Falacies with examples
Here’s a detailed explanation of each fallacy with examples:
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### **1. Ad Hominem**
Attacking the person instead of their argument.
**Example:** "You can't trust John's opinion on climate change because
he's not a scientist."
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### **2. Straw Man**
Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack.
**Example:** "You think we should reduce military spending? So you
want to leave the country defenseless?"
---
### **3. Appeal to Authority**
Using an authority figure's opinion as evidence, even if they’re not an
expert on the topic.
**Example:** "A famous actor said this diet works, so it must be true."
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### **4. Slippery Slope**
Arguing that a minor action will lead to extreme consequences without
evidence.
**Example:** "If we allow students to redo this test, soon they’ll expect
to redo every assignment."
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### **5. False Dichotomy**
Presenting only two options when more exist.
**Example:** "You’re either with us, or you’re against us."
---
### **6. False Equivalence**
Treating two things as equally valid when they’re not.
**Example:** "The media criticized both politicians equally, but one
committed a crime and the other just misspoke."
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### **7. Appeal to Ignorance**
Arguing that something must be true because it hasn’t been proven false.
**Example:** "No one has proven aliens don’t exist, so they must exist."
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### **8. Hasty Generalization**
Making a broad conclusion based on a small or unrepresentative sample.
**Example:** "I met two people from that city, and they were rude.
Everyone there must be rude."
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### **9. Circular Reasoning**
Using the conclusion as evidence for itself.
**Example:** "The Bible is true because it says so."
---
### **10. Appeal to Emotion**
Using emotions to persuade instead of logical arguments.
**Example:** "Think of the children! We must ban this video game."
---
### **11. Red Herring**
Introducing an irrelevant topic to distract from the main issue.
**Example:** "Why worry about climate change when there are still wars
happening?"
---
### **12. Tu Quoque (You Too)**
Dismissing criticism by pointing out the critic’s hypocrisy.
**Example:** "You say I shouldn’t smoke, but you used to smoke too!"
---
### **13. Appeal to Tradition/Antiquity**
Arguing something is better because it’s older or traditional.
**Example:** "We’ve always done it this way, so it must be the best
way."
---
### **14. False Cause (Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc)**
Assuming causation because one event followed another.
**Example:** "I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game. The socks
caused the win."
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### **15. Zohnerism Fallacy**
Using a true fact to mislead people into a false conclusion.
**Example:** "Dihydrogen monoxide is in all our water, and it’s
dangerous. We should ban it!" (Dihydrogen monoxide is water.)
---
### **16. Bandwagon Fallacy**
Arguing something is true because many people believe it.
**Example:** "Everyone is buying this product, so it must be good."
---
### **17. Appeal to Nature**
Arguing something is good because it’s natural.
**Example:** "This medicine is made from plants, so it’s better than
synthetic drugs."
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### **18. Burden of Proof**
Shifting the responsibility to prove a claim onto someone else.
**Example:** "Prove that ghosts don’t exist!"
---
### **19. False Analogy**
Comparing two things that aren’t truly comparable.
**Example:** "Employees are like nails; you have to hit them hard to get
them to work."
---
### **20. No True Scotsman**
Changing the definition of a group to exclude counterexamples.
**Example:** "No true vegan would ever eat cheese."
---
### **21. Genetic Fallacy**
Judging something based on its origin rather than its merits.
**Example:** "This idea came from a politician, so it must be bad."
---
### **22. Etymological Fallacy**
Assuming a word’s meaning based on its origin.
**Example:** "The word 'nice' originally meant 'foolish,' so it can’t mean
kind today."
---
### **23. Definitional Retreat**
Changing the definition of a term to avoid criticism.
**Example:** "I didn’t lie; I just redefined what 'truth' means."
---
### **24. Equivocation**
Using a word with multiple meanings to mislead.
**Example:** "A feather is light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore,
a feather cannot be dark."
---
### **25. Ad Hoc Rescue**
Making up excuses to save a theory from being disproven.
**Example:** "The psychic’s prediction was wrong because the stars
were misaligned."
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### **26. Fallacy of Composition**
Assuming what’s true for the parts is true for the whole.
**Example:** "Each brick is light, so the whole house must be light."
---
### **27. Fallacy of Division**
Assuming what’s true for the whole is true for the parts.
**Example:** "The team is great, so every player must be great."
---
### **28. Argument from Ignorance**
Claiming something is true because it hasn’t been proven false.
**Example:** "No one has proven Bigfoot doesn’t exist, so it must exist."
---
### **29. Fallacy of Sunk Costs**
Continuing an endeavor because of past investments.
**Example:** "We’ve spent so much on this project; we can’t quit now."
---
### **30. Gambler’s Fallacy**
Believing past random events affect future ones.
**Example:** "The roulette wheel landed on red five times in a row, so
black is due next."
### **31. Anecdotal Fallacy**
Using a personal story or isolated example instead of sound reasoning or
evidence.
**Example:** "My grandfather smoked every day and lived to 100, so
smoking can’t be that bad."
---
### **32. Loaded Question**
Asking a question that contains an assumption.
**Example:** "Have you stopped cheating on tests?" (Assumes you were
cheating.)
---
### **33. Ambiguity Fallacy**
Using vague or ambiguous language to mislead.
**Example:** "The sign said 'fine for parking here,' so I thought it was
okay."
---
### **34. Fallacy of Accent**
Changing the meaning of a statement by emphasizing different words.
**Example:** "I never said *she* stole my money." (Implies someone
else did.)
---
### **35. Just World Fallacy**
Believing that the world is fair and people get what they deserve.
**Example:** "She got cancer because she must have done something
wrong."
---
### **36. Appeal to Fear**
Using fear to persuade instead of evidence.
**Example:** "If you don’t vote for me, the economy will collapse."
---
### **37. Middle Ground Fallacy**
Assuming the middle position between two extremes is always correct.
**Example:** "One person says 2 + 2 = 4, and another says 2 + 2 = 6,
so the answer must be 5."
---
### **38. Composition Division Fallacy**
Confusing the properties of parts with the whole or vice versa.
**Example:** "This car is made of lightweight parts, so it must be
lightweight overall."
---
### **39. Cherry Picking**
Selectively choosing evidence to support a claim while ignoring
counterevidence.
**Example:** "This study shows coffee is healthy, so I’ll ignore the
studies that say it’s harmful."
---
### **40. False Attribution**
Misattributing a quote or idea to someone who didn’t say it.
**Example:** "Einstein said, 'Everything is energy,' so this crystal must
have healing powers."
---
### **41. Fallacy of Exclusion**
Ignoring important evidence that contradicts your argument.
**Example:** "This diet works because I lost weight," (while ignoring
exercise and other factors).
---
### **42. Argument from Incredulity**
Claiming something must be false because it’s hard to believe.
**Example:** "I can’t imagine how evolution works, so it must be
wrong."
---
### **43. Fallacy of Reification**
Treating an abstract concept as if it’s a concrete thing.
**Example:** "The market is angry today, so stocks are falling."
---
### **44. Fallacy of False Authority**
Using an authority figure who isn’t qualified to speak on the topic.
**Example:** "A famous athlete says this medicine works, so it must be
true."
---
### **45. False Dilemma/Dichotomy**
Presenting only two options when more exist.
**Example:** "You’re either part of the solution or part of the problem."
---
### **46. Fallacy of Misleading Vividness**
Using vivid but irrelevant details to make an argument seem stronger.
**Example:** "This car is unsafe because my neighbor’s cousin crashed
one and died."
---
### **47. Appeal to Complexity**
Arguing something is true because it’s too complicated to understand.
**Example:** "You wouldn’t understand the science, so just trust me."
---
### **48. Argument from Repetition (Ad Nauseam)**
Repeating a claim until it’s accepted as true.
**Example:** "Our product is the best. It’s the best. It’s the best."
---
### **49. Fallacy of Special Pleading**
Making exceptions for your argument without justification.
**Example:** "Everyone should follow the rules, but I’m special, so I
don’t have to."
---
### **50. False Balance (False Equivalence)**
Presenting two sides as equally valid when they’re not.
**Example:** "Some scientists say climate change is real, and others say
it’s not, so the truth must be in the middle."
---
### **51. Moving the Goalposts**
Changing the criteria for a claim after it’s been met.
**Example:** "You proved the vaccine works, but what about long-term
effects?"
---
### **52. Fallacy of Suppressed Evidence**
Ignoring evidence that contradicts your argument.
**Example:** "This study proves my point," (while ignoring studies that
disprove it).
---
### **53. Reductio ad Absurdum**
Taking an argument to an absurd extreme to discredit it.
**Example:** "If we allow gay marriage, next people will want to marry
their pets."
---
### **54. Fallacy of Questionable Cause**
Assuming a cause-and-effect relationship without evidence.
**Example:** "I wore my lucky shirt, and we won the game, so the shirt
caused the win."
---
### **55. Fallacy of Opposition**
Assuming your opponent’s argument is wrong just because they’re your
opponent.
**Example:** "You’re a Democrat, so your argument about taxes must
be wrong."
---
### **56. Appeal to Worse Problems**
Dismissing an issue because there are bigger problems.
**Example:** "Why worry about pollution when there’s war in the
world?"
---
### **57. Appeal to Novelty**
Arguing something is better because it’s new.
**Example:** "This phone is the latest model, so it must be the best."
---
### **58. Fallacy of False Analogy**
Comparing two things that aren’t truly comparable.
**Example:** "The government is like a family, so it should run like one."
---
### **59. Appeal to Wealth**
Assuming something is true because a wealthy person says so.
**Example:** "This billionaire says taxes are bad, so they must be."
---
### **60. Argument from Silence**
Assuming something is true because it hasn’t been denied.
**Example:** "The government hasn’t denied the existence of aliens, so
they must exist."
---
### **61. Appeal to Tradition**
Arguing something is better because it’s traditional.
**Example:** "We’ve always celebrated holidays this way, so we
shouldn’t change it."
---
### **62. Fallacy of False Continuum**
Assuming there’s no clear distinction between two things because they
exist on a spectrum.
**Example:** "There’s no difference between a drizzle and a hurricane
because they’re both rain."
---
### **63. Fallacy of False Premise**
Basing an argument on a false or unsupported premise.
**Example:** "All birds can fly. Penguins are birds, so penguins can fly."
---
### **64. Appeal to Common Practice**
Arguing something is acceptable because everyone does it.
**Example:** "Everyone speeds on this road, so it’s fine if I do too."
---
### **65. Fallacy of Reification**
Treating an abstract concept as if it’s a concrete thing.
**Example:** "Society is to blame for my problems."
---
### **66. Appeal to Probability**
Assuming something will happen because it’s possible.
**Example:** "There’s a chance you could win the lottery, so you should
buy a ticket."
---
### **67. Fallacy of Division**
Assuming what’s true for the whole is true for the parts.
**Example:** "The team is great, so every player must be great."
---
### **68. Fallacy of Presumption**
Assuming something is true without evidence.
**Example:** "You’re guilty because you look suspicious."
---
### **69. Fallacy of False Consensus**
Assuming everyone agrees with you.
**Example:** "Everyone knows this policy is wrong."
---
### **70. Appeal to Celebrity**
Using a celebrity’s opinion as evidence.
**Example:** "A famous actor said this diet works, so it must be true."
---
### **71. Fallacy of Incomplete Evidence**
Ignoring evidence that contradicts your argument.
**Example:** "This study proves my point," (while ignoring studies that
disprove it).
---
### **72. Appeal to Common Belief**
Arguing something is true because many people believe it.
**Example:** "Most people believe in ghosts, so they must exist."
---
### **73. Fallacy of Inappropriate Ad Hoc Hypothesis**
Making up excuses to save a theory from being disproven.
**Example:** "The psychic’s prediction was wrong because the stars
were misaligned."
---
### **74. Fallacy of Presumptive Evidence**
Assuming evidence exists without providing it.
**Example:** "It’s obvious that this policy works, so I don’t need to
prove it."
---
### **75. Appeal to the Stone (Argumentum ad Lapidem)**
Dismissing an argument as absurd without refuting it.
**Example:** "That idea is ridiculous, so I won’t even discuss it."
---
### **76. Proof by Assertion**
Repeating a claim until it’s accepted as true.
**Example:** "This is the best product. It’s the best. It’s the best."
---
### **77. Fallacy of Confirmation Bias**
Only considering evidence that supports your beliefs.
**Example:** "I only read news that agrees with my political views."
---
### **78. Fallacy of Unwarranted Extrapolation**
Assuming a trend will continue indefinitely.
**Example:** "This stock has been rising for a week, so it will keep rising
forever."
---
### **79. Fallacy of Complex Question**
Asking a question that contains an assumption.
**Example:** "Have you stopped cheating on tests?" (Assumes you were
cheating.)
---
### **80. Appeal to Spite**
Using spite or malice to persuade.
**Example:** "Don’t vote for her; she’s just a snob."
---
### **81. Fallacy of False Attribution**
Misattributing a quote or idea to someone who didn’t say it.
**Example:** "Einstein said, 'Everything is energy,' so this crystal must
have healing powers."
---
### **82. Fallacy of Vacuous Truth**
Making a statement that is technically true but meaningless.
**Example:** "All unicorns are immortal." (Unicorns don’t exist, so the
statement is vacuous.)
---
### **83. Fallacy of Wrong Direction**
Assuming the cause and effect are reversed.
**Example:** "People who exercise are healthy, so being healthy makes
you exercise."
---
### **84. Fallacy of Extended Analogy**
Taking an analogy too far.
**Example:** "The government is like a family, so it should run like one."
---
### **85. Fallacy of Circular Cause and Consequence**
Assuming a cause and effect are the same thing.
**Example:** "I’m successful because I’m successful."
---
### **86. Fallacy of Vagueness**
Using vague language to mislead.
**Example:** "This product is the best because it’s amazing."
---
### **87. Fallacy of Origin**
Judging something based on its origin rather than its merits.
**Example:** "This idea came from a politician, so it must be bad."
---
### **88. Fallacy of Overgeneralization**
Making a broad conclusion based on a small sample.
**Example:** "I met two people from that city, and they were rude.
Everyone there must be rude."
---
### **89. Fallacy of Triviality**
Focusing on minor details to avoid addressing the main issue.
**Example:** "We shouldn’t discuss the budget; let’s talk about the
office coffee instead."
---
### **90. Fallacy of Inconsistent Comparison**
Comparing things that aren’t comparable.
**Example:** "This car is better because it’s red, and red is a faster
color."
---
### **91. Fallacy of Suppressed Correlative**
Ignoring a necessary comparison to make a claim.
**Example:** "This is the best movie ever," (without comparing it to
other movies).
---
### **92. Fallacy of Excessive Focus**
Focusing on one aspect of an issue while ignoring others.
**Example:** "This car is fast, so it must be the best car."
---
### **93. Fallacy of False Exception**
Making an exception to a rule without justification.
**Example:** "Everyone should follow the rules, but I’m special, so I
don’t have to."
---
### **94. Fallacy of Projection**
Assuming others think or feel the same way you do.
**Example:** "I love this movie, so everyone must love it too."
---
### **95. Fallacy of Circularity**
Using the conclusion as evidence for itself.
**Example:** "The Bible is true because it says so."
---
### **96. Fallacy of Empty Labelling**
Using labels without evidence to support them.
**Example:** "This policy is 'un-American,' so it must be bad."
---
### **97. Texas Sharpshooter**
Cherry-picking data to fit a pattern.
**Example:** "This town has a high number of cancer cases, so it must
be caused by the power lines."
---
### **98. Inflation of Conflict**
Exaggerating disagreements to discredit a field.
**Example:** "Scientists disagree on climate change, so it must not be
real."
---
### **99. Fallacy of Single Cause**
Assuming a complex issue has only one cause.
**Example:** "Poverty is caused by laziness."
---
### **100. Chronological Snobbery**
Dismissing something because it’s old or new.
**Example:** "This idea is outdated, so it must be wrong."
### **101. Ignoratio Elenchi (Missing the Point)**
Presenting an argument that is irrelevant to the issue at hand.
**Example:** "We should focus on improving education, not debating
school uniforms."
---
### **102. Association Fallacy**
Assuming something is true because it’s associated with something else.
**Example:** "Hitler was a vegetarian, so vegetarians must be bad
people."
---
### **103. Fallacy of False Consistency**
Assuming something must be consistent when it doesn’t have to be.
**Example:** "You said you liked cats, so why don’t you like this cat?"
---
### **104. Fallacy of Misleading Precision**
Using precise numbers to make a claim seem more credible.
**Example:** "This diet is 93.7% effective," (without evidence to back it
up).
---
### **105. Fallacy of Pseudo-Accuracy**
Using overly specific numbers to mislead.
**Example:** "This product will save you $127.43 per year," (without
explaining how).
---
### **106. Fallacy of Non Sequitur**
Drawing a conclusion that doesn’t logically follow.
**Example:** "She’s wearing red, so she must be angry."
---
### **107. Relativist Fallacy**
Claiming truth is relative to avoid criticism.
**Example:** "That’s just your opinion, so it’s not valid."
---
### **108. Whataboutery Fallacy**
Deflecting criticism by bringing up a different issue.
**Example:** "Why are you criticizing my policy when there are worse
problems in the world?"
---
### **109. Ecological Fallacy**
Assuming what’s true for a group is true for individuals in the group.
**Example:** "This country has a high average income, so everyone
there must be rich."
---
### **110. Rosy Retrospection Bias**
Remembering the past as better than it was.
**Example:** "Things were so much better in the good old days."
---
### **111. Nostalgia Bias**
Preferring things from the past simply because they’re old.
**Example:** "Music from the 80s is better than modern music."
---
### **112. Negativity Bias**
Focusing on negative information while ignoring positive information.
**Example:** "This restaurant has one bad review, so it must be
terrible."
---
### **113. I Am Not Wrong Bias**
Refusing to admit you’re wrong even when presented with evidence.
**Example:** "I don’t care what the data says; I know I’m right."
---
### **114. Projection Bias**
Assuming others think or feel the same way you do.
**Example:** "I love this movie, so everyone must love it too."
---
### **115. Ostrich Bias/Effect**
Ignoring obvious problems or risks.
**Example:** "Climate change isn’t real because I don’t see it affecting
me."
---
### **116. Bad Research**
Using flawed or biased research to support a claim.
**Example:** "This study funded by a soda company says soda is
healthy."
---
### **117. Rationalization**
Making excuses to justify bad behavior.
**Example:** "I only cheated on the test because everyone else was
doing it."
---
### **118. Oversimplification**
Reducing a complex issue to a simple explanation.
**Example:** "Poverty is caused by laziness."
---
### **119. Causal Oversimplification**
Assuming a complex issue has only one cause.
**Example:** "Crime is caused by video games."
---
### **120. Anecdotal Evidence**
Using personal stories instead of evidence.
**Example:** "My friend tried this remedy, and it worked, so it must be
effective."
---
### **121. Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence**
Demanding more evidence for claims that are unlikely.
**Example:** "You say you saw a UFO, but where’s the proof?"
---
### **122. Using Science to Justify Beliefs**
Misusing science to support personal beliefs.
**Example:** "Science says we only use 10% of our brains, so psychic
powers must be real."
---
### **123. Misinformation**
Spreading false or misleading information.
**Example:** "Vaccines cause autism," (a claim debunked by scientific
research).
---
### **124. Begging the Question**
Assuming the conclusion in the premise.
**Example:** "The Bible is true because it says so."
---
### **125. Untestable Claim**
Making a claim that cannot be proven or disproven.
**Example:** "There’s an invisible dragon in my garage."
---
### **126. Hindsight Bias**
Believing an event was predictable after it happened.
**Example:** "I knew they would lose the game."
---
### **127. Appeal to Personal Incredulity**
Claiming something must be false because you can’t understand it.
**Example:** "I can’t imagine how evolution works, so it must be
wrong."
---
### **128. Gish Gallop**
Overwhelming an opponent with too many arguments at once.
**Example:** "Here are 50 reasons why you’re wrong," (without
addressing any in detail).
---
### **129. God of the Gaps**
Using God or the supernatural to explain gaps in scientific knowledge.
**Example:** "Science can’t explain how life began, so God must have
done it."
---
### **130. Research Not Provided**
Making a claim without providing evidence.
**Example:** "Studies show this product works," (without citing the
studies).
---
### **131. Historian’s Fallacy**
Judging past decisions based on present knowledge.
**Example:** "They should have known the stock market would crash in
1929."
---
### **132. Historical Fallacy**
Assuming something is true because it happened in the past.
**Example:** "We’ve always done it this way, so it must be right."
---
### **133. Prosecutor’s Fallacy**
Misinterpreting statistical evidence in legal cases.
**Example:** "The suspect’s DNA matches the crime scene, so they
must be guilty."
---
### **134. Nirvana Fallacy**
Rejecting a solution because it’s not perfect.
**Example:** "This policy won’t solve all our problems, so it’s useless."
---
### **135. Availability Heuristic**
Overestimating the importance of information that’s easily available.
**Example:** "Plane crashes are more dangerous than car crashes
because they’re in the news more."
---
### **136. Anchoring Bias**
Relying too heavily on the first piece of information you hear.
**Example:** "This car costs $50,000, so $40,000 seems like a good
deal."
---
### **137. Dunning-Kruger Effect**
Overestimating your abilities because you lack knowledge.
**Example:** "I’ve never played chess, but I’m sure I can beat you."
---
### **138. Optimism Bias**
Overestimating the likelihood of positive outcomes.
**Example:** "I’ll definitely win the lottery this week."
---
### **139. Pessimism Bias**
Overestimating the likelihood of negative outcomes.
**Example:** "I’ll never pass this test, no matter how hard I study."
---
### **140. Self-Serving Bias**
Taking credit for success but blaming others for failure.
**Example:** "I aced the test because I’m smart, but I failed because
the teacher is unfair."
---
This is still a partial list due to the extensive number of fallacies. Let me
know if you'd like further explanations or examples for specific ones!
