changé à ce qui est, il faut que
vous guérissiez, comme moi. Vous devez vous soigner, d'abord. Nous
sommes au temps des bains de mer. Je vous offre, sur mes
économies et sur les vôtres, un billet pour Trouville. Vous y passerez
une ou deux semaines, et vous reviendrez guérie.
—Et toi?
—Moi? Je travaillerai, je n'ai besoin de rien.
A la grande surprise d'Evelyne, madame Gimel reprit, un moment
après, en regardant à travers la vitre cintrée:
—Mon enfant, j'attends un remède que j'ai demandé, et qui ne vient
pas.
Ce soir-là, elles se sentirent toutes les deux si lasses qu'elles se
couchèrent sans avoir dîné. Et elles comprirent que le silence vaut
encore mieux que les moitiés de confidences.
Jusqu'au lundi 12, aucun incident ne rompit la monotonie du travail
à la banque ou de la vie à la maison. Evelyne avait déjeuné, comme
d'habitude, chez madame Mauléon; mais, depuis que le projet de
mariage était abandonné, elle évitait de causer avec la crémière, et
se contentait d'un signe de tête amical, à l'entrée et à la sortie. Il
était exactement trois heures quarante-cinq, quand le bruit d'une
musique militaire s'engouffra dans la salle où travaillaient les
dactylographes, et arrêta net l'autre musique. Mademoiselle
Raymonde se leva la première, esquissa un pas de galop, en
secouant sa jupe, et dit:
—J'y vais! je ne manque jamais d'aller les voir!
Mademoiselle Marthe dit:
—Je n'aime pas leur métier, mais j'y vais tout de même.
Evelyne hésita un moment, et suivit ses camarades. Les trois jeunes
filles coururent jusqu'au fond du couloir, à gauche, et se penchèrent
sur l'appui de la fenêtre. Un régiment passait, remontant le
boulevard Malesherbes, tous les cuivres sonnant. Première
compagnie; deuxième compagnie, les hommes marchaient vite,
troisième compagnie: un officier placé en serre-file, et qui a l'allure
nerveuse d'un alpin, un grand, à mâchoire carrée, la moustache
courte et la joue plate, un jeune, qui regarde, comme l'ordonne la
théorie, à vingt pas en avant, arrivé à la hauteur de la banque
Maclarey, tourne la tête, aperçoit les trois jeunes filles à la fenêtre,
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