MATERIALS

1. Classification of Materials

Materials are classified into solids, liquids, and gases based on their properties.

Examples of liquids include water, milk, cooking oil, and kerosene.

Solids include soap, footballs, spoons, and mobile phones.

Gases include vapors, oxygen, smoke, and carbon dioxide.

2. Properties of Materials

Texture: Describes how a material feels (e.g., rough, smooth, slimy).

Appearance: Outward look of a material (e.g., shiny, opaque, transparent).

Shape: Defines the boundaries of a material (e.g., round, rectangular).

Color: Materials come in various colors (e.g., silver, brown, red).

3. Comparison of States of Matter

Solids maintain a fixed shape and volume.

Liquids take the shape of their container but have a fixed volume.

Gases fill the shape and volume of their container.

Key points:

Solids have a definite shape and volume, high density, and are hard to compress.

Liquids take the shape of their container, flow easily, have a definite volume, and medium
density.

Gases have no fixed shape or volume, flow easily, have very low density, and are easy to
compress.
IMPORTANCE

1. Uses of Liquids:

Liquids are essential for survival and daily life.

Used in fuel, cosmetics, food, transport, construction, and household activities.

Examples include water, milk, diesel, kerosene, cooking oil, and juices.

2. Water's Importance:

Makes up over 50% of the human body.

Necessary for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, and growing crops.

3. Crude Oil and Its Products:

Provides petrol, diesel, and bitumen for roads.

Used in making plastics, cosmetics, utensils, and other products.

Fuels vehicles and industries.

4. Milk and Juices:

Milk contains essential nutrients like protein, calcium, and vitamins.

Juices provide important vitamins and nutrients for health.

5. Need for Liquid Conservation:

Essential for human survival and economic activities.

Crude oil is non-renewable.

Contaminated water, milk, and oil can harm health.

Preserving liquids saves resources and ensures sustainability.

The images contain educational material on the importance of solids, liquids, and gases in human
life. Here is a summary:

States of Matter and Their Properties

Liquids: No fixed shape, take the shape of their container, flow easily, have a definite volume, and
are not easily compressed.

Solids: Have a fixed shape and volume, do not flow, have high density, and are not easily
compressed.

Gases: No fixed shape or volume, flow easily, have low density, and are easy to compress.

Importance of Liquids

Essential for human survival (e.g., drinking, cooking, bathing, washing clothes).

Used as fuel (diesel, kerosene, petrol).

Found in food and beverages (milk, juices).

Crude oil is essential for transportation and industry.

Preservation of Liquids

Water is a critical resource that needs to be conserved.

Crude oil is non-renewable and essential for the economy.

Contaminated liquids (e.g., water, milk, cooking oil) can be harmful.

Importance of Solids

Food: Some solids like avocado provide nutrition.

Metals: Used for making cars, coins, utensils, and electrical appliances.
Stones: Used in construction.

Trees: Provide shade, oxygen, and raw materials for furniture.

Glass: Used in windows, bottles, and screens.

Clothes: Protect us from weather and cover our bodies.

Preservation of Solids

Helps save money, time, and energy.

Ensures a clean and sustainable environment.

Objects Modeled from Solid Materials

Clay soil: Used to make pots, cups, and bricks.

Palm fronds: Used for making brooms.

Grass: Used for roofing, baskets, and hats.

Bamboo: Used for making furniture and houses.

CHEMISTRY

1. Atoms and Elements:

Everything is made up of atoms, which are tiny and cannot be seen with the naked eye.

Elements consist of identical atoms, while substances made of different atoms are compounds.

There are 118 known elements, each with a unique name and chemical symbol (e.g., Carbon = C,
Helium = He).
2. First 20 Elements:

The periodic table organizes elements based on their properties.

The first 20 elements, from Hydrogen (H) to Calcium (Ca), have distinct atomic numbers and
chemical symbols.

The periodic table was first arranged by Dmitri Mendeleev.

3. Periodic Table Structure:

Horizontal rows are called periods and move from left to right.

Vertical columns are called groups and move from top to bottom.

Elements with similar properties are placed together.

4. Metals, Non-Metals, and Noble Gases:

Metals (yellow in the table) are good conductors of heat and electricity, shiny, and malleable.

Non-metals (blue) are poor conductors, brittle, and dull.

Noble gases (far right column) are inert and include Helium (He), Neon (Ne), and Argon (Ar).

5. Properties of Metals:

Conduct heat and electricity (used in wires and utensils).

Shiny and smooth when polished.

Ductile (can be drawn into wires).

PERIODIC TABLE

The Periodic Table and Elements

Elements are made of atoms, which have unique properties.

The periodic table organizes elements based on similarities in their properties.

Dmitri Mendeleev developed the first periodic table arrangement.

Periods are horizontal rows, and Groups are vertical columns.

First 20 Elements

The first 20 elements include hydrogen (H), helium (He), lithium (Li), etc.

Each element has a unique chemical symbol and atomic number.

Metals, Non-metals, and Noble Gases

Metals: Good conductors of heat/electricity, malleable, ductile, and shiny.

Non-metals: Poor conductors, brittle, and dull.

Noble gases: Found in Group 0, non-reactive.

Properties of Metals

Conduct electricity and heat efficiently.

Ductile (can be drawn into wires).

Malleable (can be shaped).

Shiny and smooth when polished.

CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, NON METALS AND NOBLE GASES ON THE PERIODIC TABLE

Key Points:

1. Elements and the Periodic Table:

Elements are made of atoms, which differ from one element to another.

The periodic table organizes elements based on their properties into periods (horizontal rows)
and groups (vertical columns).

Dmitri Mendeleev was the first to arrange elements in a periodic table.

2. Metals, Non-metals, and Noble Gases:

Metals (yellow in the periodic table) are good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable,
ductile, shiny, and strong.

Non-metals (blue in the periodic table) are brittle, dull, poor conductors, and weak compared to
metals.

Noble gases (gray in the periodic table) are inert and do not react easily with other elements.

3. Properties of Metals:

Conduct heat and electricity (used in wires and cooking utensils).

Malleable (can be shaped), ductile (can be drawn into wires), and shiny.

Strong with high tensile strength (used in bridges and structures).

High melting and boiling points (used in ovens and smelters).

4. Properties of Non-metals:

Brittle (break easily).

Dull (do not reflect light).

Poor conductors of heat and electricity (used as insulators like plugs).

Weaker than metals and wear out easily.

EXPLANATION ON PROPERTIES

1. Metals, Non-Metals, and Noble Gases in the Periodic Table

Metals: Good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable, shiny, and found mostly on the left
and center of the periodic table.

Non-Metals: Poor conductors (insulators), brittle, dull, and found on the right side of the periodic
table.

Noble Gases: Inert, colorless, and exist in Group 0 at the far right of the periodic table.

The zigzag line separates metals from non-metals.

2. Properties of Metals

Conductivity: Good conductors of heat and electricity (used in wires and cooking utensils).

Malleability: Can be hammered into sheets or shaped without breaking.

Ductility: Can be stretched into thin wires.

High tensile strength: Strong and tough, used in bridges and structures.

High melting/boiling points: Does not melt easily, used in smelters and ovens.

3. Properties of Non-Metals

Brittle: Easily breakable.

Dull appearance: Does not reflect light.

Poor conductors: Used as insulators (e.g., in plugs and saucepan handles).

Weak structure: Not as strong as metals, can wear out easily.

4. Atomic Structure and Periodic Table Arrangement

Atoms contain protons, neutrons, and electrons.

The atomic number determines an element's position in the periodic table.

Elements in the same group have similar properties.

Group 1 metals (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium) have low melting points and decrease in
melting point as you go down the group.

Group 0 (noble gases) share similar inert properties.

BASIC 8

1. What is an Atom?

Atoms are the smallest units of matter.

They combine to form elements, compounds, and materials we see around us.

Atoms consist of sub-atomic particles: protons (positive), electrons (negative), and neutrons
(neutral).

Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, while electrons move around in shells/orbits.

2. Atomic Number and Mass Number

Atomic number = Number of protons (also equals electrons in a neutral atom).

Mass number = Protons + Neutrons (total particles in the nucleus).

Atomic number determines an element's identity and position on the periodic table (e.g.,
Hydrogen has atomic number 1, Oxygen has 8).

3. The Periodic Table

Elements are arranged in order of atomic number.

Elements in the same group (vertical column) have similar chemical properties.
Group 1 metals (Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, etc.) have low melting points and are soft.

Group 0 elements (Noble gases like Helium, Neon) are unreactive.

4. Properties of Atoms and Elements

Metals: Conduct electricity, malleable, ductile, high melting points.

Non-metals: Poor conductors, brittle, lower melting points.

Noble gases: Stable, rarely react with other elements.

5. Important Concepts

Elements are made of the same type of atoms.

Compounds are made of different atoms chemically combined.

Molecules are formed when two or more atoms bond together.

6. Electrical Charge of Atoms

Protons (+) and electrons (-) cancel each other out, making the atom neutral.

If electrons are lost or gained, the atom becomes charged (ion).

1. Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Subatomic Particles

Atoms consist of three main subatomic particles:

Protons (positively charged)

Neutrons (neutral)

Electrons (negatively charged)

To determine the number of these particles in an atom:

Number of protons = Atomic number

Number of electrons = Atomic number (since atoms are neutral)

Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number

For example:

Nitrogen (N) has an atomic number of 7 and a mass number of 14.

Protons = 7

Electrons = 7

Neutrons = 14 - 7 = 7

Chlorine (Cl) has an atomic number of 17 and a mass number of 35.

Protons = 17

Electrons = 17

Neutrons = 35 - 17 = 18

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2. How Elements are Arranged in the Periodic Table

The periodic table arranges elements in increasing order of atomic number (number of protons).

Hydrogen (H) has 1 proton and is the first element.

Lithium (Li) has 3 protons, so it comes after Helium (He) with 2 protons.

Potassium (K) has 19 protons, so it is placed later in the table.

Each element’s position in the periodic table is based on its atomic number.
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3. Electron Configuration (How Electrons are Arranged in an Atom)

Electrons are arranged in shells (energy levels) around the nucleus.

First shell (closest to nucleus) holds a maximum of 2 electrons

Second shell holds a maximum of 8 electrons

Third shell holds a maximum of 8 electrons (for elements up to atomic number 20)

For example:

Sodium (Na) has 11 electrons

First shell: 2 electrons

Second shell: 8 electrons

Third shell: 1 electron

Written as 2,8,1

Hydrogen (H) has only 1 electron, so its configuration is 1.

Electrons always fill the lowest energy level first before moving to the next level.

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Key Takeaways:

1. Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons

2. Mass number = Protons + Neutrons

3. Elements are arranged by increasing atomic number in the periodic table

4. Electrons are distributed in energy levels following the rule: 2, 8, 8…

5. Outer shell electrons determine chemical reactivity—atoms with incomplete outer shells tend
to react with others to become stable.

1. Electron Configuration

Definition: The electron configuration of an atom describes how electrons are arranged in
different shells around the nucleus.

Example - Potassium (K, Atomic number 19):

The first shell holds 2 electrons.

The second shell holds 8 electrons.

The third shell holds 8 electrons.

The fourth shell holds 1 electron.

Configuration: 2, 8, 8, 1.

General Rule:

The first shell can hold 2 electrons.

The second and third shells can hold 8 electrons each (following the octet rule).

The fourth shell starts filling afterward.

2. Stability and Ion Formation

Atoms are stable when their outermost shell (valence shell) is full.
Metals (Groups 1 and 2) lose electrons to become positively charged ions (cations).

Non-metals (Groups 6 and 7) gain electrons to form negatively charged ions (anions).

Noble gases (Group 8) have full outer shells and are already stable.

Example - Sodium (Na)

Electron configuration: 2, 8, 1.

It loses 1 electron to achieve a stable configuration of 2, 8 (like neon).

This forms a sodium ion (Na⁺) with a positive charge.

Example - Chlorine (Cl)

Electron configuration: 2, 8, 7.

It gains 1 electron to become 2, 8, 8, achieving stability like argon.

This forms a chloride ion (Cl⁻) with a negative charge.

3. Periodic Table Trends

Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons, so they have similar
chemical properties.

Group 1 elements (e.g., Na, K) have 1 valence electron and tend to lose it.

Group 7 elements (e.g., Cl, F) have 7 valence electrons and tend to gain 1.

Group 8 (Noble gases) are already stable.

1. Formation of Ions (Charged Atoms)

Atoms become ions when they gain or lose electrons.

Metal atoms (Groups 1, 2, 3) lose electrons to form positive ions (cations).

Example: Sodium (Na⁺), Magnesium (Mg²⁺), Aluminum (Al³⁺)

Non-metal atoms (Groups 6, 7) gain electrons to form negative ions (anions).

Example: Oxygen (O²⁻), Chlorine (Cl⁻)

Example - Oxygen Ion (O²⁻)

Oxygen atom has 6 valence electrons (2,6).

To complete its outer shell (2,8), it gains 2 electrons.

This forms an oxide ion (O²⁻).

2. Formation of Molecules

Atoms combine to form molecules through covalent bonding (electron sharing).

Identical atoms combine to form molecules of an element (e.g., O₂, N₂).

Different atoms combine to form molecules of a compound (e.g., H₂O, CO₂).

Key Differences

3. Importance

Ionic bonds (formed by electron transfer) create salts like NaCl (table salt).

Covalent bonds (formed by electron sharing) create gases, liquids, and biomolecules essential for
life.