ABHIUDAY

AIIMS DELHI
( 710/720)
 UNIT 2
r""'

STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION
IN PLANTS AND ANlMALS·
\ . --
Chapter 5
Morphology of
1 -~ -
The description of the diverse forms-uflffe·on earth was made only by
.
observation - through naked eyes 01rjater1hrough magnifying lenses
Flowering Plants and microscopes. This descriptiorfts of gross strilcJ\t.tal features,
both external and internal. In- al d-ltionf·oliservable and. percei'{able
Chapter 6 living phenomena were also record~ as part of tpis description. Before
Anatomy of Flowering experimental biology or more specfftcally, physiology, was established
Plants as a part of biology, naturalists descrl.bed pnly 12!ology. Hence, biology
remained as a natural history for a lop g-iinie.J be description, by itself, .. -~~!l!-..:
Chapter 7 was amazing in terms of detail. While the initial reaction of a student
Structural Organisation could be boredom, one should keep in nilncl ihai ttre detailed description,·
Animals was utilised in the l* r day redu<;:t~pni§t blol?JY where livin2 prtx;esses~ _. .
gfew mdfe attention from sciermsts th)n gte aescrjntjnn nf Jify fn~ -~
a1ict their structure. Hence, this descrip tion became meaningful-and _ -....,...,_r_,,"
1r.
hcipful .in framing research questions -physiology or evolution~
biology. In the following chapters of this uni~ the structural organisatiqn
of plants and animals, including the stru tural ]>asis of phystologial or
1
behavioural phenomena, is described. For convenience, this description
of morphological and anatomical features iis presented sep_,a ra~ely ~or ·
plants and animals.
l

KATiiERJNE ESAu was born in Ukraine in 1898. She studie<

agriculture in Russia and Germany and received her doctoratJ
in 1931 in United States. She reported in her early publication:
that the curl to virus s rea ou h a · e food
conducting orphloem tissue. r Esau"s Plant Anatomy publishe<
ih 1954 took a dynamic, developmental appro~ch designed t<
enhance one's understanding of plant structure and a.I
enormous impact worldwide, literally bringing about !1 reviva
of the discipline. The Anatomy ofSeed Plants by Katherine Esat
was published in 1960. It was referred to as Webster's of plan
biology - it is encyclopediac. In 1957 she was elected to th1
National Academy of Sciences, becoming the sixth woman ti
receive that honour. In addition to this prestigious award, sh1
received the National Medal of Science from President Georgi
Bush in 1989.
When Katherine Esau died in the year 1997, Peter Raven
director of Anatomy and Morphology, Missourt Botanica
Garden, remembered that she 'absolutely dominated' the flelc
Katherine Esau of plant biology even at the age of!J9 . ·
(1 898 - 1997)
 Alt_,
',;t/f
· CHAPrER 5 \ .
Mo~aoway oF~FLOWERING PLANTS

5.1 The-Root The wide range in the structure of higher plants will never fail to fascinate
us. Even 1:Qough the angiosperms show such a large diversity in external
5.2 The Stem
structure or morphology, they are all charactertsed by pre~eii.ce of roots,
5.3 TheLeaf stems, leaves, flowers and fruits. ; ·
5.-I The In.florescence
In chapters 2 and 3, we talked about classification of plants bas_e d
on morphological and other characteristics. For any successful attempt
5.5 The Flower at classification and at understanding any higher plant (or for that
5.6 Tne Fruii matter any living organism) we need to know ·standard technical term&
and standard definitions. We also need to 'know about the possible
5.7 The Seed
variations in different parts, found as adaptations of the plants to their
5.8 Semi-technical environment, e.g., adaptions to various habitats, for protection,
Descrip tion of a . climbing, storage, etc.
Typical If you pull out any weed you.will see that all of them have roots, stepis
Fl.owering Plant and ieaves. They may be bearing flowers and fruits. The underground
part of th~ flowering plant is the root system while the portion ~bove the
s:9 Description of
ground forms .the shoot system (Figure 5.1).
Some Important
Families

5.1 THE RooT

In majority of the dicotyledonous plants, the direct elongation of the radicle

le~ds to the formation of primary root which grows inside the soil.
It bears lateral roots of several orders that are referred to as secondary,
tertiary, etc. roots. The J2rimary roots and its branches constitute the
- >

L
 ',l!C)4......_ _ _ Flower tap root system, as seen in,.:he
p~ t _[igure 5.2a). In m.onocotyled~
plants, the primary r~ot is short It~alld
IU-<f-- - - Fruit
i~ac~d by a large number of roots.
These roots originate from the base of t!ie
..,._ _ _ _ _ Stem
~,.___ Leaf Shoot
system
stem and constitute the fll>rous root
.
system, as seen in the wheat Qlant (Figure
--
5 .2b). In some plants, like grass,
N
Monstera and the banyan tree, roots~-
-
froII.!_ parts of the plaot ot:J:ier than _the .
radicle and are caUP.d adventitious roota.
(Figure 5.2c). The main functions of the
root system are absorption of water and
t ---

minerals (rom the soil, provi~ing a proj;; .

anch~rage to the plant parts, sto~
root
Prtmaiy Root ·
.res<:_rve foo<L_material and synthesis 9f
.,__Secondary system
root . plant growth regulators. - ·..

Figure 5.1 Parts of a flowering plant

Main root

Laterals

{a) . (b)

(c)

Figure 5,2· Dlfferent types of roo~ : (a) Tap (b)

Fibrous ( ) A
c dvenuuous
 5.1. 1 Regions of the Root
The root is c~vered at the apex by a thimble-like
strUcture called the root cap (Figure 5.3). It
~rotects the tender apex of the root as it makes
its way through the soil. A few millimetres above
the root cap is the region of meristematlc Region of
maturation
activity. 1)1~ll~o~ this1~gion are very small,
thin-walled _a nd dense J;?rotJ>plas:rn.. They
di~cie repeatedly. The cells proximal to this ·
region undergo rapid elongation and
enlargement and ar~ responsible for the growth Region of
elongation
of the root in length. This region is called the }
regtonof elongation. The cells of the elongation
zone gradually differentiate and mature. Hence. } Region of
this zone, proximal to region of elongation, is meristematic
Root_cap-.-- activity
called the region of maturation. From this
region some of the epidermal cells form vezy fine Figure 5.3 The regions of the root-tip
and delicate. thread-like structures called root
hairs. These root hairs absorb water and
~als from the soil.

5. 1.2 Modifications of Root

Roots in some plants change their shape and

structure and become modified to perform
functions other than absorption and
conduction of water and minerals. They are
;cti11odified for support, storage of food and
fl\ respiration (Figure 5.feiand 5.5). Tap roots of
'- i 1' rt) .Q.oe>¼.
~ot(itumip an~~d 'entitious roo~s of.sweet
Mell..- ,C , C ,t-J o~C,f') • .
{ . e_otato~ et swollen and store tood. Can you gtve
rtrJJf 0 me more such examples? Have you ever
wondered what those hanging structures that
supp~rt a banyan tree are? These ace. called
-i!Op roots. Similarly, the stems of maize and
~~arcane have supporting roots corning out
of the lower nodes of the stern. These are called
. Btih rants,. In some plants such as Rhizophora
growmg in swampy areas, many roots come out
of the groun~and grow vertically upwards.
Such roots, c led pneumatophores, help to Figure 5.4
;1:•piratlon.
get oxygen · . Modification of root for support:
Banyan tree
 t· I I

Asparagus
(a)

Figure 5.5 Modification of root for : (a) storage (b) respiration: pneumatophore in
Rhizophora

5.2 T nE S TEM

, What are the features that distinguish a stem from a root? The stem is the
ascending part of the axis bearing branches, leaves, flowers and fruits. It
~nd-<:l~ develops fr~m the plumule of the embryo of a germinating seed. The stem

• L<>of - 4;t'r'a""-" ' bears nodes and intemodes. The region of the stem where leaves are
s.o.i-\'1"1bom are called nodes while intemodes are
the portions between two nodes.
The stem bears buds, which may be terminal or axillary. Stem is generally
-~~o.. • green when young and later often become woody and dark brown.
]be main function of the stem is spread~ out bl}Ulehes bearing
, S.~ nv\~ _ \o.~ , l~ ves, flowers and fruits. It conducts water, minerals and photosynthates.
-f . Some stems perform the function of storage of food , support, protection
, , ~~o\e - CJ..e,tn~, '° 1
and of vegetative propagation.

5.2.1 Modifications of.Stem

The stem may not always be typically like what they are expected to be.
They are modifted to perform different functions (Figure 5.6). Q!!_dergro~ _
., -~ s of potato, ~ x::._ti:!.~Q~CU7}inkq,YJ~~~~ar~I),!?~!<! to
0 &!2_re (ood in them. They also act as organs of perennation to tide over
}I ....., .,___ condition~ unfavourable for gl"Owth_ Stem tendrlJs which develop from
\J axillary buds, are slender and spirally coiled and help plants to climb
_ fo. i'tlf \o-4", such as in gourds (cucumber, pumpkins, watermelon) a.nd grapevines.
• /I~ Axlll&y buds of stems may also get modified Into woody. stralght and
I ·r. o/ '\i.
' O\J; 'pointed thol'D.8. Thoms are found in many plants such as CitrUS,
V , .½, , l , Bougainvillea. They protect plants from brow.hig" animals. Some plan~

()cfoc~ "· ~
~ d regions modify their stems into flattened (Opuntia), or fleshy
·
llndrical (Euphorbia) structures. They contain chlorophyll and can}'

I
I
j ...,- WI
 Stern modlfled
into tendril

(a)

,~ - - - Stem modified
into spine

Roots arising
from nodes

Figute 5.6 Modifications of stem for: . (a) storage (b) support (c) protection ·
(d) spread and vegetative
. , propagation . .
··

out photosynthesis. Underground stems ofsome'plants such as gras~

and strawbe , etc. s read to new nicp.es and when older arts die new .
p ants are formed. In plants like mint arid jasrmoe_a-sle:nder lateral branc~ ·
arises from the base of the maifi axis and after growing aerially for some . -Sd:.o\ om
time arch downwards to touch the ground. A laterai branch with short
lntemodes and each node bearing a ~osette ofleaves and a tuft of toots i~ <'.l~
found in aqu~tic plants,1:fk~ Pistja and Eichlwmia. In ~ana, pineapple Pr
an(lghrysanthemwn. the lateral branches originate from iJ?.e bas~,and___ S · •· .
underground portion of the main stem, grow horizontally berieatli the ~'T<'9."'f, '
soil and then corrie out obliquely upward giving rise.to leafy shoo_ts. "------j
5.3 THE LEAF

:e leaf is a lateral, generally flattened ~ttjich:11"e borne on th~ stem. It

evelops at the node and bears a bud tn its axil. The axillary bud later
develops into a branch. ·Leaves originate from shoot apical meristems and ·
~ g e d in an acropetal ord~r. They are
0 rgansfor Ji t
the most importµit vegetattv~ .
th · \-l~hoboc:\11,.11'{) · , .
. P _o osyn es_is. _ . · I"' I"' rr.Me. c..,o~ocl1u ~
(Ft A typical leaf consists of three main parts: Jeafbas . , ~ e and lamina - E:-,., bod·,,·*"' .
gure 5. 7 a). The leaf is attached to the stem by the leaf'.base and may · \
 La mina bear two latera all leaf like structures
stipules. In monocotyledons, the leaf base e,cp~
into a sheath covering the stem PartiaUy orwh,
In so e le uminous lants the leafbase :-
become swollen whic · led the 'Ul!fn11a.
petiole help hold the blade to light. Long thin OOclb
petioles allow leaf blades to flutter in Wind, there~
cooling the leaf and bringing fresh air to leaf Sutface.
The lamina or the leaf blade is the green expanded
p~ of the leaf with veins ~d veinlets. There Is
usually. a middle prominent vein, which ts kn~
as the midrib. Veins provide rigidity to the leafbJade
and act as ch els of trans ort for water~
an ood matertals. The shape, i::nargm, apex, s ace
and extentc>f incision of lamina Varies in different
leaves.

5 .3 . 1 Venation
The arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the
lamina of leaf is termed as venation. When the
veinlets fonn a oebuark the venation is te~d as
_!eticulate (Figure 5. 7 b). When the ve~s run
( parallel to each other within a lamiu a , the venation
(b)' (c) 1s . termed as parallel (Figure 5. 7 c). Leaves of
Figure 5. 7 Structure of a Jeaf : '-aicotyledonous plants genei=-~y possess reticulate
fa) Parts of a leaf venation, while parallel venation i~ th_~ ~haractertstic 1

fb) Reticulate venation of most monocotyledons.

(c) Parallel venation
- 5.3.2 Types of Leaves

A leaf is said-to be simple, when its lamina is entire

or when incised, the incisions· do not touch-the
midrib. When the incisions of the lamina reach up
to the midrib breaking it into a number ofleaflets.
th
e leaf is called compound. A bud is present
th
in e axil of petiole in both simple and compoun<l
leaves, but not in the axil ofleaflets of the compaund
leaf.

The compound leaves may be of two types

(b) (Ft 5 ·
gure ·8) • In a pinnately compound le
·a1 a
5 8 Compound leaves : number of leaflets are present on a common a,os,
Figure · . . (a) ptnnately compound leaf th
fb) paJmately compound leaf ~ rachts, Which represents the midrib of the Jeaf
asmneem.
 pa1Jnately compound leaves, the
10
leaflets are attached at a common point, i.e.,
the tip of petiole, as in silk cottoo. (_l?c tri'r.,a",().
at :....-- - ,
_ .3 Phyllotaxy
53
phyllotaXY is the pattern of arrangement of
Jeaves on the stem or branch. This is usually
of three types - alternate, opposite and (a) (bl
whorled (Figure 5 .9). In altemate type of
phyllolaXY, a single leaf ~ses at each node ·
in alternate manner, as in china rose,
mustard and sun flower plants. In opposite
type. a pair ofleaves arise at each node ~d
of f
,
1
liet opposite to each other as in Calotropis - o~ , \-e...
~;,~~ d~lants. If more than two leaves {)~c u tt'&
~1\ ~node and form a whorl, it is called (cl
whorled, as in Alstonia. Figure 5.9 Different types of phyllotaxy :
(al Alternate (bl Opposite
(cl Whorled
5.3.4 Modifi'cations of Leaves
Leaves are often modified to perform ·
functions other than photosynthesis. They
I are converted into tendrils for climbing as
in peas or into spines for defence as in cacti
(Figure 5.10 a, b). The fleshy leaves of onion
and garlic store food (Figure 5.10c). In some
plants such as Australian acacia, the.leaves
are small and short-lived. The petioles in
~n$hese plants expand, become green and
synthesise food . Leaves of certain
insectivorous plants such as pitcher plant,
venus-fly trap are also modified leaves.

5,4 THE INFLORESCENCE

Aflower is a modified shoot wherein the shoot

apical ·mertstem changes to floral meristem.
Internodes do not elongate and the ~s gets
condensed. The apex produces different Fleshy
leaves (cl
kinds of floral appendages laterally at
successive nodes instead ofleaves. When a Figure 5.10 Modifications of leaf for :
shoot tip transforms into aflower, it is always (a) support: tendril (b) protection:
spines (c) storage: fleshy leaves
Solitary. The arrangeme~t ~f fl~~ers ~n the
 o dv n c.1€- '
r':=---
nora1 rum, is termed as inflorescence. Depend·
on whether the apex gets converted into a flawer
continues to grow. two major types of 1nf}0 ~
are defined _ racemose and cymose. In ractltlOtt
type of inflorescences the main axis continues to
grow, the flowers ar:e borne laterally in an acr~
succession (Figure 5. l l).
In cymose type 01· i1Jlo~es~e~ce the rnain~
terminates in a flower, hen..· l'> litn.i.ted in @'owth.~
0

flowers are borne in a basipeta, order (Figure s. _

121
5.5 Tim FLOWER
The flower is the reproductive unit in the
angiosperms. It is meant for sexual reproduction.
A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls
arranged successively on the swollen end of the
stalk or pedicel, called thalamus or_receptacle.
These are calyx, corolla, androecium and
Figure 5.11 Racemose inflorescence gynoecium. Calyx-and corolla are accessory organs,
while androecium and gynoectum are reproductive
organs. In some flowers like lily, the calyx and
corolla are not distinct and ·a re termed as perianth.
When a flower _has both androeciu~d
gynoecium, it is biseruat. A flower having either
only stamens or only carpels is untsexuai. ·
. In symmetry, the flower inay be
actino 111 orphlc (radial sym111etry) · or..
zygolllorphtc {bilateral symmetry). When a flower
can
radialbepldivided into two equal radial - halves in any
to be acttnane passing through the centre, it. is said.
01110rphl
Figure 5.12 Cymose inflorescence When it b . . .c, e.g., mustard, daturo, chilli.
~P4c e..f\AoS.g_ - ~d~s..n, Lur<"t, N\J.c,.\:q•h.J f
in
e.g., pea
. can e diVided into two similar halves only
one Particular" rti . .
e cal plane, it is zygomorp " c,
hi
1
asv...- ' gu mohur, ·~ean, Cassia. A flower Is
o1"A&&&,letr1c (irr ul ·. · :,;s•
....... ~""' <:e . - I); ~\d/nv j'., SaJln <lC,T() ) two Simtl eg ar) if it cannot be diviaed tnto
• ar halves by · ~-: · . ,,.,c1
.. 0 1

t>~"'""'~ - ,
&11~ ~ J
through th · .
e centre, as in
A flower rnay b ·
cann . . .
any vemca1 plane pass.. 'o
a. .
\l S.,~~e>. , Tea..'<' • . h
PentanieroUs , e trhnerous, tetramerous or
rnuittple of 3 w en the florqJ :appendages are ill
4
U'),•~e."!Cv~ - N.~2:..e. , With ~ cts-lir d or 5 , respectively. Flowers
e lJCeci .leaf'\r. .
Pedtcel-are ~ I f ound at the ·base of the
bracts ' ebracteate. ect bracteate and those ,without
-f_,
e°' ~;hi'~cu~
 (al (bl (cl (dl
'
Figure 5.13 Position of floral parts on thalamus : (al Hypogynous (bl and (cl
Perigynous (dl .Epigynous .

Based on the position of calyx, corolla and androeciwil in respect of

the ovary on thalamus, the flowers are described as hypogynous,
perigynous and epigynous (Figure 5. _13): In the hypogynous flower the
gynoecium occupies the highest position while the_other parts are situated
below it. The ovaiy in such flowers is said to be supe~or, e.g.. mustard,
chirta rose and brinjal. If gynoecium is situated in the centre and other
parts of the flower are located on the rini of the thalamus almost at the
same level, it is called perigynous. The ovary here is .said t~ be half
inferior, e.g., plum, rose, peach. In epigynous flowers, the mar~ of
thalamus grows upward enclosing-the ovary completely and getting fused .
\:Vith it, th~ other parts of flower arise above the ovruy. Hence, the ov.uy is
s~d to be inferior as in flowers of guava and cucumber., and the ray
floretsofsuntlower. . - Mo'f"IOe...,~~s. _.::... C..o~~"' ~@ .
' . .I
5.5.I Parts of a Flower Cuc.vrf"b-.'-3:J-,, Co~-0'()'->!-
Each flower ,nornially has four floral whorls, viz.. calyx, corolla,
androecium and gynoecium (Figure 5.14). · · "I C
"' , o e tJ..O\J s.
5 .5 .1 -l _Calyx
1b.e calyx is the outermost whorl of the flower and the members are called
sepals. Generally sepals are green, leaf like and protect the flower in the
buct stage. The' calyx may be gain~sepalous (sepals united) or
Polysepalous (sepals free) . ·
5 -5 .1.2 Coroiz«:t i

Corolla is composed of petals. Petals are usually brightly colour_e d to

attract ~se'cts for pollination. Like calyx. corolla may be .also united
1 I •

A -s;;;.._-~._- Corolla
Calyx
Calyx Corolla Andtoeclutn
Figure 5.14 Patts of a flower

gamopetalous (petals united) or polypetalous - free). The shape

and colour of corolla vary greatly in plants. Corolla may b_t:: tubular, beij.
shaped, funnel-'shaped or wheel-shaped.
Aestivati~n: The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in flontl bud
with respect to the other members of the same 'whorl is known as
aestivation. The main types of aestivation are valvate, twisted, imbricate
and vexillary (Figure 5.15). When sepals or petals in a whorl just touch
one another at the margin, without overlapping, as in Calotropis, it is
said to be valvate. If one margin of the appendage overlaps that of the
next one and so on as.in china rose, lady's finger and cotton, it is called
twisted. If the margins of sepals or petals overlap one another but not In
any particular direction as in Cassia and gulmohur, the aestivq.tion is
called imbricate. In pea and bean flowers, there are five petals, the largest
(standard) overlaps the two lateral petals (wings) which in tum overlap
the two smaUesf anterior petals (keel);· this type of aestivation is known
as vexillary or papilionaceous.

-
/

(a) (b) (c} (d}

1
15 Types of'aestiv'atl~~-W ~o'rcllaj : '(~)"Vaivate ·(ll 1wisted' '(c)'i "brf , ,, :cc11· Ve~ llafY
Figure 5 . f· •;'H . , -~- - ,,· •1,,r .!1 •1,•, .• •. • • ,. • m ca e .
• ,. . _, . . ! I : '. l : • I • •• ) ' • f • • • .:.·:
 Jtndroecium
5.5,1· 9. '
iurn is composed of stamens. Each stamen which
droec . d .
N1 ts the male repro uctive organ consists of a stalk or a
resen · ,
reP t and an anther. Each anther is usually bilobed and each
fl iatllen
b two chambers. the pollen-sacs. The pollen . grains are
5
I0beduceda in pollen-sacs. A sterile stamen is called starntnode.
pro stunens of flower may be united with other me:r:nbers such as
ta1s or among themselves. When stamens are attached to the
P:tals, they are eplpetalous as in brinjal, or eplphyllous wben
pttached to the perianth as in the flowers of lily. The stamens in a
~ower may either remain free (polyandrous) or may be united in
varying degrees. The stamens may be united into one bunch ·or
one bundle (monoadelphous) as in china rose, or two bundles
(diadelpbous)' as in pea, or into more thaI?, two bundles (b)

a
(polyadelpbous) as in citrus. There may be variation in the length
of filaments within a flower, as in Salvia and m_u<>tard.
.

5.5.1.4 Gynoecium .• .
I t
t> ,t")orn°"~
.
·
c:;--re.M0\ tf"" 0 C

Gynoeciurn is the female reproductive part of the flower and is made

up of one or more carpels. A carpel consists of three parts naniely
, stigma, style and ovary. Ovary is the enlarged basal part, on which (c)
lies the elongated tube, the style. The style connects the ovmy to the
stigma. The stigma ·is usually at the tip of the style .and is the
receptive surface for pollen grams. Each ovruy bears one or more
ovules attached to a flattened, cushion-lik~ placenta. Wheri-more
than one c~el is ·present, they may be free (as in lotus and rose)
and are called apocarpous. They are termed syncarpous when .
carpels are fused, as in mustard and tomato. After fertilisation, the
Ovules develop i11t0 ·seeds and the ovruy matures into a fruit. (d)
Placentatlon: ThP. c1i"'""lngement of ovules within the ovmy is known
as placentation. The placentatlon are of different types namely,
rnarginal, axile, pariete.l, b,,asal, central and free central (Figure 5.16).
In. inal placentatlon the -· lacenta forms a rid e alon the
Ven.tr suture of the ovaiy and the ovu es arE bome on this ridge
forming two rows, as in pea. When the placenta is ·a xtal and the
ovules areaftached to it 1n a multilocular ovary:. the placentaion is
l1
(e)

Said to be axlle, as 1n'"china.mse, tomato and lemon. In parietal Fi 5

~~cen~tion, the ovules..-develop ~n the inner wall of the ovary or gure . IS ~~~~!tion :·
ch Penpheralpart. Ovary is one-chambered but it becomes two- (a) Marginal
ambered due to the formation of the false septum, e.g.. mustard (b) Axile
anct A · . (c) Parietal
se rgemone. When the ovules are borne o~ central ruas and (d) Free central
Pta are absent, as in Dianthus and Prtmrose the placentatlon is (el Basal

l,,._
 at 76

called free central. I n basal placentation, the placenta develops at the

b! se of ovary and a single ovule is a_n:acbed tq it. as in sunflower, Illarlg~
'.S,~p\e _[~o"fo.t.;~ - -r. . ~f,\1 1\

1
5.6 {
be,,'\-\.~_ .
THEFRUIT ~~'i~'f~ • Mv~bQ~f
E:di\~\~ ~oT()~o~~'\e Stlcor,vs- r--13 1

-. + The fruit is a characteristic feature of the flowering plants. It is~ mature

~, 0 f\ or ripened ovary developed after fertilisation. If a fruit is formed Without
- · @Ao C. • fertilisation of the ovary, it is called a parthenocarplc fruit.
Coc_o \.-.\J .1 - 0
Generally, the fruit
· consists of a wall or perlc,u-p and seeds. TI:te
"' i'f'n pericarp may be dry or fleshy. When pericarp is thick and fleshy, it Is
L', ..le_ ""', - differentiated into the outer eplcarp, the middle mesocarp and the inner
1 . ,.
P..'1' j_ endocarp.

i'o<q 'f <> <"><>¼ e_ - .$,. V C< V \ I>,3;

(\ 'f'> Q 'I) Cl - M Q.t. 0 C <\ ,{ 'y, Eplcarp

_M ~
c~ cloca:<~ . • - --,--Seed

A.pf'~ i~~,{ - p,Q~ h'(_ r----:---~

~UC\'1.nUS •
(a) (b)

. ~~~~~a..\:e, v_,•~~ Figure 5.17 Parts of a fruit : (a) Mango (b) Coconut

c! c_" Q,.lo f fr.t.. o 'r<)

In mango and coconut, the frajt is known as a drnpe (Figure 5.17).

t0i
They cfevelop from monocarpellacy superior ovaries and are one seeded.

~-r~c , In mango the pericarp is well differentiated into an outer thin epicarp, a
middle fleshy edible mesocarp and an inner stony hard endocarp. In
coconut which is also a drupe, the mesocarp is fibrous.
p
C>fo C.O. '\.la. V .C. . 0 '1 ' ( '
5.7
• fl~~., of ~chQ..n~t. ·
T HE S EED
· · ; . .
- .S.. ~o.w\:ie,1"1~, The ovules after fertilisation, develop int? se~ds. A seed is made up of a
• {c.. e.1\ o of Be.'f '1 ~es - seed coat and an embryo. The e~bry? is made up of a radicle, an embryonal
N lo \,o¼-1l~~ • axis and one (as_in wheat, maize) or two cotyledons (as in gram and pea).
• E~"~rr: 0 0
t foili d~,X
,, 5 .7 . 1
S t f Di
true ure o a cotyledonous Seed
• t 001e.,<1 i o
{-
- D~

N\ c'n~
f\..t:"''"'~, The outermost covering of a seed is the seed coat. The seed coat has two
layers, the outer testa and the inner tegmen. The hllum is on the
i),r.., g f seed coat throu h which the developing seeds were attached to the fruit.
I
Rv~rhe-"'"~ . Abov~ the hilum is a small pore called the cropyle. Within the seed
 coil t is the e mbryo, consisting of an Seed coat
Cotyledon
brvonal axis and two cotyledons.- The
e11l•;
-otyledons are often fleshy and full of reserve
l1:00~·:d -materials.
- At ffie two ends of the
'e.inb!Yonal ruas are_present the radicle and
meplumule (Figure 5.18). ln~me seeds
such as castor the endosperm formed as a Hllum
Radicle
result of double fertilisation, is a food sioiing Micropyle
tissue. 1n plants such_ as bean,i!ram and
j)ea.fue endosg_erm is not prc:senUp mature 5.18. Structure of dicotyledonous seed
seeds and such seeds are ·called non- _C:')~o--e.fQAM,c - Wh~o..!., Mo..i2-'l
enclospermous. o. 1 f\ t 1 l,
. . Qo,,t \ J r"l \ \,o\...!)Olf I ~~•f"> I
5.7.2 Structure of Monoc~tyledonous s~ed 01-!.~..f-
1
~,•~e. ,
Generally, monocotyledonous seeds are endospennic but some as in
orchids are non-endospermic. In the seeds of cereals such as maize the N~n 'p~ 'm"')~ c..
seed giat is membranous and generally fusd with the fruit wall. The
endospen:nis bulky apd stores food. ·The outer c~ring of endosperm
-p~ I ~Q.(\I),

separates the embryo by a proteinous layer called aleurone layer. The ~~01'1'1 I q~o~--ocl
embryo is small and·situated in a,gtoove at one end of the endosperm. It
consists of one large and shield shaped cotyledon kn~ as scutellum f) I . \,
"'"~ . i--·
•• ' f
C:'1 ~t ~'#""'~ .
•.

a
and a short axis with. plumule and a radicle. The plumule and radicl~

rQ.'f'r~~--
' (
are enclosed in sheaths which are called coleoptile and coleorhiza
respectively (Figure 5.19). t'-
- i \a~~
&~ .

;
Seed coat & fruit-wall ______,,,.,,._.,. .:t i:;...,...;~ - Endosp~rm

Aleuron~ layer
·.,p,.;.,;.-ff--- Soutellum

Coleoptlle
~...-- Endosperm
,(llJIW,' - -- Plumule

Embryo .
~ ff-- _ iRadi<,;le ,t~-~
:. -·..,.. -,, L,J.::: 1-
11.-,-,,,,,,.__ __ Coleorhiza
. '
i it~_:.,i·u' r -~.. ' .,
I
! ~e 5.19 Structure of a monocotyledonmis seed
. ;) ., ·* •. • ..
..
L
 0 5 .8 S EMI - T BCHNJCAL D ESCRIPTION OF A 1'v:P1c-AL
F LOWERING PLANT

Various morphological features are used to descnbe a

flowering plant. The description has to be brief, in a simple
and scientific language and presented in a proper
sequence. The plant is described beginning with its habtt
vegetative characters - roots, stem and leaves and th~
floral characters inflorescence and flower parts. After
describing various parts of plant, a floral diagram and a
-floral formula are presented. The floral formula ts
represented by some symbols. In the floral formula, Br
stands for bracteate K stands for calyx . C for corolla. P for
perianth, A for androecium and G for Gynoecium, G for
superior ovary and G for inferior ovary, cf for male, for

Figure 5.20 , Floral diagram with

female, cffor bisexual plants, EB for actinomorphic and oi
for zygomorphic nature of flower. Fusion is indicated by
· floral formula '
enclosing the figure within bracket and adhesion by a line
~-< c..~ .c ~~c. ~e drawn above the symbols of the floral parts. A floral
\~rlo.,.~~""<:!'-'S. f.\o~aNS diagram provides information about the number of parts
of a flower, their arrangement and the relation they have
-- ·o ·
~ . "'(U~\; ~r, t,(') ~~- o...il.a_ with one another (Figure 5.20). The position of the !_llother
1 ;· . \ -:; ., axis with respect to the flower is represented by a dot on
_,, --t~ .. u~'.1'¥\'«'>0" s:. c-~; •.,.,, the top of the floral diagram. Calyx, corolla, androecium
and gynoecium are drawn in successive whorls,_gllyx being
the outermost and the gynoecium being jn tbe centre:,
.SOm~<YS~s:. d~~~"'ATOO" s:. .
Floral formula also shows cohesi~n a.Diel adhesion within
---::} rG\-Kej_~ f \a.~~·ori / parts of whorls and between whorls. The floral diagram
and floral formula in Figure 5.20 represents the mustard
plant (Family: Brassicaceae). -
'3.~f,~ . ,~~~°'-~
- , _(\ v - i ~C, vQ. ,o--/ 5.9 DESCRIPTION OF SoME IMPORTANT F.~IES
N 71
' .. I\,.
5.9.1 Fabaceae
S\..JJ...~U....)LV-
This family was earlier called Papilionoideae; a subfamily
offamily Leguminosae. It is distributed all over the world
. (Figure 5.21).

-
I"'\~.~"
" ' ·o
t.v .~
• - n..
1
~h'-f'"'-to-'e.
Vegetative Characters

t\o\, 1-.-~t.v~~. Trees, shrubs, herbs; root with root nodules

Stem: erect or climber

-
/

~...U.~ -, fort oJ..l~ J , Leaves: alternate, piruiately compou:;;_d or simple; leaf base,
pulvinate; stipulate; venation reticulate. -
(;-?(S~fv~

~,is;::z;pc:¥,~AZ ; JMM JC
 ) (0

Figure 5.21 Pisum.sativum (pea) plant : (a) Flowertng twig (b) Flower (c) Petals
· (d) Reproductive parts (e) L.S.carpel (0 Floral diagram

Floral characters
Inflorescence: racemose
Flower: bisexual, zygomorphic
calyx: sepals five, gamosepalous; imbricate aestivation
Corolla: petals five, polypetalous, papilionaceous, consisting of a posterior
standard, two lateral wings, two anterior ones forming a keel (enclosing .
stamens and pistil), vexillaiy aestivation ,·
An<lroecium: ten, diadelphous, anther dithecous
Sa - ='
G~oecium:..o.vruy superior, mono carpellruy, unilocular with many
oru]es; styie single . .- I • ·n' '
fruit.:legume; seed: one to many, non-endospermic
Floral Formula: % _1~s1 C1+2+121 Ac91+1G1- :_~ •.

Economic importance ' .

Many plants belonging to the family -~~ so'urces of pulses (gram, arhar,
sem, moong, soyabean; edible oil (soyabean, groundnut); dye (lndigofera);
fi~(unh s emp): fodder '{Sesbania, Trifolium), ornamentals
. (lupin,
. -
sweet
Ilea); medicine (muliafuO.
. · . . -

59~
.. ''- Solanaceae c·r -
~ ~.O'v...C. llJ O c,-.,<W'..S..I'\
It 1sa . T' J
dist 1arge family, commonly called as the •,otato family'. It is widely
V ributed in tropics, subtropics and even temperate zones (Figure 5.22).
egetattve Characters
P!::i ... t . .. . . ..
....... s . .
Ste niostly herbs, shrubs and rarely small trees ·,
Ill·· herbaceous_rarelywoody, aerial:
· erect, cylindrical, branched, solid
.....
 (d)
(b)
(c)
ED

(e)

Figure 5.22 Solanwn nigrwn (makoi) plant: (a) Flowering twig (b) Flower
(c) L.S. of flower (d) Stamens (e) Carpel (f) Floral diagram

or hollow, hairy or glabrous,- und~rground stem in potato (Sokuu.un

tuberosum)
Leaves: alternate, ~imple, rarely g_inn.ately compound, exstipulate;
venation reticulate
. Floral Characters
Inflorescence : S,,,olitary, axillary or cymose as in Solnnum
Flower: bisexual, actino orphic
(la!~: sepals five, uni <:1, persistent, val ate aestivation
Androecium: s
.
-- Corolla: petals five, ·ted; valvate
.
aesti.
ens five, ;Pipetalous
Gynoecium: bi arpellary, synca:tpotfs; ov: superior, bilocular, Elacen_,!_a
_s~ollen with many ovules
Fruits: b@ or capsule
' Seeds:·mariy, endo~permous
Floral Formula: EB ifRisi ~ s .Gi2i
Economic Importance

Many plants belon~ to this family are source of food (tomato, brtnjal,
potato), spice (chllli); medicine (belladonna, ashwagandha); fumigator)'
(toq~cco); ornamentals (petunia).
I '
 JVIV.•"•·

LiJiaccne l -r"'<', C'()e,<o '-'-' -ft -o~Ov.s.)

~- 3 .
• · rnonly called the 'Lily family' is a characteristic representative of ·
com cotyledonous p1ants.
. It is d istrtbuted world wide (Figure 5 ..23).
111011O .
vegetative characters: Perennial herbs with underground b~bs/conns/
rhiZornes ·
i,eaves mostly basal, altef!late, linear, exstlpulate with parallel venation
Floral characters .
Inflorescence: s~tary / ~ose; often umbellate clusters
Flower: bisexual; actinornorphic
perianth te12al six (3+3}. oft!(n united into tube; valvate aestivation
Androecium: stamen six, (3+3) .
Gynoecium: trtcarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular with
many ovules; axile placentatlon
Fruit: capsule, rarely berry
Seed: elidosperrnous ·
r/
Floral Formula: Br EB P3+3 Aa+3 ~ 31
Economic Importance ·
Many plants belonging to this family are good om.wnentals (tulip,
Gloriosa), source of medicine (AlQe), vegetables (As,earagus),
colchicine (Colchicwn aut;umnale). · ..,.
-.:

(cl

(bl

Figure 5.23 AUium cepa (onioi'll plant : (al Plant ' (b) Inflorescence (cl Flower
(dl Floral diagram
 SUMMARY

Flowering plants exhibit enormous yanat10n • · m · s h ape , size • structure, mode of

n~trition life span habit and habitat. They have well developed root and s hoot
'
systems. Root ' is either tap root
system ' or fibrous, Gener· ally, dicotyledonous p 1ants
.
have tap roots while monocotyledonous p 1an t s h ave fibrous roots. The roots . . m
some plants get modified for storage offiood , mec h an1·cal support and respiration.
.
The shoot system is differentiated into stem, leaves, flowers and _fnnts. The I
morphological features of stems like the presence of nodes and mternodes, .I
multicellular hair and positively phototropic nature help to differentiate the stems
from roots. Stems also get modified to perform diverse functions such as storage
of food, vegetative propagation and protection under different conditions. Leaf is a
iateral outgrowth of stem developed exogeneously-at the node. Tbe~e are green in
bolour to perform the function of photosynthesis. Leaves exhibit marked variations
in their shape, size, margin, apex and extent of incisions of leaf blade (lamina). I.

Like other parts of plants, the leaves also get modified into other structures such.
. tendrils, spines for climbing and protection
as . respectively.
The flower is a modified shoot, meant for sexual reproduction. The flowers are
arranged in different types of inflorescences. They exhibit enormous variation in
structure, symmetry, position of ovary in relation to other parts, arrangement of
petals, sepals, ovules etc. After fertilisation, the ovary is converted into fruits and
ovules into seeds. Seeds either may be monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous. Uiey
vary in shape, size and period of viability. The floral characteristics form the basis
of
t . classification
e.:: and identif
SC:. l£-ation of floweqpg pJaaj.s. This can be illustrated
through semi-technical descriptions of families . .Hence, , a flowering plant is
described in a definite sequence by using scientific terms. The floral features are
represented in the summarised_form as floral diagram~ and floral formula.

EXERCISES

l. What is meant by modification of root? What type of modifiicati f .

in the: . - on o root 1s found
(a) Banyan tree (b) Turnip (c) Mangrove trees
2. Justify the following statements on the basis of external fi t
• ea ures:
(i) Underground parts of a plant are not always roots.
(ii) Flower is a modified shoot.

3 How is a pinnately compound leaf different from a pal t

· . , ma e1Ycompound leaf?
4_ Explain with swtable examples the different types ofphyllotaxy.