SCHOOL OF BASIC AND REMEDIAL STUDIES

AIRFORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

OSOGBO CENTER
A PRESENTATION ON CHEMICAL BOUNDING
PRESENTED BY GROUP
NAMES
1. Mutiu Taiwo Moskur
2. Omoloye Habeeb
3. Hammed Maryam
4. Ogunmola Telibizy
5. Yusuf Fawas
6. Ayoola Awal
7. Adeyemi Adekunle
8. Abdul Lateef Bashit
9. Olabode Marvelous
10. Adisa Ibraheem
11. Opawoye Mary
12. Olamoyegun Samuel
DATE: FEBRUARY 2025
Title: Chemical Bonding: Principles and Applications

Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Chemical Bonding
2. Formation of Bonds in Terms of Potential Energy Diagram and Octet Rule
3. Types of Chemical Bonds
o 3.1 Ionic Bonds

o 3.2 Covalent Bonds

o 3.3 Metallic Bonds

4. Ionic Bonds: Definition and Examples

5. Lewis Structures of Simple Molecules
6. Characteristics of Ionic Compounds
7. Covalent Bonds: Definition and Examples
8. Characteristics of Covalent Compounds
9. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
10. Predicting Molecular Geometry Using VSEPR Theory
11. Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
 11.1 sp Hybridization
 11.2 sp² Hybridization
 11.3 sp³ Hybridization
 11.4 sp³d and sp³d² Hybridization
12. Conclusion
1. Introduction to Chemical Bonding
Chemical bonding is a fundamental concept in chemistry. Atoms combine to form molecules by
forming chemical bonds. There are three primary types of bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic.
These bonds govern the structure, properties, and behavior of substances. Understanding these
bonds helps in predicting the properties of materials, such as their melting points, electrical
conductivity, and reactivity.

2. Formation of Bonds in Terms of Potential Energy Diagram and Octet Rule

Potential Energy Diagram:
The potential energy diagram helps illustrate how atoms interact during bonding. As atoms
approach each other, their potential energy decreases until a minimum point, which corresponds
to the most stable arrangement. If atoms are brought too close, the potential energy increases due
to repulsive forces.
 Diagram Description: Imagine a graph where the x-axis represents the distance between
two atoms and the y-axis represents potential energy. Initially, as atoms approach, the
potential energy decreases until it reaches a minimum point. This represents the bond
formation. After the minimum point, the potential energy increases as the atoms repel
each other at too close a distance.
 Example: The bond formation between sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) to form NaCl is an
example where potential energy decreases as the atoms approach each other.
Octet Rule:
The octet rule states that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a stable electron
configuration, resembling that of a noble gas (8 electrons in the valence shell).
 Diagram: This diagram can show the electron configurations of atoms before and after
bonding (e.g., Na with 1 electron and Cl with 7 electrons).
3. Types of Chemical Bonds
3.1 Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds form when one atom donates an electron to another, resulting in the formation of
oppositely charged ions that attract each other. This typically occurs between metals and
nonmetals.
 Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) – Sodium (Na) loses one electron to become Na⁺, and
chlorine (Cl) gains an electron to become Cl⁻. The Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions are held together by
electrostatic attraction.
 Diagram: This shows the electron transfer from Na to Cl and the formation of Na⁺ and
Cl⁻ ions. Draw the ionic lattice structure of NaCl, which shows the arrangement of Na⁺
and Cl⁻ ions in a repeating pattern.

3.2 Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. This bond typically occurs between
nonmetals.
 Example: In a water (H₂O) molecule, oxygen shares electrons with two hydrogen atoms
to complete their valence shells.
 Diagram: This shows the shared electron pairs between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms
in H₂O. This can be represented using a dot-and-cross diagram (showing shared and non-
shared electrons).
3.3 Metallic Bonds
Metallic bonds occur between metal atoms, where electrons are shared in a "sea of electrons,"
allowing metals to conduct electricity and heat.
 Example: In copper (Cu), the metal atoms share their valence electrons, allowing them to
move freely throughout the structure, creating a conductive material.
 Diagram: This shows the arrangement of metal atoms with their free-moving electrons in
a "metallic lattice."
4. Ionic Bonds: Definition and Examples
An ionic bond is formed when one atom donates an electron to another, leading to the formation
of oppositely charged ions. These ions are attracted to each other due to electrostatic forces.
 Example 1: Sodium chloride (NaCl) – Sodium (Na) donates an electron to chlorine (Cl),
forming Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.
 Example 2: Magnesium oxide (MgO) – Magnesium (Mg) loses two electrons, forming
Mg²⁺, and oxygen (O) gains two electrons to form O²⁻.
 Diagram: This shows that NaCl, show Na losing an electron to become Na⁺ and Cl
gaining an electron to become Cl⁻.

5. Lewis Structures of Simple Molecules

Lewis structures show how atoms in a molecule are bonded and where lone pairs of electrons
reside.
 Example: H₂O (water) – Oxygen shares one pair of electrons with each hydrogen atom.
Oxygen has two lone pairs of electrons.
 Example: CO₂ (carbon dioxide) – Carbon shares two pairs of electrons with each oxygen
atom, forming a double bond with each oxygen.
 Diagram: This shows the Lewis structures for H₂O, CO₂, and NH₃.
6. Characteristics of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds have distinct properties due to the strong electrostatic forces between ions:
1. High Melting and Boiling Points: Ionic bonds are strong, requiring significant energy to
break.

2. Electrical Conductivity: Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or dissolved

in water because ions are free to move.
3. Brittleness: Ionic compounds tend to shatter when stress is applied because of the rigid
arrangement of ions.
 Example: NaCl (sodium chloride) conducts electricity when dissolved in water, but solid
NaCl does not.

7. Covalent Bonds: Definition and Examples

Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between two nonmetal atoms.
 Example 1: H₂O (water) – Oxygen shares electrons with hydrogen atoms.
 Example 2: CO₂ (carbon dioxide) – Carbon shares electrons with two oxygen atoms.
 Diagram: This is the electron sharing between hydrogen and oxygen in H₂O, and
between carbon and oxygen in CO₂.
8. Characteristics of Covalent Compounds
Covalent compounds have the following characteristics:
1. Lower Melting and Boiling Points: Covalent bonds are generally weaker than ionic
bonds.
2. Poor Electrical Conductivity: There are no free ions to conduct electricity.
3. Solubility: Some covalent compounds are soluble in organic solvents, but not in water.
 Example: Water (H₂O) is a covalent compound that has a higher boiling point compared
to other covalent molecules of similar size due to hydrogen bonding.

9. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

VSEPR theory states that electron pairs around a central atom will arrange themselves as far
apart as possible to minimize repulsion.
 Example: The H₂O molecule has a bent shape because of the repulsion between the lone
pairs of electrons on oxygen and the bonding pairs with hydrogen.
 Diagram: Draw the electron cloud around the oxygen atom and show how the bonding
pairs form a bent geometry.
10. Predicting Molecular Geometry Using VSEPR Theory
 Example 1: CH₄ (methane) – The geometry is tetrahedral, as there are four bonding pairs
of electrons around the central carbon atom.
 Example 2: H₂O (water) – The geometry is bent, with two lone pairs of electrons on the
central oxygen atom.
 Diagram: Draw the molecular geometry of CH₄ and H₂O.

11. Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals

Hybridization explains how atomic orbitals mix to form new hybrid orbitals for bonding.
11.1 sp Hybridization
Occurs when one s orbital mixes with one p orbital, forming two sp hybrid orbitals.
 Example: BeCl₂ (beryllium chloride) – The beryllium atom undergoes sp hybridization
to form a linear molecule.
11.2 sp² Hybridization
Occurs when one s orbital mixes with two p orbitals, forming three sp² hybrid orbitals.
 Example: BF₃ (boron trifluoride) – The boron atom undergoes sp² hybridization,
forming a trigonal planar molecule.
11.3 sp³ Hybridization
Occurs when one s orbital mixes with three p orbitals, forming four sp³ hybrid orbitals.
 Example: CH₄ (methane) – The carbon atom undergoes sp³ hybridization, forming a
tetrahedral geometry.
11.4 sp³d and sp³d² Hybridization
Occurs when d orbitals are involved in bonding.
 Example: PCl₅ (phosphorus pentachloride) – The phosphorus atom undergoes sp³d
hybridization, resulting in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry.
 Diagram: For each hybridization type, draw the corresponding molecular geometry and
hybrid orbitals.

12. Conclusion
Chemical bonding is a vital concept in chemistry that governs the behavior of atoms and
molecules. Understanding the various types of bonds, theories like VSEPR, and concepts like
hybridization helps in predicting molecular behavior and properties.

Author: Dr. John D. Lee

Year of Publication: 2020
Textbook Title: Fundamentals of Chemical Bonding
Publisher: Wiley & Sons, 2020