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Research & Education Association
61 Ethel Road West
Piscataway, New Jersey 08854
E-mail: [email protected]

NYSTCE® Students with Disabilities (060) with Online Practice Tests

Copyright © 2016 by Research & Education Association, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Control Number 2015954888

ISBN-13: 978-0-7386-1145-7
ISBN-10: 0-7386-1145-X
ISBN-13: 978-0-7386-8426-0 (e-book)

The competencies presented in this book were created and implemented by the New York State Department of Education. For
further information visit www.ny.nesinc.com.

LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: Publication of this work is for the purpose of test preparation and
related use and subjects as set forth herein. While every effort has been made to achieve a work of high quality, neither
Research & Education Association, Inc., nor the authors and other contributors of this work guarantee the accuracy or
completeness of or assume any liability in connection with the information and opinions contained herein and in REA’s software
and/or online materials. REA and the authors and other contributors shall in no event be liable for any personal injury, property
or other damages of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect, consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly
resulting from the publication, use or reliance upon this work.

Cover image: © iStockphoto.com/Peopleimages

All trademarks cited in this publication are the property of their respective owners.
NYSTCE® STUDENTS WITH DIS
ABILITIES (060)

Access your Online Tools

by following the instructions
found at the back of this book.
 Contents

About Our Authors

About REA
Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: Passing the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities Test

How to Use this Book + Online Prep
Getting Started
An Overview of the Test
What Is Assessed on the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities Test?
Scoring the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities Test
Study Schedule
Test-Taking Tips to Boost Your Score
The Day of the Test

Chapter 2: Competency 0001. Foundations of Special Education

Historical Changes
IDEA
Referrals
Assessment
Confidentiality
Procedural Safeguards
Due Process
Age of Majority
Culturally Responsive Strategies
The Team Approach
Team Characteristics
Self-Reflection
Professional Development
Characteristics of Scientifically Based Research
Preferred Research Designs
National Organizations
Local Organizations
Organizations in New York
Practice Questions

Chapter 3: Competency 0002. Knowledge of Students with Disabilities

Receptive vs. Expressive Language
Components of Language
The Sequence of Language Development
Reading
Reading Development: The Example of Decoding
Reading Difficulties
Infants and Toddlers with Disabilities
Children with Disabilities
Learning and Instructional Strategies
Cultural and Linguistic Differences
Social Support
Medication
Practice Questions

Chapter 4: Competency 0003. Assessment and Individual Program Planning

Types of Assessment
Alternative Assessments
Alternative Assessment and Students with Disabilities
Alternative Assessment and State-Mandated Testing
Disproportionality
Nonbiased Assessments
Assessment Accommodations
Norm-Referenced Assessment
Criterion-Referenced Assessment.
Individual-Referenced Assessment
Performance-Based Assessment
Technical Adequacy of Assessment
Eligibility for Services
The SETT Framework
Progress Monitoring
Continuum of Services
Composition of IEP Team (CSE or CPSE)
IEP Meeting
IEP Content
IFSPs
Behavioral Intervention Plans
Transition Planning
Practice Questions

Chapter 5: Competency 0004. Strategies for Planning and Managing the Learning
Environment and for Providing Behavioral Interventions
Safety
Physical Environment
Time Managment
Student Behavior
Teacher Impact
Building Rapport
Grouping Strategies
Classroom Management and Students with Disabilities
Traditional Approaches to Addressing Misbehavior
Positive Behavior Support
Processes of Learning and Behavioral Change
Environmental Modifications
Classroom Crises
Practice Questions

Chapter 6: Competency 0005. Instructional Planning and Delivery to Promote Students’

Success in the General Curriculum
New York State Learning Standards
Accessing the General Education Classroom
Differentiated Instruction
Specific Strategies for Differentiation
Instructional and Curricular Modifications
Phonological and Phonemic Awareness
Phonics
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
Comprehension Monitoring
Writing
Systematic Instruction in Mathematics
Instructional Goals
Systematic Instruction
Scaffolding
Modeling
Integrating Across the General Curriculum
Metacognition
Assistive Technologies and Visual Impairments
Practice Questions

Chapter 7: Competency 0006. Strategies for Teaching Communication Skills, Social

Skills, and Functional Living Skills
Types of Communication Deficits
Speech Impairments
Language Impairments
Prevention and Intervention
Segregated vs. Integrated Instruction
Content-Based vs. Task-Based Instruction
Alternative and Augmentative Communication Systems
Children with Speech or Language Impairments
Adaptive Life Skills
Social Skills
Self-Determination
Self-Advocacy
Promoting Self-Advocacy
Stages of Career Development
Personal Management and Independent Living
Transitions
Transitions During the School Years
IDEA and Transition
Postsecondary Goals and IEP Goals
Transition and Characteristics of Students and Families
Practice Questions

Chapter 8: Competency 0007. Analysis, Synthesis, and Application

Profile Analysis
Areas of Need
Skill Deficits vs. Performance Deficits
Data Collection by Teachers
Data Collection by the CSE and Others
Functional Behavior Assessment
FBA and Intervention
Behavior Intervention Plan
Success of BIP
Reading Programs
The Case of Jay
The Case of Rhonda
The Case of Pete
The Case of Jill
Academic vs. Functional Skills
Functional Skills
Systematic Instructions and Functional Skills
School-Based Support for Transition
Individual Support for Transition
Agency Support for Transition
Supported Employment
Coordination of Support
Practice Questions

Practice Test 1 (also available online at www.rea.com/studycenter)

Answer Key
Detailed Explanations of Answers

Practice Test 2 (also available online at www.rea.com/studycenter)

Answer Key
Detailed Explanations of Answers

Index
 About Our Authors

Dr. Ken Springer is a faculty member at Southern Methodist University. After receiving his
Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1990, he joined SMU’s Psychology Department. In 2002, he
moved to the Department of Teaching and Learning, where he teaches graduate classes in
methodology and conducts research in the area of academic achievement.

Michelle Chamblin earned her Ed.D. from Teachers College, Columbia University in New
York. She has worked as a special education teacher for The New York City Board of
Education and a resource room teacher and administrator for the Elmont School District also
located in New York. Michelle has worked with children and families both in the United States
and abroad on matters pertaining to education. She currently works as an Associate Professor
at Molloy College located in Rockville Centre, New York. Above all, she is a fearless mother
of triplets!

Ann Monroe-Baillargeon, Ph.D., is the chair and professor of Education at Alfred

University, in Alfred, New York. Dr. Monroe-Baillargeon received her B.A. degree in Special
Education from The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, her M.S. degree in Educational
Leadership from the University of Southern Maine, and her Ph.D. in Teaching and Curriculum
from Syracuse University. She teaches courses in special education, inclusive education,
literacy practices, research methodologies, and advanced trends in education. Her research
focuses on inclusive education and teacher education and literacy. Her work in teacher
education is deeply informed by her sister Lisa, a woman with mental retardation for whom
she is a legal guardian and advocate, and her 15 years of K-12 teaching and leadership in
special education.
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 About REA

Founded in 1959, Research & Education Association (REA) is dedicated to publishing the
finest and most effective educational materials—including study guides and test preps—for
students in middle school, high school, college, graduate school, and beyond.

Today, REA’s wide-ranging catalog is a leading resource for students, teachers, and other
professionals. Visit www.rea.com to see a complete listing of all our titles.
 Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Pam Weston, Publisher, for setting the quality standards for
production integrity and managing the publication to completion; John Cording, Vice President,
Technology, for coordinating the design and development of the REA Study Center; Larry B.
Kling, Vice President, Editorial, for supervision of revisions and overall direction; Diane
Goldschmidt, Managing Editor, for coordinating development of this edition; Kathy
Caratozzolo of Caragraphics for typesetting this edition; Linda Robbian for copyediting; Ellen
Gong for proofreading; and Eve Grinnell, Graphic Artist, for page design.
 CHAPTER 1

Passing the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities Test

Congratulations! By taking the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities test, you are on your way
to a rewarding teaching career. Our book and the online tools that come with it give you what
you need to succeed on this important exam, bringing you one step closer to being certified to
teach in New York.

Our NYSTCE Students with Disabilities Book + Online Prep package includes:

• Complete overview of the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities examination

• Comprehensive review of all competencies
• Two full-length practice tests (in the book and online) with powerful diagnostic tools
to help you pinpoint your strengths and weaknesses and focus your study
• Detailed answer explanations

There are many different ways to prepare for the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities test.
What’s best for you depends on how much time you have to study and how comfortable you are
with the subject matter. Our book and online tests give you the tools you need to customize your
prep so you can make the most of your study time.

How to Use this Book + Online Prep

About the Review
The review chapters in this book are designed to help you sharpen your command of all the
skills you’ll need to pass the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities test. Whether you’re a recent
graduate of a traditional teacher education program or you’ve gone the alternate route, our
review will reinforce what you have learned and show you how to relate the information you
have acquired to the specific competencies on the exam.

Our targeted review covers what you need to know to succeed on the exam. After studying
our review, you will have an excellent grasp of the subject matter and a solid foundation for
passing the exam.

About the REA Study Center

We know your time is valuable and you want an efficient study experience. At the online
REA Study Center (www.rea.com/studycenter), you will get diagnostic feedback right from the
start on what you know and what you don’t know.
 Here’s what you’ll find at the Study Center:

• 2 Full-Length Practice Tests—Simulate the computer-based format of the acutal

NYSTCE test and give you the most complete picture of your strengths and
weaknesses.
• Automatic Scoring—Find out how you did on your test, instantly.
• Diagnostic Score Reports—Get a specific score tied to each competency, so you can
focus on the areas that challenge you the most.
• On-screen Detailed Answer Explanations—See why the correct response option is
right, and learn why the other answer choices are incorrect.
• Timed Testing—Learn to manage your time as you practice, so you’ll feel confident on
test day.

If you are studying and don’t have Internet access, you can take the printed tests in the book.
These are the same practice tests offered at the REA Study Center, but without the added
benefits of timed testing conditions and diagnostic score reports. Remember, the more you
practice, the more comfortable you will be with the format of the NYSTCE Students with
Disabilities test—and that will help you score higher!

Getting Started
Before you work through this book, we strongly recommend that you visit the New York
State Teacher Certification Examinations website at www.nystce.nesinc.com. There you’ll find
the most current information on the exam, including registration information, testing sites,
testing format, test-day advice, registration cost, and other available test preparation materials.

An Overview of the Test

Who Takes the Test, and What Is It Used for?
The NYSTCE Students with Disabilities test is used by the State of New York to assess
knowledge of teacher certification candidates. If you do not achieve a passing score on the test,
don’t panic. You can take the test again, so you can work on improving your score in
preparation for your next administration.

About Computer-Based Testing

The NYSTCE Students with Disabilities test is offered only on computer at flexible times
and locations throughout the year. In computer-based testing, examinees complete the test by
selecting answers on-screen to multiple-choice questions and typing responses to constructed-
response assignments. The NYSTCE Students with Disabilities test contains one constructed-
response item.

When Should the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities Test Be Taken?

 The test is usually taken immediately before the completion of a teacher certification
program at a college or university. This gives candidates enough time to retake the test if
necessary. Our practice tests will familiarize you with the format of the exam so that you do not
have to go through the anxiety of learning about the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities test
during the actual exam.

When and Where Is the Test Given?

The NYSTCE Students with Disabilities test is administered at various times and locations
in New York State and in select cities nationwide. The exam can be taken year-round, Monday
through Saturday by appointment. To find a testing center near you, visit the official website:
www.nystce.nesinc.com.

Is There a Registration Fee?

Yes, you must pay a fee to take the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities test. Payment must
be made at the time of registration using a credit card (VISA or MasterCard only).

Why should I take the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities Test?

The New York State Certification Examinations (NYSTCE) includes among its components
a set of Content Specialty Tests. Teachers in New York must achieve passing scores on the
Content Specialty Test in their subject area. A passing score on this exam is among the
requirements for several different certificates. Whether you are a student, a graduate from an
approved teacher preparation program in New York State, or an educator who has received
certification in another state, you should carefully read the requirements for working with
students with disabilities provided on the New York State Education Department website.

What Is Assessed on the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities Test?

The NYSTCE Students with Disabilities exam tests seven broad competencies along with
the performance indicators aligned to each competency. Listed on the next page are the
competencies used as the basis for the Students with Disabilities examination, as well as the
approximate percentage of the total exam that each competency covers. These competencies
represent the knowledge that teams of teachers, administrators, subject area specialists, and
others have determined to be important for beginning teachers who work with students with
disabilities.

Each chapter in this book reviews the competencies one by one. The review material is
organized within each chapter by the performance indicators that the New York State
Education Department lists for each competency.

The following chart shows the approximate percentages devoted to each subject covered on
the exam:
 Approximate
Percentage of
Questions on the
Competency Exam
0001 Foundations of Special Education 10%
0002 Knowledge of Students with Disabilities 10%
0003 Assessment and Individual Program Planning 20%
0004 Strategies for Planning and Managing the Learning Environment 10%
and for Providing Behavioral Interventions
0005 Instructional Planning and Delivery to Promote Students’ Success 20%
in the General Curriculum
0006 Strategies for Teaching Communication Skills, Social Skills, and 10%
Functional Living Skills
0007 Analysis, Synthesis and Application (1 constructed-response 20%
question)

Scoring the NYSTCE Students with Disabilities Test

How is the Test Scored?
The Students with Disabilities exam consists of 90 selected-response questions and 1
constructed-response question. You will have 195 minutes to complete the exam. It is
suggested that you spend approximately 60 minutes completing the selected-response section
and 135 minutes responding to the constructed-response question. You will not lose points for
incorrect answers to the selected-response questions; therefore, you should not leave any of
these questions unanswered. However, you must respond to the constructed-response question.
If you do not respond, or if your response is otherwise unscorable, you will not pass.

Responses to the 91 items are scaled so that scores on the Students with Disabilities test
range from 100 to 300. A score of 220 is considered passing.

When Will I Receive my Score Report?

Scores for the Students with Disabilities test are available roughly one month after the exam
date. The exact dates of availability are specified on the NYSTCE website.

Study Schedule
Although our study plan is designed to be used in the six weeks before your exam, if
necessary, it can be condensed to three weeks by combining each two-week period into one.
Be sure to set aside enough time—at least two hours each day—to study. The more time you
spend studying, the more prepared and relaxed you will feel on the day of the exam.
 When you take the practice tests, be sure to simulate the conditions of the test as closely as
possible. Turn off all electronic devices and sit down at a table free from distraction. Read
each question carefully, consider all answer choices, and pace yourself.

As you complete each practice test, review the detailed explanations for the questions you
answered incorrectly. Concentrate on one problem area at a time by reading the question and
explanation, and by studying our review until you are confident that you have mastered the
material. Give extra attention to the review chapters that cover your areas of difficulty, as this
will build your skills in those areas.

Week Activity
1–3 Study review chapters 1 through 8. Useful study techniques include
highlighting key terms and information and taking notes as you read the review.
Learn all the competencies by making flashcards to help you study.
Take online Practice Test 1.* Review your score report, and identify topics
4
where you need more review.
Take online Practice Test 2.* Review your score report and restudy the
5 appropriate review section(s) until you are confident you understand the
material.
With your score report in hand, use the time remaining before the actual test to
6 restudy any topics you missed. If time allows retake the Practice Tests and see
how much your score has improved.
*If you do not have Internet access, take the printed versions of the tests in the book. These are the same practice tests offered
online, but without the added benefits of timed testing conditions, automatic scoring and diagnostic score reports.

Test-Taking Tips to Boost Your Score

Although you have probably taken standardized tests before, you may still experience some
anxiety about the Students with Disabilities test. This is perfectly normal, and there are several
ways to help alleviate test-day nervousness. Here are some tips to help you raise your score.

1. Guess Away
One of the most frequently asked questions about the Students with Disabilities test is: Can I
guess? The answer: absolutely! There is no penalty for guessing. That means that if you guess
incorrectly, you will not lose any points, but if you guess correctly, you will gain points. While
it’s fine to guess, it’s important to guess smartly, or use the process of elimination (see Strategy
No. 2). Your score is based strictly on the number of correct answers. So answer all questions
and take your best guess when you don’t know the answer.

2. Process of Elimination
Process of elimination is one of the most important test-taking strategies at your disposal.
Process of elimination means looking at the given answer choices and eliminating the ones you
know are wrong, including answers that are partially wrong. Your odds of getting the right
answer increase when you’re able to disregard a wrong choice.

3. All in
Review all the response options. Just because you believe you’ve found the correct answer
—or, in some cases, answers—look at each choice so you don’t mistakenly jump to any
conclusions. If you are asked to choose the best answer, be sure your first answer is really the
best one.

4. Letter Choice of the Day

What if you are truly stumped and can’t use the process of elimination? It’s time to pick a
fallback answer. On the day of the test, choose the letter choice (i.e., A, B, C, or D) that you
will pick for any question you cannot guess. According to the laws of probability, you have a
higher chance of getting an answer right if you stick to one answer choice when you have to
guess an answer instead of randomly picking one.

5. Use Choices to Confirm Your Answer

The great thing about multiple-choice questions is that the answer has to be staring back at
you. Have an answer in mind and use the choices to confirm it.

6. Watch the Clock

Among the most vital point-saving skills is active time management. Keep an eye on the
timer on your computer screen. Make sure you stay on top of how much time you have left and
never spend too much time on any one question. Remember, most multiple-choice questions are
worth one raw point. Treat each one as if it’s the one that will put you over the top. (You never
know, it just might.) For the constructed-response question, make sure you have enough time to
write a well-organized essay. The last thing you want on test day is to lose easy points because
you ran out of time and focused too much on difficult questions.

7. Read, Read, Read

It’s important to read through all the multiple-choice options. Even if you believe answer
choice A is correct, you can misread a question or response option if you’re rushing to get
through the test. Slow down, calm down, read all the choices. Verify that your choice is the
best one, and click on it.

8. Isolate Limiters
Pay attention to any limiters in a multiple-choice question stem. These are words such as
initial, best, most (as in most appropriate or most likely), not, least, except, required, or
necessary. Especially watch for negative words, such as “Choose the answer that is not true.”
When you select your answer, double-check yourself by asking how the response fits the
limitations established by the stem. Think of the stem as a puzzle piece that perfectly fits only
the response option(s) that contain the correct answer. Let it guide you.

9. It’s Not a Race

Ignore other test-takers. Don’t compare yourself to anyone else in the room. Focus on the
items in front of you and the time you have left. If someone finishes the test 30 minutes early, it
does not necessarily mean that person answered more questions correctly than you did. Stay
calm and focus on your test. It’s the only one that matters.

10. Confirm Your Click

In the digital age, many of us are used to rapid-clicking, be it in the course of emailing or
gaming. Look at the screen to be sure to see that your mouse-click is acknowledged. If your
answer doesn’t register, you won’t get credit. However, if you want to mark it for review so
you can return later, that’s your call. Before you click “Submit,” use the test’s review screen to
see whether you inadvertently skipped any questions.

11. Creature of Habit? No Worries.

We are all creatures of habit. It’s therefore best to follow a familiar pattern of study. Do
what’s comfortable for you. Set a time and place each day to study for this test. Whether it is
30 minutes at the library or an hour in a secluded corner of your local coffee shop, commit
yourself as best you can to this schedule every day. Find quiet places where it is less crowded,
as constant background noise can distract you. Don’t study one subject for too long, either.
Take an occasional breather and treat yourself to a healthy snack or some quick exercise. After
your short break—5 or 10 minutes can do the trick—return to what you were studying or start a
new section.

12. Knowledge is Power

Purchasing this book gave you an edge on passing the Students with Disabilities test. Make
the most of this edge. Review the sections on how the test is structured, what the directions
look like, what types of questions will be asked, and so on. Take our practice tests to
familiarize yourself with what the test looks and feels like. Most test anxiety occurs because
people feel unprepared when they are taking the test, and they psych themselves out. You can
whittle away at anxiety by learning the format of the test and by knowing what to expect. Fully
simulating the test even once will boost your chances of getting the score you need.
Meanwhile, the knowledge you’ve gained will also will save you the valuable time that would
have been eaten up puzzling through what the directions are asking As an added benefit,
previewing the test will free up your brain’s resources so you can focus on racking up as many
points as you can.

13. B-r-e-a-t-h-e
What’s the worst that can happen when you take a test? You may have an off day, and despite
your best efforts, you may not pass. Well, the good news is that a test can be retaken. In fact,
you may already be doing this—this book is every bit for you as it is for first-timers.
Fortunately, the Students with Disabilities test is something you can study and prepare for, and
in some ways to a greater extent than other tests you’ve taken throughout your academic career.
Yes, there will be questions you won’t know, but neither your teacher education program nor
state licensing board (which sets its own cut scores) expects you to know everything.

When unfamiliar vocabulary appears, don’t despair: Use context clues, process of
elimination, or your letter of the day to make your choice, and then press ahead. If you have
time left, you can always come back to the question later. If not, relax. It is only one question
on a test filled with many. Take a deep breath and then exhale. You know this information. Now
you’re going to show it.

The Day of the Test

Before the Test
On the day of the test, you should wake up early after a good night’s rest. Have a good
breakfast and dress in layers that can be removed or added as the conditions in the testing
center require. Arrive at the testing center 30 minutes before your scheduled testing time. This
will allow you to collect your thoughts before the test, and will also spare you the anguish that
comes with being late. As an added incentive to make sure that you arrive early, keep in mind
that if you arrive more than 15 minutes late to your test appointment, you may not be admitted.

Before you leave for the testing site, make sure that you have your proper identification.
Proper identification must be current, government-issued, printed in English, show the name in
which you registered for the exam, and have your photograph and signature.

Acceptable forms of identification include:

• Driver’s license with photograph and signature

• Passport with photograph and signature
• State identification with photograph and signature
• National identification with photograph and signature
• Military identification with photograph and signature
• Alien Registration Card

Be sure to check the NYSTCE website close to the date of your test in case there are any
changes to these requirements.

There are also very strict rules about what you may not bring to the testing site. You may not
bring watches of any kind, cell phones or any other electronic communication devices. Scrap
Visit https://ebookmass.com today to explore
a vast collection of ebooks across various
genres, available in popular formats like
PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with
all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading
experience and effortlessly download high-
quality materials in just a few simple steps.
Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that
let you access a wealth of knowledge at the
best prices!
Other documents randomly have
different content
Hippias never again slept. The property and lives of the citizens were
alike sacrificed to his cruel and miserly passions.
80. The faction of the Alemæon´ids, who had
been exiled under their leader, Megacles, now B. C. 510.
gained strength for an active demonstration. They
bribed the Delphic priestess to reiterate in the ears of the Spartans
that “Athens must be delivered.” These brave but superstitious
people had a friendship of long standing with the Pisistrat´idæ, but
they dared not disobey the oracle. An army was sent to invade
Attica: it was defeated and its leader slain. A second attempt was
more successful: the Thessalian cavalry which had aided the tyrant
was now defeated, and Hippias shut himself up in the citadel. His
children fell into the hands of the Spartans, who released them only
on condition that he and all his kin should withdraw from Attica
within five days. A perpetual decree of banishment was passed
against the family, and a monument recording their offenses was set
up in the Acropolis.
81. Clisthenes, the head of the Alemæonidæ, now rose into
power. Though among the highest nobles, he attached himself to the
popular party, and his measures gave still greater power to the
people than the laws of Solon had done. Instead of the four tribes,
he ordained ten, and subdivided each into demes, or districts, each
of which had its own magistrate and popular assembly. The Senate,
or Great Council, was increased from 400 to 500 members, fifty from
each tribe, and all the free inhabitants of Attica were admitted to the
privileges of citizens.
To guard against the assumption of power by one man, as in the
case of Pisistratus, Clisthenes introduced the singular custom of
ostracism, by which any citizen could be banished without
accusation, trial, or defense. If the Senate and Assembly decided
that this extreme measure was required for the safety of the state,
each citizen wrote upon a tile or oyster-shell the name of the person
whom he wished to banish. If the name of any one person was
found upon six thousand ballots, he was required to withdraw from
the city within ten days. The term of his exile was at first ten years,
but it was afterward reduced to five.
82. Isag´oras, leader of the nobles, disgusted by the rise of his
rival, called again upon the Spartans to interfere in Athenian affairs.
Cleom´enes, king of Sparta, advanced upon Athens, and demanded
the expulsion of Clisthenes and all his family, as accursed for the
sacrilege committed, nearly a hundred years before, in the murder
of Cylon. Clisthenes retired, and Cleomenes proceeded with his
friend Isagoras to expel seven hundred families, dissolve the Senate,
and revolutionize the city. But the people rose against this
usurpation, besieged Isagoras and his Spartans in the citadel, and
only accepted their surrender on condition of their withdrawing from
Attica. Clisthenes was recalled and his institutions restored.
83. Cleomenes had been stirring up Greece to
aid his vengeance against Athens. He advanced B. C. 507.
with a considerable army and seized the city of
Eleusis, while the Bœotians ravaged the western, and the
Chalcidians from Eubœa the eastern borders of Attica. Undismayed
by this threefold invasion, the Athenians marched first against
Cleomenes; but the irrational conduct of the Spartan had disgusted
his allies and defeated his designs before a battle could take place.
The Athenians turned upon the Bœotians and defeated them with
great slaughter; then pressed on without delay, crossed the channel
which divided them from Eubœa, and gained an equally decisive
victory over the Chalcidians.
Hippias now covered his old age with infamy, by going over to the
king of Persia and exerting all his eloquence in directing the power
of the empire against his native city. The Athenians sent to
Artaphernes, begging him not to place confidence in one who had
been banished only for his crimes. “If you wish for peace, recall
Hippias,” was the peremptory reply.

Grecian Colonies.
 84. The history of the other continental states is more or less
involved in that of Sparta and Athens; but before entering upon the
Persian wars, we will take a rapid survey of those foreign
settlements which afforded an outlet for the enterprise and the
crowded population of the Hellenic peninsula. In very early times,
colonies were led forth from Greece by leaders who were afterward
worshiped as heroes in the states they founded. Fire, the emblem of
civilization, was carried from the prytaneum of the mother city, and
placed upon the new hearth-stone of the colony. The Agora, the
Acropolis, the temples, and the peculiar worship of the older city
were imitated in the new. The colonists bore part in the religious
festivals of the metropolis by delegates and offerings, and it was
considered sacrilege to bear arms against the parent state.
85. There was, however, a great difference in the relations of the
several colonies with the states from which they sprang. The Æolian,
Ionian, and Dorian settlements in Asia, and the Achæan in Italy,
were independent states. Commerce, literature, and the arts
flourished at an earlier period on the eastern side of the Ægean than
in the cities of Greece. Homer, the father of Greek poetry, was an
Ionian. Alcæ´us and Sappho, the greatest of Greek poetesses, were
natives of Lesbos. Ana´creon was an Ionian of Teos; and four of the
Seven Wise Men of Greece lived in the Asiatic colonies.
 86. Miletus was for two centuries not
only the chief of the Asiatic colonies, but
the first commercial city in all Hellas. Her
sailors penetrated to the most distant
corners of the Mediterranean and its inlets,
and eighty colonies were founded to protect
and enlarge her commerce. Ephesus
succeeded Miletus as chief of the Ionian
cities. Its commerce was rather by land
than sea; and instead of planting distant
colonies, it extended its territory on the
land at the expense of its Lydian neighbors.
Phocæa, the most northerly of the Ionic
cities, possessed a powerful navy, and its
ships were known on the distant coasts of
Gaul and Spain. The beautiful city of
Massilia (now Marseilles) owed to them its
origin.
Coin of Ephesus, enlarged
one-half. 87. The first Greek colony in Italy was at
Cumæ, near the modern Naples, which
sprang from it. It is said to have been
founded about 1050 B. C., and continued five centuries the most
flourishing city in Campania. Syb´aris and Croto´na were Achæan
colonies upon the Gulf of Taren´tum. Several native tribes became
their subjects, and their dominions extended from sea to sea across
the peninsula of Calabria. The Crotonians were early celebrated for
the skill of their physicians, and for the number of their athletes who
won prizes at the Olympic Games. The Sybarites were noted for their
wealth, luxury, and effeminacy. In public festivals they mustered
5,000 horsemen fully equipped, while Athens could only show 1,200
even for the grand Panathenæa.
The fall of Sybaris, B. C. 510, was occasioned by war with the
sister but now rival city Crotona. The popular party had supplanted
an oligarchy in Sybaris, and the exiled citizens had taken refuge in
Crotona. The Sybarites demanded their rendition. The Crotonians
trembled, for they had to choose between two great perils: they
must incur either the wrath of the gods by betraying suppliants, or
the vengeance of the Sybarites, whose army was supposed to
number 300,000 men. Pythagoras urged them to adopt the more
generous alternative, and his disciple, Milo, the most celebrated
athlete of his time, became their general. In a battle on the Trais the
Crotonians were victorious. They became masters of Sybaris, and
determined to destroy it so thoroughly that it should never again be
inhabited. For this purpose they turned the course of the river
Crathis, so that it overflowed the city and buried its ruins in mud and
sand. To this day a wall can be seen in the bed of the river when the
water is low, the only monument of the ancient grandeur of Sybaris.
88. The people of Locri were the first of the Greeks who
possessed a body of written laws. The ordinances of Zaleucus, a
shepherd whom they made their legislator by the command of the
Delphic oracle, were forty years earlier than those of Draco, which
they resembled in the severity of their penalties. The Locrians,
however, held them in so high esteem, that if any man wished to
propose a new law or repeal an old one, he appeared in the public
assembly with a rope around his neck, which was immediately
tightened if he failed to convince his fellow-citizens of the wisdom of
his suggestions.
89. Rhegium, on the Sicilian Strait, was founded by the
Chalcidians of Eubœa, but greatly increased by fugitives from the
Spartans during the first and second Messenian wars. The straits
and the opposite town in Sicily, formerly called Zan´cle, received a
new name from these exiled people. Taren´tum was a Spartan
colony founded about 708 B. C. Its harbor was the best and safest in
the Tarentine Gulf, and after the fall of Sybaris it became the most
flourishing city in Magna Græcia. Though its soil was less fertile than
that of other colonies, its pastures afforded the finest wool in all
Italy. Tarentine horses were in great favor among the Greeks; and its
shores supplied such a profusion of the shell-fish used for coloring,
that “Tarentine purple” was second only to the Tyrian. So extensive
were the manufactories of this dye, that great mounds may even yet
be seen near the ancient harbor, composed wholly of broken shells
of the murex.
90. The prosperity of Magna Græcia declined after the close of
the sixth century B. C., when the warlike Samnites and Lucanians
began to press southward from their homes in central Italy. The
Greek colonies gradually lost their inland possessions, and became
limited to mere trading settlements on the coast.
91. Massilia, in Gaul, has already been mentioned as a colony of
the Ionic Phocæans. It exerted a controlling influence upon the
Celtic tribes by which it was surrounded, and who derived from it the
benefits of Greek letters and civilization. A Massiliot mariner,
Pytheas, navigated the Atlantic and explored the western coasts of
Europe, as far, at least, as Great Britain. Five colonies on the Spanish
coast were founded by Massilia.
92. The fertile island of Sicily early attracted the attention of the
Greeks. The Carthaginians already occupied the western side of the
island, but for two and a half centuries the commercial settlements
of either people flourished side by side without collision. Twelve
flourishing Greek cities sprang up within 150 years, among which
Syracuse, on the eastern, and Agrigentum, on the southern coast,
were the most important. Syracuse, the earliest, except Naxos, of
the Sicilian colonies, was founded by Corinthians, B. C. 734. Its
position made it the door to the whole island, and in Roman times it
was the capital of the province. In its greatest prosperity it contained
half a million of inhabitants, and its walls were twenty-two miles in
extent. Agrigentum, though of later origin (B. C. 582), grew so fast
that it outstripped its older neighbors. The poet Pindar called it the
fairest of mortal cities, and its public buildings were among the most
magnificent in the ancient world.
93. African Colonies. Greek colonization was at first confined to the
northern shores of the Mediterranean, Egypt and Carthage dividing
between them the southern. But the policy of Psammetichus, and,
after him, of Amasis, favored the Greeks, who were thenceforth
permitted to settle at Naucratis, and enjoy there a monopoly of the
Mediterranean commerce of Egypt. Twenty years after the first
establishment at Naucratis, Cyrene was founded by the people of
Thera, a Spartan colony on the Ægean. Unlike most Greek colonies,
Cyrene was governed by kings during the first two centuries of its
existence.
94. The peninsula of Chalcid´ice, in Macedonia, was covered with
the settlements of colonists from Chalcis and Eretria, from the
former of which it derived its name. Potidæ´a, on the same coast,
was planted by Corinthians. Byzantium was founded by Megarians,
on the strait which connects the Propontis with the Euxine. Few
cities could boast so splendid a position; but the power of the
Megarian colony bore little proportion to what it was afterward to
attain as the capital of Constantine and the mistress of the world.
The most northerly Grecian settlement was Istria, founded by
Milesians near the mouth of the Danube.
RECAPITULATION.

Codrus, the last king of Athens, was succeeded during three centuries by
archons for life, chosen from his family. Seven archons afterward reigned
successively ten years each, and the government was then intrusted to a
commission of nine, annually elected. The people demanding written laws, Draco
prepared a code of inhuman severity. A more moderate constitution was framed by
Solon, one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece; but the contention of the three rival
factions of the Plain, the Shore, and the Mountain soon resulted in the subjection
of Athens to the tyranny of Pisistratus. Twice expelled, Pisistratus twice re-
established his power, and by his justice and liberal encouragement of all the arts,
consoled the people for his unwarranted seizure of the government. His son
Hippias was expelled by the Alemæonidæ, with the aid of the Spartans. Clisthenes
completed the liberal reforms of Solon, and introduced the singular custom of
ostracism. In three attempts to overthrow the free constitution of Athens, the
Spartans and their allies were signally defeated.

Third Period. B. C. 500-338.

 95. The details of the Ionian Revolt (B. C. 499-494) have been
found in the History of Persia.[43] Reserving his vengeance for the
European Greeks who had interfered in the quarrel, Darius sought to
console the conquered Ionians for the loss of their political
independence by greater personal freedom. Just laws, equal taxes,
peace and good order began to restore their prosperity; and when
Mardonius, the son-in-law of Darius, succeeded Artaphernes in the
satrapy, he signalized his reign by removing all tyrants and restoring
to the cities a republican form of government. All this was done to
secure their friendship or neutrality in his approaching expedition
against Greece. That expedition (B. C. 492) failed, as we have seen,
in its principal object.
96. The next year messengers were sent by
Darius to each of the states of Greece, demanding B. C. 491.
earth and water, the customary symbols of
obedience. None of the island states and few on the continent dared
refuse. The people of Athens and Sparta returned an answer which
could not be mistaken. The latter threw the envoys into a well, and
the former into a pit where the vilest criminals were punished, telling
them to get earth and water for themselves.
97. The youth and ill success of Mardonius led Darius to recall
him, and place the command of his new expedition against the
Greeks in the hands of Datis, a Mede, and Artaphernes, his own
nephew. In the spring of 490 B. C., the great host was drawn up off
the coast of Cilicia—a fleet of 600 triremes, carrying not less than
100,000 men. They sailed westward and ravaged the isle of Naxos,
but spared Delos, the reputed birth-place of Apollo and Artemis,
because the Median Datis recognized them as identical with his own
national divinities, the sun and moon. The fleet then advanced to
Eubœa, Eretria being the first object of vengeance. Carystus,
refusing to join the armament against her neighbors, was taken and
destroyed. Eretria withstood a siege of six days; but the unhappy
city was a prey to the same dissensions which constituted the fatal
weakness of Greece.[44] Two traitors of the oligarchical party opened
the gates to the barbarians. The place was given up to plunder, the
temples burnt, and the people enslaved.
98. A swift-footed messenger was now dispatched from Athens to
Sparta imploring aid. The distance was ninety miles, and he reached
his destination the day after his departure. The Spartans did not
refuse their assistance, but they declared that religion forbade their
marching before the full moon, and it was now only the ninth day.
The Persians were already landed on the coast of Attica, and, guided
by Hippias, advanced to the plain of Marathon. The Athenian army,
posted upon the heights, had to consider whether to await their
tardy allies or meet these overwhelming numbers alone. At the last
moment there arrived an unexpected reinforcement, which, though
small in numbers, raised the spirits of the Athenians by the
friendliness it expressed. It was the entire fighting population of the
little town of Platæa, a thousand men in all, who came to testify
their gratitude for a former service rendered by the Athenians.
99. All the other generals, who were to have commanded in turn,
gave up their days to Miltiades, whose genius and experience alike
won their confidence; but he, fearful of arousing envy, waited until
his own turn came, and then gave orders for battle. The sacrifices
and prayers were offered, the trumpets sounded, and, chanting a
battle-hymn, the eleven thousand Greeks rushed down from the
heights where they had been encamped. Instead of the usual slow
march of the phalanx, they traversed the mile or more of level
ground which separated them from the Persians at a full run,
bearing their level spears in a straight, unwavering line.[45]
The front rank of Asiatics fell instantly before this unusual assault;
but the resistance was not less determined. Rushing upon the spears
of the Greeks, in the attempt to make an opening in the phalanx
where their short swords and daggers might serve them, the
Persians freely sacrificed their lives. It was the belief of many on the
field that the gigantic shade of Theseus, the great Attic hero, might
be seen in the ranks. Night approached before the desperate conflict
was decided. But the Greeks, though wearied with the long action,
never wavered, and at length the shattered remains of the Asiatic
host turned and fled.[46]
100. The Persians had brought with them a mass of white marble,
with which they meant to erect upon the field of Marathon a
monument of their victory. It was carved by Phid´ias into a gigantic
statue of Nemesis, the impersonation of divine vengeance. From the
brazen spoils of the Persians was cast that colossal statue of Athena
Promachos, whose glittering spear and helmet, from the summit of
the Athenian citadel, could be seen far off at sea beyond the point of
Sunium. The armed goddess, “First in the Fight,” seemed to be
keeping a perpetual guard over her beloved city.
101. For a time after the victory at Marathon,
Miltiades was the best beloved of the Athenians. B. C. 489.
Even while prince in the Chersonesus, he had won
their gratitude by annexing Lemnos and Imbros to their dominions.
To this claim on their regard he now added that of having delivered
them from their greatest peril, and there was no limit to their
confidence. When, therefore, he promised them a still more lucrative
though less glorious enterprise than the recent one against the
Persians, they were not slow to consent, though the conditions were
a fleet of seventy ships and a large supply of men and money for his
use, of which he was to render no account until his return. They
were granted, and Miltiades set sail for the isle of Paros, which had
furnished a trireme to the Persians during the recent invasion. The
chief city was besieged and on the point of being taken, when
suddenly, for no sufficient cause, Miltiades burnt his fortifications,
drew off his fleet, and returned to Athens, having no treasures and
only disgrace and loss to report as the result of his expedition.
102. The glory of Miltiades was now departed. He was accused by
Xanthip´pus, a leader of the aristocracy, of having accepted a bribe
from the Persians to withdraw from Paros. Severely wounded,
Miltiades was brought into the court upon a couch; and although his
brother Tisag´oras undertook his defense, the only plea he cared to
make was in the two words, “Lemnos” and “Marathon.” The offense,
 if proved, was capital; but the people
refused to sentence their deliverer to death.
They commuted his punishment to a fine of
fifty talents; but before it was paid he
expired from his wound.
103. The greatest citizen of Athens, after
the death of Miltiades, was Aristides, called
“the Just.” He was of noble birth and
belonged to the Alcmæonid party, but he
was ardently devoted to the interests of the
people. Stern toward crime, whether in
friends or foes, he was yet mild toward all
persons; and so proverbial were his truth
and impartiality, that when he held the
office of archon the courts of law were
deserted, all suitors preferring to submit
their causes to his arbitration.
Coin of Athens, enlarged 104. His chief rival was Themis´tocles, a
three-fourths. young man of great talents, and, perhaps,
still greater ambition. At length his
opposition rose to the pitch of proposing
the ostracism, and Aristides was banished. It is said that, during the
voting, the great archon was requested by a man who could not
write, to inscribe the name of Aristides on an oyster-shell for him.
“Has he ever injured you?” Aristides asked. “No,” said the man, “nor
do I even know him by sight; but it vexes me to hear him always
called the Just.” Aristides wrote his name on the shell, which was
cast into the heap. As he left his native city he said, with his usual
generosity, “May the Athenian people never know a day which shall
force them to remember Aristides!”
105. Themistocles was now without a rival in Athens. His acute
mind perceived what his countrymen too willingly ignored, that the
Persian invasions were only checked, not ended. Proud of the victory
of Marathon, the Athenians believed that the Persians would never
again dare to attack them. But Ægina was yet powerful, and a fierce
enmity had long existed between the two states. Their merchants
regarded each other as rivals in trade, while the free people of
Athens hated the oligarchy of Ægina. Themistocles resolved to turn
this enmity to account, in arming Athens against the greater though
more distant danger. He persuaded the citizens to construct a fleet
which should surpass that of Ægina, and to apply to that purpose
the revenues from the silver mines of Laurium, near the extremity of
the Attic peninsula.
Two hundred triremes were built and equipped, and a decree was
passed which required twenty to be added every year. Hitherto Attica
had been more an agricultural than a maritime state; but
Themistocles clearly saw that, with so small and sterile a territory,
her only lasting power must be upon the sea. So strenuous were his
exertions, that in the ten years that intervened between the first and
the second Persian wars, the Athenians had trained a large number
of seamen, organized their naval power, and were ready to be as
victorious at Salamis as they had been at Marathon.
106. In 481 B. C., a Hellenic Congress was held at Corinth. The
command of the Greek forces, both by land and sea, was assigned
to Sparta. An appeal for coöperation was sent to the distant colonies
in Sicily, as well as to Corcyra and Crete. Emissaries were also sent
into Asia to watch the movements of the Persian army. They were
seized at Sardis, and would have been put to death, had not Xerxes
believed that their reports would do more to terrify and weaken than
to assist their countrymen. He caused them to be led through his
innumerable hosts, and to mark their splendid equipments, then to
be dismissed in safety.
107. The most difficult duty of the Congress was to silence the
quarrels of the several states. Athens, by the entreaties of
Themistocles, consented to peace and friendship with Ægina, and all
the delegates formally bound their states to act together as one
body. Still many elements of disunion remained. Bœotia, with the
honorable exceptions of Thespiæ and Platæa, sent earth and water
to the Persian king. Argos was at once weakened and enraged
against Sparta by the massacre of 6,000 of her citizens, who had
been burned, by order of Cleomenes, in a temple where they had
taken refuge. Unwilling to refuse her aid in the common danger, she
consented to join the league only upon terms which Sparta refused
to accept.
108. Even the gods seemed to waver, and the timid answers of
the Pythia prevented some states from engaging in the war. The
Athenian messengers at Delphi received an oracle that would have
appalled less steadfast minds. “Unhappy men!” cried the Pythia,
“leave your houses and the ramparts of the city, and fly to the
uttermost parts of the earth. Fire and keen Ares, compelling the
Syrian chariot, shall destroy; towers shall be overthrown, and
temples destroyed by fire. Lo, now, even now, they stand dropping
sweat, and their house-tops black with blood, and shaking with
prophetic awe. Depart, and prepare for ill!”
109. The Athenians put on the mourning garb of suppliants, and
entreated Apollo for a more favorable answer, declaring that they
would not depart without it, but remain at his altar until they died.
The second response was still more obscure, but possibly more
hopeful. “Athena is unable to appease the Olympian Zeus. Again,
therefore, I speak, and my words are as adamant. All else within the
bounds of Cecropia and the bosom of the divine Cithæron shall fall
and fail you. The wooden wall alone Zeus grants to Pallas, a refuge
to your children and yourselves. Wait not for horse and foot; tarry
not the march of the mighty army; retreat even though they close
upon you. O divine Salamis! thou shalt lose the sons of women,
whether Demeter scatter or hoard her harvest!” Themistocles, who
had, perhaps, dictated the response, now furnished an apt solution.
The “walls of wood,” he said, meant the fleet, in which the citizens
and their children should take refuge. The last sentence threatened
woe not to the Athenians, but to their foes, else why was Salamis
called “divine”?
 110. Arriving with his vast army at the head of
the Malian Gulf, Xerxes sent a spy to ascertain the B. C. 480.
force sent against him. The messenger saw only
the Spartan three hundred. They were engaged either in gymnastic
exercises or in dressing their long hair as if for a festival. Demaratus,
an exiled king of Sparta, was with the Persian army, and he was
questioned by the great king as to the meaning of this behavior in
the face of overwhelming danger. Demaratus replied, “It is
manifestly their intention, sire, to dispute the pass, for it is the
custom of the Spartans to adorn themselves on the eve of battle.
You are about to attack the flower of Grecian valor.” Xerxes could not
yet believe that such a handful of men meant serious resistance. He
waited four days to give them time to retreat, but sent a messenger
in the interval to Leonidas, demanding his arms. “Come and take
them!” replied the Spartan.
111. Battle of Thermopylæ. On the fifth day the patience of the
great king was exhausted. He sent a detachment of Medes and
Cissians into the pass, with orders to bring its defenders alive into
his presence. The assailants were repulsed with loss. The Immortal
Band were then sent forward, but with no better success. The next
day the contest was renewed, with great loss to the Persians and no
signs of yielding on the part of the Greeks. But treachery now
accomplished what force had failed to do.[47] A council of war was
held among the defenders of the pass, and it was resolved to
retreat, since defeat was certain. Leonidas did not oppose, but
rather favored the decision on the part of the other generals; he only
remarked that it was not permitted to Spartans to fly from any foe.
He knew, too, that the Delphic oracle had declared that either Sparta
must fall or a king of the blood of Hercules be sacrificed. He believed
that he should save at least his hereditary kingdom, if not the whole
of Greece, by the voluntary devotion of his life.
The Thespians insisted upon sharing the fate of the Spartan three
hundred. The four hundred Thebans, whose loyalty had been
suspected from the first, were held as hostages. The remainder of
the Greeks hastily withdrew before the arrival of the Persians. Thus
left alone, the Spartans and Thespians went forth to meet the
immense army, which was now in motion to attack them. The
Orientals, when their courage failed, were driven into battle by the
lash, and thousands were doomed to perish before the desperate
valor of the Greeks. At length Hydar´nes, with his Immortal Band,
appeared from behind, and the Spartans drew back to the narrowest
part of the pass, where they fought to the last breath, and were
crushed at last by the numbers, rather than slain by the swords of
the Persians.
112. The memory of Leonidas was honored by games celebrated
around his tomb in Sparta, in which none but his countrymen were
allowed to have part. A lion of stone was placed, by order of the
Amphictyonic Council, on the spot where he fell; and other
monuments at the same place preserved the memory of his brave
companions. That of the Three Hundred bore these words: “Go,
stranger, and tell the Spartans that we obeyed the laws, and lie
here!”
113. Learning the fate of Leonidas and his men, the fleet retired
southward for the protection of the coast. The Spartans acted with
their accustomed selfishness, by leaving Athens and the rest of
Greece to their fate, while they employed their land forces in
fortifying the isthmus, to bar the entrance of their own peninsula. It
was with difficulty that Themistocles even persuaded his maritime
allies to remain at anchor off Salamis, long enough to allow some
measures to be taken for the safety of the Athenian people.
114. Abandonment of Athens. Nor was it easy to persuade the
Athenians themselves to leave their beloved city to the revengeful
hands of barbarians. But as no other means remained for averting
total destruction, Themistocles had recourse, as usual, to a
stratagem. The serpent sacred to Athena suddenly disappeared from
the Acropolis, the cakes of honey were left untasted, and the priests
announced that the goddess herself had abandoned the city, and
was ready to conduct her chosen warriors to the sea. The people
now consented to depart. Women, children, and old men were
hastily removed to places of greater security, while all who could
fight betook themselves to the fleet. Only a few Athenians, either
too poor to meet the expense of removal, or still convinced that the
“wooden walls” of the oracle meant the citadel, remained and
perished, after a brave but useless resistance, by the swords of the
Persians. Beautiful Athens was reduced to a heap of ashes, in
revenge for the destruction of Sardis, twenty years before.
115. The commanders of the fleet now resolved to withdraw from
Salamis, and station themselves near the isthmus to coöperate with
the Peloponnesian land forces. The Athenians strongly opposed this
retreat, which would leave the refuges of their wives and children at
the mercy of the barbarians. It was midnight, and the council had
broken up, when Themistocles again sought the ship of Eurybi´ades,
and convincing him at length of the greater wisdom of his own plan,
persuaded him to reassemble the council. The leaders were recalled
from their ships and a violent discussion ensued. The Corinthian,
Adimantus, opposed Themistocles not only with argument, but with
insult. Alluding to the recent destruction of Athens, he maintained
that one who had no longer a city to represent should have no voice
in the deliberation.
Themistocles kept his temper and replied with dignity and
firmness. He showed that the naval advantages of the Greeks in the
present war had always been in the narrow seas, where the
immense numbers of the Persians gave them no superiority, while
their better discipline and acquaintance with the currents and
soundings were all in favor of the Greeks. He argued that by
transferring the war to the Peloponnesus they would only attract
thither the armies and ships of the Persians; while, by defeating
them before they could arrive at the isthmus, they would preserve
southern Greece from invasion. He ended by declaring that, if
Salamis were abandoned, the Athenians would abandon Greece, and
taking their wives and children on board their fleet, sail to the coasts
of Italy, where the oracle had commanded them to found a new city.
 116. Lest even this argument should not be sufficient,
Themistocles had recourse to another of his wiles. He retired a
moment from the council and dispatched a trusty messenger to the
Persian fleet, assuring its commander that the Greeks, struck with
consternation, were preparing to flee, and urging him to seize the
opportunity, while they were divided among themselves, to gain a
decisive victory. The Persian admiral knew too well the frequent
dissensions of the Greeks to doubt the truth of the message. He
immediately moved his squadrons to cut them off from the
possibility of retreat.
In the meantime Themistocles was again called from the council
by the arrival of a messenger. It was his ancient rival, the brave and
upright Aristides, still in exile through the influence of Themistocles,
but watchful as ever for the interests of his country. He had crossed
from Ægina in an open boat to inform the Greeks that they were
surrounded by the Persians. “At any time,” said the just Athenian, “it
would become us to forget our private dissensions, and at this time
especially, in contending only who should most serve his country.”
Themistocles led him at once to the council. His intelligence was
soon confirmed by a Tenian deserter, and the leaders were now
forced to unite in preparation for immediate battle.
117. Battle of Salamis. When the sun arose upon
the straits of Salamis, the Attic shores were seen B. C. 480.
lined with the glittering ranks of the Persian army,
drawn up by order of Xerxes to intercept fugitives from the Grecian
fleet. The king himself, on a throne of precious metals, sat to watch
the coming contest. His ships were fully three times the number of
the Greeks, and no serious disaster had yet stayed his progress. The
Greeks advanced, singing that battle-song which the great poet
Æschylus, who himself fought on this memorable day, has preserved
for us: “On, sons of the Greeks! Strike for the freedom of your
country! strike for the freedom of your children and your wives—for
the shrines of your fathers’ gods, and for the sepulchers of your
sires! All, all are now staked upon your strife!”
 Themistocles held them back until a wind began to blow, which
usually arose in the morning, causing a heavy swell in the channel.
This seriously incommoded the cumbrous vessels of the Persians,
while the light and compact Greek craft easily drove their brazen
beaks into the sides of the enemy. The Athenians, on the right, soon
broke the Phœnician line which was opposed to them; and the
Spartans, on the left, gained victories over the Ionian allies of the
Persians. The sea was strewn with dead bodies, entangled in the
masts and cordage of the ships. Aristides, who had been waiting
with his command on the coast of Salamis, now crossed to the little
island of Psyt´tali´a, and put the Persian garrison to the sword.
Xerxes, from his throne on Mount Ægaleos, helplessly watched the
confusion and slaughter of his men. The contest lasted until evening,
when the straits of Salamis were abandoned by the barbarians.
118. When morning came, the Greeks were ready to renew the
battle. The Persians had still a large fleet and a numerous army;
and, in the night, the Phœnician transports had been joined so as to
make a bridge between Salamis and the mainland. But this was only
a feint to cover the real movement. The fleet was already under
orders to sail to the Hellespont, and the army retired in a few days
to Bœotia. Leaving 300,000 men with Mardonius to renew the war in
the following year, Xerxes hastened into Asia. His army was reduced
on the way by famine and pestilence, and it was but a fragment of
the great host which had crossed the Hellespont in the spring of
480, that returned in the autumn.
119. As spring opened, Mardonius prepared to
renew the war; but first he sought to accomplish B. C. 479.
by diplomacy what he had hitherto failed to do by
force. Deeply impressed with the valor of the Athenians, he was sure
that if he could withdraw them from the confederacy, the rest of
Greece would be an easy prey. To this end he sent Alexander I., king
of Macedon, his ally, but a former friend of the Athenians, to flatter
them with promises of favor and solicit their alliance. The Athenians
refused him an audience until they had time to summon delegates
from Sparta. When the Spartans had arrived, Alexander delivered his
message. The great king offered to the Athenians forgiveness of the
injuries they had done him, the restoration of their country and its
extension over neighboring territories, the free enjoyment of their
own laws, and the means of rebuilding all their temples. He urged
the Athenians to embrace so favorable an offer, for to them alone of
all the Greeks was forgiveness extended.
120. The Athenians replied: “We are not ignorant of the power of
the Mede, but for the sake of freedom we will resist that power as
we can. Bear back to Mardonius this our answer: So long as yonder
sun continues his course, so long we forswear all friendship with
Xerxes; so long, confiding in the aid of our gods and heroes, whose
shrines and altars he has burnt, we will struggle against him for
revenge. As for you, Spartans, knowing our spirit, you should be
ashamed to fear our alliance with the barbarian. Send your forces
into the field without delay. The enemy will be upon us when he
knows our answer. Let us meet him in Bœotia before he proceed to
Attica.”
121. The Athenians had rightly judged the immediateness of the
danger. Scarcely was their answer received when the Persian general
was in motion, and advanced by rapid marches to the borders of
Attica. He was re-enforced at every halt by northern Greeks, moved
either by terror of his power or by long-standing jealousies against
the members of the League. The Attic territory was utterly desolate
and Athens a second time deserted. Taking possession of that city,
Mardonius dispatched a Greek messenger to Salamis, repeating his
former propositions, which were as instantly rejected as before.
The Athenians were a second time homeless, and, for the
moment, standing alone against the enemies of Greece. The
Spartans were engaged in some long-continued solemnities—
perhaps the funeral of their regent, Cleom´brotus—and allowed the
Athenian messengers to wait ten days for an answer. Not until the
indignant envoys had threatened to make terms with Mardonius and
leave Sparta to her fate, did the ephors bestir themselves, but then
it was with true Spartan energy and dispatch. Five thousand
Spartans and 35,000 slaves were sent, under the command of
Pausanias, the new regent, to whom the ephors added a guard of
5,000 heavy-armed Laconians.
122. Hearing of the advance of the Spartans, the Persian thought
best to retreat. He again set fire to Athens, leveled to the ground
whatever remained of its walls and temples, and retired into Bœotia.
Here he arranged his camp on a branch of the Asopus, not far from
the city of Platæa. The Spartans followed, having been joined at the
isthmus by the Peloponnesian allies, and, at Eleusis, by the
Athenians. The Greek forces occupied the lower slopes of Mount
Cithæron, with the river before them, separating them from the
Persians.
123. Battle of Erythræ. The battle was opened by the Persian
cavalry, commanded by Masis´tius, the most illustrious general in
the army, except Mardonius. His magnificent person, clad in
complete scale-armor of gold and burnished brass, was conspicuous
upon the battle-field; and his horsemen, then the most famous in
the world for their skill and bravery, severely harassed the
Megarians, who were posted on the open plain. Olym´piodo´rus
with a select body of Athenians went to their assistance, and
Masistius spurred his Nisæan steed across the field to meet him. In
the sharp combat which followed, the Persian was unhorsed, and as
he lay along the ground was assailed by a swarm of enemies. The
heavy armor, which prevented his rising, protected him from their
weapons, until, at length, an opening in his visor allowed a lance to
reach his brain. His death decided the fate of the battle.
124. After this victory the Greek army moved nearer to Platæa,
where was a more abundant supply of water and a more convenient
ground. It was the strongest force which the Persians had yet
encountered in Greece, numbering, with allies and attendants,
110,000 men. For ten days they lay facing each other with no
important action. The Persians, however, intercepted convoys of
provisions, and succeeded in choking up the spring which supplied
the Greeks with water, while, by their arrows and javelins, they
prevented their approach to the river. Pausanias then resolved to fall
back to a level and well-watered meadow still nearer to Platæa.
125. Battle of Platæa. The Spartans were
attacked while on the march, and sent immediately B. C. 479.
to the Athenians for aid. The latter marched to
their assistance, but were intercepted by the Ionian allies of the
Persians, and cut off from the intended rescue. Pausanias, thus
compelled to engage with a small portion of his army, ordered a
solemn sacrifice, and his men stood awaiting the result, unflinching,
though exposed to a storm of Persian arrows. The omens were
unfavorable, and the sacrifices were again and again renewed. At
length Pausanias, lifting his eyes streaming with tears toward the
temple of Hera, besought the goddess that if fate forbade the
Greeks to conquer, they might, at least, die like men. At this moment
the sacrifices assumed a more favorable aspect, and the order for
battle was given.
The Spartan phalanx in one dense mass moved slowly but steadily
against the Persians. The latter acted with wonderful resolution,
seizing the pikes of the Spartans or snatching away their shields,
while they wrestled with them hand to hand. Mardonius himself, at
the head of his chosen guards, fought in the foremost ranks, and
animated the courage of his men both by word and example. But he
received a mortal wound, and his followers, dismayed by his fall, fled
in confusion to their camp. Here they again made a stand against
the Lacedæmonians, who were unskilled in attacking fortified places,
until the Athenians, who had meanwhile conquered their Ionian
opponents, came up and completed the victory. They scaled the
ramparts and effected a breach, through which the remainder of the
Greeks poured into the camp. The Persians now yielded to the
general rout. They fled in all directions, but were so fiercely pursued,
that, except the 40,000 of Artaba´zus, who had already secured
their retreat, scarcely 3,000 escaped. The victory was complete, and
immense treasures of gold and silver, besides horses, camels, and
rich raiment, remained in the hands of the Greeks.
 126. Mounds were raised over the brave and illustrious dead.
Only to Aristodemus, the Spartan, who had incurred disgrace by
returning alive from Thermopylæ, no honors were decreed. The soil
of Platæa became a second “Holy Land.” Thither every year
embassies from the states of Greece came to offer sacrifices to Zeus,
the deliverer, and every fifth year games were celebrated in honor of
liberty. The Platæans themselves, exempt henceforth from military
service, became the guardians of the sacred ground, and to attack
them was decreed to be sacrilege.
127. On the day of the victory of Platæa, a no less important
advantage was gained by the Greeks at Mycale, in Ionia. Here a
large land force, under Tigra´nes, had been stationed by Xerxes for
the protection of the coast, and hither the Persian fleet retired
before the advance of the Greeks. The Persians drew their ships to
land, and protected them by intrenchments and strong earth-works.
The Greeks, finding the sea deserted, approached near enough to
make the voice of a herald heard, who exhorted the Ionians in the
army of Tigranes to remember that they, too, had a share in the
liberties of Greece. The Persians, not understanding the language of
the herald, began to distrust their allies. They deprived the Samians
of their arms, and placed the Milesians at a distance from the front
to guard the path to the heights of Mycale. The Greeks, having
landed, drove the Persians from the shore to their intrenchments,
and the Athenians first became engaged in storming the barricades.
The native Persians fought fiercely, even after their general was
slain, and fell at last within their camp. All the islands which had
given assistance to the Medes were now received into the Hellenic
League, with solemn pledges never again to desert it.
RECAPITULATION.

Athens incurred the vengeance of the Persian king by aiding a revolt of the
Asiatic Greeks. The first invasion of Greece, by Mardonius, failed; a second and
larger force, under Datis and Artaphernes, ravaged Naxos and part of Eubœa, but
was defeated by Miltiades and 11,000 Greeks, at Marathon. An unsuccessful
attempt, upon Paros destroyed the fame of Miltiades, and he died under a charge
of having received bribes from the Persians. Aristides succeeded him in popular
favor, but was at length exiled through the influence of Themistocles. The latter
urged the naval preparations of his countrymen, and Athens then first became a
great maritime power. A congress at Corinth, B. C. 481, united the Greek forces
under Spartan command. The Delphic oracle promising safety to the Athenians
only within walls of wood, they abandoned their city and took refuge on the fleet.
A few hundreds of Spartans and Thespians withstood the Persian host at
Thermopylæ, until betrayed by a Malian guide. The invaders were totally defeated
in a naval combat at Salamis, and Xerxes retired to Persia. Mardonius, failing to
end the war by diplomacy, was finally overthrown in the battles of Erythræ and
Platæa; and the land and naval forces of the Persians were at the same time
destroyed at Mycale, in Asia Minor.

Growth of Athens.

128. Though their immediate danger was past, the Greeks did not
suffer their enemies to rest. A fleet of fifty vessels was prepared,
with the intention to rescue every Greek city in Europe or Asia which
still felt the power of the Persian. Though Athens, as before,
furnished more ships than all the other states, Pausanias
commanded. He first wrested Cyprus from the Persians, and then
proceeded to Byzantium, which he also liberated and occupied as a
residence for seven years.
129. Siege of Sestus. The Athenians resolved to
win back the colony founded by Miltiades in the B. C. 478.
Chersonesus. The whole remaining force of the
Persians made a last stand at Sestus, and endured a siege so
obstinate that they even consumed the leather of their harness and
bedding for want of food. They yielded at last, and the natives gladly
welcomed back the Greeks. Laden with treasures and secure of a
well-earned peace, the Athenians returned home in triumph. Among
their relics, the broken fragments and cables of the Hellespontine
bridge of Xerxes were long to be seen in the temples of Athens.
 ATHENS.

130. Notwithstanding her losses, Athens came forth from the

Persian wars stronger, and with a higher rank among the Grecian
states, than she had entered them. Her efforts and sacrifices had
called forth a power which she was scarcely conscious of possessing,
and with the consent of Sparta, whose constitution illy fitted her for
distant enterprises, Athens was now recognized as the leader of the
Greeks in foreign affairs. In the meantime important changes had
occurred in her internal policy. The power of the great families was
broken, and the common people, who had borne the brunt of
hardship and peril in the war, were recognized as an important
element in the state. Aristides, though the leader of the aristocratic
party, proposed and carried an amendment by which all the people,
without distinction of rank or property, obtained a share in the
government, the only requisites being intelligence and moral
character. The archonship, which had hitherto been confined to the
eupatrids, was now thrown open to all classes.
 Themistocles was the popular leader. His first care was the
rebuilding of the walls of Athens, and he provided means by levying
contributions upon those islands which had given aid to the Persians.
The jealous opposition of the Spartans was overcome by gold and
management. To accommodate the greatly increased navy, he
improved the port of Piræus and protected it by strong walls. He
hoped, by building up the naval power of Athens, to place her at the
head of a great maritime empire, comprising the islands and Asiatic
coasts of the Ægean, thus eclipsing the Spartan supremacy on the
Grecian mainland.
131. Pausanias, now commanding at Byzantium, had lost all his
Spartan virtue in the pride of conquest and the luxury of wealth.
After the victory at Platæa, he had engraven on the golden tripod
dedicated to Apollo by all the Greeks, an inscription in which he
claimed for himself the exclusive glory. His government, justly
offended, caused this inscription to be replaced by another, naming
only the confederate cities, and omitting all mention of Pausanias.
Both the pride and the talents of the Spartan commander were too
great for the private station into which he must soon descend; for
though so long generalissimo of the Greeks, he was not a king in
Sparta, but only regent for the son of Leonidas. The conversation of
his Persian captives, some of whom were relatives of the great king,
opened brilliant views to the ambition and avarice of Pausanias. His
own relative, Demara´tus, had exchanged the austere life of a
Spartan for all the luxury of an Oriental palace, with the government
of three Æolian cities. The greater talents of Pausanias would entitle
him to yet higher dignities and honors.
In view of these glittering bribes, the victor of Platæa was willing
to become the betrayer of his country. He released his noble
prisoners with messages to Xerxes, in which he offered to subject
Sparta and the rest of Greece to the Persian dominion, on condition
of receiving the king’s daughter in marriage, with wealth and power
suitable to his rank. Xerxes welcomed these overtures with delight,
and immediately sent commissioners to continue the negotiation.
Exalted by his new hopes, the pride of Pausanias became
unbearable. He assumed the dress of a Persian satrap, and
journeyed into Thrace in true Oriental pomp, with a guard of
Persians and Egyptians. He insulted the Greek officers and subjected
the common soldiers to the lash. Even Aristides was rudely repulsed
when he sought to know the reason of this extraordinary conduct.
Reports reached the Spartan government, and Pausanias was
recalled. He was tried and convicted for various personal and minor
offenses, but the proof of his treason was thought insufficient to
convict him. He returned to Byzantium without the permission of his
government, but was expelled by the allies for his shameful conduct.
Again recalled to Sparta, he was tried and imprisoned, only to
escape and renew his intrigues both with the Persians and with the
Helots at home, to whom he promised freedom and the rights of
citizenship if they would aid him to overthrow the government and
make himself tyrant.
He was caught, at length, in his own snares. A
man named Argilius, whom he had intrusted with a B. C. 471.
letter to Artabazus, remembered that none of those
whom he had seen dispatched on similar errands, had returned. He
broke the seal and found, together with much treasonable matter,
directions for his own death as soon as he should arrive at the
satrap’s court. The letter was laid before the ephors, and the treason
being now fully proved, preparations were made to arrest Pausanias.
He was warned and took refuge in the temple of Athena Chalciœ
´cus. Here he suffered the penalty of his crimes. The roof was
removed, and his own mother brought the first stone to block up the
entrance to the temple. When he was known to be nearly exhausted
by hunger and exposure, he was brought out to die in the open air,
lest his death should pollute the shrine of the goddess.
132. On the first recall of Pausanias, B. C. 477, the allies had
unanimously placed Aristides at their head. This was the turning-
point of a peaceful revolution which made Athens, instead of Sparta,
the leading state in Greece. Cautious still of awakening jealousy,
Aristides named, not Athens, but the sacred isle of Delos, as the seat
of the Hellenic League. Here the Congress met, and here was the
common treasury, filled by the contributions of all the Grecian states,
for the defense of the Ægean coasts and the furtherance of active
operations against the Persians. In the assessment of these taxes,
Aristides acted with so much wisdom and justice, that, though all the
treasures of Greece were in his power, no word of accusation or
complaint was uttered by any of the allies.
133. Having thus laid the foundation of Athenian
supremacy by his moderation, Aristides retired B. C. 476.
from command, and was succeeded by Cimon, the
son of Miltiades. This young noble was distinguished by his frank
and generous manners, as well as by his bravery in war, which had
already been proved against the Persians. The recovery of his
father’s estates in the Chersonesus gave him immense wealth, which
he used in the most liberal manner. He kept open table for men of all
ranks, and was followed in the streets by a train of servants laden
with cloaks, which they gave to any needy person whom they met.
At the same time he administered to the wants of the more sensitive
by charities delicately and secretly offered. Though doubtless
injurious to the spirit of the Athenian people, this liberality was
gladly accepted, and resulted in unbounded popularity to Cimon. His
brave and sincere character commended him to the Spartans, and of
all the Athenians he was probably the most acceptable leader to the
allies.
134. His first expedition was against the Thracian town Ei´on,
now held by a Persian garrison. The town was reduced by famine,
when its governor, fearing the displeasure of Xerxes more than
death, placed himself, his family, and his treasures upon a funeral
pile, and perished by fire. The place surrendered, and its defenders
were sold as slaves. Cimon then proceeded to Scyrus, whose people
had incurred the vengeance of the League by their piratical
practices. The pirates were expelled, and the place occupied by an
Attic colony. As the fear of Asiatic invasion subsided, the bond
between the allies and their chief relaxed. Carystus refused to pay
tribute, and Naxos, the most important of the Cyclades, openly
revolted. Cimon was on the alert. Carystus was subdued, and a
powerful fleet was led against Naxos. The siege was long and
obstinate, but it resulted in favor of Athens. The island was reduced
from an ally to a subject.
135. Battle of the Eurymedon. The victorious fleet
of Cimon now advanced along the southern shores B. C. 466.
of Asia Minor, and all the Greek cities, either
encouraged by his presence or overawed by his power, seized the
opportunity to throw off the yoke of the Persians. His force was
increased by their accession when he came to the river Eurymedon,
in Pamphylia, and found a Persian fleet moored near its entrance,
and a powerful army drawn up upon the banks. Already more
numerous than the Greeks, they were expecting reinforcements from
Cyprus; but Cimon, preferring to attack them without delay, sailed
up the river and engaged their fleet. The Persians fought but feebly,
and as they were driven to the narrow and shallow portion of the
river, they forsook their ships and joined the army on the land.
Cimon increased his own fleet by two hundred of the deserted
triremes, beside destroying many.
Thus victorious on the water, the men demanded to be led on
shore, where the Persian army stood in close array. Fatigued with
the sea fight, it was hazardous to land in the face of a superior
enemy still fresh and unworn, but the zeal of the Greeks surmounted
all objections. The second battle was more closely contested than
the first; many noble Athenians fell, but victory came at last; the
field and the spoils remained to the Greeks. To make his victory
complete, Cimon proceeded to Cyprus, where the Phœnician
reinforcements were still detained. These were wholly captured or
destroyed, and the immense treasure which fell into the hands of
the victors increased the splendor of Athens. The tide of war had
now rolled back so powerfully upon Persia, that the coasts of Asiatic
Greece were free from all danger. No Persian troops came within a
day’s journey on horseback of the Grecian seas, whose waters were
swept clear of Persian sails.
 136. Aristides was now dead, and Themistocles in exile, having
been ostracised in 471 B. C. Cimon was therefore both the greatest
and richest of the Athenians; and while his wealth was freely used
for the adornment of Athens and the pleasure of her citizens, it
continually added to his power. He planted the market-place with
Oriental plane-trees; laid out in walks and adorned with groves and
fountains the Acade´mia, afterward made celebrated by the
teachings of Plato; he erected beautiful colonnades of marble, where
the Athenians long loved to assemble for social intercourse; and he
caused the dramatic entertainments to be celebrated with greater
elegance and brilliancy. With this increase of wealth, the tastes of
the citizens became luxurious, and Athens rose from her poverty and
secondary rank to be not only the most powerful, but the most
magnificent of Grecian cities.
137. Though of the opposite political party to Themistocles,
Cimon carried forward that statesman’s great design of exalting by
all means the naval power of Athens. To this end he yielded to the
request of the allies, who desired to commute their quotas of ships
or men for the general defense into a money payment. Other
admirals had been less accommodating, but Cimon masked a
profound policy under his apparent good-nature. The forces of the
other states became enfeebled by want of discipline, while the
Athenians were not only enriched by their tribute, but strengthened
in the hardy drill of the soldier and sailor, which Cimon never
suffered them to relax.
138. The fall of Themistocles was indirectly brought about by that
of Pausanias. The great Athenian, living in exile, but watchful as ever
in all that concerned the interests of Greece, had entered so far into
the intrigues of Pausanias as to become possessed of all his plans.
The Spartan ephors, finding his letters among the papers of
Pausanias, and glad of such a pretext against their old enemy, sent
them to Athens, accusing him of a share in the conspiracy. The party
led by Cimon and friendly to Sparta was now predominant in Athens,
and the people listened too readily to these suspicions. A combined
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