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CHAPTER III: LEARNING, Original Stimulus – Response

PERCEPTION, AND ATTRIBUTION |
Neutral Stimulus – Conditioned
LEARNING
Stimulus – Conditioned Response
o Relatively permanent change in
behavior or knowledge due to
experience. When a person behaves
differently from what he previously
did, it can be said that there is
change, there is learning.
A change in behavior happens due:
1. Learning
2. Other causes such as drugs, injury,
maturation, disease and maturation
Behavioral changes start with the mind
when it accepts new knowledge. Operant Conditioning OC
Sometimes, the mind orders the body to
show some signs of behavior that is o Type of learning where people learn
different from the previous one. to repeat behaviors that bring them
Sometimes, the mind is just contented with to pleasurable outcomes and to
the knowledge and do not make attempts to avoid behaviors that lead to
order the body to show some outward uncomfortable outcomes.
manifestations of the behavioral change. Learning – Repeat – behavior –
Theories of Learning pleasurable
|
1. Classical conditioning Avoid – Behavior – uncomfortable o.
2. Operant conditioning
3. Social learning
Classical Conditioning CC
o Type of learning in which a stimulus
acquires the capacity to evoke
responses that was originally
evoked by another stimulus. A
stimulus is something that incites
action ex. “demotion in rank”.
o A learning process that occurs when
two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a
response that is a first elicited by the
second stimulus is eventually
elicited by the first stimulus alone.
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Four Quadrants of Operant Conditioning How social learning be achieved?

SL may be done in three (3) ways:
1. By observing what happened to
other
2. By being told about an experience
3. Through direct experience
Perception
o Process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment
o May be defined as the process by
which people select, organize,
interpret, retrieve, and respond to
information from their
1. Positive Reinforcement +R – environment.
adding good stuff to increase Why is this important to the study of OB?
behavior
2. Negative Punishment -P – delaying o The reason is people’s behavior is
good stuff to decrease a behavior based on their perception of what
3. Positive Punishment +P – adding reality is, and not on reality itself.
bad stuff to delay behavior people's actions and decisions are guided
by their personal interpretations of the
4. Negative Reinforcement -R –
world, rather than by objective reality.
delaying bad stuff to increase Each person filters reality through their
behavior own experiences, beliefs, and biases, which
shape how they perceive situations and
others. As a result, two people might react
differently to the same event because they
Difference of the two perceive it differently.
CC – involves adjustment to events
(whether conditioned or otherwise) over
which the person has no control Factors influencing Perception:

OC – involves adjustment to situations in Perceiver – (1)past experiences, (2)needs or

which the actions of the person determine motives, (3)personality, (4)values and
what happens to him attitudes

Social Learning SL Target – (1)intensity, (2)figure-ground

presentation, (3)size, (3)motion, and
o Defined as the process of observing (4)repetition or novelty
the behavior of others, recognizing
its consequences, and altering Situation – (1)time, (2)work setting, and
behavior as a result. One of the (3)social setting
ways by which people learn is
Attribution
through social contracts with other
people.
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o Process by which people ascribe Shortcuts used in forming impressions of

causes to the behavior they others – we use number of shortcuts when
perceive. judging others. Those judgments constitute
o Our perception and judgment are database in our minds that we later use as
influenced by the following aides in making decisions concerning
assumptions: others.
1. Making inferences about
Selective Perception – when an individual
people’s actions that we do not
interprets based on his own interests,
make to inanimate objects
background, experiences, and attitudes.
2. Nonliving objects are subjects
to the law of nature Halo Effect – when one attribute of a person
3. People have beliefs, motives, or is used to develop an overall impression of
intentions. the person or situation.
Two kinds of causation: Drawing a general impression on a single
characteristic. For example, if you find someone
1. Internally caused behaviors are
physically attractive, you might also perceive them
those under in personal control of as more intelligent or friendly, even if you don’t have
the individual evidence to support that.
2. Externally caused behaviors seen as
resulting from outside causes; been Contrast effects – evaluation of a person’s
forced into this behavior by attributes or characteristics that are affected
situation. by comparisons with other people

Factors that influence Attribution Projection – attributing one’s thoughts to

another. Tendency to attribute one’s own
1. Distinctiveness – how consistent a characteristics to other people that can
person’s behavior is across distort perceptions about other people.
situations
2. Consistency – measure whether an Stereotyping – judging someone on the
individual responds the same way basis of the society’s perception of the
throughout the time group where this person belongs.
3. Consensus – likelihood that all
facing the same situation will have
the same responses
Common attribute errors
1. Fundamental Attribution Error – the
tendency to underestimate the
influence of external factors and
overestimate the internal factors in
the behavior of others
2. Self-serving bias – the tendency of
individuals to attribute their own
success to their good inner qualities
(internal factors) whereas they
attribute their failures to adverse
factors within the environment.
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CHAPTER IV: VALUES, ATTITUDES, Communication of Attitudes - refers to

AND JOB SATISFACTION the expression or sharing of personal
viewpoints, feelings, or opinions through
Values – represent basic convictions that a
verbal or non-verbal cues, which can
specific mode of conduct or end-state of
influence or reflect an individual's stance on
existence is personally or socially
a topic.
preferable to an opposite or converse mode
of conduct or end-state of existence. Unstated but implied Attitudes - refer to
underlying feelings or opinions that are not
It is a judgmental element of what is good,
directly expressed but can be inferred
right, or desirable.
through tone, behavior, or context.
o Values lay the foundation for the
refer to underlying feelings or opinions that
understanding of attitudes and
are not directly expressed but can be
motivation because they influence
inferred through tone, behavior, or context.
our perceptions.
o Individuals enter organizations with Religion – values are also learned through
notions of what is right and wrong religion. For example, the just and fair
with which they interpret behaviors treatment of people is a value that is taught
or outcomes. by priests or ministers of various religious
o Values generally influence attitudes sets.
and behavior.
Types of Values
VALUES ATTITUDES JOB
1. Achievement – pertains to getting
SATISFACTION things done and working hard to
More about values: accomplish goals.
2. Helping and being concern for
o Refer to the importance a person others – refers to the person’s
attaches to things or ideas that concern with other people and
serves as guide to action. providing assistance to those who
o Are the enduring beliefs that one’s need help.
mode of conduct Is better than the 3. Honesty – indicates the person’s
opposite mode of conduct. concern for telling the truth and
How people learn values? doing what he thinks is right.
4. Fairness – indicates the person’s
1. Modeling concern for impartiality (dika bias) and
2. Communication of Attitudes fairness for all concerned.
3. Unstated but implied attitudes
4. Religion Organizational Values OV – abstract
ideas that guide organizational thinking and
Modeling – parents, teacher, friends, and action.
other people often times become models to
person who would later exhibit good Individual’s Values IV – refers to the
behavior in the workplace. principles that a person lives by.
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*if these two (OV ug IV) are congruent Attitudes – a learned predisposition
(magkasinabot or in harmony), it leads to positive (likelihood to act a certain way based on things like your
feelings. But if not, awh sumbagay) to respond in a
family background or experiences)

Espoused vs Enacted Values consistently favorable or unfavorable

manner with respect to a given object.
Espoused – what members of the org say Attitudes affect behavior at a different
they value like ethical practice. level than values do.
Enacted – values that are reflected in the Significance of Attitudes to studying
actual behavior of the individual members Human Behavior:
of the organization – the “reality”
o They are linked with perception,
Rokeach Value Survey by Milton Rokeach learning, emotions, and motivation
o Terminal Values o Feelings and beliefs that largely
o Instrumental Values determine how employees will
perceive their environment, commit
Terminal Values – represents the goals that themselves to intended actions, and
a person would like to achieve in his or her ultimately behave.
lifetime.
The Components of an Attitude
o Happiness
o Pleasure 1. Cognitive (evaluation) – ex: diko
o Freedom nahan kang kuan kay bati syag
o Self-respect batasan.
o World peace 2. Affective (feeling) – ex: di nako sya
o Equality bet.
o Achievement 3. Behavioral (action) – ex: di ko
o Inner peace muduol ana niya.
o Wisdom These are layman examples of a
o Prosperity negative attitude towards a person
o Family security and how they relate to each
o Friendship component.
o Mature love Differences in Personal Disposition
Instrumental Values – refers to preferable 1. Positive Affectivity – usually
modes or ways of behavior to achieve optimistic, upbeat, and cheerful.
terminal values. They see everything happens for a
reason.
o Ambition 2. Negative Affectivity – generally
o Honesty pessimistic, downbeat, and irritable.
o Competence Have a dark view on things.
o Responsibility Opinion: It is not always seeming this way.
Sometimes, it’s better to acknowledge things
o Open-mindedness negatively esp in bad situations as they are your
o Courage real feelings. Mas maka realize ka and see
o Obedience things better through different angles. On the
other hand, seeing everything like a sunshine is
o Cleanliness toxic sometimes. Hiding everything behind an
“okay” is obviously not okay.
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How attitudes are form? about one’s job is not positive, the
appropriate term is job satisfaction.
Answer: through learning. Two methods
which mostly influence attitude – direct and When people are satisfied with their job,
indirect experience means of social benefits become possible:
learning.
1. High productivity
Direct experience – you experience it 2. Stronger tendency to achieve
yourself. Most accessible information
customer loyalty
stored in the human mind.
3. Loyalty to the company
Indirect experience – result of social 4. Low absenteeism and turnover
interactions. 5. Less job stress and burnout
Most important attitudes in the 6. Better safety performance
workplace which most of the research of 7. Better life satisfaction
OB has been concerned with: Factors Associated with Job Satisfaction
1. Job Satisfaction: collection of 1. Salary: adequacy and perceived
positive/negative feelings that an equity compared with others.
individual holds towards his or her 2. Work itself: wherein job tasks are
job. considered interesting
2. Job Involvement: Identifying with 3. Promotion opportunity: chances for
the job, actively participating in it, further advancement.
and considering performance 4. Quality of supervision: technical
important to self -worth. competence and the interpersonal
3. Organization Commitment: skills of one’s immediate superior.
Identifying with a particular 5. Relationship with co-workers:.
organization and its goals, and Wherein co-workers are friendly,
wishing to maintain membership in competent,and supportive. gabasa
the organization. paka? Kay undangon na nato ni
6. Working condition: wherein the
Effects of Employees attitudes:
physical work environment is
1. Positive Job Attitudes comfortable and supportive of
2. Negative Job Attitudes productivity,
7. Job security: beliefs that one’s
position is relatively secure and
Making Positive Attitudes Work for the continued employment with the
Organization organization is a reasonable
expectation.
1. Makes it easy for the organization to
coexist Ways of Measuring Job Satisfaction

1. The Single Global Rating Method:

the approach where individuals are
Job Satisfaction – the positive feeling
asked, “how satisfied are you with
about one’s job resulting from an evaluation
your job?”. The respondents
of its characteristics. When the feeling
indicate their answers by putting a
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check (/) before any of the numbers 1. Affective Commitment –

from 5-1 as indicated below: employee’s emotional attachment to
___1. High satisfied the organization and belief in its
___2. Moderately satisfied values.
___3. Indifferent 2. Continuance commitment –
___4. Moderately dissatisfied employee’s tendency to remain in
___5. Highly dissatisfied an organization because he cannot
afford to leave.
2. The Summation Score Method: the 3. Normative commitment – an
approach where individuals indicate obligation to remain in a company
their feelings regarding each key for moral reason.
factors of their job which normally
consists of the work, supervision,
current salary, etc.
A standard scale is used to rate the
factors and then the overall job
satisfaction is derived.

___% 1. Work itself

___% 2. Salary (or pay)
___% 3. Promotion opportunities
___% 4. Supervision
___% 5. Co-workers

Note: to be filled by the enumerator:

___% overall percentage score

Job Involvement – the degree to which a

person identifies with the job, actively
participates in it, and considers
performance as important to self-worth.
View as central part of their overall lives.
Positive self-image is a result of a person’s
holding a meaningful job and actively
performing it.

Organizational Commitment – the degree

to which an employee identifies with a
particular organization and its goal and
wishes to maintain membership in the
organization.

Three (3) Dimensions of Organizational

Commitment:
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CHAPTER V: MOTIVATION • Relates to what an individual

chooses to do when he is confronted
MOTIVATION
with a number of possible choices.
Job Performance
• Persistence
• Capacity to perform: Relates to the
• It is a dimension of motivation
degree to which the employee
which measures how long a person
possesses skills, abilities,
can maintain efforts to achieve an
knowledge, and experiences
organization’s goal.
relevant
Theories of Motivation.
• Opportunity to perform
There are various theories related to
• Depend on the work environment
motivation. They may be classified as
provided to the employee
either:
• Wilingness to perform
1. Content Theories
• This relates to the degree to which
2. Process Theories.
an employee desires and is willing
to exert effort to achieve the goals Content Theories are those that focus
assigned to him on analyzing the wants and needs of an
individual. The four better-known
Motivation.
content theories are the following:
• The process of activating behavior,
1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory of
sustaining it, and directing it toward
Abraham Maslow
a particular goal.
2. ERG Theory of Clayton Alderfer
• Moves people to act and
accomplish. 3. Acquired Needs Theory of David L.
McClelland
• Set of internal forces that cause a
worker or employee to choose a 4. Two-Factor Theory of Frederick
course and engage in a certain Herzberg
behavior.
Process Theories explain how people
• P = M x A where P (Performance), act in response to the wants and needs
M (Motivation), and A (Ability) that they have. Classified under process
theories are the following
Key Elements of Motivation.
1. Expectancy Theory of Victor
• Intensity
Vroom
• This refers to the level of effort
2. Equity Theory of J. Stacey Adams
provided by the employee in the
attempt to achieve the goal assigned 3. Goal Setting Theory of Edwin A.
to him. Locke
• Directions
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CONTENT THEORIES • This refers to the needs satisfied by

meaningful social and interpersonal
Hierarchy of Needs by Abraham Maslow
relationships;
1. Physiological Needs (last)
3. Growth (G)
• Which include hunger, thirst,
• This refers to the needs satisfied by
shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
an individual making creative or
2. Safety Needs (4th) productive contributions.

• Which include security and Acquired Needs Theory by Maclelland

protection from physical and
Acquired needs theory was
emotional harm.
developed as a result of a research made by
3. Social Needs (3rd) David McClelland and his associates. They
found out that managers are motivated by
• Which include affection,
three fundamental needs which may e
belongingness, acceptance, and
briefly describe as follows:
friendship.
1. Need of Achievement
4. Esteem Needs (2nd)
• This refers to the desire to do
• Which include internal esteem
something better or more
factors such as self-respect,
efficiently, to solve problems, or to
autonomy, and achievement, and
master complex tasks
external esteem factors such as
status, recognition, and attention. 2. Need of Affiliation

5. Self-actualization (1st) • Which refers to the desire to

establish and maintain friendly and
• Refers to the drive to become what
warm relations with others
one is capable of becoming. Which
includes 3. Need for Power

The ERG Theory by Alderfer • Which refers to the desire to control

others, to influence their behavior,
The ERG theory is a need hierarchy
or to be responsible for others.
theory of motivation that was developed by
Clayton Alderfer. He believed that in The Two-Factor Theory by Frederick
motivation people, we are confronted by Hezberg
three sets of needs:
Frederick Hezberg identifies job
1. Existence (E) context as a source of job dissatisfaction
and job content as the source of job
• This refers to needs satisfied by
satisfaction.
such factors as food, air, water, pay,
and working conditions; The job context or working setting
relates more to the environment in which
2. Relatedness (R)
people work. The factors associated with
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job context are called hygiene factors which Vroom elaborated by explaining
include the following: that motivation is a product of the following
factors:
1. Organizational Policies
1. Valence
2. Quality of Supervision
• How much one wants a reward;
3. Working Condition
2. Expectancy
4. Base Wage or Salary
• One’s estimate of the probability
5. Relationship with Peers
that effort will result in successful
6. Relationship with Subordinates performance;

7. Status 3. Instrumentality

8. Security • One’s estimate that performance

will result in receiving the reward.

The three factors are useful in deriving

The job content relates more to what people
motivation. The formula is as follows:
actually do in their work. Those that are
related to job content are called motivator 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 ×
factors and they consist of the following: 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1. Achievement Equity Theory by Adam
2. Recognition Defined as a theory that individuals
compare job inputs and outcomes with
3. Work Itself
those of others and then respond to
4. Responsibility eliminate inequities.
5. Advancement This assumes that employees are
motivated by a desire to be equitable treated
6. Growth
at work. Equity exists when employees
According to the two-factor theory, when perceive that the ratios of their inputs (or
the foregoing factors are not present, there efforts) to their outputs (or rewards) are
is low job satisfaction among workers and equivalent to the ratios of other employees.
there is lack of motivation to perform. Inequity exists when these ratios are not
equivalent. In simpler terms, equity is ang imong
PROCESS THEORIES madawdaw according to what you need or deserve kay if we say
equality, everyone receives the same thing but with equity, every
Expectancy Theory by Victor Vroom employee receives reward just the way they deserve it.

This theory sees people as choosing a The person, however, will be confronted
course of action according to what they with any of the two types of inequity:
anticipate will give them the greatest
1. Over Rewarded; or
rewards.
2. Under Rewarded
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Each of these have respective reactions to it. Employees being - Personality

over rewarded might be motivated to do better next time while the
latter might either push employees to be competitive next time or - Values
discourage them. - Abilities
GOAL SETTING THEORY by Edwin - Attitudes
Locke 2. Organizational Factors
It may be defined as the theory that - Leadership
specific and difficult goals, with feedback - Job Design
lead to higher performance. - Rewards and Recognition
Goal setting theory is based on the premise - Organizational Culture
that behavior is regulated by values and Motivational Techniques in Motivation
goals. A goal is the specific target that an
individual is trying to achieve. 1. Intrinsic Motivation: refers to the
act of doing something that does
a. Specific goals lead to a higher not have any obvious external
performance than generalized rewards. You do it because it’s
goals. enjoyable and interesting to you.
b. Performance generally - Job Enrichment
increases in direct proportion to - Empowerment
- Autonomy
goal difficulty.
c. For goals to improved 2. Extrinsic Motivation: refers to the
performance, they must be behavior of individuals to perform
accepted by the workers. tasks and learn new skills because
d. Goals are more effective when of external rewards or avoidance of
they are used to evaluate punishment.
performance. - Financial Rewards
- Non-financial Rewards
e. Goals should be link to - Performance Appraisal
Feedback. Systems
JOB CRAFTING
Motivational Methods and Programs.
Common types of job crafting: when people
make small changes to their work tasks or how they do 1. motivation through job design;
their job to make it more enjoyable or meaningful. 2. organizational behavior
modification;
1. Changing the number and type of 3. motivation through recognition and
job task pride; and
4. motivation through financials
2. Changing the interaction with incentives
others in the job; and
Motivation Through Job Design:
3. Changing in one views of job
One way of motivating employees is to
make their job challenging so that the
Factors affecting motivation worker who is responsible for it enjoys
doing it. This management activity is called
1. Individual Factors
job design, when it is under taken, some
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useful benefits will accrue to the E. Control over scheduling - which

organization. means the employee has the ability to
schedule his work
Job design may be defined as the way the
elements in a job are organized. F. Unique experience - which means
the job has unique qualities or features, like
the opportunity to see the world.
Three concepts are important in
G. Direct communication authority -
designing jobs:
which means the job provides the employee
1. job enrichment the opportunity to communicate directly
with people who use their output.
2. job characteristics model
H. Control over resources - which
3. job crafting
means the employee has some control over
resources such as money, material, or
people.
Job Enrichment
I. Personal accountability - which
• This term refers to the practice of
means the employee is responsible for his
building motivating factors like
or her result. He accepts credits for doing a
responsibility, achievement and
good job, and blame for a poor job.
recognition into job content.
B. Job Characteristics Model
• Job enrichment provides the worker
with a more exciting job and it • This term refers to the method of job
increases his job satisfaction and design that focuses on the task and
motivation. interpersonal demands of a job.

• This method emphasizes the

interaction between the individual
Characteristics Of Job Enrichment
and the specific attributes of the job.
A. Direct feedback - which means
• Job Characteristics Theory -
employees receive immediate evaluation of
maintains that there are five core job
their work.
characteristics of special
B. Client relationships - which means importance to job design.
an employee is given a chance to serve an
Five Job Characteristics :
external or internal client.
1. Skill Variety: The degree to which
C. New learning - which means that
a job requires multiple skills to
the employee acquires new knowledge
perform.
while doing his work.
2. Task Identity- The degree to which
D. Control over method - which means
a worker can complete a job from
that the employee has some control over
start to finish with a tangible
which method to choose to accomplish a
outcome.
task.
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3. Task Significance: The degree to

which a job has a significant impact
on others' lives or work.

4. Autonomy: The degree to which a

job provides freedom,
independence, and discretion in
scheduling and procedures.

5. Feedback: The degree to which a

job provides direct information
about performance.