playing
women’s sports after title ix
but losing
by cheryl cooky and nicole m. lavoi
Photo by Barry Madden
42 contexts.org
Title IX of the Educational Amendments to the Constitution states
that “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be
excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be sub-
jected to discrimination under any educational program or activity
receiving federal assistance.” In the nearly 40 years since it passed,
this provision has played an important role, both directly and indi-
rectly, in girls and women’s sport participation in the United States.
Title IX has dramatically increased the number of sport
opportunities for girls and women in educational institutions.
According to data collected by the National Federation of State
High School Associations, in 1971 (just prior to the passage of
Photo by Lori Fowlkes (lorielizabethphotography.com)
Title IX), 294,105 girls participated in high school sports. By 2009-
2010, that number had grown to 3,172,637. R. Vivian Acosta
and Linda Jean Carpenter, authors of an ongoing, longitudinal
study, found that female participation at the collegiate level has
increased six-fold, from 30,000 in 1977 to more than 180,000 in
2010. In short, girls and women comprise nearly 40 percent of
all interscholastic and intercollegiate sport participants.
Progress is also evidenced in other sporting realms not
directly impacted by the Title IX mandate. Today, women are
participating at the professional level in sports that seemed
beyond reach 40 years ago—including professional football we examine some of the sociological research that documents
(the Independent Women’s Football League). The growing and helps account for these shortcomings. This work speaks to
popularity of the Women’s National Basketball Association the multifaceted nature of an institution as large as sport, the
(WNBA) and the Women’s Professional Soccer (WPS) league is persistence of sexism and male dominance, and the challenges
an important phenomenon in itself. Indeed, the visibility and entailed in making social change.
excellence of female athletes and women’s sport have helped
create a broader cultural context in which female athleticism media
has become “normalized,” and in many cases, celebrated. Fans of women’s sports today find more social media sites
Sport and female athleticism have become inextricably linked to with a primary focus on female athletes; they might, for example,
the empowerment of girls and women—as in the “Girl Power” look to WomenTalkSports.com, an online blog network. More
movement in the 1990s, which led to the proliferation of repre- media outlets broadcast women’s sport and in higher broadcast
sentations of strong, athletic women in popular culture. quality than in the past. Research has shown that the produc-
Yet, despite this progress, we are far from a world of gen- tion values (such as the number of camera angles, use of slow
der equality in American sport. Compared to their male coun- motion replays, graphics, and quality of commentators) have
terparts, major inequities and shortcomings remain for female also improved dramatically over the past 20 years. Still, there is
athletes—especially in terms of media attention and opportu- a lack of coverage of women’s sport in the mainstream media.
nities to coach and lead in the world of sport. In this article, Although televised broadcast coverage of female sport
Contexts, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 42-46. ISSN 1536-5042, electronic ISSN 1537-6052. © 2012 American
Sociological Association. http://contexts.sagepub.com. DOI 10.1177/1536504212436495 winter 2012 contexts 43
participation has improved in both quality and quantity, these
gains have not translated into increased coverage in newspa-
pers, magazines, or televised news and highlight shows. For
example, in 2003 ESPN began broadcasting the entire women’s
NCAA basketball tournament on its sister station, ESPN2. How-
ever, in a longitudinal study released in 2010 by the University
of Southern California’s Center for Feminist Research, sociolo-
gists Michael Messner and Cheryl Cooky found that ESPN—the
dominant sports network in the United States—dedicated 100
segments and over 3 hours on the men’s tournament, and only
11 segments and 6½ minutes on the women’s; most of the
women’s tournament coverage was relegated to a small, scroll-
ing ticker at the bottom of the screen. Messner and Cooky also
Photo by Cara Ramsey
found that televised news media coverage of women’s sport
was at its lowest level in 20 years—it accounted for less than
two percent of televised news coverage in 2009.
Perhaps even more problematic is that when female ath-
letes do receive mainstream media attention, it is typically in
sexualized ways that trivialize their athleticism. For example, Scholars argue that the ways in which male and female ath-
one of the more disturbing trends that we have observed is letes are represented in the media maintain existing gendered
the growing number of female athletes featured in “lad mags” hierarchies, uphold sport as a male preserve, and reaffirm the
like FHM, Maxim, and Playboy. Audiences are more likely to see masculine norms and values that are dominant in the wider
a female athlete in her swimsuit lounging on the beach than society. The ways female athletes shape their own images and
in her uniform on the field. Since the early 2000s, Sports Illus- representations are also part of the package, along with the
trated has featured female athletes in the annual “Swimsuit choices of media producers, journalists, and audiences to pro-
duce and consume these images. All of
Major inequities remain for female athletes— these choices, of course, are made within
a broader context—where ways of seeing
especially in terms of media attention, distribu privilege men and masculine ideals.
Some argue that in order to com-
tion of institutional resources, and opportunities bat the trivialized and hyper-sexualized
to coach and lead in the world of sport. images of female athletes, we need more
women in positions of power within
media organizations who could challenge
Issue”—its best-selling issue every year. The issue has boasted embedded sexism and masculine ideals. Yet women are con-
top female athletes such as Serena Williams, Maria Sharapova, sistently underrepresented in such positions of power in main-
Danica Patrick, and Amanda Beard (and far more often than stream media organizations—and beyond.
they’ve appeared in any other issue of Sports Illustrated). Race-
car driver Patrick and Olympic swimmer Beard have also been taking charge—or not
in FHM, posing in ways that resemble soft-core pornography. Many of those who fought for Title IX assumed that a
And this past summer, the German U-20 women’s soccer team rise in female sports participation would automatically trans-
showed up in the German edition of Playboy, just days before late to increased leadership opportunities for women in sport.
the 2011 Women’s World Cup, to help “promote the sport.” This expectation has not been borne out. Despite the fact that
As sociologist Mary Jo Kane recently argued in a column for female athletic participation is at a historic high at all levels of
The Nation, such images “sell sex” but do little to legitimize sport, women are a scarce minority in positions of power within
and promote female athleticism. Stereotypical representations sports organizations. For example, Acosta and Carpenter have
of this sort would not be so troubling if media images of female shown that the percentage of women in coaching and admin-
athletic competence were commonplace. istrative positions in women’s sport has actually declined, from
There are certainly far more female athletes, professional over 90 percent to roughly 40 percent, since Title IX passed—
leagues, and female athlete superstars today than there were and this percentage is lower than at any time in history except
20 or 30 years ago. So, why does the media continue to in 2006. In fact, in the most visible and arguably most impor-
silence, ignore, trivialize, and hyper-sexualize female athletes? tant positions in sport—head coaches, athletic administrators,
44 contexts.org
and sports editors—women remain so marginalized they’re
essentially statistical tokens—that is, they represent less than
15 percent of the workforce population.
A by-the-numbers analysis paints a bleak picture. In Febru-
ary, 2011 the Chronicle of Higher Education reported that only
five of the 120 athletic directors in women’s Division I-A—the
biggest and most prominent collegiate programs—are women.
Only 19 percent of collegiate athletic directors across all divisional
levels are female. These stats actually represent a sharp decline
from the early 1970s, when over 90 percent of those who over-
saw female athletics programs were women. And at the Associ-
ated Press, for instance, 94 percent of sports editors are men.
Although there is no national data on women in high
school or youth sport leadership, Nicole LaVoi and Cindra
Kamphoff, researchers affiliated with the Tucker Center at the
Photo by Mark Chandler
University of Minnesota, suggest the trends at those levels are
similar. An analysis of one state-level youth soccer association
showed that women seldom occupy positions as head coach
(15.1 percent) or assistant coach (18.9 percent). As in other
sports, women are clustered in the less prestigious and less vis-
ible position of team manager, coach for younger age groups homophobia and heterosexism also impact female participa-
or coach at the lower competitive levels. tion and career trajectories. Some lesbians remain closeted due
What factors explain why women are so poorly represented to perceived threats to their job security and advancement,
in positions of sport leadership? Scholars have uncovered many recruitment issues, and fear of discrimination and backlash.
complex barriers that come into play. In order to gain credibility, Heterosexual athletes and coaches—who must constantly
female coaches and administrators often have to perform at “prove” their sexual identity, deal with persistent negative ste-
higher levels than their male colleagues. They may feel pressure rotypes, or defend their sport participation choices—are also
to conform to organizational norms in order to succeed, rather affected. Despite increasing tolerance for gays and lesbians in
than challenge them. Women are also at increased risk for gen- mainstream society, research (and accounts such as coach and
der discrimination due to sexual harassment, wage inequities, star athlete Pat Griffin’s ground-breaking Strong Women, Deep
and limited opportunities for promotion. Closets) suggest that the fears of female athletes, coaches, and
In one recent study, Messner inter-
viewed women who were involved in
an American Youth Soccer Organiza-
When a female athlete receives mainstream
tion (AYSO) league. He found that many media attention, audiences are more likely to
women experienced informal negative
interactions, including overt sexism and see her in her swimsuit lounging on the beach
challenges to their authority by male
coaches, parents, and the “old-boys
than in her uniform on the field.
network” at work in their league. These
experiences, taken together, created a “glass ceiling” that administrators are not unfounded.
influenced many women to “opt out” of coaching youth sport. Surprisingly, men’s professional sport—historically one of
Similar dynamics also occur in other sport organizations as the most homophobic contexts—may be inching toward prog-
women “choose” to opt out of careers as head coach, athletic ress on this front. During the 2011 NBA playoffs, a public service
director, or sports editor, in part because of the informal inter- announcement featuring NBA stars Grant Hill and Jared Dudley
actions in these male-dominated and male-identified contexts. challenged NBA players (and, presumably, fans) to resist anti-
Women may also opt out of demanding, high profile, time con- gay name-calling. Athletes in other men’s professional sports
suming, and stressful positions, and instead choose to remain have also advocated for the rights of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and
in supporting roles (such as assistant coaches, associate and transgender individuals. Leading up to the 2011 Stanley Cup
assistant athletic directors, and assistant sports editors) in which playoffs, National Hockey League player Sean Avery publicly
work-life balance and quality of life is more possible to achieve. endorsed gay marriage, and straight athlete Hudson Taylor
At the higher, more competitive levels of sport, formed a non-profit organization called “Athlete Ally” to take
winter 2012 contexts 45
“proactive steps to end homopho- at Columbia College, Chicago is
bia and transphobia in sports.” training high school girls in inves-
tigative journalism, Title IX, and
taking stock, looking gender and race in media analysis
forward with the goal of educating and
As athletes, girls and women empowering girls to create posi-
have gained entry into the institu- tive social change in sport. Another
tion of sport. Still, sexism, mas- promising program is Pat Griffin’s
culine ideals, and homophobia Changing the Game: The GLSEN
continue to be reproduced within Project, which uses education and
sport contexts at all competitive advocacy to address lesbian, gay,
levels. In other words, the move- bisexual, and transgender issues in
ment for gender equality in Ameri- K-12 physical education programs.
can sport is partial, the revolution And the newly-formed Alliance for
incomplete. Women Coaches advocates for
Photo by Mark Chandler
There are well-documented equal opportunities for all women
health, social, and psychological in athletics, and provides ongoing
benefits for girls and women who support to women in the coaching
participate in sport. Sport is, to be profession. Programs such as these
sure, also one of the most impor- offer the potential for new genera-
tant American social institutions. Women’s equal participation tions to fully achieve gender equality in sport.
in sport can help change outdated stereotypes about women’s
capabilities and capacities. This isn’t just good for girls and recommended readings
women: it’s good for everyone. Acosta, R. Vivian and Linda Jean Carpenter. Women in Intercol-
Let there be no doubt: the institutional, societal, and legiate Sport: A Longitudinal, National Study (2010, online at
acostacarpenter.org). An ongoing, longitudinal study that tracks
cultural barriers standing in the way may be large and com- athletic participation rates, and coaching and administrative posi-
plicated, but gender equality in sport does have broad-based tions, in women’s collegiate sport.
support in the United States. Indeed, a recent New York Times Griffin, Pat. Strong Women, Deep Closets: Lesbians and Homo
article concluded that most Americans approve of efforts to phobia in Sport (Human Kinetics Publishers, 1998). Examines
homophobia through interviews with athletes, coaches, and
address gender equality, such as Title IX. Unfortunately, social
sport administrators.
change is slow and often difficult, and it requires multifaceted
Hogshead-Maker, Nancy and Andrew Zimbalist. Equal Play: Title
approaches. Legislative changes alone cannot address the sex- IX and Social Change (Temple University Press, 2007). A compre-
ism and homophobia that often undergird gender-based forms hensive history of Title IX and its impact on sport and society.
of inequality in institutional contexts. LaVoi, Nicole M. and Cindra Kamphoff. “Females in Positions
The under-representation of women in positions of power of Power in High School Athletics” (in progress). An AAHPERD-
funded longitudinal study that aims to reproduce Acosta and
is, of course, not unique to sport. And progress in social insti-
Carpenter’s analysis of females in positions of power at the inter-
tutions is often re-articulated or re-appropriated in ways that scholastic level.
defuse its progressive or liberatory potential. Though female Messner, Michael A. and Cheryl Cooky. Gender in Televised
athletes receive more broadcast media coverage than they Sports: News and Highlight Shows, 1989-2009 (2010, online at
did in the past (for example, when ESPN broadcasts the entire usc.edu/dept/cfr/html/documents/tvsports.pdf). A longitudinal
study of the quality and quantity of televised news media cover-
NCAA women’s basketball tournament), news coverage, age of sport.
advertising, and popular cultural representations still highlight
female athletes’ heterosexuality and femininity over their ath-
Cheryl Cooky is in the department of health and kinesiology and the women’s
letic accomplishments, thus trivializing their sport experience.
studies program at Purdue University and an affiliated scholar of the Tucker Center
So while we are optimistic about the future of girls and
for Research on Girls & Women in Sport at the University of Minnesota. She stud-
women’s sport, we are uncertain about what the future holds.
ies gender in sport participation and in sports media. Nicole M. LaVoi is in the
The current generation of girls and boys, who are coming of
School of Kinesiology and is the Associate Director of the Tucker Center for Research
age in a world in which females are participating in sport at all
on Girls & Women in Sport at the University of Minnesota. She studies gender in
competitive levels, will be the coaches, administrators, media
sport, particularly the lack of female coaches, underserved populations of girls, and
producers, and sport journalists of tomorrow. Advocacy and
sports media.
educational programs are supporting gender equity among the
“post-Title IX” generation; for example, the Fair Shot Project
46 contexts.org
