Journal of Economics and Allied Research Vol.
7, Issue 2 (June, 2022) ISSN: 2536-7447
IMPLICATIONS OF COVID-19 FOR AGRICULTURE, FOOD SECURITY, AND
POVERTY IN NIGERIA
OSMOND N. OKONKWO
Department of Economics, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri,
Imo State. [email protected]. +2348182230979
OGWURU, HYCENTH OGUEJIOFOALU RICHARD
Novana University, Ogume. Delta State.
[email protected]. +2348032743412
OKEZIE A. IHUGBA
Department of Economics, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri,
Imo State. [email protected]. +234835501438
DESMOND OKECHUKWU ECHETA
University of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Umuagwo. Imo State
[email protected]. +2348037248832
CHARLES O. MANASSEH
Department of Banking and Finance, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Enugu State.
[email protected] +2348036767885
ABSTRACT
Covid-19 pandemic appeared to have permanently changed the mode of life, whereby
covid-19 mitigating measures have become a unifying world order. All spheres of human
life are greatly affected and adversely too. In Nigeria unfortunately, the food chain has
become the worst hit resulting from the crushing effects of the pandemic on agriculture.
There has been a consistent increase in prices of agricultural products since the February
2020 national lockdown in Nigeria. While Nigeria continues to witness a persistent fall in
agricultural output, including food, the prices of food and other agricultural produce keep
hitting the roof. The abysmal government interventions riddled with corruption and
effectively excluding the mass poor farmers further exacerbated their poor living
conditions, while more Nigerians are pushed into poverty. The study involved an
exploratory analysis of the immediate impacts of covid-19 mitigation measures and
interventions on agriculture, food security, and poverty in Nigeria. The major objective of
this study is to better understand the implications of the covid-19 pandemic for agriculture,
food security, and poverty in Nigeria.
Keywords: Covid-19 pandemic, Agriculture, Food security, Poverty.
JEL code: I31, I38, Q18.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Covid-19 pandemic is a global health disaster that is already wreaking havoc on the
global economy, both directly and indirectly. Agriculture and the food industry are also
33 | P a g e
Journal of Economics and Allied Research Vol. 7, Issue 2 (June, 2022) ISSN: 2536-7447
being impacted. While food supplies have held up well thus far, the precautions taken to
prevent the virus from spreading in many countries, including Nigeria, are beginning to
obstruct the transportation of agro-food products to markets and consumers both within and
outside of borders. The composition of the industry, as well as the degree of demand for
individual commodities, is rapidly changing.
How harmful these effects are to food security, nutrition, and the livelihoods of farmers,
fishermen, and others working in the food supply chain will be determined in great part by
policy responses in the short, medium, and long term. Governments must respond to many
demands in the short term, including responding to the health crisis, managing the effects
of the economic shock, and guaranteeing the smooth operation of agriculture and the food
supply chain. While the pandemic creates some immediate issues for the food system, it
also presents an opportunity to accelerate transformations in the food and agriculture sector
to strengthen its resilience in the face of a variety of threats, including climate change.
In December 2019, a new coronavirus (dubbed "Covid-19") produced a respiratory ailment
outbreak that began in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China, and has since spread
throughout the country. Hundreds of thousands of people have been infected with Covid-
19 in China, according to health experts, with the virus spreading from person to person in
some areas. Infections with Covid-19 have been documented in a growing number of
international locales, the majority of which are linked to travel from Wuhan. Worldometer1
recorded 28,726 confirmed Covid-19 incidences, with 3,826 in critical condition, 565
deaths, and 1,170 recovered, affecting 28 nations and territories worldwide.
The fatality rate of the new coronavirus has been projected by World Health Organization
(WHO) to be around 2% (WFP, 2020), which is significantly lower than the Middle East
Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) case fatality rate of 34% and Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome (SARS) case fatality rate of 10%. (WHO, 2020). The virus's incubation period
can last as little as 2 days or as long as 14 days (World Health Organization: 2-10 days;
China's National Health Commission: 2-14 days; United States' Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) and 10-14 days, during which the virus is contagious but
the patient shows no symptoms, asymptomatic transmission).
Covid-19 can infect people of all ages, but it appears that seniors and persons with pre-
existing medical disorders (such as asthma, diabetes, or heart-related diseases) are more
likely to become seriously ill (and could be fatal) as a result of the Covid-19. Patients
infected with Covid-19 are the main sources of infection. Asymptomatic instances, on the
other hand, should be given attention since they may play a crucial part in the transmission
process. The main modes of transmission are respiratory droplets and touch. The primary
transmission vectors of Covid-19 infection in children include close contact with
symptomatic individuals and asymptomatic cases with silent infection. Severe cases are
more likely to occur in the elderly and those with underlying chronic conditions. So far, all
pediatric cases of Covid-19 infection that have been verified in the lab have been mild, and
no deaths have been reported.
Adult data shows that severe individuals frequently develop dyspnea one week following
the commencement of the disease. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), septic
shock, refractory metabolic acidosis, and coagulation malfunction can all develop quickly
in severe cases. Although no child deaths have been documented to date, the potential for
mortality should be recognized. ARDS and death cases occurred in infected children
during the SARS and MERS pandemics, even though clinical signs in pediatric patients are
generally less than in adult patients. Differential diagnosis is required to rule out influenza,
parainfluenza, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus, human metapneumovirus,
SARS coronavirus, and other recognized viral illnesses, as well as mycoplasma pneumonia,
34 | P a g e
Journal of Economics and Allied Research Vol. 7, Issue 2 (June, 2022) ISSN: 2536-7447
chlamydia pneumonia, and bacterial pneumonia. Covid-19 infection with other viruses
and/or bacteria should be taken into account when making a diagnosis.
Beyond the public health repercussions of regional or global outbreaks of emerging and
endemic infectious diseases, there are sometimes broader socioeconomic consequences that
are overlooked in risk and impact assessments. Infectious diseases that are endemic start
off a complicated sequence of reactions in the economy. They are uncommon and extreme
events, with a wide range of characteristics and volatility over time and between countries.
The idiosyncratic nature of pandemic infectious diseases is determined by a variety of
factors, including the magnitude and duration of the event, the size and state of the local
economy, the geographical areas affected, population density, and the time of occurrence.
The pandemic has both direct and indirect costs; direct costs may include death losses and
shortages of agricultural products (plants and livestock), while indirect costs may include
reduced worker productivity and restrictions on international travel and trade. "Beyond the
toll of human lives and suffering, the pandemic now hitting the world is already having a
significant economic impact in terms of forgone outputs, higher fiscal deficits and prices;
lower real family incomes, and increased poverty," according to the World Bank Report
(2020). The expenditures on health treatment and lost productivity of all agents along the
agricultural production chain, from farmers to extension workers, intermediaries, and
transporters, are among the economic repercussions of Covid-19 on the Nigerian
agricultural sector. These have a significant impact on the food supply chain, posing a
threat to food security.
The main objective of this research study is to conduct an exploratory investigation of the
immediate effects of covid-19 mitigation measures and initiatives in Nigeria on agricultural
productivity, food security, and poverty.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual Issues
Nigeria is Africa's most populous country, with high poverty rates, a huge informal
economy, a heavy reliance on imported commodities, and a high level of vulnerability to
food price volatility (Benson, Amare & Ogunniyi 2020). Due to weather shocks to
agricultural production, restricted access to markets and infrastructure, and global food
price volatility on imported staple commodities, the country sees large seasonal and
geographical food price changes (Amare, M., Jensen, Shiferaw & Cisse, 2018). Nigeria
was one of the first African countries to record covid-19 cases, and as a result, it was one
of the African countries that suffered severe economic disruptions as a result of the
pandemic.
On February 27, the first covid-19 case was reported in Nigeria, and by late June, the
number of confirmed cases had surpassed 30,000. (NCDC, 2020). In March 2020, federal
and state governments implemented social separation and movement restrictions as part of
the pandemic's containment measures (FMBNP, 2020). In mid-March, the federal
government closed all schools, and numerous states and municipal governments enacted
prohibitions on public and social gatherings. The Nigerian government had closed its land
and air borders to all travelers by late March, and passenger rail services within the country
had been discontinued (Ogundele, 2020; NCDC, 2020).
The federal government has proposed fiscal and economic measures of up to 50 billion
Naira to help people and small and medium-sized businesses affected by the covid-19
outbreak (FMBNP, 2020). The federal and state governments in Nigeria were primarily
responsible for the country's lockdown and mobility restrictions. Some states, including
Abuja FCT, Lagos, Ogun, Delta, Ekiti, Kano, Kaduna, Kwara, and Taraba, have declared
lockdown measures and stringent mobility restrictions that took effect on March 29, 2020.
35 | P a g e
Journal of Economics and Allied Research Vol. 7, Issue 2 (June, 2022) ISSN: 2536-7447
Other states, like Akwa Ibom, Borno, Osun, and Rivers, have implemented lockdown
measures without the involvement of the federal government. The lockdowns lasted an
average of 5 - 8 weeks in most situations. Residents' movement was restricted, businesses
were closed, and regional borders connecting lockdown zones to the rest of the country
were closed as a result of these actions.
2.2 Supply and Demand Disruption by Covid-19
Furthermore, most countries have declared the agriculture and agro-food industry to be
crucial, exempting it from firm closures and movement restrictions. The pandemic's direct
effects on primary agriculture should be limited in many nations because the disease does
not affect the natural resources that underpin production. However, in the poorest countries,
where agricultural production systems are more labor-intensive and there is less capacity to
endure a big macroeconomic shock, the virus poses a substantial threat to food security and
livelihoods.
The measures needed to contain covid-19; the necessary adjustments within the sector to
comply with those measures (which may increase costs); and the need to find alternative
markets for products affected as people change their consumption habits in response to
covid-19 are the biggest challenges for the sector in all but the poorest countries.
Okhankhuele (2020) suggests a rise in the price of staple foods, especially rice saw a
significant increase before and after the lockdown, the price of rice went up by 31.25%
during the covid-19 lockdown for about four months thereafter reduced slightly after the
lockdown due to relaxed restriction on mobility and reduction in transportation cost.
2.3 Impacts on Agricultural Production, Food, and Incomes
Agriculture in Nigeria is labor-intensive, with the elderly and rural poor having limited
access to medical care. They rely heavily on the earnings from their farms for daily food
and nourishment, particularly cash-crop farmers who rely heavily on the staples grown on
their farms. Smallholder farmers, who account for 80-85 percent of the rural population
and rely on farming for a living, are the primary producers of staple foods and, to a lesser
extent, cash crops in Nigeria (NBS, 2020). Covid-19 mitigation efforts have had a severe
impact not just on household income but also on food supply.
To stop the virus from spreading, some weekly markets around the country where these
farmers' products are sold have been closed. Due to rural farmers' poor health and the
impending demand shock for their products, labor shortages occur during the cultivating
and harvesting seasons, resulting in production losses and market shortages. The
coronavirus pandemic has the potential to impair family food security in at least four ways.
For starters, virus infections or the fear of becoming infected with the virus could limit
income-generating activities. This holds for both domestic and international sources of
income, including remittances. For example, due to the pandemic, remittances, which have
been demonstrated to be vital for ensuring food security during food crises (Obi, Bartolini
& D’Haese, 2020), are expected to decrease (e.g., Breisinger, Abdelatif, Raouf & Wiebelt,
2020; Diao and Mahrt, 2020). Second, government limitations aimed at slowing the
pandemic's spread, such as mobility restrictions and lockdowns, are affecting livelihood
activities and, as a result, lowering household incomes (Abay, Berhane, Hoddinott &
Tafere, 2020; Arndt, Davies, Gabriel, Harris, Makrelov, Robinson & Anderson, 2020;
World Bank, 2020a). Third, disturbances in food systems and supplies might restrict food
access (e. g., Aggarwal, Jeong, Kumar, Robinson & Spearot, 2020; Hirvonen, Mohammed,
Minten & Tamru, 2021; Mahajan and Tomar, 2021). Fourth, food price hikes can be
triggered by disruptions in food systems and value chains, restricting food affordability
(e.g., Von Braun, Algieri & Kalkuhl, 2014; Devereux, B´en´e & Hoddinott, 2020).
36 | P a g e
Journal of Economics and Allied Research Vol. 7, Issue 2 (June, 2022) ISSN: 2536-7447
Hirvonen, Mohammed, Minten & Tamru, (2021), for example, found that the pandemic
caused considerable but uneven rises in food (vegetable) prices in Ethiopia.
However, empirical data on the severity of the coronavirus pandemic's influence on the
above processes is limited, owing in part to the pandemic's continuing nature and a lack of
comprehensive household survey data. As a result of the pandemic's expansion, Nigeria is
very sensitive to income shocks and food shortages. National and state-level lockdowns
and travel restrictions are affecting major economic operations, including local businesses.
Food transit within the country is being hampered by these limitations, which has obvious
implications for food supplies. There are signs that Nigeria's domestic and international
food supply chains are being disrupted, that food prices are rising, and that informal sector
unemployment is rising (Okhankhuele, 2020; GAIN, 2020). All of these factors are
expected to have serious consequences on food insecurity and poverty, especially among
farmers and vulnerable households (Ericksen, Bohle &Stewart, 2010; Tendall, Joerin,
Kopainsky, Edwards, Shreck, Le, Kruetli, Grant, Six, 2015; Gilligan, 2020).
2.4 Disruptions to Food Supply Chains
Food supply networks are being disrupted as a result of measures taken to prevent or halt
the spread of COVID-19. The effects on labor are particularly worrisome. The food
industry will be vulnerable to the negative effects of COVID-19 on the workforce (workers
becoming unwell or isolated), as well as increased production and distribution expenses as
a result of health and safety precautions implemented to prevent worker exposure. While
the virus's transmission mechanisms aren't entirely understood, two clear processes exist: (i)
persons working in close quarters; and (ii) people contacting contaminated surfaces. To
mitigate these dangers, immediate changes in the way food is prepared and distributed are
required. Many of these improvements are already in the works, although they may be
difficult to implement in the short term due to difficulties obtaining masks and other
protective gear for workers.
Perishable food markets are more likely to be impacted than cereal and prepared food
markets. Workers in packing and processing plants are at risk of contracting COVID-19
because of close quarters. In addition to absenteeism, the necessity to meet social distance
regulations, such as in packing and grading fruit and vegetables and processing livestock
goods, is driving up prices and lowering production capacity even as consumer demand in
supermarkets grows. Even in vital areas, the available personnel has been reduced due to
rising infection rates and absenteeism, as well as lockdowns. Infections in processing
facilities have resulted in lower demand at the farm level, in addition to interrupting supply.
The Covid-19 pandemic has affected the social security of the employees in Nigeria
negatively. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, SMEs significantly laid off many workers
and reduced the monthly expenditure on the welfare of workers, and worsened the state of
social security among employees (Sopko, Ijirshar, & Asom, 2020).
The provision of important food safety, quality, and certification checks, including those
required to enable trade, such as physical inspections of commodities to certify compliance
with sanitary and phytosanitary requirements, is also being hampered by lockdowns and
restrictions on people's mobility. In addition, new industry biosecurity protocols created in
response to Covid-19 may demand additional testing. Lowering criteria to meet domestic
food needs, on the other hand, calls into question the objective of such restrictions in terms
of public health and safety against local business protection. According to Ngutsav &
Ijirshar (2020), the COVID-19 epidemic has had a significant detrimental impact on the
level of employment and returns of SMEs in Nigeria.
Transport and logistics services are experiencing delays and interruptions as a result of
Covid-19 containment measures. Congestion and delays have resulted from border closures
37 | P a g e
Journal of Economics and Allied Research Vol. 7, Issue 2 (June, 2022) ISSN: 2536-7447
and additional processes and checks, hampering the transportation of perishable goods.
Social distance rules, for example, have lowered the number of import and export
inspectors at crossings, lengthening the time it takes to clear customs.
The grounding of airlines, as well as the rising cost of international freight due to fewer
trade volumes and a lack of commercial passenger flights, are posing substantial challenges
for the export of higher-value perishable agricultural products. In addition, delivery times
have gotten longer. When a product must be shifted from one port to another or a different
importing country entirely, port closures are a major concern.
3. METHODOLOGY
A broader approach, the political economy approach was employed in this study. The
researcher considered this research design most appropriate for reviewing a subject such as
covid-19, lacking in economic-theoretical depth. The term political economy is used in
ways. First was what Akpakpan (1991) described as “an attempt to revert to the original
name of the subject and with this to the types of problems which were the concern of the
subject and its philosophers at the time”. Secondly, the term political economy is used as a
method of economic research. Ake (1981) used the term in the second sense. In his words,
"this method based on dialectical materialism assures the material conditions, particularly
the economic system, as the decisive formative system, the decisive influences on social
life, and constituted the essential point of departure for discovering the laws of motions of
a society and for explaining it.” Thus, the researchers used the term political economy in
the second sense. The three main features by which political economy can be identified a
as research method are:
a. It recognizes the importance of non-economic factors in its study of any economic
problem and actually take such other factor(s) into account.
b. It attaches more importance to the history of the problem that is being studied as a
background to the work.
c. It does not only rely on any particular technique of economic investigation, e.g.
quantitative or non-quantitative technique considered appropriate in the particular
circumstance (Akpakpan, 1991).
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Stabilizing Agricultural Output – Policy Options
Strong and flexible supply chains that can respond to variations in consumer demand and
adjust in response to supply constraints resulting from COVID-19-related measures will be
required to get food to where it is needed. While there are many unknowns and the
situation is always changing, earlier crises (most notably the food price crisis of 2007-2008)
have provided insight into certain activities that governments might take to limit COVID-
19's influence on the agricultural and food supply chains.
Ensure market transparency by disseminating timely market data. The food price crisis of
2007/08 taught us the importance of transparency and information sharing. This can help to
reduce panic purchasing and build market trust. It can also increase confidence between
farmers and traders, resulting in more cooperative solutions.
Provide clear and transparent communication to prevent panic buying and hoarding by
ensuring the timely distribution of available information.
Maintain access to domestic, regional, and worldwide markets. Well-functioning domestic
markets, regional cooperation, and an open international trade system are all critical for
connecting farmers to market possibilities and getting food to where it is needed. Supply
disruptions can be mitigated by open borders and well-connected internal markets.
38 | P a g e
Journal of Economics and Allied Research Vol. 7, Issue 2 (June, 2022) ISSN: 2536-7447
Covid-19's consequences are occurring against the backdrop of a climate emergency. Food
security tensions could arise as a result of supply shocks associated with catastrophic
weather occurrences, paired with demand shocks in a depressed economy.
Address the needy populations' immediate needs, such as through emergency food aid or
targeted transfers. Develop social protection programs further. Cash transfers, both
conditional and unconditional, such as those provided through adaptive safety nets, are a
more efficient and effective response to food security issues than market interventions,
such as those provided through public distribution systems. Ajibo, Nwokoedia & Onuoha,
(2020) stated that intervention programs were riddled with corruption in many states of
Nigeria as it is in Rivers state.
Ascertain that interim relief measures for farmers and other food system stakeholders are
consistent with broader socioeconomic policies, reach vulnerable socioeconomic groups,
and include clear exit options.
Consider whether there are more chances to repurpose agricultural support in ways that
produce unambiguous public goods, such as climate change mitigation and better
environmental results.
To reaffirm the role that global markets can play in maintaining a secure and stable food
supply, secure and build on beneficial trade facilitation efforts that have been made to
decrease border distortions.
Consider how an integrated approach might assist in ensuring the food system's resilience.
The food system will be better able to meet the triple challenge of providing safe,
affordable food for the population and livelihoods for the many poor farmers who live in
rural areas, while also ensuring environmental sustainability in the face of complex
environmental challenges and a climate emergency, thanks to increased resilience.
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The covid-19 pandemic has had a significant negative impact on agriculture. Food safety
and security were jeopardized as a result of limits on people's mobility, interaction, and
purchasing power. The most vulnerable segments of the population were
disproportionately affected. Today, there is a chance to not only respond effectively to the
current crisis, but also to roll back distortive, inefficient, and environmentally harmful
support, freeing up financial resources for investments in more productive, sustainable, and
resilient agriculture and food supply chain capable of meeting new challenges. This,
together with supporting legislative reforms, can help create an enabling environment for
agriculture and the food supply chain that is in synchronization with natural resource
constraints, changing climate, market demand, and technological advancements. The
unanticipated shock of COVID-19 highlights the need for a transition away from "business
as usual" policies and toward a more forward-looking policy package that invests in
agriculture's production, sustainability, and resilience.
REFERENCES
Abay, K.A., Berhane, G., Hoddinott, J., & Tafere, K., (2020). COVID-19 and Food
Security in Ethiopia: Do Social Protection Programs Protect? Policy Research
Working Paper; No. 9475. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. License:
CC BY 3.0 IGO.
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/34794.
Aggarwal, S., Jeong, D., Kumar, N., Robinson, J. & Spearot, S. (2020). Did COVID-19
market disruptions disrupt food security? Evidence from households in rural Liberia
and Malawi. Tech. rep., National Bureau of Economic Research.
Ajibo, H.T., Nwokoedia, P. & Onuoha, E.C. (2020) assessment of the impact of covid-19
39 | P a g e
Journal of Economics and Allied Research Vol. 7, Issue 2 (June, 2022) ISSN: 2536-7447
pandemic in rivers State, Nigeria and government palliative measures, Journal of
Economics and Allied Research, 5(1), 147-156.
Ake, C. (1981). A political economy of Africa. New York, Longman Inc.
Akpakpan, E.B. (1991). Economics beyond demand and supply. Port Harcourt, New
Generation publishers.
Arndt, C., Davies, R., Gabriel, S., Harris, L., Makrelov, K., Robinson, S., Anderson, L.
(2020). Covid-19 lockdowns, income distribution, and food security: An analysis
for South Africa. Global Food Security, 26.
Amare, M., Jensen, N.D., Shiferaw, B., Cisse, J.D. (2018). Rainfall shocks and agricultural
productivity: Implication for rural household consumption. Agricultural Systems,
166, 79–89.
Benson, T., Amare, M., Ogunniyi, A., (2020). The relative commercial orientation of
smallholder farmers in Nigeria: Household and crop value-chain analyses. NSSP
Working Paper, 66.Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute
(IFPRI). https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134163.
Breisinger, C., Abdelatif, A., Raouf, M., & Wiebelt, M. (2020). COVID-19 and the
Egyptian
economy: Estimating the impacts of expected reductions in tourism, Suez Canal
revenues, and remittances. MENA Policy Note 4. Washington, DC: International
Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.133663.
Devereux, S., Béné, C., & Hoddinott, J. (2020). Conceptualizing COVID-19's impacts on
household food security. Food security, 12(4), 769–772.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-020-01085-0.
Diao, X., Mahrt, K. (2020). Assessing the Impacts of COVID-19 in Myanmar on
Household
Incomes and Poverty Due to Declines in Remittances. Myanmar Strategy Support
Program Policy Note, 06. International Food Policy Research Institute, Yangon.
Ericksen, P.J., Bohle, H.-G., Stewart, B. (2010). Vulnerability and resilience of food
systems. Food Security and Global Environmental Change. Earth Scan, London &
Washington DC, 67– 77.
Federal Ministry of Budget and National Planning (FMBNP), (2020). ‘Ministerial Press
Statement on Fiscal Stimulus Measures in Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic &
Oil Price Fiscal Shock’. FMBNP, Abuja, Nigeria.
GAIN, (2020). Impact of COVID-19 on Food Systems: Situation Report, Edition 3. May
13, 2020. Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition, Geneva, Switzerland.
Gilligan, D. (2020). Social safety nets are crucial to the COVID-19 response. Some lessons
to boost their effectiveness. International Food Policy Research Institute Blog.
Hirvonen, K., Mohammed, B., Minten, B., Tamru, S. (2021). Food marketing margins
during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from vegetables in Ethiopia. Political
Science, International Food Research Institute, 17, August 2020.
www.books.google.com.ng.
Mahajan, K., Tomar, S. (2021). COVID-19 and Supply Chain Disruption: Evidence from
Food Markets in India. Agricultural Economics, 103 (1), 35–52.
Mahler, D.G., Lakner, C., Aguilar, R.A.C. & Wu, H. (2020). The impact of COVID-19
(Coronavirus) on global poverty: Why Sub- Saharan Africa might be the region's
hardest hit. DataBlogs.worldbank.org. April 20, 2020.
NCDC, (2020). First Case of Corona Virus Disease Confirmed in Nigeria. Abuja, Nigeria:
Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC). www.ncdc.gov.ng. Downloaded: June
27th, 2020.
40 | P a g e
Journal of Economics and Allied Research Vol. 7, Issue 2 (June, 2022) ISSN: 2536-7447
Ngutsav, A. & Ijirshar, V.U. (2020), SMEs as drivers of economic recovery and
sustainabilityduring covid-19 and beyond in Nigeria, Journal of Economics and
Allied Research, 4(4), 234-247.
Obi, C., Bartolini, F., D’Haese, M., 2020. International migration, remittance, and food
security during food crises: the case study of Nigeria. Food Security 12, 207–220.
Okhankhuele, O. T. (2020) Covid-19 lockdown and price, availability, accessibility and
affordability of rice in Akure metropolis, Ondo State, Nigeria, Journal of Economics
and Allied Research, 5(1), 73-90.
Schmidhuber, Pound and Qiao (2020), COVID-19: Channels of Transmission to Food and
Agriculture, FAO, Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8430en. Downloaded: January
25th, 2022
Sopko,J.T., Ijirshar, V.U. & Asom, S.T. (2020), Impact of covid-19 pandemic on social
security in Nigeria, Journal of Economics and Allied Research, 4(4), 144-160
Tendall, D.M., Joerin, J., Kopainsky, B., Edwards, P., Shreck, A., Le, Q.B., Kruetli, P.,
Grant, M & Six, J. (2015). Food System Resilience: Defining the Concept. Global
Food Security,
6, 17–23.
Von Braun, J., Algieri, B., Kalkuhl, M. (2014). World Food System Disruptions in Early
2000:
Causes, Impacts, and Cures. World Food Policy, 1(1), 1–22.
WFP, (2020). COVID-19 Will Double Number of People Facing Food Crises Unless Swift
Action is Taken. ‘Press Release’, April 21, 2020, World Food Program, Rome.
www.wfp.org/news/covid-19-will-double-number-people-facing-food-crises-unless.
41 | P a g e
