Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials Solution Manual 5th Edition Richard W. Hertzberg
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Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Problem Solutions p. 1/162
Draft document, Copyright R. Hertzberg, R. Vinci, J. Hertzberg 2009
CHAPTER 1
Review
1.1 In your own words, what are two differences between product testing and material
testing?
Possible answers include: (a) The goal of the two procedures is different. Whereas product
testing is design to determine the lifetime of a component under conditions that mimic real-
world use, material testing is intended to extract fundamental material properties that are
independent of the material’s use. (b) The specimen shape is different. Product testing must
use the material in the shape in which it will be used in the real product. Material testing uses
idealized specimen shapes designed to unambiguously determine one or more properties of
the material with the simplest analysis possible.
1.2 What are the distinguishing differences between elasticity, plasticity, and fracture?
Elasticity involves only deformation that is fully reversible when the applied load is removed
(even if it takes time to occur). Plasticity is permanent shape change without cracking, even
when no load exists. Fracture inherently involves breaking of bonds and the creation of new
surfaces. Often two or more of these processes take place simultaneously, but the contribution
of each can be separated from the others.
1.3 Write the definitions for engineering stress, true stress, engineering strain, and true
strain for loading along a single axis.
load P
eng engineering stress (1-1a)
initial cross-sectional area A0
load P
true true stress (1-2a)
instantaneous cross-sectional area Ai
change in length l f l0
eng engineering strain (1-1b)
initial length l0
final length lf
true true strain ln ln (1-2b)
initial length l0
1.4 Under what conditions is Eq. 1-4 valid? What makes it no longer useful if those
conditions are not met?
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P
true (l / l ) eng (li / l0 ) eng (1 eng ) (1-4)
A0 i 0
This expression is true when volume is conserved. However, it is only useful if the cross-
sectional area is the same everyone on the test specimen. If this isn’t the case then the stress
and strain will vary from one part of the specimen to another.
1.5 Sketch Figure 1.3, curve ‘b’ (a ductile metal). Label it with the following terms,
indicating from which location on the curve each quantity can be identified or
extracted: elastic region, elastic-plastic region, proportional limit, tensile strength, onset
of necking, fracture stress.
onset of necking
tensile strength
fracture stress
proportional limit
elastic-plastic region
elastic region
stress
strain
1.6 On a single set of axes, sketch approximate atomic force vs. atom-separation curves like
the one shown in Fig. 1.4b for tungsten at temperatures of 200, 600, and 1000 K. Pay
close attention to the point x0 and the slope dF/dx for each of the curves you draw.
The key features of the plot are the increasing x0 spacing with increasing temperature (i.e.,
with thermal expansion) and the decreasing slope associated with decreased elastic modulus.
The plot is exaggerated but the trends are reasonable.
F
dF
dx
200 K
600 K
1000 K
x0 (1000 K)
x0 (600 K)
x0 (200 K)
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1.7 State the critical difference in the processing behavior of thermoplastics vs. thermosets.
Thermoplastics can be melted and resolidified multiple times, so processing often involves
several heating, forming, and cooling steps. Thermosets harden by a one-time chemical
reaction so there cannot be any additional forming operations after the cross-linking
operation takes place.
1.8 What happens to the stiffness of a polymer as the temperature Tg is exceeded? For what
group of polymers is this change the greatest? The smallest?
The stiffness of a polymer decreases above the glass transition temperature, sometimes
dramatically. The effect is the largest for amorphous, uncross-linked polymers. It is the
smallest for highly cross-linked polymers (such as certain epoxies).
1.9 Write typical values of E for diamond, steel, aluminum, silicate glass, polystyrene, and
silicone rubber subjected to small strains (note that the latter value is not included in
this chapter, but is widely available). Clearly indicate the units for each value.
The following values are not intended to represent any particular processing method or alloy
composition; they are rounded average values for certain material families.
Diamond ~ 1000 GPa
Steel ~ 200 GPa
Aluminum ~ 70 GPa
Silicate glass ~ 70 GPa
Polystyrene ~ 3 GPa
Silicone rubber ~ 10 MPa (0.010 GPa)
1.10 What is the purpose of a plasticizer, and what specific effect on room temperature
behavior is likely when a plasticizer is added?
A plasticizer is added to a polymer to break up the molecular interactions, allowing more
chain mobility than would otherwise be possible for that particular polymer at the
temperature of interest. At room temperature, therefore, the polymer is more likely to have a
low elastic modulus (i.e., a ordinarily-hard polymer may become flexible).
1.11 Identify a minimum of two structural characteristics and two mechanical characteristics
that set elastomers apart from other classes of materials (including other polymers).
Elastomers are amorphous and moderately cross-linked. They tend to display significant
changes in stiffness as their use temperate exceeds Tg, but they do not melt at even higher
temperature.
1.12 Define what is meant by uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial loading.
Uniaxial loading occurs along a single direction, biaxial along two directions, and triaxial
along three. Note that there may be multiaxial strains even when the loading is restricted to
one or two directions.
1.13 State one advantage and disadvantage of compression testing.
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An advantage may be to avoid failure due to tensile cracking at low loads (as in the case for
ceramics and glasses), and therefore to allow exploration of degrees of plasticity impossible
to achieve under tensile loading. One disadvantage would be the difficulty in achieving ideal
friction-free conditions between the specimen and the loading platen.
1.14 Is buckling failure initiated by an elastic, plastic, or cracking process? Explain.
Buckling failure is initially an elastic process in which the member deflects in a direction
perpendicular to the loading axis. This failure may then be followed by plasticity or fracture,
but these processes are not inherent in buckling.
1.15 What is the difference between the resilience and the strain energy density of a material
under load? Illustrate your answer by reproducing Figure 1.3, curve ‘b’ (a ductile
metal), and annotating it appropriately.
Resilience is a measure of the maximum elastic strain energy stored in the material before the
onset of plasticity. The strain energy density is a more general term that is a measure of the
stored elastic energy at any point during a mechanical test. It may be greater or less than the
resilience, depending on the hardening or softening behavior that takes place after plastic
deformation begins.
stress
strain energy density at the
point of necking
strain
resilience
1.16 Sketch Figure 1.3, curve ‘b’ (a ductile metal) and show on the figure the difference
between the proportional limit and the offset yield strength.
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stress
offset yield strength
proportional limit
strain
0.2%
1.17 Describe when and why bend testing (flexural testing) is most advantageous.
Bend testing may be used for any class of materials. It can be used to assess elastic or plastic
properties. It is particularly useful when the material is only available in the shape of a
rectangular prism, or when the material would be likely to fail prematurely due to extreme
flaw sensitivity (as is usually the case for brittle ceramic and glass materials).
1.18 Where can the maximum stress be found for a rectangular bar undergoing 3-point
bending? 4-point bending?
The maximum stress in 3-point bending is found in two locations: at the top and bottom
surfaces directly aligned with the central load point. In 4-point bending, the maximum stress
is also found on the top and bottom surfaces, but it exists at a constant level between the inner
(closer) load points.
1.19 Write the basic isotropic form of Hooke’s law relating stress and strain for uniaxial
tension/compression loading and shear loading. Define all quantities.
Linear elastic uniaxial tension/compression is described by E , where is stress, E is
Young’s modulus, and is strain. An analogous form exists for shear loading, for which
= G. In this expression, is the shear stress, G is the shear modulus, and is the shear
strain.
1.20 Why do we define engineering and true stresses for tension/compression loading but
not for shear loading?
In tension and compression the cross-sectional area bearing the load changes during
deformation, so it is often necessary to account for this change. In shear loading there is
distortion of the material but the area over which the force is distributed does not change, so
there is no need for a true stress definition.
1.21 Sketch a pair of pliers squeezing an object and use it to show why the hinge pin is under
shear loading.
When the clamping force is applied to an object, a reaction force must exist at the pin. The
two jaw faces experience equal and opposite clamping forces, so the pin must experience
equal and opposite reaction forces at its two ends. These create shear stress within the pin.
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top jaw
applied force bottom jaw
clamping force
reaction force
1.22 Write out the most general expression for tension or compression strain along a single
axis resulting from all possible applied stresses, assuming that the material is elastically
isotropic.
1 xx v( yy zz )
xx xx yy zz
E E E E
1.23 Write out the most general expression for shear strain along a single axis resulting from
all possible applied stresses, assuming that the material is elastically isotropic.
xy
xy
G
Sketch and name the stress state present in the skin of a cylindrical thin-walled pressure
vessel. Repeat for the strain state.
biaxial stress triaxial strain
1.24 What is the name of the matrix, Sij?
The Compliance Matrix.
1.25 Why can the compliance and stiffness tensors for cubic and orthotropic materials be
greatly simplified from the general case?
In cubic and orthotropic materials there are several directions that are structurally identical,
and therefore have identical elastic properties. Furthermore, the high degree of symmetry
reduces the degree of coupling between applied stresses and induced strains (e.g., the
absence of XY, YZ, or XZ shear strains generated by XX, YY, and ZZ stresses).
1.26 Describe the geometric criteria that differentiate orthotropic and cubic symmetry.
Orthotropic materials have three distinct a, b, and c axes that are each separated by interior
angles of ===90°. Cubic materials also have three axes separated by ===90°, but
the three axes are identical.
1.27 Define hydrostatic stress state.
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A hydrostatic stress state is one in which the three normal stress components, XX, YY, and ZZ,
are all equal, and there are no shear stresses.
1.28 What is the primary purpose of the fibers in a composite material? Of the matrix?
The fibers usually act as the reinforcement phase, supporting the majority of the load. They
provide most of the stiffness and stress of the composite material. The matrix hold the fibers
together, and serves to transfer the load to the fibers.
1.29 What does it mean for a fiber-reinforced composite to be quasi-isotropic, and how is
this typically achieved?
A quasi-isotropic layered composite has elastic properties that are essentially identical in all
directions within the plane of the material. This is typically achieved by orienting an equal
volume fraction of fibers in each of the 0°, 90°, and ±45° directions.
1.30 Which is the stiffer orientation for a unidirectional fiber-reinforced composite, the
isostress orientation or the isostrain orientation? Explain, and provide a sketch to
support your answer.
The stiffer direction is the isostrain orientation, in which the fibers and the matrix must strain
by equal amounts. In this orientation, the stiffer fibers typically bear the majority of the load,
and so the composite stiffness is maximized for a given volume fraction of fibers. In the
isostress orientation, the compliant matrix is free to strain to a larger degree than the stiff
fibers, so the overall stiffness is lower.
Ec, isostrain Ec, isostress
load
load
1.31 Why are pairs of materials more likely to experience thermal stress problems when they
represent two different material classes?
Pairs of materials are more likely to experience thermal stress problems when they represent
two different material classes because the differences in atomic bonding character that exist
between material classes can lead to large differences in their coefficients of thermal
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expansion. If the materials are joined together, this thermal expansion incompatibility can
cause larger thermal stresses to develop.
Practice
1.32 Sketch a tensile member with (a) a rectangular cross-section, (b) a solid circular cross-
section, and (c) a circular tube cross-section, and label the dimensions symbolically
(e.g., label the radius for the solid circular case). For each member, write out the
definition of engineering stress in terms of the actual dimensions of the component. If
the rectangular member has dimensions of width and thickness equal to 1 cm x 0.3 cm,
what would be the radius of a solid circular member such that the stress is equal for an
equal tensile load? If a tube has an outer radius equal to that of this same solid cylinder,
what is the maximum inner radius such that the stress does not exceed 50% of the stress
in the solid cylinder?
w
F F
t eng
A tw
r F F
eng 2
A r
r1 F F F
eng
r2
A r12 r22 r12 r22
For the rectangular bar, Arect (1cm)(0.3 cm) 0.3 cm2 .
To create equal stress under an identical load, the solid cylinder must have the same cross
sectional area, so
Arect Acyl r 2
which requires a radius of approximately 0.309 cm.
The tube can have a load-bearing cross section that is equal to half that of the solid
cylinder since the maximum stress is half. Setting the outer radius r 1 equal to 0.309 cm and
the tube area equal to 0.5(0.3 cm2) gives the inner radius r2=0.218 cm.
1.33 A commercially-pure copper wire originally 10.00 m long is pulled until its final length
is 10.10 m. It is annealed, then pulled again to a final length of 10.20 m. What is the
engineering strain associated with each of the two steps in the process? What is the true
strain for each step? What are the total engineering and true strains for the combined
steps? Finally, what agreement (if any) is there between the total strains calculated as
the sum of two steps of 0.10 m vs. a single step of 0.20 m?
The engineering strain for each step is:
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L 0.1m Lfinal 10 0.1m
1: eng1 0.010 and true1 ln ln 0.00995
L0 10 m L0 10 m
L 0.1m Lfinal 10.1 0.1m
2 : eng 2 0.0099 and true2 ln ln 0.00985
L1 10.1m L1 10.1m
So the sum of the two steps in each case is
eng eng1 eng 2 0.010 0.0099 0.0199 and
true true1 true2 0.00995 0.00985 0.0198
Calculating the total strain as if the elongation were performed in a single step:
L 0.2 m Lfinal 10 0.2 m
eng 0.020 and true ln ln 0.01980
L0 10 m L0 10 m
So, it can be seen that the sum of the individual engineering strains does not agree with the
strain calculated for a single elongation step of 0.20 m, whereas the total true strains is the
same regardless of whether the 0.20 m elongation is applied in one increment or two.
1.34 A 3-mm-long gold alloy wire intended to electrically bond a computer chip to its
package has an initial diameter of 30 µm. During testing, it is pulled axially with a load
of 15 grams-force. If the wire diameter decreases uniformly to 29 µm, compute the
following:
(a) The final length of the wire.
(b) The true stress and true strain at this load.
(c) The engineering stress and strain at this load.
3.21mm
2
A0 30106 m
The final length of the wire is lf l0 3 mm 2
Af
2
29106 m
2
The true stress and true strain are
true
P
(15 g f ) 9.807103 N
1g f 223 MPa
2
Afinal 2910 m
6
Lf 3.21mm
true ln ln 0.0677
L0 3 mm
The engineering stress and engineering strain are
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eng
P (15 g f )
1g f 9.807103 N
208 MPa
2
A0 3010 m
6
Lf L0 3.21 3 mm
eng 0.070
L0 3 mm
1.35 A cylindrical rod of Ni 200 alloy has the following properties: E = 204 GPa, = 0.31. It
is loaded elastically in compression at 12.5 kN. If the original rod length and diameter
are 20 mm and 15 mm, respectively, determine the rod length and diameter under load.
We need to determine the axial strain, then the axial and radial dimensions can be calculated.
Because the loading is elastic, we can apply the Young’s modulus and Hooke’s law as follows
P 12.5 103 N
eng 3.47 104
204 10
2
E A0E 1510 3
m 9 N
2 m2
L L0 eng 20 mm 3.47 104 6.94 103 mm
Lf L0 L 19.9931mm
Then relate the axial strain to the radial strain using the Poisson’s ratio
Poisson applied 0.31 3.47 104 1.0757 104
d d0 15 mm 1.0757 104 1.614 103 mm
df d0 d 15.0016 mm
1.36 A 0.5 m long rod of annealed 410 stainless steel was loaded to failure in tension. The
rod originally had a square cross section measuring 1.25 cm on a side. What was the
load necessary to break the sample? If 85% of the total elongation occurred prior to the
onset of localized deformation, compute the true stress at the point of incipient necking.
We need to know the tensile strength (the maximum strength before necking commences) and
the total elongation at failure. From Table 1.2a, these values are 515 MPa and 35%,
respectively. Thus
515 10 Pa 80.5 kN
2
P A0 1.25 102 m 6
To determine the true stress at necking, we need the actual cross sectional area, which can be
determined by assuming constant volume deformation throughout the period of uniform
elongation.
Uniform elongation 0.85(35%) 29.75%
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so the instantaneous length at necking was 129.75% of the original, or 0.64875 m. Then
Ai
A0L0
1.5625 10 4
m2 0.5 m 1.204 10 4
m2
Li 0.64875 m
P 80.5 103 N
true 668.6 MPa
Ai 1.204 104 m2
1.37 Natural rubber is tested in tension to a maximum extension ratio of =3. The Mooney-
Rivlin constants for this material are found to be C1=0.069 MPa and C2= 0.125 MPa.
Plot the corresponding uniaxial stress vs. extension ratio behavior over the tested range.
Derive an expression for the slope of the function, then determine the secant and
tangent moduli at 100% strain.
Plot equation 1-14 first, then determine the slope of the line between =1 and =2 (i.e., at
100% strain). The slope is the secant modulus, which is 0.460 MPa for this particular rubber
material. To derive an expression for the slope of the function, take the first derivative of
stress with respect to extension ratio. The value of the slope at =2 is the tangent modulus,
which in this case is 0.219 MPa.
C2 1 2C1 2C2
2 C1 2 2C1 2C2 2 3
d 4C1 6C2
2C1 3 4
d
700
600
500
Stress (kPa)
400
300
200
100
0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
1.38 Compare the resilience of annealed alloy Ti-6Al-4V with that of annealed stainless steel
alloy 304. Then compare the elastic strain energy density just prior to the onset of
necking for both alloys. Assume that the Young’s moduli are 114 GPa for the Ti-6-4
and 193 GPa for the 304 stainless.
Resiliance is the area under the stress-strain curve at the proportional limit, whereas the
elastic strain energy density at necking is determined from the elastic strain that exists at that
point. From Eq. 1-19
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max
2
resilience
2E
We need the yield strength values from Table 1.2a: for annealed Ti-6Al-4V it is 925 MPa and
for annealed 304 stainless it is 240 MPa. From these values, we see that the resilience of the
Ti-6-4 is 3.75 MN/m2 (or MJ/m3). The resilience of the 304 stainless is 0.149 MN/m2 (or
MJ/m3). The elastic strain energy density at necking is calculated the same way, but with the
tensile strength values: 995 and 565 MPa, respectively, for the Ti-6-4 and the 304 stainless,
respectively. The corresponding strain energy densities are 4.34 and 0.827 MN/m2 (or
MJ/m3). Perhaps surprisingly, even though the stainless steel is much stiffer than the Ti alloy,
high yield and tensile strength values make the Ti alloy the better material for elastic energy
storage (at least when both are in the annealed state).
1.39 A cylindrical elastomeric rope is used to make a slingshot. The diameter is 15 mm and
the original length is 1 m. It is stretched to twice its original length (=2) then released.
The behavior is fully elastic and not time-dependent over the time span of the
slingshot’s use. The stress-extension ratio behavior is shown in the plot below.
2.5
Stress (N/mm^2)
1.5
0.5
0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
Lambda = L/L0
(a) If the first two data points were used to calculate an initial linear elastic Young’s
modulus E0, what would that value be? Answer in GPa or MPa units.
Take the slope of a line passing through the first two data points: E0=(0.5-0)/(1.2-1)=2.5
N/mm2, which converts to 2.5 N/10-6 m2 or simply 2.5 MPa.
(b) Based on the plot above, what is the diameter of the rope at =2? Noting that this
is a large strain, state and justify any assumption you must make to answer this
question.
When =2, the length is twice the original. Assume that volume is constant during elastic
deformation (i.e., =0.5), a reasonable decision for rubber materials, so that A0l0= Aflf. Then
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2
d
2
d
0 l 0 f l
2
f
2
l0 1 2 1 1
df d 02 d0 d0 15 mm 10.6 mm
l f
2 2 2
Note that if you use the standard linear relationship between axial strain, radial strain, and
Poisson’s ratio you will get a significantly smaller final diameter. The linear expression is
only accurate for small strains, whereas in this case =2, so =1.00 (definitely a large
strain).
(c) For a rubber material, one possible non-linear relationship relating stress and
extension ratio is given by Eq 1-13. Assume that this is a reasonable expression
for the behavior depicted above, and calculate the expected stored energy density
at = 2. Be sure to report units.
E0 1
Eq. 1-13 is 2 and the stored energy density is given by the area under the
3
stress-strain (or stress-extension ratio) plot. Determine this by integrating Eq. 1-13 from =1
to =2.
2 2
E 1 E 1 1 2.5MPa 4 1 1
SED 0 2 d 0 2 2 2 2 1 0.83 10 J / m
6 3
3 1 3 2 1 3
1.40 A rectangular plate 100 mm long, 10 mm wide and 3 mm thick is formed from fused
silica. It is tested in 3-point bending until it fails with a modulus of rupture of 110 MPa
at a load of 66 N. Assume the central load point is on the top of the beam.
(a) How far apart must have been the lower supports?
Eq. 1-24 shows that the rupture strength can be related to the specimen dimensions and the
rupture load as
3PL
3pt.
2bh2
so we can rearrange the expression to solve for L, the support span:
2bh2 3pt. 2(0.010 m)(0.003 m)2 (110 106 N m2 )
L 0.1 m 100 mm
3P 3 66 N
(b) What was the maximum stress (magnitude and sign) on the top side of the beam
halfway between the central load point and the left-hand lower load point?
If the top side of the beam is associated with the single load point, it will be the compressive
side. Stress on the compressive side is negative in sign, is a maximum on the outer surface,
and changes linearly from the center load point to the outer load point. Thus the stress
halfway along this surface must have been -110 MPa/2 = -55 MPa.
(c) What was the stress (magnitude and sign) directly beneath the central load point
exactly 1.5 mm from the top surface?
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The plane located parallel to the top and bottom surfaces at a distance of 1.5 mm from the top
is the central plane of the plate. It is the neutral axis for which there is no length change
during bending, so the stress will be zero.
(d) If the same plate was tested in pure tension would the stress at failure probably be
higher or lower than measured by three point bending? Why?
In tension a larger fraction of the surface is exposed to the maximum stress, so it is
statistically more likely that a fatal flaw will be subjected to sufficiently high stress to cause
failure. One would therefore expect that the stress at failure would probably be lower in
tension than in three point bending.
1.41 A disk of SBR elastomer 3.0 cm in diameter x 0.5 cm thick is used as a cushioning
surface between two steel rods of the same diameter, as shown below (not to scale).
SBR/steel interface
G E shear strength CTE
SBR 3.4 MPa 10 MPa 0.49 2 MPa 220 x 10-6 °C-1
(a) If the rods are brought together with an axial force of 100 N such that the SBR is
compressed elastically between them, what is the thickness of the SBR under
load?
P P 100N
141.5kPa
0.030m
2
2 2
A0 d
2
Then, using the definition of strain, we can say that
141.5 103 Pa
L f L0 L0 L0 L0 0.5cm 0.5cm 0.4929cm
E 10 10 Pa
6
(b) Under the same conditions as part ‘a’, what is the greatest possible diameter of
the SBR under load?
Use Poisson’s Ratio to relate axial strain to radial strain. This will give a maximum diameter
because the SBR disk is constrained at its ends by the attachment to the rods.
axial 141.5 103 Pa
radial axial 0.49 6.9335 103
E 10 10 Pa
6
D f D0 D0 radial 3cm 3cm 6.9335 103 3.021 cm
(c) If the SBR is bonded to the rods, how far can one rod be rotated with respect to
the other before the SBR/rod interface fractures? Assume that the rods are
essentially rigid and the distance between them remains constant. Please answer
in degrees of rotation.
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From Eq. 1-26 and Eq. 1-29, = G and = tan. Therefore
2 MPa
tan 1 tan 1 30.5
G 3.4 MPa
1.42 A solid cylindrical rod 12 mm in diameter and 50 mm in length is attached to a rigid
support at one end and twisted at its free end by 14°. If the Poisson’s ratio for this
isotropic material is 0.34 and Young’s modulus is 70 GPa, what is the maximum shear
stress induced?
From Eq. 1-26 and Eq. 1-33, = G and max= D/2L. We need G, which is available from
the other two elastic constants because the material is elastically isotropic. Together we have
E D 70 GPa 12 mm 5 180
max G max
26.12 GPa 0.0105 274 MPa
2 1 2L 2 1 0.34 2 50 mm
1.43 Spinel (MgAl2O4) “optical ceramic” is a transparent polycrystalline ceramic with a
combination of high hardness, low density, and optical properties that make it very
attractive for fracture resistant windows (e.g., as armor or in a future manned space
vehicle). It has the mechanical properties listed below.
G E Flexure strength CTE
Spinel 192 GPa 277 GPa 0.26 200 GPa 7 x 10-6 °C-1
(a) A rectangular plate 1 mm x 10 mm x 100 mm is mounted for use as a protective
window over a sensor. In the course of mounting, a compressive load of 2.5 kN is
exerted along the long (100 mm) axis. There is no constraint along the other two
axes. What is the stress along the long axis?
P 2500N
250 MPa
A0
0.010m 0.001m
(b) What is the strain along the long axis?
250 MPa
9 104
E 277000 MPa
Note that this strain is negative because of the applied compressive load.
(c) What is the strain along the width (10 mm) axis?
radial axial 0.26 9 104 2.35 104
Note that this strain is positive because the material bulges outward radially in response to
the applied axial compressive load..
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(d) What is the strain along the thickness (1 mm) axis?
The same as in the width direction because the material is elastically isotropic.
(e) Now the plate is rigidly constrained along its width (the 10 mm axis). This has
the consequence that the plate cannot change length along that axis, although it is
still free to change thickness dimension. The same 2.5 kN load is exerted along
the long axis. Now what is the strain along the long axis?
Set up the generalized Hooke’s Law equations for the two axes that we care about: the
direction of the applied load (arbitrarily call it direction 3) and the constrained direction
(direction 2). The material is free to expand or contract in direction 1 (thickness) so the stress
along that axis must be zero (i.e., this is a plane stress condition). Beginning with direction 2:
1
2 1 2 3 0
E E E
2 3
then moving on to direction 3:
3
E
1 2 3
E
1
E E
1
3 3
E
1 1 0.26
2 2
3 250 MPa 8.4 104
E 277000 MPa
3
1.44 Compute the moduli of elasticity for nickel and 3C silicon carbide single crystals in the
100, 110, and 111 directions. Compare these values with Young’s modulus
values reported for polycrystalline samples of Ni and -SiC (204 GPa and 410 GPa,
respectively). Then calculate the relative degree of anisotropy for both materials, and
compare it to that of aluminum, spinel, and copper.
First, calculate the modulus in each direction using the direction cosines, as per Eq. 1-55:
1
S11 2[(S11 S12 ) 1
2 S44 ](l12 l22 l22 l32 l12 l32 )
E
Doing so, we find the following:
E(100) GPa E(110) GPa E(111) GPa E(iso) GPa
Ni 137.0 232.6 303.0 204
-SiC 270.3 421.1 517.2 410
From this table it can be seen that the <110> values match reasonably well with the isotropic
polycrystalline values. It can also be seen that both materials exhibit fairly large differences
between the <100> and the <111> directions, with <111> being stiffer in both cases.
Finally, the degree of anisotropy can be calculated using the equation from Table 1.8 and
compared to data taken from that same table. We can conclude that both Ni and -SiC are
more anisotropic than Al, similar in anisotropy to spinel, and less anisotropic than Cu.
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2(s11 s12 )
s44
Ni 2.50
-SiC 2.23
Al 1.22
Spinel 2.53
Cu 3.20
1.45 Assume the following elastic loading exists on a block of copper:
X = 325 MPa, Y = 80 MPa, and Y = 40 MPa
Calculate X and Z for this block assuming
(a) that it is a random polycrystalline material
Random polycrystals can be treated as isotropic materials. Use the Generalized Hooke’s
Law, for which there is no connection between a shear stress and any of the normal strains.
X
E
1
X Y Z
E E
1
129800 MPa
325 MPa 0.343 80 MPa 0 2.29 103
Z
E
1
X Y Z
E E
1
129800 MPa
0.343325 MPa 0.34380 MPa 0 1.07 103
(b) that it is a single crystal with the tensile and shear axes lining up along unit cell
axes.
In this case, we must use the matrix form of Hooke’s Law which also lacks a connection
between the shear stress and the normal strains because the material has cubic symmetry:
X S11 X S12 Y S13 Z S11 X S12 Y S12 Z
X 1.50 10 11 Pa 1 325 10 6 Pa 0.63 10 11 Pa 1 80 10 6 Pa 0 4.371 10 3
Z S31 X S32 Y S33 Z S12 X S12 Y S11 Z
X 0.63 10 11 Pa 1 325 10 6 Pa 0.63 10 11 Pa 1 80 10 6 Pa 0 2.098 10 3
(c) Explain why the relative strain values you calculated along the X axis make sense
for the two cases, based on the elastic anisotropy of copper.
The stiffness of copper along X, a {100} direction, is lower than the stiffness of isotropic
copper. This means the compliance along this direction is higher for the single crystal than
the compliance for isotropic copper. Thus is makes sense that for the same loading there
would be a larger strain along X for the anisotropic case.
1.46 A weight lifter holds 300 pounds over his head, supporting the bar with both arms
vertical.
(a) What is the stress in each humerus (upper arm bone), assuming that it can be
approximated as a solid cylindrical rod with cross sectional area of 1.05 in 2? Use
SI units.
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P
300 lbs. 4.448N / 1 lb.
1.97 MPa
A0 1.05 in2 645 106 m2 / 1 in2
(b) What are the corresponding axial and radial strains?
Consulting Fig. 1.15, direction 3 is axial and direction 1 is radial. Then using values
from Table 1.5 and equation 1-49, we find that
31 32 1 1
3 1 2 3 0 0 (0.00197 GPa) 9.85 105
E11 E22 E33 20.0 GPa
1 0.22
1 1 12 2 13 3 0 0 (0.00197 GPa) 2.167 105
E11 E22 E33 20.0 GPa
(c) If the humerus is 9 inches long, what are the length and diameter changes
associated with this massive load? Please give this answer in inches.
L L0 9 in 9.85 105 8.865 104 in
D D0 2
A0
2 2.167 105 1.05in2
2.5 105 in
1.47 A thin-walled pressure vessel is subjected to internal pressure such that a hoop stress of
100 MPa develops. Imagine that the vessel is made of an orthotropic continuous fiber
composite with most of the fibers running around the circumference. The elastic
constants for this material are given below, with direction 3 around the circumference,
direction 2 along the length, and direction 1 through the thickness. What is the strain in
the hoop direction?
11 22 33 44 55 66 12 13 23
-1
S (GPa ) 0.083 0.075 0.05 0.161 0.178 0.221 0.031 0.019 0.018
C (GPa) 18.0 20.2 27.6 6.23 5.61 4.52 9.98 10.1 10.7
There are two stresses present, one in the circumferential direction (3) and one in the
longitudinal direction (2). The longitudinal stress will be half that of the circumferential
stress. Solve for strain along axis 3, using the orthotropic version of the compliance matrix.
In order to do so, we must recognize that 31=13 and 32=23 because of symmetry.
3 S31 1 S32 2 S33 3 S13 1 S23 2 S33 3 0 S23 0.5 3 S33 3
3 0.018 10 9 Pa 50 10 6 Pa 0.05 10 9 Pa 100 10 6 Pa 5.9 10 3
1.48 The mechanical properties of cobalt may be improved by incorporating fine particles of
tungsten carbide (WC). Given that the moduli of elasticity of these materials are,
respectively, 200 GPa and 700 GPa, plot modulus of elasticity vs. the volume percent of
WC in Co from 0 to 100 vol% using both upper- and lower-bound expressions to form
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a performance envelope into which the material will fall. Please do this using plotting
software, not by hand.
Use Eq. 1-62 for the isostrain (upper bound) case and Eq. 1-66 for the isostress (lower bound)
case.
EcP E f V f EmVm
E f Em
Ec
V f Em (1 V f )E f
800
E upper
E low er
700
600
500
E (GPa)
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Volume fraction WC
1.49 MgF2 has the right refractive index to serve as an antireflective coating on fracture-
resistant spinel ceramic windows (see problem above). Assume that the MgF2 can be
deposited as a polycrystalline thin film on thick spinel. MgF2 mechanical properties are
listed below.
G E CTE
MgF2 54.5 GPa 138.5 GPa 0.27 10 x 10-6 °C-1
(a) If a thin coating of MgF2 is deposited on a thick polycrystalline spinel substrate at
a temperature of 200 °C and then the film and substrate are cooled to 20 °C, what
is the stress state of the thin film? Use words like equal/unequal, uni/bi/triaxial,
and tension/compression. Name the state and provide a supporting sketch.
According to the data provided in an earlier problem, the spinel CTE is 7 x 10-6 °C-1whereas
the MgF2 CTE is larger, at 10 x 10-6 °C-1. The film is therefore in a state of equal biaxial
tension induced by its desire to shrink more upon cooling than the substrate. The sketches
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below show cross sections of the film and substrate at 200°C (same dimensions, stress free),
at 20°C if detached (films shrinks more than substrate), and at 20°C is attached (film under
tension). Because the expansion occurs in all directions within the plane of the film, the stress
is equal radially. There is no constraint in the direction normal to the film surface so the
stress state is biaxial.
200 ¡C
20 ¡C
P
20 ¡C
(b) What are the thermal strains induced in the MgF2 film under the conditions from
part ‘a’? Please give numerical answers for directions X, Y, and Z, where Z is the
direction normal to the film surface.
th, biaxial T (10 10-6 C-1 7 10-6 C-1 )(200 20 C)=5.4 104
normal 2 th, biaxial 2 0.27 5.4 104 2.92 104
(c) What is the thermal stress induced? Please give numerical answers for directions
X, Y, and Z.
E 138.5 GPa
th, biaxial
1
th, biaxial
1 0.27
5.4 104 0.102 GPa 102 MPa
th, normal 0
(d) If the MgF2 were replaced by a fluoropolymer antireflective coating (like PTFE)
deposited at the same temperature, would you expect the thermal strain in the
film to be larger or smaller? Why?
Polymers like PTFE typically have much larger CTE values than ceramic materials, so one
might expect the thermal strain in the film to be much larger.
Design
1.50 A solar panel is to be mounted at the top of a cylindrical post that is rigidly attached to
the ground at its bottom, and that is protected from extreme bending by four guy wires
strung from the top of the post to the ground. The post will be made of recycled
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polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which has an elastic modulus of approximately 3.5
GPa and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.43. If the solar panel weighs 14.8 kg and the post must
be 8 m tall to lift the panel above surrounding obstacles, what is the minimum post
radius needed to avoid failure by buckling? Is this post diameter actually likely to be a
safe design choice? Based only on the required post radius, what is your opinion about
the choice of PET for this application?
Given rigid attachment of the post at the bottom and the presence of the guy wires arranged
radially around it, it would be reasonable to assume fixed-pinned boundary conditions. The
appropriate equation that describes this condition is
2
L 2 2 EI
Pcr, fixed pinned 2
EI
2 L2
and for a circular column I = d4/64. Putting these together and solving for the diameter
gives
1
64L2 Pcr 4 64 8 m 14.8kgf 9.807N / kgf
1
2 4
0.04 m
1
6
d 2.739 10 m
4 4
2 E
3
2 3.5 10 Pa
3 9
radius d / 2 0.02 m 20 cm
This would not be a safe radius to use because it has no safety factor to cover uncertainties
and deviations from ideal loading. It would be better to add a safety factor of 2-3x. In this
case, the radius would have to be 40-60 cm. Even without the safety factor, the radius is very
large (more like a tree trunk than a slender column). Perhaps a stiffer material would be a
better choice for this particular load and height requirement.
1.51 You are in charge of designing a new fixture for a “universal testing machine” that will
attach a tensile specimen to the machine using a clevis — a U-shaped piece with holes
drilled through the two arms — and a cylindrical pin that passes through the clevis and
the specimen. If the maximum load exerted by the machine is 30 kN and the pin is to be
made of some sort of steel, what is the minimum pin diameter needed to ensure that the
shear stress in the pin does not exceed 600 MPa? Assume that the steel has similar
elastic properties to pure Fe.
Recall that the definition of shear stress is =P/A, where P is the force and A is the area over
which the force is distributed (in this case, the cross sectional area of the pin). The minimum
pin diameter is therefore
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30 103 N 2
1
P 2
2 2 7.98 103 N 8mm
dmin
max 600 10 Pa
6
1.52 A 20-cm-outer diameter pipe is used to carry a pressure of 1200 psi without yielding.
Assuming a safety factor of 3x, compute:
(a) the lightest
(b) and the least expensive pipe per unit length
based on the following two possible material choices.
Copper C71500 PVC
E 150 3.25
σys (MPa) 540 43
(g/cm3) 8.94 1.45
Cost (US$/kg) 27.00 1.75
First assume that both pipes will meet the thin-wall criterion in order to determine the
minimum wall thickness based on the hoop stress (i.e., the maximum stress).
PR
hoop
t
Considering the safety factor gives a wall thickness of
PR
t 3
1200 psi 6895 Pa / psi 0.020 m 4.9644 105 N
m
3
hoop hoop ys
4.9644 105 N
tCu m
0.92 103 m 1mm
540 10 6 N
m2
4.9644 105 N
t PVC m
11.5 103 m 11.5mm
43 10 6 N
m2
Now determine the mass per unit length of each pipe.
mass / unit length Solid Area Density r 2outer r 2inner
Cu 10cm
2
outer
10 0.1cm 8.94 g / cm 55.89 g / cm
2
inner
3
PVC 10cm 10 1.15cm 1.45g / cm 98.75g / cm
2 2 3
outer inner
The copper alloy pipe is approximately half the weight of the equivalent PVC pipe.
Finally, the cost per meter of pipe is
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cost / unit length cost / unit mass mass / unit length
Cu $27.00 / kg 1kg / 1000g 55.89 g / cm100cm / m $150.90 / m
PVC $1.75 / kg 1kg / 1000g 98.75g / cm100cm / m $17.28 / m
Here the PVC clearly wins, with a cost of approximately 11% that of the copper alloy.
1.53 A particular cylindrical rod will be subjected to axial cyclic compressive loads. It is
designed to fit snugly through a hole in a separate plate, but it must not exert excessive
pressure on the surrounding material while under load or a fatigue crack may develop in
the plate. The diameter of the rod (and the hole) is 10 mm. The maximum compressive
load the rod will experience is 24 kN. If the rod either yields plastically or increases in
diameter by more than 0.008 mm, the design will not meet the specifications. Which of
the four alloys listed below will satisfy these requirements at the lowest cost?
E σys σts US$/kg
(GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (g/cm3)
1020 alloy steel, normalized 207 0.30 340 440 1.35 7.85
304 stainless steel, cold worked 193 0.30 510 865 8.50 8.00
Al 6061-T6 69 0.33 275 310 7.75 2.70
Ti-6Al-4V, solution & aged 114 0.34 1100 1170 125.00 4.43
First check the yield criterion. Assume that yielding in compression is the same as in tension
(not a bad assumption for metals and metal alloys).
P P 24000N
2
2
305.6 MPa
A0 d 0.01m
2 2
This removes the Al 6061 alloy from further consideration. The 1020 alloy is close to
yielding, but without a requirement of significant safety factor it is OK. Next check the
diameter change criterion.
d d0 radial d0 axial d0
E
Finally, check the cost per unit length (all the rods will be the same size).
cost / unit length area density cost / mass conversion factors
The results are as follows:
d US$/cm Criteria
(mm)
1020 alloy steel, normalized 0.004(GPa) 1.35 Passes, best choice
304 stainless steel, cold worked 0.005 8.50 Passes, but expensive
Al 6061-T6 0.015 7.75 Fails by yielding
Ti-6Al-4V, solution & aged 0.009 125.00 Fails by excessive diameter change
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1.54 A 6061-T4 aluminum alloy is to be used to make a thin-walled cylindrical canister in
which high pressure chemical reactions will be performed. The design calls for a
diameter of 50 cm, a length of 80 cm and a maximum operating pressure of 50 MPa.
Assume a safety factor of four is required (i.e. the maximum stress can never exceed
one quarter of the alloy’s yield strength).
(a) What wall thickness is required to ensure safe operation?
(b) Is this wall thickness a maximum or a minimum? Explain.
(c) How do your answers change if the cylinder is made twice as long?
The maximum stress is the hoop stress, which for a cylindrical pressure vessel is
PR
hoop
t
Considering the safety factor gives a wall thickness of
PR
t 4
PR
50 MPa 0.025m
4 4 0.0345m 3.45cm
hoop ys 145 MPa
This must be the minimum thickness, because a thinner wall would experience a higher stress
and would therefore fail to meet the stress criterion. The answer will not change if the vessel
is longer because length does not make any difference to the stress state (as long as it remains
a cylinder).
1.55 Imagine that you are designing a single crystal turbine blade for use in a jet engine. It
will experience large tensile loads from the centripetal forces that exist during use.
Minimizing the axial strain will allow for tighter gap tolerances between the turbine
blade tips and the surrounding shroud; this leads to greater engine efficiency. You are
restricted to using a Ni-based superalloy.
shroud
blade
(a) Without performing any calculations, determine which orientation (<100>, <111>
or <110>) you would choose along the tensile axis of the blade in order to minimize
the strain during use? Why?
(b) Justify your choice by calculating the Young's modulus for each orientation and
then calculating the corresponding strain at maximum load. For this problem,
assume that the Ni-based superalloy in question has the same elastic behavior as
pure Ni. Also assume that the blade experiences a maximum load of 10,000 lbs-
force, and that the behavior is elastic. Consider only a simple uniaxial tensile load.
Approximate the turbine blade airfoil cross-section as an isosceles triangle 5mm at
its base by 50 mm tall. The blade length is 150 mm.
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(c) Calculate the thermal strain imposed on a turbine blade after it has been heated
from 25°C to the engine operating temperature of 1100 °C. Assume a coefficient of
thermal expansion of 13.5x10-6 C-1 for this particular superalloy.
(d) Calculate the best-case minimum gap size for a cold (25°C) engine with no turbine
rotation such that the blade will just barely touch the surrounding shroud material
when the engine is operating at full rotation and maximum temperature.
(a) From the discussion in Chapter 1, the stiffest direction for FCC metals is along the
<111> axis. The strain with therefore be the smallest in this orientation for a given load.
(b) First, calculate the modulus in each direction using the direction cosines, as per Eq. 1-55:
1
S11 2[(S11 S12 ) 1
2 S44 ](l12 l22 l22 l32 l12 l32 )
E
Doing so, we find the following:
E(100) GPa E(110) GPa E(111) GPa
Ni 137.0 232.6 303.0
It can immediately be seen that the stiffest orientation is the <111>, as expected. From this
result, the strain for each orientation (hkl) is given by
P
A0 10 kip 4.448 10 N / kip 355.84 106 Pa
3
E E
0.5 0.005m 0.050 m Ehkl Ehkl
(100) (110) (111)
Ni 0.0026 0.0015 0.0012
(c) The thermal strain is given by Eq. 1-88
th (T final Tinitial ) 13.5 106 C 1 1100 25C 0.0145
(d) The total strain is simply the sum of the thermal and mechanical strains. The best case
scenario includes the <111> orientation, for which
total mechanical th 0.0012 0.0145 0.0157
The minimum gap size prior to operation of the engine is equal to the expected change in
blade length given by
L L0total 150 mm 0.0157 2.355mm
Extend
1.56 Write a 1-2 page review of auxetic materials. Assume that you are writing a
supplementary article for an introductory engineering text. Be sure to (1) define the
term “auxetic material” and (2) explain what is unusual about the mechanical behavior
of this class of materials. Include (3) a picture (sketch, diagram, or photograph) of an
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auxetic material. Also (4) describe at least two products that could (or do) benefit from
the auxetic behavior. Provide full references for all of your information.
Key points:
An auxetic material is one that has a negative Poisson’s ratio, so it expands laterally
when a tensile strain is imposed axially.
Not the same phenomenon as the medical term auxetic that has to do with cell
expansion and division.
From the Greek auxētikos = increasing
Examples of auxetic materials include “reentrant” foams, certain microporous
polymers, and zeolites
Potential applications include filters and shock absorbing materials.
1.57 Select two thermoplastic materials from among those listed in Section 1.3.3.1. Using any
resources available to you, determine a typical glass transition temperature, degree of
crystallinity, and a common use for each of the polymer materials you selected. How
does the use reflect the Tg value and the degree of crystallinity for each material?
Example:
Thermoplastics polystyrene (PS) and high density polyethylene (HDPE) have Tg
values of approximately 100°C and -90 °C, respectively.
PS is amorphous. As Tg>> room temperature for PS, it tends to be rigid and fairly
stiff under ambient use conditions.
PS is used to make plastic cutlery and Petri dishes, two applications for which
reasonable stiffness is necessary for proper function.
HDPE is partially crystalline. As Tg<< room temperature for HDPE, it tends to be
fairly compliant under ambient use conditions. However, because of its partial
crystallinity there is a relatively small drop in stiffness associated with being above
Tg, so it is much stiffer than typical elastomers (for example).
HDPE is used to make milk bottles and laundry detergent bottles, for which some
flexibility is desirable but extreme flexibility would not be.
1.58 Write a 1-2 page review of the structure and elastic behavior of natural highly-elastic
materials. Assume that you are writing a supplementary article for an introductory
engineering text. Choose two or more materials for comparison: dragline spider silk,
non-dragline spider silk, collagen, elastin, mussel byssal threads, and resilin. In your
review, be sure to (1) identify the natural use for each of the materials you selected, and
(2) explain how the particular properties of the materials match their intended uses in
nature. Mention (3) approximately how much of the behavior is purely elastic
(instantaneous recovery with no energy loss) and how much is viscoelastic (time-
dependent recovery with some energy loss). Include (4) a picture (sketch, diagram, or
photograph) or a plot that adds to the reader’s understanding of the topic. Strength is
also interesting and certainly worth mentioning, but is not the main focus of this paper.
If you can find a case in which there has been an attempt to synthesize the material(s)
for engineering purposes it would add much to this short article. Provide full references
for all of your information.
Answers will vary widely.
1.59 Search published science and engineering literature to find an example of an engineered
material used for bone replacement (partial or total). How well does the elastic behavior
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of the material match that of natural bone? Provide elastic property data from the source,
a brief explanation of the potential advantages of this particular material, and a full
reference for the source.
Answers will vary widely.
1.60 Search published science and engineering literature to find an example of a
microelectromechanical device in which thermal mismatch strain is used to generate
motion and/or force. Provide a figure from the source, a brief explanation of the device
purpose and design, and a full reference for the source.
Answers will vary widely.
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CHAPTER 2
Review
2.1 Is a dislocation a physical item or substance? If not what is it?
No, it is not a substance or feature made of matter that can be handled or isolated. A
dislocation is a line of disruption in the crystalline arrangement of atoms. It is somewhat
analogous to a crack insofar as it is a defect in a material, but it not actually composed of
matter.
2.2 Why are dislocations necessary for explaining the plasticity typically seen for crystalline
materials?
The theoretical stress needed for plastic deformation is much higher (usually by orders of
magnitude) than the plastic deformation stress actually measured in common materials. The
only way that the critical stress can be so low is if the atomic bonds associated with a slip
plane are broken and reformed sequentially rather than all at once.
2.3 Identify two techniques for observing dislocations, and describe at least one strength and
one weakness of each technique.
Etch pits: relatively easy to create without expensive, elaborate equipment; can only show the
dislocation arrangement on a single plane, not the subsurface dislocation arrangement.
Transmissions electron microscopy: high resolution images capable of depicting complicated
dislocation arrangements; requires significant specimen preparation and very thin specimens
that limit the observable volume.
2.4 Rank the relative Peierls force in different materials and material classes and briefly
explain why, in each case, this is the case.
Larger for ceramics than for metals because of the strong, directional nature of ceramic
bonds. Within the metals class, higher for BCC metals than for FCC metals because BCC
metals do not have “smooth” close packed slip planes like FCC metals do. Peierls stress is
not particularly relevant for polymer materials because dislocations do not exist (at least in
the same sense) as in metals and ceramics.
2.5 Which can cross-slip, an edge dislocation, a screw dislocation, or a mixed dislocation?
Why?
Only pure screw dislocations can cross slip. The Burgers vector and the line of the
dislocation are parallel to each other, so there is no unique slip plane on which the pure
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screw dislocation is defined. Edge dislocation and partial dislocations all have non-parallel
Burgers vectors and dislocation lines, so unique slip planes are defined that contain both
vectors.
2.6 Sketch an edge dislocation and a screw dislocation as if you are looking directly along the
dislocation line in each case. Clearly mark the line direction and the slip plane (if there is
a unique slip plane). Indicate on your sketches where you will find regions of hydrostatic
tension, hydrostatic compression, and pure shear stress surrounding the dislocation lines.
edge screw
c line into page
shear
slip plane
shear shear
shear shear
shear
t
2.7 Sketch a representative portion of the TEM images in Figures 2.7 and 2.18, including
only the dislocation lines. Indicate on your sketches which features are dislocation lines,
which are stacking faults, and which are the top and bottom edges of the slip planes.
dislocation lines
stacking faults
plane top/bottom
2.7 2.18
2.8 Identify the crystal structure in the faulted region of an FCC crystal. Why is this the case?
The usual close-packed plane stacking sequence for FCC is ABCABCABC, but when a
stacking stack is introduced it shifts some of the planes to create ABCABABCA, which has
the ABAB stacking characteristic of HCP order.
2.9 When an FCC material has high stacking fault energy, do you expect widely-spaced or
closely-spaced leading and trailing partial dislocations? Do you expect wavy or planar
glide? Briefly explain both trends.
Stacking fault energy has units of energy/unit area. High stacking fault energy means that it
takes a lot of energy to create additional stacking fault area, i.e., to spread the partial
dislocations farther apart. So, a high stacking fault FCC material is likely to have closely-
spaced leading and trailing partial dislocations to minimize the total energy. Because they
are closely-spaced, it is relatively easy to push them together to form a complete dislocation.
If the leading partial encounters a barrier such as a precipitate particle, the trailing partial
can be forced to join the leading partial as they press up against the barrier. When combined,
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their new Burgers vector may allow cross-slip of a portion of the complete dislocation line, so
a segment will leave the original slip plane. This out of plane segment may continue to exist
as the dislocation bypasses the barrier and eventually emerges from a free surface. The trace
on the free surface will match the non-planar nature of the dislocation line, and will appear
wavy.
2.10 Consider the following face-centered-cubic dislocation reaction:
a a a
[110] [21 1] [121]
2 6 6
(a) Prove that the reaction will occur.
Following the example in the chapter
a2 a2 a2
(1 1 0) [4 1 1 ] [1 4 1]
4 36 36
a2 a2
2 3
(b) What kind of dislocations are the (a/6)121?
Shockley partial dislocations
(c) What kind of crystal imperfection results from this dislocation reaction?
A stacking fault between the leading and trailing partials.
(d) What determines the distance of separation of the (a/6) [21 1] and the (a/6)[121]
dislocations?
A balance between the excess energy associated with the stacking fault and the strain energy
associated with overlapping the stress fields of the partials. Stacking fault energy
minimization promotes small faults and thus small dislocation separations, whereas strain
energy minimization promotes minimal overlap and thus large dislocation separations.
2.11 List which main slip systems are active in FCC, BCC, and HCP metals, and explain
why those particular planes/directions are favored.
In the standard format of {plane}<direction>:
FCC {111}<110>
BCC {110}<111>, {112}<111>, {123}<111>
HCP {0001}<1120> or {1100}<1120>
In each case, the plane is the most closely packed available (and therefore the “smoothest”),
and the direction is the most closely packed direction within the chosen plane (and therefore
Gb2 is minimized).
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2.12 Sketch a 3D FCC unit cell and indicate where all 12 FCC slip systems can be found.
Four {111}-type planes and three <110>-type directions within each plane.
2.13 What does it mean to be an independent slip system?
An independent slip system is a combination of plane and direction that allows a shape
change via slip that cannot be created using any combination of other slip systems.
2.14 What is the effect of resolved normal stress on the yield behavior of crystalline metals
and ceramics?
The yielding of metals and ceramics by dislocation motion is determined by the resolved
shear stress on the slip plane, so the resolved normal stress plays no role.
2.15 What is the role of the Taylor factor?
The Taylor factor connect the concepts of the Schmid factor and a Critical Resolved Shear
Stress on a particular slip plane to the behavior of polycrystalline materials that have many
grain orientations, and therefore many different Schmid factors creating different resolved
shear stresses in each grain. It allows the use of a single CRSS value for predicting the onset
of yielding for a polycrystalline material.
2.16 Reproduce Figure 2.23 twice, first adjusting it so that it accurately depicts the case in
which the horizontal stress is half that of the vertical stress, and second so that the
horizontal stress is twice that of the vertical stress. Use arrow length to indicate relative
stress magnitude.
Both cases will result in non-zero resolved shear stresses on the chosen slip plane even under
biaxial loading, but the sign and magnitude of the shears in the two cases are not identical.
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1 1
RSS RSS
2 RSSÅÇ0 2
(aÕ
) (bÕ
) (cÕ
)
RSS RSS 2 2
RSSÅÇ0
(aÕÕ
) (bÕÕ
) (cÕÕ
)
2.17 Which predicts the lower yield strength for most combinations of applied stress, the
Tresca or the von Mises yield criterion? Under what stress conditions are the predictions
equal?
The Tresca yield criterion has a hexagonal failure envelope that just fits inside the oval
failure envelope of the von Mises yield criterion. For all stress combinations other than pure
uniaxial loading or equal biaxial loading, the Tresca criterion therefore predicts a lower
yield strength for a given material.
2.18 Identify the trend between stacking fault energy and strain hardening coefficient, and
then use it to predict which is likely to work harden more strongly: pure copper or pure
nickel, the latter of which has a stacking fault energy of approximately 240 mJ/m2.
Low stacking fault energy is associated with relatively easy pinning of dislocations, so it is
also associated with high strain hardening (a large strain hardening coefficient). This can be
seen in the comparison between stainless steel and pure iron, for instance. Pure copper has a
stacking fault energy of approximately 90 mJ/m2 (see Table 2.5) and a strain hardening
coefficient in the range of 0.3-0.35 (see Table 2.8). As pure nickel has a stacking fault energy
of approximately 240 mJ/m2, larger than that of copper, we might expect the strain hardening
coefficient to be smaller.
2.19 What are the critical differences between strain hardening and geometric hardening?
Strain hardening is the result of increasing dislocation density and increasing dislocation-
dislocation interactions that leads to greater resistance to plastic deformation. It is not
dependent on crystal orientation. Geometric hardening is also associated with an increasing
resistance to plastic deformation, but in this case the source is a decreasing resolved shear
stress on the active slip system. This decreasing trend is due to the rotation of the grain that
contains the dislocations as the macroscopic shape of the specimen is changed. Geometric
hardening can happen without a change in dislocation density or dislocation-dislocation
interaction.
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2.20 Describe how a wire texture is different than rolling texture, and sketch an example of
each with arrows indicating the directions of preferred orientation.
Rolling texture has three preferred directions: the Rolling Direction (RD), the Transverse
Direction (TD), and the Normal Direction (ND). A wire texture has only one preferred
direction (along the wire drawing axis, DD). Grain orientation is random in the radial
direction of the wire. This sketch shows the two cases, with representative “grains”
illustrating the alignment with ND, RD, and TD for the rolling texture but only with DD for
the wire texture.
ND
RD
TD
DD
2.21 After a dislocation has passed through a crystal, thereby causing plastic deformation,
what does the inside of the crystal look like? Contrast this with the appearance of the
interior of a crystal that has deformed by twinning.
A dislocation breaks bonds and reforms them as it passes through the crystal, leaving behind
the same atomic order that existed before the dislocation passed through. A twin reorients the
crystal so that the twinned region is visible after the twinning process is complete. A
metallographic specimen etched to bring out grain contrast can show evidence that
deformation twinning took place at some time in the past, but it does not show such clear
evidence of prior dislocation activity.
2.22 Under what conditions is twinning favored in BCC and/or FCC crystals?
At high strain rates and low temperatures — conditions under which plasticity by dislocation
motion is difficult.
2.23 What is the basic molecular mechanism for polymer plasticity, and how does it differ
from that of ductile crystalline metals?
Polymer plasticity occurs by sliding of the polymer chains past each other. The chains must
move as units, so polymer plasticity does not occur by dislocation motion.
2.24 What specific aspects of polymer molecule structure (e.g., side group size, shape,
polarity, and location) favor chain sliding?
Easy chain sliding is favored by smaller, simpler side groups with low polarity. Polymer
chains with side groups randomly arranged along the length (atactic) have difficulty packing
into crystalline arrangements, so they are easier to slide past one another than those that
have tighter packing (isotactic or syndiotactic).
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2.25 How does the structure of a crystalline polymer differ from that of a crystalline
metal? What are the implications of this difference for plasticity in both classes of
material?
A crystalline polymer structure is formed by folding the polymer chains back and forth
against themselves to create segments of high alignment (crystals). The backbone chain bonds
remain intact, however, so the atoms in the chain cannot act independently. Metals arrange
in crystalline order by packing individual atoms. As a result, chain sliding in a polymer must
involve the cooperative behavior of many atoms whereas metal plasticity can involve discrete
events of atom repositioning via dislocation motion.
2.26 What are the two micro-scale plasticity mechanisms active in amorphous polymers?
Are they likely to occur simultaneously? Explain.
The two plasticity mechanisms active in amorphous polymers are crazing and shear banding.
They are usually competing processes, so they are unlikely to occur simultaneously.
2.27 Explain the role of crazing in determining the extent of maximum plastic deformation
for some polymers. Be sure to include both tensile and compressive loading in your
answer.
Crazing is a plasticity mechanism that acts in tension (but not compression), and that may
create microcracks within the polymer. These microcracks can serve as nucleation sites for
macrocracks that lead to failure and can therefore limit the ductility in tension. In
compression no microcracks can form, and so the polymer is more likely to remain intact
when subjected to large amounts of plastic strain.
2.28 What typically happens to the strength level of a polymer that has undergone cold
drawing? Why?
Cold drawing involves alignment of the polymer chains with the tensile (drawing) axis. When
this occurs, the strong C-C bonds along the chain backbone bear most of the load. The
strength level in the drawing direction therefore increases as a result of the cold drawing
process.
2.29 What is the typical effect of resolved normal stress on the yield behavior of polymeric
materials? Is this same as for crystalline metals and ceramics?
Unlike metals and ceramics, polymers can exhibit large asymmetries in yield stress when
loaded in tension vs. compression. A tensile resolved stress on a shearing plane opens up
space and allows for greater chain mobility. Conversely, a compressive resolved stress
crowds the chains together, making them more difficult to slide past one another.
Compression therefore tends to increase the yield strength of a polymer. Metals and ceramics
behavior similarly in tension and compression with regard to plastic yielding by slip.
Differences may well occur when twinning is the prevailing deformation mechanism..
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Practice
2.30 The dislocations shown below (on three separate slip planes) represent different
characters. Assume that no negative edge or left-hand screw dislocations are included.
(a) Sketch this diagram, then clearly identify the character of each dislocation by writing
a label nearby. How do you know each type?
(b) How does each dislocation behave under the applied shear shown on the diagram?
Sketch the dislocation lines and indicate the direction of motion, if any, on three
separate projections of the slip planes (i.e., as seen from above).
r
r r r r b
m bl l
r edge
r
m l
r r
b Pl r screw
b
r r
m m
r r
l l
edge screw
r r
b b
r
m
r screw
r
l b
mixed
r
m
r
m r
edge r b
l
2.31 Two edge dislocations of opposite sign are found in a material separated by several
planes of atoms as shown below.
Please provide a helpful sketch and an explanation along with the answer for each of the
following questions:
(a) Without changing slip planes, will they spontaneously line up one under the other?
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No, because it would cause the tensile strain zone of each to overlap with the other, greatly
raising the energy level. (Shown on the left of the diagram below.)
(b) Under what circumstances could they move to the same slip plane?
If one or both can climb.
(c) If they did so, what would tend to happen once they were on the same plane?
They would tend to move toward each other, eventually annihilating. (The diagram on the
right shows the “extra half planes” merging to form a single plane, at which point the
dislocations would cease to exist.)
c
t
t
c
2.32 For austenitic stainless steel, Cu, and Al (all FCC metals):
(a) Calculate the actual magnitudes of the full and partial dislocations, assuming that
the lattice parameters are 0.365 nm, 0.362 nm, and 0.405 nm, respectively.
a2 a2
The magnitudes are: b110 2
[12 12 02 ] and b211 2
[22 12 12 ]
2 6
(b) Calculate the equilibrium partial dislocation separation distance d for all three
materials.
G(b2b3 )
The equilibrium spacing is d where b2 and b3 are the magnitudes of the leading
2¹
and trailing partial dislocations.
(c) Put the numbers from part (b) in context by comparing them to the atomic size
(diameter) and lattice parameter for each material.
la ttice [110] [112] spacing diam ete r
a (nm ) b full (nm ) b partial (nm ) G (Pa) SFE (J/m ^2) d (nm ) D (nm )
stainless 0.365 0.258 0.149 8.16E+10 1.00E-02 28.84 0.248
Cu 0.362 0.256 0.148 4.83E+10 9.00E-02 1.87 0.256
Al 0.405 0.286 0.165 2.61E+10 2.50E-01 0.45 0.286
The atom diameters are all similar in size to one another. The atom diameter is essentially the
same as the full dislocation magnitude, as you might expect if you are going to shift a plane of
atoms by one atomic position. The equilibrium partial dislocation spacing is less than two
atom diameters (~1.6) for high stacking fault energy Al, but more than one hundred (~116.3)
atom diameters for low stacking fault energy stainless steel. A huge difference in stacking
fault size relative to atom size!
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(d) In which of the three material(s) is wavy glide very likely to be observed?
Wavy glide is observed when cross-slip is easy, which is the case for high stacking fault
energy materials. From the list above, Al certainly qualifies.
2.33 A cube of material is loaded triaxially resulting in the following stresses at the point
of plastic yielding: x 140 MPa, y 20 MPa, and z 35 MPa.
(a) What is the shear strength of the material according to the Tresca yield criterion?
According to the Tresca criterion, yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress is
min
max max CRSS
2
140 MPa 20 MPa
So in this case, CRSS 60 MPa
2
(b) If the stress in direction Z at failure were 70 MPa instead, how does this change
your result? Explain.
It makes no difference because directions X and Y are still the maximum and minimum,
respectively.
2.34 A single-crystal rod of FCC nickel is oriented with the [001] direction parallel to the rod
axis.
(a) Identify the type of slip system involved in the plastic flow of nickel.
{111}<110>
(b) How many such slip systems are in a position to be activated at the same time when
the load is applied parallel to this crystallographic direction?
8 systems (4 planes, 2 directions per plane), as shown in this diagram:
(c) What is the Schmid factor for this slip system? (The angles between the {100} and
{110} and {100} and {111} planes are 45 and 54.7°, respectively.)
54.7 45
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cos cos cos 54.7 cos 45 0.4086
2.35 From the work of D. C. Jillson, Trans. AIME 188, 1129 (1950), the following data were
taken relating to the deformation of zinc single crystals.
λ F (newtons)
83.5 18 203.1
70.5 29 77.1
60 30.5 51.7
50 40 45.1
29 62.5 54.9
13 78 109.0
4 86 318.5
The crystals have a normal cross-sectional area of 122 × 10–6 m2.
= angle between loading axis and normal to slip plane
= angle between loading axis and slip direction
F = force acting on crystal when yielding begins
(a) Identify the slip system for this material.
For Zn, c/a>1.633 so basal slip is favored: {0001} 1120
(b) Calculate the resolved shear RSS and normal σn stresses acting on the slip plane
when yielding begins.
P P
RSS cos cos and n cos2
A0 A0
(c) From your calculations, does RSS or σn control yielding?
The resolved shear stress values are all nearly identical at the point of yielding, whereas the
resolved normal stresses are very inconsistent. The shear stress must therefore control yielding.
(d) Plot the Schmid factor versus the normal stress P/A0 acting on the rod. At what
Schmid factor value are these experimentally-measured yield loads at a
minimum? Does this make sense?
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3000.0
2500.0
2000.0
P/A0 (kPa)
1500.0
1000.0
500.0
0.0
0.000 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600
Schmid Factor
The minimum load required for yielding corresponds to a Schmid factor of 0.5. This makes sense
because the critical resolved shear stress would be at a maximum when the slip plane and direction
are both at 45° to the loading axis.
2.36 Draw the (111) pole figure for the [100] wire texture in silver and for the [110] wire
texture in iron wires.
2.37 A low-carbon steel alloy was loaded in tension until just after yielding took place. A
few Lüders bands were visible on the surface. The bar can either be reloaded (a)
immediately, (b) after a brief and moderate temperature aging treatment, or (c) after several
weeks without any exposure to elevated temperature. In each of the three cases, how is the
yield strength of the reloaded bar likely to compare to that of the original test?
The presence of Lüders bands implies that this material exhibited an upper and lower yield
point. If only a few bands are visible, it is likely that the material is in the lower yield point
condition at the time of unloading. If reloaded immediately without any further treatment, the
measured yield strength will match the lower yield strength of the original test. If reloaded
after a “brief and moderate temperature aging treatment”, i.e. a strain aging treatment, it is
likely that some (or all) of the C and the N impurities in solution will have diffused to the
dislocations so the measured yield strength will approach or match the upper yield strength
of the original test. If reloaded after several weeks, sufficient time for diffusion will probably
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have occurred and again the measured yield strength will approach or match the upper yield
strength of the original test.
2.38 The tensile strength for cold-rolled magnesium alloy AZ31B plate is approximately 160
MPa for specimens tested either parallel or perpendicular to the rolling direction. When
similarly oriented specimens are compressed, the yield strength is only 90 MPa. Why? (Hint:
Consider the possible deformation mechanisms available in the magnesium alloy and any
crystallographic texture that might exist in the wrought plate.)
The cold-rolled plate of AZ31B develops a sheet texture . As such, tensile
loading in the plane of the sheet will lead to slip since the basal plane is stretched. In
compression, however, the plate would deform by twinning and slip with the yield strength
being lowered.
2.39 An HCP alloy, known as Hertzalloy 200, has a c/a ratio of 1.600.
(a) Identify the most probable slip system for this material.
Prism slip in the close-packed direction :
(b) For each of the following diagrams, determine whether slip will occur and whether
twinning will occur (consider only {1012} twinning). Briefly justify your answers.
The c/a ratio of 1.6 is less than 3 , so the material behaves like beryllium with regard to
twinning.
Orientation Slip? Twinning?
I No, no shears on prism planes because all No, basal plane
are parallel to the loading axis perpendicular to tensile
loading direction
II Yes, shears exist on certain prism planes No, basal plane parallel
(although drawing is 2D, the pictured prism to tensile loading
planes are at an angle out of the paper with direction
respect to the loading axis)
III Yes, shears exist on certain prism planes No, effectively loaded
like case II
2.40 Assume that the yield behavior of PMMA is well-described by the pressure-modified
von Mises yield criterion, that yielding occurs under pure shear loading at 1 = -2 = 60
MPa, and that yielding occurs under pure tension loading at 1 = 94.2 MPa. Predict the
stress needed to cause yielding (a) in uniaxial compression along direction 1 or 2, (b)
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under equal biaxial tension, and (c) under equal biaxial compression. Finally, plot these
yield conditions in a fashion similar to that of Fig. 2.73.
The pressure-modified von Mises yield criterion is VM oct 0 VM P , where VM is the
critical shear stress for yielding as a function of pressure, VM is a pressure coefficient, and P
is the mean pressure. The quantity oct0 is the critical octahedral shear stress determined in
the absence of hydrostatic pressure (i.e., in pure shear). We need to know the quantities oct0
and VM in order to solve for the yield conditions under all possible loading scenarios. First,
use the result from the pure shear loading experiment:
1
oct ( 1 2 )2 ( 2 3 )2 ( 1 3 )2 so for this case in which 1 = -2 = 60 MPa
3
1 1 1 6
oct 0 ( 1 1 )2 ( 1 )2 ( 1 )2 (2 1 )2 2( 1 )2 6 12 49 MPa
3 3 3 3 1
Now, use the pure tension loading experiment to solve for VM:
2
VM Y for uniaxial loading, VM oct 0 VM P for polymers,
3
1 94.2 MPa
and P 13 ( 1 2 3 ) 31.3MPa
3 3
1 2 1 2
therefore VM Y oct 0 94.2 MPa 49 MPa 0.15
P 3 31.3MPa 3
Now, with all the pieces in place, yielding occurs when
oct oct 0 VM P , so the critical condition is
1
3
( 1 2 )2 ( 2 3 )2 ( 1 3 )2 49 MPa 0.15 13 ( 1 2 3 )
which, for uniaxial loading, is
1
3
( 1 )2 ( 1 )2 49 MPa 0.15 13 1
2
3 1
49 MPa 0.05 1
2
3 1
0.05 1 49 MPa
There are two values of 1 that will satisfy this expression: one for unaxial tension, and one
for unixial compression. Using a numerical solver (such as the Excel Goal Seek or Solver
functions) returns these values as +94 MPa (as expected) and -116 MPa.
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For equal biaxial tension (1=2) we once again invoke the general yield criterion for this
material
1
3
( 1 2 )2 ( 2 3 )2 ( 1 3 )2 49 MPa 0.15 13 ( 1 2 3 ) to give
1
3
( 1 1 )2 ( 1 0)2 ( 1 0)2 49 MPa 0.05 1 1 0
1
3
( 1 )2 ( 1 )2 49 MPa 0.05 2 1
2
3 1
49 MPa 0.10 1
2
3 1
0.10 1 49 MPa
Once again using a numerical solver, we get 1=2=+86 MPa and 1=2=-132 MPa.
Finally, plotting the points gives the following graph.
200
150
100
50
0
-200 -100 0 100 200
-50
-100
-150
-200
Design
2.41 The design of a metallic component is undergoing a change such that the stress state
will go from pure uniaxial tension to biaxial loading, with the secondary load applied at a
90° angle to the primary load, and with the secondary stress always at 20% of the primary
stress but of opposite sign. The material in question is a plate of rolled 304 stainless steel
in the annealed state, and the original uniaxial tensile design stress was 50% of the yield
strength (to achieve a safety factor of 2x). The change in loading conditions will require a
corresponding design change to the maximum allowed tensile stress in order to continue
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to meet the 2x safety factor. What fraction of the original tensile stress is still allowed
under the new, biaxial loading condition?
The goal of the safety factor in this case is to prevent yielding. As this is a metallic
component, either the standard Tresca or von Mises yield criterion could be used to evaluate
this situation. For simplicity, we’ll use the Tresca criterion here. The critical shear stress
under uniaxial loading is half the yield strength, but we don’t have to worry about the actual
value as long as the shear stress doesn’t change. The maximum shear stress is given by
max min 1
max which for the unaxial case is simply max
. We must maintain the
2 2
maximum resolved shear stress at this same level to maintain the 2x safety factor, which is
equivalent to the numerator remaining the same:
1 1,reduced 2 1,reduced 0.2 1,reduced 1.2 1,reduced
1,reduced 0.83 1
so the allowed tensile stress in the new design is 5/6 that of the original.
2.42 An unplasticized PVC component is intended to be loaded under uniaxial tension.
After premature failure of a prototype component, a cross section observed under crossed
polarizing lenses reveals that there are shear bands extending from the surfaces into the
material, but none in the interior. What, if anything, does that tell you about the actual
loading of the component in service that could be used to guide changes to the design?
Shear bands will appear where the local stress has exceeded the yield strength. Because the
shear bands only appear only at the surfaces, it implies that the surfaces experienced higher
strength than the interior when the component was under load. This would be the case if the
loading had a bending component and was not pure tension, as intended.
2.43 You have been asked to use a finite element computer model to predict the yield
condition for a PMMA component under a complex loading scenario. Among the many
yield criteria that are likely to be available in the finite element software package, which
would probably be the best choice for this case? Why?
PMMA is likely to have a pressure-sensitive yield response, so one of the pressure-sensitive
yield criteria would probably be a good choice. In particular, Quinson et al. (1997) found
that PMMA was best described by the modified von Mises criterion, so this may be the best
option.
Extend
2.44 Acquire a journal paper that uses Neumann Bands as evidence in a failure analysis.
Summarize the article, clearly identify the role that the discovery of Neumann Bands
played in the failure analysis, and provide a formal reference for the paper.
Answers will vary widely.
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2.45 Find five examples of products made of plasticized PVC and five made of
unplasticized PVC. How does the choice of plasticized vs. unplasticized PVC match the
engineering requirements of the products in each category?
Answers will vary widely.
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CHAPTER 3
Review
3.1 List and briefly define the five main strengthening mechanisms in metals.
Strain (work) hardening: Once a reasonable dislocation density is established, increasing
dislocation density leads to increased dislocation-dislocation interactions that impede
dislocation motion.
Boundary strengthening: Internal interfaces such as grain boundaries or lamellar phase
boundaries act as barriers to dislocation motion. Closely spaced boundaries provide the
greatest strength.
Solid solution strengthening: Solute atoms alter their local environment by changing the
stiffness and distorting the lattice planes. Certain combinations of dislocation type and
altered environment can impede dislocation motion.
Precipitation hardening: Precipitates (second phases) grown as a result of thermodynamic
driving forces within the material act as barriers to dislocation motion. Thermal processing
can alter the particle size, shape, distribution, volume fraction, and nature of the phase
boundary.
Dispersion strengthening: Hard second phase particles mixed into the material act as
barriers to dislocation motion. Not sensitive to thermal processing.
3.2 Calculate the approximate total dislocation line length (or range of lengths) expected in a
cubic cm of a very highly cold-worked metal.
According to Section 3.2, a high dislocation density is ≥1010/cm2. In Section 3.3, dislocation
densities as high as 1011 to 1013 dislocations/cm2 are reported for highly cold-worked metals.
Converting to line length/unit volume by multiplying each density number by cm/cm gives the
following range:
1010/cm2 - 1013/cm2 = 1010 cm/cm3 - 1013 cm/cm3 = 108 m/cm3 - 1011 m/cm3
So on the highest end of the range, over a billion meters of dislocation line length are present in a
single cubic cm of material. Needless to say, that’s a lot.
3.3 Does the strength of a metal always increase as dislocation density increases? Explain.
No, if the initial dislocation density is very low (approaching zero) then plasticity is limited
mostly by the lack of dislocations available to move. In this regime, increasing dislocation
density provides more mobile dislocations and the strength declines. Once a significant
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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
good conduct; Lieutenant General Lord Paget and Major General the
Honourable C. Stewart had led them on to the most decisive
successes, and in an affair at Sahagun, on the 21st of December,
had almost annihilated a regiment of French cavalry.
The fall of Madrid, after an inconsiderable resistance, had made a
deep impression upon the mind of Sir John Moore; he looked with
despondency upon the affairs of the Peninsula, after its surrender;
and considered the great cause of Spanish independence completely
lost. He had made one effort to relieve the southern provinces of
Spain from the irruption with which they were threatened; he
succeeded in diverting it against himself; and from that time he
conceived that his first duty was to withdraw from the country. With
that view he commenced his retreat into Gallicia; he at first
determined to embark his army at Vigo; he afterwards led it to
Corunna. It had been expected that he would have defended the
strong ground he was passing over, but he continued his retreat, and
once only, on the 8th of January at Lugo, offered battle to his
pursuers[2]. The enemy was neither strong enough nor mad enough
to accept it; and after a retreat, the most disastrous for an unbeaten
but brave and gallant army that history records, Sir John Moore
arrived at Corunna on the 11th of January 1809. He took up a
position in front of the town to await the arrival of the transports;
fortunately they were not long delayed; they reached the harbour on
the 14th; and Sir John Moore prepared to embark his troops. Happily
for the honour of the British army, though we must lament the loss
that ensued, the French were too proud of the reputation they had
gained against other armies, to permit the embarkation to be
unmolested. They attacked the British corps, reduced by fatigue, by
loss upon the march, by sickness, and by the absence of its cannon,
which was already on board the transports; they attacked it when
mustering only 16,000 men, placed in a bad position, with its retreat
cut off if beaten; yet they were completely repulsed, with very
severe loss, and a part of the position which they occupied before
the action, was carried at the point of the bayonet, and maintained.
The loss on the side of the British was considerable; Sir John Moore
fell in the arms of victory; he died a death worthy of the character
he had maintained through a long life of service and renown; he fell
by a cannon-shot while directing a charge against the enemy, and
commanded the respect, the admiration, and regret of his brother
soldiers and his countrymen. Sir David Baird was severely wounded,
and obliged to quit the field, and the command-devolved upon Sir
John Hope. This officer withdrew his troops from the position, and
embarked them in the course of the night and succeeding day; the
rear-guard was commanded by Major General Beresford, and the
whole army was embarked without loss, and sailed on the 17th of
January; Thus ended the second campaign in which the British
troops had been engaged in the Peninsula. It would be a melancholy
task to canvass it throughout; the last action was worthy of the men
that have since delivered Spain from its merciless invaders; but the
movements which preceded it were far from being generally
approved. Great difficulties were indeed opposed to Sir John Moore;
but it would appear that in his own mind they were too highly rated.
He discharged his duty to his country, however, with his utmost zeal.
He died fighting to maintain its glory, and his name will ever be
ranked amongst its heroes.
2. One of the principal causes of the uninterrupted continuation of this retreat
was the total failure of the Commissariat in the establishment of the Magazines
which had been directed to be formed on the line of march now pursued by the
army.
During the period of Sir John Moore’s campaign in Spain, Sir John
Craddock had been appointed to the command of the British troops
in Portugal. Their number was small, and varied considerably during
the winter; some detachments which had been sent to Sir John
Moore returned without having effected their junction, and many
stragglers and sick from that army found their way into Portugal,
and were formed into battalions. The brigade under Major General
R. Stewart was also incorporated with the army under the orders of
Sir John Craddock.
Before the retreat of Sir John Moore was known in England, a
corps, under the orders of Major General Mackenzie, had been sent
to Cadiz, with the view of being admitted as the garrison of that
place. The conduct of the Spaniards, in refusing to allow the British
army to enter Ferrol, although pressed by a superior enemy, made it
necessary for the Government of England to secure a point of safety
for its fleet and armies, before it could consent to the further co-
operation of any British force in Spain. It therefore required, as a
condition to the employment of an army for the defence of the
southern provinces of the Peninsula, that a British force should be
admitted within the walls of Cadiz. Much negotiation took place upon
this point, but the Spanish Government at last refused the
permission, and thus put an end to the proposed assistance of a
British army.
The corps under Major General Mackenzie sailed from Cadiz to
Lisbon, and added to the force under Sir John Craddock.
After the evacuation of Corunna, by Lieutenant General Sir John
Hope, the French had entered it with two corps, those of Marshals
Ney and Soult; the latter was detached, about the beginning of
February, to the attack of Portugal. He succeeded, with little
opposition, in occupying the country to the north of the Douro. In
Oporto, the Portuguese force was collected to a considerable
amount; but having neither discipline nor regularity, it was unable to
oppose more than a feeble resistance to the French. Marshal Soult,
who was anxious to strike terror amongst the inhabitants of
Portugal, permitted his soldiers, after storming the town, and
destroying an immense number of people, to continue their cruelties
during several days. The plunder of the place was accompanied with
every description of outrage; but the measure only succeeded in
increasing the detestation in which the enemy was held, without
effecting the subjugation of the country.
After the success of Buonaparte in the centre of Spain, and the
expulsion of the English army from Gallicia, General Victor had been
detached against the Spanish corps of General Cuesta, which was
quartered about Medellin. After some previous movements a general
battle was fought, in which the Spanish army was completely
routed; it retired to the mountains about Monasterio, where, with
the assistance of the reinforcements which were sent to it, it made
head against the French army. Victor at this time concerted with
Marshal Soult, in Oporto, a combined attack upon the unconquered
provinces of Portugal. Soult was to move through Coimbra, upon
Lisbon; while Victor was to co-operate from the Spanish frontier,
through Portalegre, or Alcantara, upon Abrantes, and from thence to
march upon the capital. Sir John Craddock had collected the British
force, which had now become respectable from the different
reinforcements which had arrived, in positions in front of Santarem,
and upon the road to Coimbra, so as to be prepared to move upon
either of the two French corps, which threatened to advance upon
him. But on the 22nd of April, Sir Arthur Wellesley (who had been
selected for the command in Portugal) arrived with some
reinforcements, and assumed the direction of the army.
He decided to proceed instantly against the corps under Marshal
Soult, in Oporto. He left a division under Major General Mackenzie,
with the brigade of heavy cavalry under Major General Fane, at
Abrantes, to watch the corps of Marshal Victor: some Portuguese
were placed to observe the bridge of Alcantara, and with the rest of
the army he proceeded to the Douro. By the rapidity of his
movement, Sir Arthur Wellesley disconcerted the plans of the
French; he drove their advance guard, in three days, from the Vouga
to Oporto, and arrived on the Douro, opposite to that town, upon
the 11th of May.
Sir Arthur Wellesley had detached Marshal Beresford, (who had
lately been appointed to the command of the Portuguese army,) to
pass the Douro, near Lamego, and to occupy Amaranthe; he had
also directed General Silviera with the troops under his command, to
retain possession of Chaves. By these movements he had hoped to
enclose the French corps, in the north of Portugal. On the morning
of the 12th he determined to cross the Douro, in face of the enemy,
and to attack the town of Oporto, although the bridge had been
destroyed, and the boats (with the exception of two that conveyed
over the first soldiers) had been removed to the opposite side of the
river.
No operation could be more difficult, or require greater bravery in
the troops to execute, or talent in the general to combine; but
complete success attended it. Marshal Soult was surprised; the
British army passed the river in spite of every obstacle, and of the
superior numbers which were brought to overwhelm the first
regiments that crossed; and the French army was driven, with the
loss of its sick and wounded, of great part of its baggage, and of a
considerable number of guns, from the town of Oporto. Sir Arthur
Wellesley pursued the French on the following day; Marshal
Beresford had driven them from Amaranthe; so that, being pressed
on all sides, they were obliged to abandon the whole of their guns
and baggage, and to fly the country by the mountain roads to
Orense; their rear was several times attacked, but the main body
could not be attained; and Sir Arthur Wellesley, unable any longer to
pursue an enemy who had abandoned every thing which constitutes
an army, and who fled without artillery, baggage, or equipment,
halted on the 18th at Monte Alegre, and gave up the pursuit.
This short campaign, of only ten days, is perhaps the most brilliant
that ever has been executed. Marshal Soult, represented as the best
officer in the French army, had occupied the northern provinces of
Portugal, for upwards of two months; he had contemplated the
entire conquest of the country, and was employed in organizing the
necessary means. To defend himself from any attack, he had the
Vouga, and the Douro, both formidable rivers, and the advantage of
the strongest country in the Peninsula; he had a force equal in
amount to the British, or within very little of it, and in a state of
superior military organization. He had a perfect knowledge of the
country; he commanded its resources; and was in every way
formidable from his talents and his means. Yet the genius of Sir
Arthur Wellesley deprived him at once of the advantages of which he
was possessed. In the space of four days he was driven from
Coimbra to the Douro; and in six days after, not having had the time
or opportunity of defending himself in a single position, he was
chased from the frontiers of Portugal.
The movements of the Portuguese about Chaves had disappointed
the expectations of Sir Arthur Wellesley, or his triumph would have
been more complete. He had entertained the hope of surrounding
the French army; but by the non-execution of a part of his plan the
individuals who composed it escaped; but there never was a more
disgraceful escape; or a retreat (if it deserve that name, and not a
flight) more humiliating to the officer who conducted it.
Lieutenant General Paget, who had displayed the greatest talent
and bravery in the attacks he conducted, with the advanced guard
under his command, before his arrival upon the Douro, passed that
river with the first company of the Buffs; and having most gallantly
sustained the desperate attack of the enemy upon the few troops
under his orders, which had as yet arrived upon the Oporto side of
the river, was unfortunately wounded in the arm, and suffered
amputation. Major Hervey also lost his arm, in a most gallant charge
of the 14th light dragoons, which he had led.
Whilst Sir Arthur Wellesley had been engaged in the pursuit of
Marshal Soult, Marshal Victor had made a movement upon the
bridge of Alcantara, and had threatened to enter Portugal in that
direction; the bridge was destroyed, and Marshal Victor made no
further advance; but Sir Arthur Wellesley, after making the necessary
dispositions for the security of the northern frontiers of Portugal,
brought back his army to the Tagus. The state of the French in the
Peninsula, at this moment, was as follows. Marshal Ney was at
Corunna, Soult was retreating from Portugal, and Mortier was at
Valladolid; these corps together amounted to about 60,000 effective
men, and kept the provinces of Gallicia, Asturias, Biscay, and Castile,
in tolerable subjection. There were other corps employed in those
provinces, but the amount of force of which we have spoken, was to
a certain degree disposable. In the centre of Spain, Victor was at
Merida; Sebastiani in La Mancha; and Joseph, with Jourdan, at
Madrid; their force amounted to 50,000 men; Suchet was at
Saragossa, in occupation of Arragon, with a corps of 20,000 men.
The French force in Catalonia was considerable, but, from the state
of that province, it could not be disposable for any offensive
operations.
The distribution of the Spanish force was, General Cuesta at
Monasterio, with 40,000 men, mostly recruits; Vanegas, with 25,000
in the Carolina; Romana, with 25,000 in different parts of Gallicia;
and General Blake, with 20,000 in Valencia. There were several other
corps in different quarters, of small amount, but which could not be
considered as efficient for the duties of a campaign. In Portugal, the
army of Sir Arthur Wellesley consisted of about 22,000 effective
infantry, and 2,500 cavalry. The Portuguese, under Marshal
Beresford, were as yet backward in organization, but amounted to
about 15,000 men, collected and ready to take the field; besides the
troops in garrisons, depôts, &c. According to this estimate, the
French had a force of 130,000 effective men, while that opposed to
them was about 150,000.
Sir Arthur Wellesley, upon his arrival on the Tagus, determined, if
possible, to liberate Madrid. To effect this object, he proposed to
bring the greater part of his own force, with that under General
Cuesta, and the corps under General Vanegas, amounting in the
whole to near 90,000 men, to operate upon the forces of Joseph,
Victor, and Sebastiani, estimated at 50,000. He proposed to leave
Marshal Beresford, in conjunction with the Duke del Parque, to
watch Soult, from the neighbourhood of Ciudad Rodrigo; and he
hoped that the troops under Romana would give sufficient
employment to Marshal Ney, in Gallicia.
During the month of June, Victor, (in consequence of the
successful operations of Sir Arthur Wellesley against Soult, and his
return upon the Tagus) withdrew his corps from the neighbourhood
of Monasterio, crossed the Tagus at the bridge of Almaraz, and took
up a position at Talavera de la Reyna; General Cuesta followed him
to that place, but finding him in position, retired to Almaraz, where
he remained, with his advance corps, under the Duke of
Albuquerque, at Arzobispo. Towards the end of the same month,
Marshal Soult arrived with the corps under his command, at Puebla
di Senabria, from whence he marched to Zamora and Salamanca.
In this state of things, Sir Arthur Wellesley (after having received
the most distinct declarations from the supreme Government of
Spain that his army should be supplied with provisions) advanced on
the 25th and 26th of June, from Abrantes, towards Placencia.
Marshal Beresford moved at the same time to the neighbourhood of
Ciudad Rodrigo. Sir Arthur Wellesley went on the 12th to the head-
quarters of General Cuesta, at Casas del Puerta, near the bridge of
Almaraz, to concert with him the operations of the campaign. He
proposed as the first object, to occupy in strength the positions of
Baños and Bejar, which commanded the only road from Upper
Castile into Estremadura, and the country about Coria, and
Placencia. Sir Arthur Wellesley, (aware that his own army was the
only one that was efficient for the operations of a campaign,)
recommended that a corps of Spaniards should be destined for this
service.
It has since been known, that amongst the numberless intriguers
who at this moment sought to disunite the counsels of the allies,
one of the most busy had awakened the jealousy of General Cuesta
upon this point, and had represented to him, that the English
general, with a view of weakening the Spanish force in the field,
would recommend him to make a considerable detachment from his
army. When the recommendation was given, therefore, General
Cuesta was convinced that the information he had received was
correct; and from the violence of his own nature, could not easily
repress his resentment at a proposal, which he thought was
intended to reduce his army, for the purpose of diminishing his share
of glory in the expulsion of the French from Madrid; a result which
he anticipated from the movements about to be carried into
execution. General O’Donaju, the adjutant-general of the Spanish
army, prevailed upon him, however, to agree to the arrangement,
but General Cuesta never carried it fairly into effect. The small force
he afterwards sent to Bejar was incompetent to any resistance, and
was totally unprovided, even with ammunition.
The remainder of Sir Arthur Wellesley’s plan was, that his army
should join that of General Cuesta, and should advance in the first
instance to the attack of Victor at Talavera. By a movement in co-
operation, General Vanegas was ordered to break up from the
position in La Mancha, about Madrilejos; to march upon Pembleque
and Ocaña, and pass the Tagus at Fuente Dueñas; where he was to
arrive on the same day, the 22d of July, that the armies under Sir
Arthur Wellesley and General Cuesta, were to arrive at Talavera, and
attack the corps of Victor. General Vanegas received this order, and
agreed to its execution. Sir Arthur Wellesley removed his army from
Placencia, according to the plan which had been arranged; passed
the Tietar, and arrived at Oropesa on the 20th of July; where he
effected his junction with the army under the orders of General
Cuesta, amounting to 35,000 effective men. The next day, the
Spanish army advanced towards Talavera; and on the 22d the British
corps moved forward to the same place. While upon his march, Sir
Arthur Wellesley received several messages from General Cuesta,
stating that the enemy was disposed to attack him. Sir Arthur
Wellesley pushed forward, but upon reaching the ground, found only
two squadrons of French, who had come from Talavera to
reconnoitre the position of the Spaniards.
The light troops of both armies advanced upon the rear-guard of
the French, the Spanish cavalry attempted to charge it, but without
effect, and the whole French army took up a position upon the
heights, to the eastward of the Alberche. The British and Spanish
armies occupied the ground about Talavera with their advance upon
the right of the same river. Sir Arthur Wellesley had expected to hear
from General Vanegas: according to the orders which had been sent
to him, he should have been at Fuente Dueñas upon the 22d; but
from every information which could be obtained, no movement
appeared to have been made by him. The history of the defection of
his corps deserves to be recorded. When General Vanegas received
the orders from General Cuesta to move upon Madrid, he returned
for answer, that he would do so; he despatched, however, at the
same time, a courier to the supreme Junta, communicating to it the
orders he had received. That body replied, that he was not to
execute the movement, but to await its further commands in the
positions which he occupied. These directions, (which were neither
announced to Sir Arthur Wellesley nor to General Cuesta), arrived in
time to stop General Vanegas. It was difficult to explain the motive
of this conduct; but it was afterwards discovered that the supreme
Junta, amongst other reasons, was not anxious that General Cuesta
should enter Madrid. He was supposed to entertain sentiments
hostile to many of those who composed it, and not friendly to the
whole body; the Junta, therefore, feared, that if he reached Madrid,
he would effect a counter-revolution, and place himself at the head
of the government; or at least overturn the Junta’s power. This
explanation of its motive gained considerable weight from the
conduct of that body, when it received General Cuesta’s despatches,
stating that he had formed his junction with Sir Arthur Wellesley at
Oropesa, and was proceeding to Madrid. The Junta then, with as
much alacrity as it had sent counter-orders before, directed General
Vanegas to move forward, and constituted him Captain-General of
the province of Madrid; so that, upon his arrival there, he would be
superior to General Cuesta, under whose orders up to that moment
he had been placed. Although by this conduct the general effect of
the plan proposed by Sir Arthur Wellesley was destroyed, yet he
resolved to attack the corps of Marshal Victor, and on the morning of
the 23d moved his columns for that purpose into a wood close to the
Alberche, and stretching along the right of the French army.
The plan of the movement which he determined upon, was to
cross the river, attack the right of Marshal Victor with the whole of
the British infantry, move the whole cavalry upon the centre of the
enemy, and engage their left with the Spanish infantry.
The corps of Marshal Victor was 22,000 men; the allied army was
50,000. The troops of which it was composed were not all of equally
good materials; but the number of English only would almost have
secured success if the attack had taken place. General Cuesta,
however, refused to march till the following morning; and Sir Arthur
Wellesley with considerable reluctance was constrained to yield to
his determination. Some alterations were made in the course of the
night in the disposition of the troops. General Bassecour, with a
Spanish division, was ordered to the left of the British, and was to
have passed the Alberche in the rear of the enemy. Sir R. Wilson,
who commanded a corps of light troops, Spanish and Portuguese,
was also ordered still further along the banks of the Alberche to
Escalona.
Marshal Victor, however, got information of the intended attack,
and retired from his position in the night. Nothing could have been
more unfortunate for the allied army; infinitely superior in numbers,
it was at the point of making a combined attack upon him, from
which it would seem almost impossible he should have escaped
without considerable loss; by his retreat unhurt, the nature of the
campaign was changed, and the bright prospects of the allies
destroyed.
Sir Arthur Wellesley, since his arrival at Talavera, had complained
of the total failure on the part of the Spaniards in the supply of his
army with provisions. The necessities of the British troops made it
impossible to advance; and after the retreat of the French army, Sir
Arthur Wellesley was compelled to remain at Talavera till supplies
should arrive to him: but recommended the Spaniards, who had not
the same deficiencies, to move upon Cavalla, upon the road to
Toledo, and endeavour to communicate with General Vanegas, who
was still supposed to have made some movement in La Mancha.
General Cuesta, however, without communicating with Sir Arthur
Wellesley, took the road to Sta. Olalla, where he arrived with the
whole Spanish army on the morning of the 25th. From this place he
gave notice of the defection of the corps of Vanegas.
On the morning of the 26th General Cuesta’s advance was
attacked by the advanced guard of the French army. It appeared
that Joseph had called General Sebastiani from La Mancha to Toledo;
that with all the force he could withdraw from Madrid, he had
marched himself to join him; and that he had formed a junction with
these two corps and the corps of General Victor, at or near Torrijos;
that he had immediately advanced upon General Cuesta; and was in
hopes of beating him before he should be joined by the British.
General Cuesta, however, upon learning the force of the enemy,
retired to Talavera. Sir Arthur Wellesley had endeavoured to find a
situation in which to fight a battle in front of the Alberche; but not
having succeeded, determined to take up a position, the right upon
the town of Talavera, the left upon some heights, about a mile to the
northward of it. The Spanish army retired during the 26th and 27th,
and took up the ground marked out for it about the town of
Talavera. On the morning of the 27th Sir Arthur Wellesley sent a
brigade of cavalry and two brigades of infantry; the whole under the
orders of Major General Mackenzie, to watch the enemy upon the
left of the Alberche, and to protect the retreat of the Spaniards.
Towards two o’clock in the afternoon the French advance of
cavalry began to skirmish with the British. Major General Mackenzie
soon after retired, and about four o’clock passed the Alberche with
the whole of his corps. He took up a position in a wood upon the
right bank of it, from which he could observe the movements of the
enemy.
Joseph had brought the whole of his army to the opposite side of
the river; and believing (from the small number of troops that were
to be seen upon the right bank,) that the allies were retreating, he
determined to push in their advanced guard immediately, with the
hope of falling upon their army on its march to the bridge of
Almaraz; to which place alone, after abandoning the line of the
Alberche, he thought it could be retiring. The French infantry passed
the river; the brigade of Colonel Donkin, which was posted to defend
it, was to a certain degree surprised. The river was fordable at all
points, and the French advanced guard fell upon this brigade and
caused it considerable loss. Sir Arthur Wellesley (who had just
arrived upon the ground) ordered the whole of Major General
Mackenzie’s division to retire from the wood, and to fall back upon
the position in the rear, into which the army was at this time moving.
The French, elated with their first, successes, pushed forward as
rapidly as the passage of their troops would allow, and threw their
right forward, with the view of turning the town of Talavera. The
Duke of Albuquerque shewed, however, so good a front with the
cavalry under his orders (which was in a plain upon the left of the
British,) that this movement was considerably delayed. Sir Arthur
Wellesley was tempted, (while a part only of the French army had
passed the Alberche), to attack it with the whole of the allies; but
upon considering the lateness of the hour, he continued his
movement to the position he had fixed upon. The British advanced
guard retired under cover of the cavalry, and took up the ground
allotted to it. The French continued to press forward; and, at last,
when it was nearly dark, brought a battery of six guns, supported by
a considerable corps of infantry, to some high ground opposite the
height upon which the left of the British was to rest. The troops
destined for this point had not at that moment reached it. Colonel
Donkin’s brigade, which was retiring near it, was ordered to form at
the foot of the hill upon the left of the Germans under General
Sherbrooke. But the French, supported by their guns, attacked these
corps, drove them from the ground they occupied, and carried the
height. Lieutenant General Hill’s and Major General R. Stewart’s
brigades were at that moment ascending it from the other side; their
advance found the French upon the top. The battalion of
detachments under Colonel Bunbury wheeled into line, charged, and
retook the hill. The French, however, returned to the attack, but
were finally driven to the foot of it. The action upon this point was
severe; Major General Hill was at one moment mixed with the
French soldiers; several men of both armies were killed or wounded
with the bayonet, but the gallantry of British soldiers, and the
intrepidity of their officers, prevailed.
During this attack, the Spanish troops were alarmed by the fire of
the French, who were following the British cavalry in its retreat
through the centre of the allies; they immediately began a fire which
was taken up by the whole of the first line. Several of the officers of
the Guards who were standing in front of their men, and many of
the light troops of the Germans who were posted in advance, were
killed or wounded by this fire. The French, however, were checked
by it, and remained without making any further attack during the
night. It appeared afterwards that the French officers discovered
that the whole army was in front of Talavera, only from the firing
which has just been described; they were ignorant of any position
about that town, and, therefore, till then, had given out to their
soldiers that the allied army was retiring.
At day-break on the 28th the French recommenced their attack
with 14,000 men, by assaulting the hill from which they had been
driven the night before. Their troops had been collected during dark,
and were formed at the bottom of the height; they moved at a
signal given, and succeeded in ascending to a considerable distance
before they were checked by the fire of the British. From the conical
shape of this hill it was difficult to form any considerable number of
men to defend it: but the regiments which were on it charged the
French troops with an impetuosity they were unable to resist, and
drove them, with considerable loss and in total confusion, beyond
the ground from which they had moved to the attack.
The British cavalry had been ordered up to charge the French
right as they were retiring, but unfortunately it was at too great a
distance to effect this object.
After the failure of this attempt upon the hill, the French continued
to cannonade the British line for a considerable time; but the fire
ceased at length on both sides, and perfect tranquillity reigned
throughout the opposing armies. During this interval, Sir Arthur
Wellesley communicated with General Cuesta near a house in the
centre of the lines, and afterwards slept, till some fresh movements
in the enemy’s camp were reported to him.
Joseph, having been defeated in the several efforts he had made
upon the British left, determined to try his fortune upon the centre
of the allied army. The attack which followed was made under cover
of a wood of olives, and fell principally upon the brigade commanded
by Major General Alexander Campbell; this officer had taken
advantage of some high banks which intersected the ground he
occupied, and through the means of which he was enabled, with a
very inferior force, to arrest the progress of the enemy’s principal
column. Being at one time, however, driven from one of these
banks, he rallied the regiment which was retiring, charged the
column which was pursuing him, drove it from the ground of which it
had taken possession, and took twelve pieces of artillery; at the
same time some squadrons of the Spanish regiment of cavalry of the
King, charged the head of a French column of infantry which was
advancing through the wood (in pursuit of some Spanish infantry
that had given way,) and cut up a considerable part of it. Thus
terminated the second attack of the memorable 28th of July; the
enemy was completely repulsed, with the loss of seventeen pieces of
artillery upon different points, and a very considerable number of his
best troops. His failures seemed decisive of the day; another pause
ensued, considerable movements on the part of the enemy were
observed, and for some time were construed by the allied army as
indicative of a retreat; but the severest action was yet to come.
The whole état major of the French was observed to have
collected in front of the left of the British; after some consultation
amongst the officers who composed it, they appeared to have
decided upon a new arrangement of their army. The aides-de-camp
were despatched in different directions, and soon after the French
divisions were observed to be moving to their new destinations. It
now seemed to be the intention of the enemy to bring the great
body of his force to act upon that part of the British line which was
occupied by the Guards; and, at the same time, to move with three
columns of infantry and a regiment of cavalry, along the valley which
extended under the height which formed the left of the British line.
These columns were supported by some light infantry, which the
enemy had thrown upon the chain of hills which run westward
beyond the valley, and which were destined to turn the British left
and attack it upon the flank and rear.
To meet this movement Sir Arthur Wellesley directed the cavalry
(which was concealed in the valley) to be prepared to charge the
columns of infantry, as soon as they should have extended their
formation, and exposed their flank. He also directed the guards to
be prepared for the attack which was going to be made upon them,
and upon no account to move from the ground they occupied.
The French columns of infantry which had moved into the valley,
were more advanced than those destined for the attack upon the
Guards; they had halted near a house within gun-shot of the British
left, and appeared to be waiting for orders to advance. Major
General Payne, who commanded the British cavalry, seized this
opportunity to attack them; the enemy, observing the forward
movement of the cavalry, formed himself against the side of this
house in solid column; he had a deep ravine, or water-course, along
his front, of which the British cavalry was not aware, and he was
besides supported by sixteen guns. The charge of the cavalry was
thrown into confusion by this ravine; many of the horses fell into it;
and the portion which got over it was so divided and broken as a
body, that the effect of the charge was completely done away. The
bravery of the British soldier was not, however, to be daunted by this
check. The Honourable Major Ponsonby led the men who were near
him upon the bayonets of the enemy; but their valour could not
compensate for the total confusion into which they had been
thrown. The bravery of individuals could effect nothing against a
solid body of infantry; the soldiers who were repulsed by the French
columns galloped forward upon the regiment of cavalry which
supported them, and in a short time the whole plain was covered
with British dragoons dispersed in all directions, and totally without
formation. In this state they were charged by some French
regiments which were in reserve; many of them were taken, the
remainder passed through the intervals in the French columns, and
those that escaped their fire, (of whom Lord William Russel was
one), retired within the British lines.
In this attack the 23d Light Dragoons lost two-thirds of its
number; its charge was injudicious; the ground in front had not
been reconnoitred, and the French infantry was too strongly posted
to promise it success. The order for the cavalry was to charge when
the French columns had extended and exposed their flank. They had
done neither when the attack was made, but the bravery with which
it was conducted, put an end to the movements which the enemy
had intended on that side; and he never stirred afterwards from the
ground upon which he was formed.
Sir Arthur Wellesley observed this hesitation, and profited by it, in
detaching the 48th Regiment, (which he had called for the defence
of the height when it was threatened with an attack), to support the
movement which the guards had at this moment made upon the
enemy. These troops, with a part of Major General Cameron’s
brigade, had been attacked by the whole reserve of the French
army; but they had received it with so tremendous a fire, that they
forced it to give way; charged it with great impetuosity; and pursued
it into a wood. They had not proceeded to any great distance,
however, when the enemy brought so considerable a number of
guns to bear upon their flank, that in a very few moments all their
mounted officers were killed or wounded and near 500 of their men.
In this situation the Guards were forced to fall back in considerable
confusion: they passed through the intervals of the 48th Regiment,
which had just arrived to support them, and which checked the
advance of the enemy. The attack was most severe upon this
regiment; it maintained its ground in the most gallant manner, till
the guards had re-formed, and moved forward to its support. When
the French perceived these troops advancing, they retired; the
Guards instantly huzza’d; the cry was echoed along the whole line;
the enemy continued their retreat; and thus ended the last
achievement of the battle of Talavera. The enemy was soon
perceived to be moving to the rear; he shewed a considerable force
of cavalry, and maintained a heavy cannonade to cover the retreat;
and at the close of the day he had already passed a portion of his
troops across the Alberche.
There never was a more extraordinary battle than the one which
has now been described: the French brought into the field a force of
not less than 47,000 men, and the whole of their attacks, with the
most trifling exception, were directed against the British army, not
exceeding 18,000 infantry, and 1,500 cavalry. Yet the British general
had nerve to maintain the contest, and ability to baffle the efforts of
the enemy. The army displayed a courage and perseverance, which
did justice to the confidence with which its commander had relied
upon it; and proved to Spain and to the world, what the dauntless
spirit of the British soldier is capable of effecting, when under the
direction of such an officer.
The enemy did justice to the talent of Sir Arthur Wellesley, and to
the unrivalled bravery of his troops; Marshal Victor admitted to an
English officer who was taken prisoner, that much as he had heard
of the gallantry of English soldiers, still he could not have believed
that any men could have been led to attacks so desperate as some
that he had witnessed in the battle of Talavera. The glory of the
British arms shone forth in brighter colours on this memorable day
than it had ever done amidst its countless triumphs of years
preceding. The soldiers struggled against privations of every
description; as well as against a force which seemed calculated to
overwhelm them; their native valour spurred them on to conquest,
and stifled every feeling which could arrest or make it doubtful.
On the morning of the 29th, the light division of 3,000 men, under
Major General Crawford, joined the army from Oropesa; it was
immediately ordered to form the advance, and take up a position in
the front of the field of battle. The allies were employed in attending
their wounded, and burying or burning the dead of both armies.
The British loss was 5,000 men in killed or wounded; the loss of
the Spaniards was much inferior. The French loss was estimated by
themselves at 14,000 men. Joseph retired in the course of the 29th
with the greatest part of his army, to Sta. Olalla; a rear guard of
6,000 men was left at Casas Leguas, to cover his retreat, but it
retired on the night of the 30th, and joined the corps to which it
belonged, near Toledo.
The army of General Vanegas, which had advanced from
Madrilejos, in obedience to the orders of the supreme Junta, had
arrived upon the Tagus, near Aranjuez and Toledo on the 28th. The
advance of his corps pushed on in the night to within a short
distance of Madrid, and took some patroles which had been sent out
from the garrison; but General Vanegas having heard that the
French army was retreating towards the capital from the field of
Talavera, recalled the parties that had crossed the Tagus, and
abandoned any further offensive operations. Sir Arthur Wellesley
(who was still unable to advance, from the total want of provisions in
which the Spaniards kept him) recommended to General Cuesta to
form a junction with General Vanegas; but while this movement was
in contemplation, information was brought from Placencia, that the
corps of Soult was moving upon that town, and that the troops at
Bejar, hearing of its advance, had abandoned that position, and left
the road open to its march. Sir Arthur Wellesley could hardly believe
that the strong positions about Bejar had been so hastily given up;
the corps of Marshal Beresford was ready to have assisted the troops
in occupation of them, and a brigade of British, under the orders of
Major General Catling Crawford, was within a few days’ march, and
would have assisted in their defence. But the intelligence being soon
after confirmed, Sir Arthur Wellesley decided to carry the British
army to attack General Soult; and proposed to General Cuesta to
remain in the position of Talavera, to cover the movement of the
English upon Placencia. Sir Arthur Wellesley also proposed to leave
his wounded in charge of General Cuesta, to whose kindness and
generosity he intrusted them, with a solemn promise from him, that
if any thing should oblige the Spanish army to retire, his first care
should be, to move the British to a place of safety. General Cuesta
was delighted with the plan which was proposed to him. He felt that
his own army was unequal to any contest with the French in an open
plain, and that it must be to the British only, that he could look for
the expulsion of the enemy from his rear; he also expressed himself
most particularly gratified by the confidence which Sir Arthur
Wellesley reposed in him, intrusting the wounded to his care.
The necessary arrangements being made, and Major General
Mackinnon placed in the command of the hospitals at Talavera, Sir
Arthur Wellesley marched on the morning of the 3d of August for
Oropesa. A short time after his arrival at that place, he learnt that
the advanced guard of Soult’s army was arrived at Naval Moral, and
that the Spaniards, who had retired from Bejar, had crossed the
Tagus at Almaraz, and destroyed the bridge; he determined,
however, to move upon the French, and was in hopes of finding
them the following day. General Bassecour, with a Spanish division,
was moving along the Tietar, and was destined to act upon the left
and rear of the French. About four o’clock in the afternoon, however,
a despatch arrived from General Cuesta, announcing to Sir Arthur
Wellesley, that, from intelligence upon which he could rely, he was
persuaded that the corps of Marshal Ney had evacuated Gallicia, and
formed a junction with the corps of Marshal Mortier, from Valladolid;
that the two were united with Marshal Soult; and that the amount of
the collected force upon the rear of the allied army, could not be less
than 55,000 men; that Marshal Victor was at no great distance from
Talavera, upon the other side; that he (General Cuesta)
apprehended an attack from him; and had in consequence
determined to break up immediately from that town, and join Sir
Arthur Wellesley at Oropesa. This information was as disastrous as it
was unexpected: the letter from General Cuesta further stated, that
his movement was already begun, and that his army would form its
junction with the British in the course of the night: there remained,
therefore, no hope of preventing or delaying it, and the whole plan,
upon which Sir Arthur Wellesley had undertaken his operation, was
at once destroyed.
The bridge of Almaraz was no longer in existence; the bridge of
Arzobispo was exposed, by the abandonment of Talavera, to the
corps of Victor, and the whole allied army, if it advanced, might be
cut off from any retreat across the Tagus, while its movement upon
Portugal must depend upon the success of its attack upon the
combined army of Ney, Soult, and Mortier. In this situation of affairs
Sir Arthur Wellesley did not hesitate to give up offensive operations,
and retire across the Tagus, by the bridge of Arzobispo.
Sir Arthur Wellesley had every reason to complain of the conduct
of General Cuesta; he had abandoned the position intrusted to him,
without any ground for so doing; for it afterwards appeared that
Victor was at some distance from Talavera, and not occupied in a
movement upon the corps of General Cuesta; but, at any rate, the
Spaniards evacuated the post intrusted to them, and abandoned the
British wounded, with a precipitancy that nothing but the actual
presence of an enemy could justify. If General Cuesta was actuated
by a desire of bringing his army to the assistance of Sir Arthur
Wellesley, who was about to attack a force which he had reason to
believe was superior to him, he ought to have waited a few hours,
till he had communicated with him, and in the mean time, he should
have given assistance to the removal of the British wounded. If he
thought that the return of a messenger from Oropesa (a distance of
only five leagues), would have exposed him by too much delay, he
ought at least to have left a corps to check the enemy in his front,
and to have protected the retreat of the hospitals. And, last of all, it
was his duty, to which he had also pledged himself in the most
solemn manner, to have given all the means in his power to facilitate
the removal of the British wounded. He did, however, the direct
reverse: he abandoned his position with his whole army, without
communication with Sir Arthur Wellesley; (indeed, he precluded the
possibility of any, by stating in his letter that his army was in march);
and to the wounded, instead of every assistance he could command,
he gave but four carts, for the whole 4,000 men. It is impossible to
conceive, that the importance of the occupation of Talavera, to the
movement of Sir Arthur Wellesley, should have escaped the
observation of General Cuesta, the ground about that town afforded
the only situation in which the advance of the French army upon the
rear of the British, while moving upon Soult, could possibly be
resisted; the rest of the country was plain, and offered no defensive
position; so that in abandoning it, General Cuesta exposed the whole
allied army to an attack, in front and rear. In short, it is very difficult
to discover a sound or equitable reason for the precipitancy with
which this movement was executed; but the total disregard which
was shewn to the British wounded, the paltry number of four carts
which was afforded them, by an army that was provided with them
to excess, remains a stain upon the character of General Cuesta,
that no time will ever efface.
Sir Arthur Wellesley moved his army, upon the morning of the 4th
of August, to the bridge of Arzobispo; the nature of the campaign
was changed; Gallicia was delivered from the French; and the corps
of Romana was now in peaceable possession of it, with the
opportunity of augmenting its own numbers, and improving its
discipline; the whole province was in a situation to dispose of its
military means, and to create, in a short time, a powerful diversion,
upon the rear of the enemy assembled upon the Tagus. The north of
Spain was almost entirely in the same situation as Gallicia. The
French had abandoned it, with very few exceptions, to concentrate
their force against the British army; and Sir Arthur Wellesley
conceived, that although he had been foiled in his attempt to rescue
Madrid, yet he had restored independence to Gallicia, and in great
part to the provinces adjoining it; which might, in the end, prove
most advantageous to the cause of Spain. This opinion has since
been proved to be correct; Gallicia retained its freedom, and the
other northern provinces were never afterwards but in partial
subjection to the enemy.
As soon as Sir Arthur Wellesley had crossed the Tagus at
Arzobispo, he detached Major General Crawford, with the light
division, to occupy, with as much rapidity as possible, the pass at
Almaraz; where it was to be feared the enemy, whose advanced
guard had seen the passage of the allies at Arzobispo, might push a
force across the Tagus, and endeavour to intercept the British army
on its march upon Deleytosa. Major General Crawford arrived,
however, in time to prevent that operation; the movement of the
army was undisturbed; General Cuesta remained at Arzobispo; and
the British moved to Deleytosa. The Spaniards were, however,
attacked a few days after by the French at Arzobispo; their advanced
guard was driven from the bridge; and their whole army retired to
Deleytosa, whilst Sir Arthur Wellesley moved to Jaraseco.
The force under General Vanegas had remained since the battle of
Talavera, in the neighbourhood of Toledo, but to the southward of
the Tagus. General Cuesta was in communication with it, and
apprized Vanegas of his retreat from Arzobispo. He directed him in
consequence to fall back to the positions about Madrilejos, from
which he had originally moved, and upon no account to risk an
action with the enemy, but to keep his corps ready to make any
movement, in co-operation with the allied army, that might
afterwards be determined upon. General Vanegas prepared to carry
these orders into execution, and retired a considerable distance
through La Mancha; but, from a fatality which has never been
explained, he was induced to move forward again, over some of the
ground which he had passed, and to engage his corps in a general
action with the French under Sebastiani, at Almonacid. The
Spaniards were completely routed in this battle; their best troops
were engaged in it, and many of the corps behaved with great
gallantry and good conduct; but they were defeated with
considerable loss, and were driven to the Sierra Morena. This
disaster was severely felt; the dispersion of the troops that could be
most depended upon, and who were intrusted with the defence of
the great pass into Andalusia, was an event that could not easily be
repaired; and, in addition, it destroyed all confidence in the
movements of the Spaniards; they were no longer to be depended
upon, for the most trifling operations: when they were required to
act, they remained unmoved; when intrusted with a position, as at
Talavera, they deserted it without reason; when directed to avoid an
action, which, if successful, could be of no benefit to their cause,
they seemed to court one; and when engaged, exposed themselves
to the most disastrous defeats. With this battle terminated the
campaign, which had been undertaken for the relief of Madrid, and
the expulsion of the enemy from the central provinces of Spain. The
corps under Sir Robert Wilson retired through the mountains from
Escalona to Bejar, where it was attacked and routed by the advanced
guard of Marshal Ney, who was returning from the Tagus to the
neighbourhood of Salamanca.
Sir Arthur Wellesley remained at Jaraseco, till the French, who had
collected upon the Tagus, had dispersed their corps; and till the total
failure of supplies obliged him to retire to the frontiers of Portugal,
from whence alone he could secure the provisioning of his army.
He placed his head-quarters at Badajos, his advance at Merida,
and the rest of his army in cantonments, upon the frontiers of Spain
and Portugal. The supreme government of Spain was thrown into
considerable consternation by this movement, of which it had been
the sole and entire cause. The individuals who composed it sought,
notwithstanding, to throw the blame from themselves, upon those
who had the most materially suffered by their misconduct.
The Marquis Wellesley, who was at this time the British
representative in Spain, complained most bitterly of their inattention
and neglect to an army, which had so valiantly fought in their
defence; and whose blood had been so profusely spilt, in supporting
the great cause in which they were engaged; but these complaints
were only too ably urged. The Spaniards (proud of their former
glories) can but ill brook the interference of foreign powers; their
pride and haughty independence prompt them to spurn the
assistance or control of foreigners; and when their government was
justly accused of neglect, and even treason to Spain herself, yet as
that reproach was from a foreign hand, they rallied round that
government, and repelled the accusations, by the most idle and
unfounded attacks upon those who made them, and who had full
reason to complain of their unjust and unfriendly conduct. A spirit of
hostility was thus raised between the allied nations, and for some
time there was much of that unpleasant feeling which is generated
by mutual accusations. The magnanimous conduct of the British
government, however, soon set those jealousies at rest, and by
degrees acquired for itself the unbounded confidence of the Spanish
nation.
The supreme government of Spain had displaced General Cuesta
from the command of his army, during the time that Sir Arthur
Wellesley, (now become Lord Wellington) remained at Jaraseco, and
General Eguia was intrusted with that important situation. This
officer was soon after directed to move the Spanish army, (leaving
only the Duke of Albuquerque with a small corps in Estremadura)
and to form a junction with General Vanegas, in the Sierra Morena,
and in the neighbourhood of La Carolina. This operation was
dictated, in no small degree, by a feeling of jealousy towards the
English. The Spaniards wished to keep their army separate from the
British, because they believed it could be rendered more subservient
to their own views. While it remained in presence of so distinguished
an officer as Lord Wellington, it was curbed, and restrained in the
movements it might be directed to undertake; his advice must
necessarily be listened to, and it is not too much to say, that some of
the rulers of the country were not at that time unwilling to see their
armies directed by weaker counsels than such as would be derived
from him. There was another reason for the movement of that army.
It was believed, by many persons in the direction of affairs in Spain,
that Lord Wellington was determined to evacuate the country, and
retire into Portugal; they thought, however, that by removing the
Spanish army from Estremadura, they should shift the defence of
that province upon the shoulders of Lord Wellington; by which
means they flattered themselves, they should retain him against his
will. Lord Wellington was not so easily to be overreached: he stated
to the Spanish government, that he should remain at Badajos so
long as he felt he could be serviceable to its cause, but without
neglecting the first object which he was directed to attend to;
namely, the defence of Portugal. He pressed the government to
make such arrangements as would secure the provisioning of his
army, if he was enabled again to take the field; but above all, he
recommended it to preserve the Spanish armies from being
harassed, or on any account risked with the French, excepting in
such operations as should be agreed upon, according to a general
combination of all the forces that could be brought against them.
The army of the Marquis of Romana was moved from Gallicia to
Ciudad Rodrigo; where it was placed under the orders of the Duke
del Parque.
A state of tranquillity now succeeded to the active operations of
the preceding months; the French armies had been in almost
constant movement since the entrance of Buonaparte into Spain, in
the month of November. When he quitted the country to prepare for
the German war, he had left his armies in possession of all the north
of Spain; Soult afterwards added the north of Portugal. Victor was
advanced to the confines of Andalusia, near Monasterio; and
Sebastiani occupied La Mancha; Suchet was in force in Arragon, and
St. Cyr was employed in the siege of the fortresses in Catalonia. The
situation of these corps was now considerably changed. The north of
Spain and Portugal was almost entirely free from the incursions of
the French; the province of Estremadura was relieved from them;
and a great portion of La Mancha was in the occupation of the
Spanish armies. The French had therefore lost considerably during
the last months; and, notwithstanding their activity and military
talents, they had been forced to retire from the provinces which they
had subdued, and to concentrate for their own defence, in a country
which they believed, after the capture of Madrid, they had totally
subjected. When Buonaparte re-crossed the Pyrenees, he directed
his imperial eagles to be placed upon the towers of Lisbon; he
proclaimed his empire in the Peninsula, and boasted that there no
longer existed any force that was capable of obstructing the
accomplishment of his imperial mandate. But the strength of
patriotism in a whole people was as yet unknown to him. The
constant reduction of his forces, the ever succeeding evacuation of
apparently conquered provinces by his troops, the never-ending
conflicts in every corner of the Peninsula, have since convinced him
that a great people with one intent and one resolution, with
patriotism as their guide, are too powerful to be subdued, though
they have neither armies nor military science to oppose to the
invaders.
The British troops had been also in constant activity since the
arrival of Lord Wellington in Portugal, they therefore required rest. It
became then the interest of both French and English to preserve
that state of tranquillity which had succeeded since the passage of
the Tagus.
The state of Spain about this time, was most extraordinary; the
whole people were hostile to the French, yet their exertions at the
commencement of their struggle had so far surpassed any former
efforts they had been called upon to make, that they now reposed in
security, confiding their cause to the means which they had already
provided, and sheltering themselves from any further calls, by the
loud and re-echoed declarations that they were invincible. It was in
vain to combat against this argument; if a doubt as to its validity
was started, the instances of Moncey’s retreat from Valencia and of
Ney’s from Gallicia, were thought sufficient to remove all
apprehensions, and to silence for ever the discussion of the subject;
the best informed amongst the Spaniards were carried away by
feelings so congenial to their haughty spirits, and so well adapted to
the indolence of their natures. The defence of Saragossa and of
Gerona convinced them that the attempt to conquer Spain would be
unavailing, and they sunk at once into a security for which they
since have most dearly paid. If at Granada, you questioned the
public authorities as to the preparations they were making to bring
new armies into the field, they answered by an account of what had
already been produced. If in Valencia, the defeat which the French
had already sustained there was a guarantee of the destruction
which would await a second corps, that should attempt the invasion
of their country; Murcia could boast the terror with which it had
inspired the enemy, since he had never ventured to attack it; and in
this manner every part of Spain relied with confidence upon the
levies which it had already produced, and looked upon its entire
deliverance from a foreign yoke, as within little of being
accomplished.
During the period of which we have been speaking, Marshal Ney
commenced an operation against the corps of the Duke del Parque:
that officer had collected his troops in a strong position at Tamanes;
the French made a desperate assault upon him, but were repulsed
with considerable loss. This action confirmed the Spaniards in the
belief that they were invincible; and a general feeling was raised,
that their armies should advance upon Madrid, and that the
successes of Baylen would shrink before the glories that awaited
them in the neighbourhood of the capital.
The disastrous termination of the German war seemed in no
degree to shake the confidence of the Spanish nation; proud of its
own feats, it disdained a feeling of dependence upon any other
people for the success of its cause.
The government partook of the same sentiment; and, most
singular to relate, during the period of this eventful repose from
active operations, made not the slightest effort to prepare for the
struggle which was to succeed.
The army of Lord Wellington which was cantoned upon the
Guadiana became extremely sickly; and numbers of the officers and
men fell victims to the disorders generated by the noxious
exhalations of that river, and to the fatigues which, amidst the
greatest privations, they had previously undergone. The Spaniards
made no exertions to secure provisions for the army; so that it was
incapable of active operations.
The Spanish government seized this opportunity to attempt a
scheme, which will ever stand unrivalled in absurdity and folly. The
Spanish army which was assembled at the Carolina formed an
effective force of 48,000 men; it had been placed under the orders
of General Eguia, when he marched with the greatest proportion of
his army from Estremadura; but it had afterwards been entrusted to
the command of General Arisaga, a very young and inexperienced
officer; he was only a brigadier when he was appointed to this
important station, but was advanced to the rank of a major-general
upon assuming it.
It appears that this officer was befriended by a strong party of the
ministers at Seville, who had considerable influence with the
supreme government, although their views were hostile to it. He was
appointed for the purpose of carrying their objects into effect; and
every officer senior to him was removed, to enable him to assume
the command. The other Spanish corps which communicated with
the central one, were commanded by the Dukes of Albuquerque and
Del Parque, both of superior rank to General Arisaga; it was,
therefore, the object of his employers to prevent their co-operation
with him, lest by taking upon themselves the direction of the forces,
to which they were entitled by their rank, they should prevent the
execution of the project the ministers had in view.
These persons conceived that it was possible to enter Madrid; and
they are supposed to have purposed, in so doing, to effect a
revolution, to displace the government of the Junta Suprema, and to
seize it for themselves.
The capital was believed to be the most advantageous place for
the execution of these projects; first, because the triumph of its
successful deliverance would secure popularity to those who had
effected it; and next, because the existing government had ever
been most unpopular in that city. With these views, therefore,
General Arisaga was ordered to break up at once from his position at
La Carolina, and to march directly upon Madrid. This order was
neither communicated to Lord Wellington, nor to any of the Spanish
generals in the command of other corps.
General Arisaga, in conformity with his instructions, moved with
considerable rapidity through the whole of La Mancha, and arrived
on the 8th of November upon the Tagus, in the neighbourhood of
Ocaña. The French (who were surprised at the boldness of this
operation), concentrated their troops behind the Tagus, and after a
sharp rencontre with the Spanish advanced guard, upon the 12th,
they passed that river, and attacked the Spanish army. General
Arisaga had placed his whole force in two columns of battalions,
separated by a ravine, and with a corps in advance of considerable
strength, which was in possession of a village which covered his
front. The French began the engagement by the attack of this
village; but, under cover of some ground about it, they turned the
right column of the Spanish army, charged it, and in a very short
time totally dispersed it. The left column was as yet untouched, but
General Arisaga was so confounded by the destruction of his right,
that he does not appear to have made any disposition for its retreat,
or for the support of the attack that was coming upon it. The
Spanish cavalry, which was retiring with considerable precipitation,
first threw this corps into confusion by galloping through a
considerable portion of it; the French, who were fast coming up with
the remainder of it, completed its dispersion; and thus destroyed in
a few hours the whole army that had been marched against them.
The Spaniards lost their guns, their baggage, their equipments, and
out of 45,000 stand of arms, not more than 13,000 were brought
back to the Carolina. The loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was
immense; a great portion of the soldiers, who had dispersed during
the action, never returned to the army; so that the greatest number
that was ever collected, of individuals who had been present at
Ocaña, did not amount to more than 25,000 men.
So decisive a defeat produced great consternation throughout the
country; the only considerable army that remained to fight for the
cause of Spain had been totally destroyed; and to enlightened and
unprejudiced minds, it was no longer doubtful that the French might
at any time march, unresisted by any military force, to the walls of
Cadiz. This opinion was far, however, from being general in Spain. All
true Spaniards were yet bound to believe that the battle of Ocaña
was unfortunate from some unforeseen accident; that such was
never likely to happen again; and that the forces which were
collected at the Carolina would yet form an impenetrable barrier to
the advance of the French armies, and protect the Andalusias, till
the necessary numbers should be collected to fall with certain
destruction upon the forces of the invader. If a doubt was started
upon any part of this position, one general answer was given, that a
cat could not pass through the defile of Despeña Perros, much less a
French army. Thus you were requested to be convinced, that no
force the enemy could bring would ever succeed in penetrating to
the southward of the Sierra Morena; or in subjugating the people of
Andalusia.
Marshal Soult, who had been appointed Major-General of the
French armies, a short time before the battle of Ocaña, seized the
opportunity, which was offered by the destruction of the central
army of Spain, to detach a considerable corps against the Duke del
Parque, who had lately succeeded in occupying Salamanca. The
French were fortunate enough to bring his army to action at Alba de
Tormes, and, in spite of the good conduct of some of his troops,
entirely to disperse it. The defeat of this corps laid the north of
Portugal open to the incursions of the French; the whole of Castile
fell into their possession; Salamanca became a depôt, from whence
they could prepare the means of a powerful attack; and there no
longer remained a force that could oppose or delay their operations.
Lord Wellington saw the absolute necessity of removing his army
to the north of the Tagus, to oppose the invasion which was thus
preparing. He had no longer any Spanish armies that he could co-
operate with; the only two, of any considerable force, with which he
was in communication, had brought destruction upon themselves,
without either listening to his counsels, or communicating to him
their movements; they were now no longer in a state to be of any
assistance to him, nor could he protect them against the powerful
reinforcements which were arriving from Germany to the French,
and which bid fair to over-run the whole of the Peninsula. The
system of war was now to be completely changed. When Lord
Wellington entered Spain, the Spaniards had an army of
considerable strength, with which he had hoped to co-operate with
effect against a comparatively small and extended force of French.
The tables were now reversed; the Spanish armies could scarcely be
said to have any military existence; they had proved that, while in
strength, they were not to be depended upon, much less were they
to be looked to for any assistance in their present state. The French
were marching an army of more than 100,000 men into the country;
so that a defensive war was the only one which could be carried on
against them. Lord Wellington was convinced that the hostility of the
Spaniards to the French was not to be overcome: although their
armies were beaten from the field, yet the determined opposition of
the people repelled the yoke which was attempted to be forced upon
them. The nature of the country was favourable to a protracted,
desultory warfare; and its extent and poverty seemed to bid defiance
to a subjection, which, to be made complete, would require a more
considerable force than France seemed able to afford, or Spain could
produce the means of supporting. As far as experience could lead to
any conclusion as to the future, in the new warfare which the
Spanish nation was waging against its invaders, there appeared no
advantage to the enemy from the occupation of any part of the
country, for any period of time. The moment a province was
evacuated, it rose in more determined hostility, than it had shewn
before its invasion. No advantage accrued to the French from either
violent or conciliating measures; they were always looked upon as
enemies; and, after months of peaceable occupation, if they
exposed themselves unprotected by numbers in the provinces which
they had considered as subdued, they were sure of meeting with the
same hostility they had from the first experienced.
With this state of things to direct Lord Wellington in the system of
warfare upon which he was called upon to decide, he felt no
hesitation in prescribing to himself, and to the allies, a conduct
which should protract the war; should lead the enemy to extend his
forces; should encourage the whole people of the Peninsula to
intercept his communications; and should give the governments of
the countries engaged in the contest, the opportunity of increasing
and improving the more regular means of resistance or attack.
Lord Wellington moved his army in the beginning of December,
from the neighbourhood of Badajos to the North of the Tagus. It
arrived, in the first weeks of January, in the new cantonments which
had been prepared for it; they extended from Coimbra to Pinhel,
while a corps, under Lieutenant General Hill, was left at Abrantes. In
this position the army went into winter-quarters: it was abundantly
supplied, and was employed only in recruiting itself from the
dreadful effects of the preceding campaign, and the sickness which
had followed it. Head-quarters were placed at Viseu.
While Lord Wellington was employed in this movement, Marshal
Soult concentrated the French armies in La Mancha; for the purpose
of making an irruption into the southern provinces of Spain.
The British officers who had been at the Carolina were satisfied,
that, notwithstanding the boasted impossibility of forcing the
Spanish army at the pass of Des Peña Perros, there was in reality
nothing easier. The pass itself was strong, but no fortifications,
which deserved that name, had been thrown up to defend it. The
old road from Madrid, by the Puerto del Rey, was almost
unobserved; and the force which was employed to defend the
position of the Sierra Morena, which was fifty leagues in extent, did
not exceed 25,000 men, most of them the unfortunate fugitives from
the battle of Ocaña. With such an army, it would have been
impossible for the most able commander to have defended the entry
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