Global Academy of Technology, Bengaluru–98

Department of Physics

Applied Physics for CSE Stream (Integrated)

Laboratory Manual
(BPHYS24102/202)

EDITION 2024

For the First/Second Semester B.E

Name :______________________________________________________________

Semester : ______________ Section: ____________Batch No. ________________

Serial No.:_______________________ USN: _____________________________

Faculty In-charge: ____________________________

Prepared by :

Dr Raju N V, Dr Renuka C, Dr Mahesh D,

Dr Madhushri A V, Dr Madhavi S, Smt Shruthi Gargi,
Mr Nagegowda H S & Ms Ashwini H

Approved by :
Dr N V Raju, Professor & HOD Department of Physics
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
Rajarajeshwari Nagar, Bengaluru – 560 098

Laboratory Certificate

This is to certify that Mr / Ms …………………………………

bearing USN ………………… …………of the department of
……………………………………………………………
has satisfactorily completed the course of Experiments in
………………………………………… laboratory of this
college in the year …………………

Signature of the Teacher in charge

Marks
Maximum Obtained

Signature of the HOD

Date:
i
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
VISION
Become a premier institution imparting quality education in
engineering and management to meet the changing needs of society.

MISSION
• Create environment conducive for continuous learning through
quality teaching and learning processes supported by modern
infrastructure.
• Promote Research and Innovation through collaboration with
industries.
• Inculcate ethical values and environmental consciousness through
holistic education programs.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE & HUMANITIES

VISION
To be an education provider in science and humanities with emphasis
on excellence in academic and research for the benefit of society.

MISSION
• Impart fundamental knowledge in science for understanding
advancement in engineering and technology.
• Provide students with linguistic competence in chosen language
and improve communication skills for personal and professional
purpose.
• Develop intellectual atmosphere in science and humanities for
professional development.
• To inculcate human values and professional ethics among
students for building healthier society.

ii
 GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.

2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.

6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice.

9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.

11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

iii
 Course Details

Course Name: Applied Physics for CSE Stream (Integrated)

Course Code: BPHYS24102/202
Course outcome
Upon successful completion of this course, students should be
able to:
Subject: APPLIED PHYSICS FOR CSE
Subject code: BPHYS24102/202
STREAM(INTEGRATED)
CL
COs COURSE OUTCOMES
CO1
Apply the concepts of LASERs and optical fibers and, their applications. L3
CO2 Interpret the concepts of quantum mechanics & utilize in quantum
computing and superconductivity.
L3
CO3 Illustrate the steps involved in the working of semiconducting devices. L3

iv
 Applied Physics for CSE Stream (Integrated)

Course Code BPHYS24102/202

Practical hours/week 2 CIE Marks 50

Sl. Title of the Experiment

No
1 Estimation of Fermi energy of a copper

2 Determination of the wavelength of light emitted by LED’s

3 Determine acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fiber

4 Study Series and parallel LCR resonance

5 Transistor characteristics of a npn transistor

6 Estimation of Energy gap of a semiconductor

7 Calculation of dielectric constant by RC charging and Discharging

8 Photo Diode Characteristics

9 Determine wavelength of semiconductor laser using LASER diffraction
10 Verification of Stefan’s law

v
 Scheme of Evaluation for lab internals

The student has to perform TWO experiments during the practical test. The scheme of
valuation shall be as follows:

Description Marks for First Marks for second

experiment experiment

Write up : Formula, circuit diagram / 2+2+2+2+2 2+2+2+2+2

ray diagram, tabular column, model
graph and result statement.
Conduction :Initial set-up/circuit 5+10+5 5+10+5
connection, readings, completion of
tabular column
Graph, calculation, results with units 2+2+2+2+2 2+2+2+2+2
and accuracy
Viva-Voce 10 10
Total 50 50

The total marks of the practical test will be reduced to 20 marks

The lab manual marks will be reduced to 30
The total marks for lab internals will be 20 + 30 = 50

The student is required to obtain a minimum of 40% marks (20 marks) in CIE.

Scheme for Continuous Evaluation

The student has to perform ONE experiment during each lab session
Description Marks for experiment
Viva-Voce 10
Conduction 5+5+5
Write-up+ Readings+ calculations
Manual writing 5
Total 30

vi
 DOs
➢ Come to the lab session in-time with lab apron.
➢ Bring completed lab manual regularly.
➢ Do the write up part (formula, figure, circuit diagram, tabular column,
result statement) of the experiment in advance before coming to the lab.
➢ Bring scientific calculator, graph sheets and other necessary items to the
lab regularly.
➢ Handle the apparatus /equipment carefully.
➢ At the end of the experiment bring the knobs of the equipment to the
minimum position.
➢ Switch off the power supply after the completion of the experiment.
➢ Return the collected apparatus before leaving the lab to lab
attender/instructor.
➢ Maintain discipline inside the lab.
➢ Switch off the mobile phone & keep it inside the bag.

DONTs
➢ Unnecessarily absent yourself from lab sessions.
➢ Give your manual to others.
➢ Forget to check your belongings before leaving the lab.
➢ Switch ON electric / electronic equipment before getting approval by the
teacher / instructor.

Instructions to students

✓ Students should ensure that the observation with final calculation & graphs
must be approved by the teachers latest by next day.

✓ Observation & calculations shown later will not be approved by the teachers.

✓ Before leaving the laboratory, the students must compulsorily take the
approval of the teachers for the observations of the experiments.

✓ Zero marks will be provided to the observation which have not been approved
before going out of the laboratory.

vii
 EVALUATION SHEET

Name : USN:

Marks
Exp. Total Faculty signature
Page
CONTENTS No.
Viva Conduction& Manual Marks With Date
No. (10) Calculations Writing (30)
(15) (5)
FERMI ENERGY OF A
1. 1
CONDUCTOR
2. WAVELENGTH OF LED’s 7

3. NUMERICAL APERTURE 13
SERIES & PARALLEL
4. 17
LCR CIRCUITS
TRANSISTOR
5. 24
CHARACTERISTICS
ENERGY GAP OF
6. 32
SEMICONDUCTOR

7. DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 35

8. PHOTO DIODE 42

9. DIFFRACTION GRATING 48

10. STEFAN’S LAW 54

VIVA VOCE
59

AVERAGE MARKS

MAX. MARKS
MARKS Faculty Signature
OBTAINED

Lab manual marks 30

Lab internal marks 20

Total (lab IA marks) 50

viii
 FERMI ENERGY

Enrico Fermi

Enrico Fermi, an Italian physicist, is well-known for his achievements in both theoretical
and experimental physics. This is an exceptional achievement in a period where scientific
accomplishments have focused on one aspect or the other. He is mainly remembered for
his work on the advancement of the first nuclear reactor, and for his contributions to the
development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics.
During his time in Paris, Fermi and his team made major contributions to many practical
and theoretical aspects of physics. In 1934, while at the University of Rome, Fermi
carried out experiments where he bombarded a variety of elements with neutrons and
discovered that slow moving neutrons were particularly effective in producing radioactive
atoms. His experiments led to the discovery of nuclear fission and the creation of
elements beyond uranium. In 1938, Fermi won the Nobel Prize for Physics for his work
on nuclear processes.
In 1935, Fermi discovered the quantum mechanics statistical laws, nowadays known as
the Fermi statistics, giving a statistical model of the atom and nucleus.
Fermi continued to conduct nuclear fission experiments at Columbia University. In 1940,
Fermi and his team proved that absorption of a neutron by a uranium nucleus can cause
the nucleus to split into two nearly equal parts, releasing numerous neutrons and huge
amounts of energy. This was the first nuclear chain reaction.
In his later years, Fermi became interested in the origin of cosmic rays and investigated
subatomic particles, especially pi mesons and muons.

Applications of Fermi Energy

1.It is used to describe insulators, metals, and semiconductors.

2.Fermi energy is applied in determining the electrical and thermal

characteristics of the solids.

3.It is also important in nuclear physics to understand the stability of white

dwarfs. White dwarfs are stars that have a mass comparable to the Sun but
have about a hundredth of its radius.

1
 FERMI ENERGY

Experiment - 1
FERMI ENERGY OF A CONDUCTOR

Aim: To determine the Fermi energy of the given specimen.

Apparatus: copper coil, thermometer, multimeter

Formula:
Am
EF = 1.36  10−15 J
l
ρ is the density of copper (kg / m3)=8900kg/m3
𝜋𝑑 2
A is the area of cross section wire (m2),𝐴 = (d=0.23mm)
4
m is the slope of the graph.
l is the length of the specimen (m).
1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J

Procedure:
➢ The connections are made as shown in the figure.
➢ The copper coil is immersed in hot water which is initially heated up to
80oC.
➢ The resistance R of the given coil is measured using a multimeter.
➢ The water bath is allowed to cool.
➢ For every 5o C drop in temperature, resistance R is measured till it drops to
50oC.
➢ A graph of resistance along Y axis and temperature(in Kelvin) along X
axis is plotted.
➢ The value of the slope m is calculated.
➢ The area of cross section of the coil is determined using the formula 𝐴 =
𝜋𝑑 2
where ‘d’ is the diameter of the specimen wire.
4
➢ The Fermi energy of the material is calculated using the formula

Am
EF = 1.36  10−15 J
l
ρ is the density of the material (kg/m3).
A is the area of cross section of the wire (m2).
m is the slope of the graph.
l is the total length of the specimen (m).

2
 FERMI ENERGY

Observations & calculations

Circuit diagram :

Tabular column: Length of the specimen (l) =

T (o C) T (K) R (ohm)

Graph:

A
Slope m = AB/BC
R (Ω)
B
C

T(K)

Result: The Fermi energy of the given specimen is found to be EF= ……………………eV

3
 FERMI ENERGY

Observations & calculations

4
 FERMI ENERGY

Observations & calculations

5
 FERMI ENERGY

Observations & calculations

6
 WAVELENGTH OF LED’s

Nick Holonyak Jr.

Nick Holonyak Jr. is an American engineer and educator. He is noted particularly for his
1962 invention of a light-emitting diode that emitted visible red light instead of infrared
light. By using the semiconductor material gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) and the
technique of stimulated emission, in 1962 Holonyak succeeded in operating the first
practical visible LED device. Holonyak’s device emitted red light. After LEDs that
produce green and blue light were developed (in the 1970s and ’90s, respectively), LEDs
that emit white light became possible, revolutionizing the lighting industry. Among his
other work for GE, in 1959 Holonyak was the first to make silicon tunnel diodes and the
first to observe phonon-assisted tunneling.

LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower power
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. In exchange for these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs
include electrical limitations to low voltage and generally to DC (not AC) power, inability
to provide steady illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC electrical supply source, and
lesser maximum operating temperature and storage temperature.

In contrast to LEDs, incandescent lamps can be made to intrinsically run at virtually any
supply voltage, can utilize either AC or DC current interchangeably, and will provide
steady illumination when powered by AC or pulsing DC even at a frequency as low as
50 Hz. LEDs usually need electronic support components to function, while an
incandescent bulb can and usually does operate directly from an unregulated DC or AC
power source.

Applications of LED

• Digital computers and calculators

• Mobile display
• LED is used as a bulb
• Traffic signals and Burglar alarms systems
• Microprocessors and multiplexers
• Camera flashes and automotive heat lamps
• Aviation lighting

7
 WAVELENGTH OF LED’s

Experiment – 2

WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT EMITTED BY LED’S

Aim: To determine the wavelengths of the given Light Emitting Diodes (LED s).

Apparatus :Power supply, LED’s, multi meter, milli ammeter, patch cords etc.

Principle: Light emitting diode is special type of semiconductor diode. It consists of

heavily doped P type and N type direct band gap semiconductor. The LED absorbs
electrical energy and converts it into light energy. When the PN junction is in the forward
biased the electrons from the N region migrate into P region and combine with holes. This
recombination of electrons and holes results in the emission of photons.

ℎ𝑐
Formula: Energy of the photons emitted by LED, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = = 𝑒𝑉𝑘
𝜆
ℎ𝑐
The wavelength of LED is, 𝜆=
𝑒𝑉𝑘

Where,
‘h’ is Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34 Js;
‘c’ is Speed of Light = 3 x 108ms-1
‘e’ is charge on electron = 1.602 x 10-19C;
‘VK’ is the Knee voltage of the LED.

Procedure:

➢ Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.

➢ Keep the knobs at the minimum position before switching ON the kit. Insert the
LED1 in the circuit.
➢ Give the voltage till LED glows and note down the current by varying the voltage
in steps of 0.1V. Take care of voltage not to go beyond 3V.
➢ Repeat the above procedure for the second and third LED’s
➢ Plot a graph of current versus voltage for each LED starting with true origin on x
and y axis.
➢ Draw a tangent at the knee of the graph and extend the tangent to intercept the
voltage axis.
➢ The point of intersection is knee voltage VK. Note down the knee voltage for each
LED from the graph.
➢ Calculate the wavelength of each LED using the relevant formula.

8
 WAVELENGTH OF LED’s

Circuit Diagram: Graph:

Table:

LED 1 Colour: LED 2 Colour: LED 3 Colour:

Sl
No.
Voltage (V) Current ( mA) Voltage (V) Current ( mA) Voltage (V) Current ( mA)

Result: The wavelength of LED’s are found to be

Sl. No Colour of LED Wavelength (nm)

9
 WAVELENGTH OF LED’s

Observations & calculation

10
 WAVELENGTH OF LED’s

Observations & calculation

11
 WAVELENGTH OF LED’s

Observations & calculation

12
 NUMERICAL APERTURE

Dr Narinder Singh Kapany

Dr Narinder Singh Kapany, known as the father of fibre optics, is an Indian-born

American physicist who has been a pioneer in the development and innovation of optical
fibres. Taking on the roles of a physicist, a philanthropist, an entrepreneur, a businessman
and a sculptor, he has been a huge contributor to the world in all sectors.
Born to a Sikh family in Punjab in 1926, his interest in physics was ignited while
listening to a physics lecture as a young boy in India where his teacher taught him that
light travels in a straight line. Kapany graduated from Agra University and went on to
Imperial College of London for advanced study in optics where he earned his PhD in
1955. He then carried on his journey of innovation and research in the University of
Rochester and later in Illinois Institute of Technology.
Kapany’s research leading towards fibre optics began in the Imperial College while he
worked with the venerated Harold Hopkins, an English physicist. He demonstrated his
breakthrough research in 1954 at the Department of Physics when he showed that light
could travel in bent glass fibres. That demonstration paved the way for optical fibre
communication that we utilize and take for granted today. He has published over hundred
scientific papers in various international science journals leading to the establishment and
colloquial usage of the term fibre optics.
Reducing the loss significantly and allowing information to be transmitted across large
distances at much higher bandwidths, fibre optics has filled an important void in the data
transmission and communication industry. It has extensive use in communications,
sensors and power transmission along with its thankless contribution to medical devices.
Fibre optics has led to the creation of medical devices such as gastroscope, endoscope and
bronchoscope making detection and treatment of several diseases easier and affordable.
He founded Optics Technology Inc. in 1960 where he was President, Chairman of Board
and Director of Research for twelve years. A while after the company went public in
1967, he founded the Kaptron Inc. in 1973 and headed it until it was bought by AMP
Incorporated in 1990.
He also served as an excellent academic aside from his active participation in his
numerous business endeavours. He was a Regents Professor at the University of
California, Berkeley and at the University of California, Santa Cruz. He served as a
Visiting Scholar in the Physics Department and a Consulting Professor in the Department
of Electrical Engineering at Stanford University.
Dr Narinder Singh Kapany’s ground-breaking work on fibre optics won him many awards
and titles. He received the Excellence 2000 Award from the USA Pan-Asian American
Chamber of Commerce. He is also a fellow of the British Royal Academy of Engineering,
the Optical Society of America, and American Association for the Advancement of
Science. He was also the recipient of the Pravasi Bhartiya Samman awarded by the Indian
Government.

13
 NUMERICAL APERTURE

Experiment - 3

NUMERICAL APERTURE & ACCEPTENCE ANGLE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

Aim: To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of a given

optical fiber

Apparatus: Single strand plastic optical fibers of different core diameter/length, LASER
source, screen

Formula(i)N.A = no sin θA
n0 = Refractive index of the medium
θA = Angle of acceptance

(ii)θA= tan−1 ( 𝐿 )
𝐷/2

D=Diameter of the image

L= Distance between the screen and optical fiber

Procedure:
➢ Connect the fiber to the LASER source.
➢ Take the other end of the fiber and project the light output on to the screen to
obtain a bright circular spot as shown in the figure.
➢ Determine the diameter D of the bright spot and the distance L from the fiber end
to the screen and measure the diameter of the spot (D) and the distance between
the screen & the optical fiber end (L).
➢ Calculate the acceptance angle using the formula θA= tan−1 (
𝐷/2
)
𝐿
➢ Numerical aperture is given by N.A = no sin θA

no is the refractive index of the medium from which light is entering

(no=1 for air).
➢ For the same fiber repeat this procedure for at least four different values of
distance L.
➢ Calculate the acceptance angle and numerical aperture in each case.
➢ Take the average of the four values& report the result.

Applications of Numerical Aperture

• Fiber Optics
• Lens
• Microscope Objective
• Photographic Objective

14
 NUMERICAL APERTURE

Observations & calculations

Calculation of Numerical Aperture

Angle of Acceptance Numerical Aperture

L(cm) D(cm) D/2 (cm) θA = 𝐷/2
tan−1 ( 𝐿 ) =no Sin θA
(n0=1 For Air)

5
6
7
8
Average θA = Average NA =

Result: The acceptance angle of the given optical fiber is found to be ……………..
The Numerical aperture for the given optical fiber is found to be ……………..

15
 NUMERICAL APERTURE

Observations & calculations

16
 LCR CIRCUIT

Guglielmo Marconi

Marconi was convinced that communication among people was possible via wireless
radio signaling. He started conducting experiment in 1895 at his father’s home in
Pontecchio (60 kilometers southwest of Venice), where he was soon able to send signals
over one and a half miles. During this period, he also carried out simple experiments with
reflectors around the aerial to concentrate the radiated electrical energy into a beam
instead of spreading it in all directions.
In 1896 Marconi traveled to England in order to get a patent for his apparatus. Later that
year he was granted the world’s first patent for a system of wireless telegraphy. After
successfully demonstrating the system’s ability to transmit radio signals in London, on
Salisbury Plain and across the Bristol Channel, he established the Wireless Telegraph &
Signal Company Limited in July 1897. This company was re-named as Marconi’s
Wireless Telegraph Company Limited in 1899.
In 1899 he established a wireless link between Britain and France across the English
Channel. Further, he established permanent wireless stations at The Needles, Isle of
Wight, Bournemouth, and later at the Haven Hotel in Poole, Dorset. The following year
he received his patent for “tuned or systonic telegraphy.”
During December 1901 Marconi proved that wireless signals were unaffected by the
curvature of the earth. He transmitted the first wireless signals across the Atlantic
between Poldhu, Cornwall and St, Johns, Newfoundland, a distance of 2100 miles.
The next year he demonstrated “daylight effect” relative to wireless communication and
he also patented his magnetic detector, which became the standard wireless receiver for
many years. In December he successfully transmitted the first complete message to
Poldhu from stations at Glace Bay, Nova Scotia and Cape Cod, Massachusetts.
In 1905 Marconi patented his horizontal directional aerial and in 1912 he patented a
“timed spark” system for generating continuous waves.
The Italian inventor and physicist, Guglielmo Marconi was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun in 1909 for their development of practical wireless
telegraphy.
Applications of LCR circuits
1. Oscillator Circuit, radio receivers & television sets are used for the tuning purpose.
2. The series LCR circuit mainly involves in signal processing & communication
system.
3. The series resonant LC circuit is used to provide voltage magnification.
4. Series & Parallel LC circuit are used in induction heating.
5.LCR circuits are used in low pass, high pass and band pass filters.

17
 LCR CIRCUIT

Experiment – 4

SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE L C R CIRCUITS

Aim: To plot the frequency response of series and parallel LCR-circuit and to
calculate bandwidth, quality factor &self inductance

Apparatus: Signal generator, inductor, resistor, capacitor, milliammeter, connecting

wires.

Formula :

1 fr= resonant frequency in hertz

L= H C = value of the capacitor present in the circuit (F)
4 2 f r 2C L = value of inductance

I max
fL, fH= frequencies at points when the current value  for series circuit
2

( 2  I min ) for parallel circuit

Band width = f = (fH– fL) Hz

Resonant frequency f
Quality factor = = r
Band width f

Procedure:

1.Series resonance:
➢ The circuit connections are made as shown in Fig 1.
➢ The signal amplitude from the oscillator is set to a fixed value throughout
experiment.
➢ The frequency f is increased from 500Hz in appropriate steps of 500Hz and
the corresponding readings of the current I in mA are tabulated till 5000Hz
➢ A graph is drawn taking the frequency f along the x-axis and current along y-
axis.
➢ The frequency corresponding to the maximum current is noted as the resonant
frequency fr.

I max
➢ The ‘half-power points’ A and B are found by taking on the y-axis.
2
➢ Corresponding to A and B the frequencies fL and fH are noted and bandwidth
f is computed as (fH– fL).
1
➢ Inductance L is calculated using the formula L = H
4 2 f r 2C

18
 LCR CIRCUIT

fr
➢ Quality factor Q is calculated using the formula
f

2. Parallel resonance:

➢ The circuit connections are made as shown in Fig3.

➢ The frequency f is increased from 500Hz in appropriate steps of 500Hz and
the corresponding readings of the current I in mA are tabulated till 5000Hz.
➢ A graph is drawn taking the frequency f along the x-axis and current I along
the y-axis.
➢ The frequency corresponding to the minimum current is called the resonant
frequency fr .
➢ The ‘half-power points’ C and D are found by taking ( 2  I min ) on the y-axis.
➢ Corresponding to A and B the frequencies fL and fH are noted and bandwidth
f is computed as (fH– fL)Hz.
1
➢ Inductance L is calculated using the formula L = H
4 2 f r 2C
f
➢ Quality factor Q is calculated using the formula r
f

19
 LCR CIRCUIT

Table: Set amplitude maximum

C= ----------- Result:
For series LCR circuit:
Series Parallel
resonance resonance fr = --------- Hz
Frequency Current Current
(K Hz) (mA) (mA) L=----------H
0.5
Bandwidth =-------------Hz
1.0
1.5 Quality factor = ------------
2.0
2.5 For parallel LCR circuit:
3.0
3.5 fr = ----------- Hz
4.0
4.5 L=-----------H
5.0
Bandwidth =--------------Hz
Quality factor = ---------------

20
 LCR CIRCUIT

Observations & calculations

21
 LCR CIRCUIT

Observations & calculations

22
 LCR CIRCUIT

Observations & calculations

23
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley

An all-star team of scientists was assembled at Bell Labs to develop a replacement for the
vacuum tubes based on solid-state semiconductor materials. Shockley, who had received
his Ph.D. in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1936 and joined
Bell Labs the same year, was selected as the team leader. He recruited several scientists
for the project, including Brattain and Bardeen.
Walter Brattain had been working for Bell Labs since 1929, the year he received his
Ph.D. in physics from the University of Minnesota. His main research interest was on the
surface properties of solids. John Bardeen was a theoretical physicist with an industrial
engineering background. With a Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University, he was
working as an assistant professor at the University of Minnesota when Shockley invited
him to join the group.
The team commenced work on a new means of current amplification. In 1945, Shockley
designed what he hoped would be the first semiconductor amplifier, an apparatus that
consisted of “a small cylinder coated thinly with silicon, mounted close to a small, metal
plate”. The device didn't work, and Shockley assigned Bardeen and Brattain to find out
why.
Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented the first point-contact transistor in 1947. In
acknowledgement of this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were
jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on
semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect".

Applications of Transistors
1.The transistors are used extensively in amplification and switching.
2. Field Effect Transistors acts as voltage controlled devices.
3. Multiple Emitter Transistors are used in Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) and
NAND logic gates.
4. Avalanche Transistors has the capability of switching high currents in less than
nanosecond rise and fall times (transition times).

24
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Experiment - 5
CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRANSISTOR

Aim: To plot the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in the
common emitter configuration & hence to find the input resistance
amplification factor  and .

Apparatus: Transistor, resistors, connecting wires, regulated power supply.

Formula:

(I )
− I C1 mA
=
C2

(I B2 )
− I B1 A

=
1+ 
IC- Collector current in mA
IB - Base current in A
α- Current amplification factor in CB mode
β- Current amplification factor in CE mode

Procedure:

The electrical connection is made as in the circuit diagram.

1. Input Characteristics:

➢ The collector emitter voltage VCE is adjusted to 2V.

➢ Keeping VCE constant at this value, the base emitter voltage VBE is varied from
0V to 0.8V in steps of 0.1V and each time the base current IB is noted.
➢ A graph is drawn taking base emitter voltage VBE on x-axis and base current IB
on y-axis as shown in the figure for input characteristics.
➢ Using the linear portion of the graph, input resistance Rin is calculated.
➢ From this graph the straight line portion (linear portion) of the curve is
extrapolated to intercept the x-axis (voltage axis).
➢ This intercept point gives the knee voltage VK.

2. Output Characteristics:

➢ The base current IB is adjusted to 50A.

➢ Keeping IB constant at this value, the collector emitter voltage VCE is varied
and the corresponding change in collector current IC is noted.
➢ Similarly keeping the base current constant at 100A, VCE is varied and the
corresponding collector current is noted.
➢ A graph is drawn for the two values of base currents, by taking collector
emitter voltage VCE on x-axis and collector current IC on y-axis as shown in
the Figure.2
➢ Using the linear portion of the graph, output resistance Rout is calculated.

25
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

➢ From the graph the current amplification factor in the CE mode  is found
out.
➢ Using β, the current amplification factor in CB mode α is calculated.

26
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Observations & calculations

Terminals of Transistor BC107 or SL 100:

Base
Emitter

Notch Collector

The terminal very close to the notch is the emitter.

Then in clockwise direction from the emitter is the base, followed by the collector.

Table.1: Input characteristics

VCE = 2V

VBE (V) IB(A)

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
7

27
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Observations & calculations

Table 2: Output characteristics

IC1 IC2
VCE (mA) (mA)
(V) IB1= 50A IB2= 100A
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8

Result: (1) Input resistance =…………..

(2) Output resistance =………………..
(3) The current amplification factor in CE mode  = ……….
(4) The current amplification factor in CB mode  = ……….

28
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Observations & calculations

29
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Observations & calculations

30
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Observations & calculations

31
 ENERGY GAP

Experiment - 6

ENERGY-GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR
Aim: To Determine the energy gap of the given semiconductor

Apparatus: Semiconductor, thermometer, hot water in beaker, test tube, circuit

Supporting board.

Procedure:
➢ The milliammeter is connected in series and voltmeter in parallel as shown in the
figure.
➢ The p-type of the semiconductor is connected to positive and the n-side of the
semiconductor is connected to negative terminal of a battery.
➢ Hot water is taken in a beaker.
➢ The mercury bulb of thermometer is tied to the semiconductor, and is inserted
carefully into a test tube.
➢ The test tube is then slowly dipped in the beaker till it rests vertically.
➢ The current setting knob is adjusted till milli ammeter reads 0.1 mA.
➢ Starting from 85o C, the forward voltage across the semiconductor as read by the
voltmeter is noted in the tabular column at intervals of 50C as the bath cools
down to a temperature close to room temperature.
➢ The forward current IF is maintained constantly at 0.1mA by adjusting the knob,
every time the readings are recorded.
➢ A graph is plotted by taking temperature in kelvin along the X—axis and
junction voltage along Y –axis.
➢ A straight line is obtained, which is extrapolated to cut Y-axis.
➢ The value of the voltage at the point of intercept in the y-axis gives the energy
value of the semiconductor in eV directly.

32
 ENERGY GAP

Observations & calculations

Current, I=0.1mA

Temp Temp Junction

0
( C) (k) voltage(v)

Result: The energy gap of the given semiconductor=----------eV.

33
 ENERGY GAP

Observations & calculations

34
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Peter Debye

Debye was a man of many talents and visions and this could be seen in his scientific
works. The very first of his many major scientific contributions was in 1912 when he
studied the dipole moments of molecules. A dipole happens when electron charge is
unevenly distributed in a molecule which means that part of the molecule carries a slight
negative charge and part carries a slight positive charge. A dipole moment measures the
strength of the dipole.
Debye developed equations to calculate the size of the dipole moments and he also
determined information regarding the structure of molecules. The units for molecular
dipole moments, Debye units, are named after him. In the same year, he devised the
Debye model for specific heat which estimated the phonon contribution to the specific
heat (heat capacity) in a solid.
From 1914-15, Debye worked with Paul Scherrer on X-ray diffraction and together they
devised a way to use powdered samples of crystalline, instead of preparing time
consuming crystals, developing the Debye-Scherrer method of X-ray diffraction.
In 1923, Debye and his assistant Erich Huckel devised the Debye-Hückel equation,
improving Svante Arrhenius’s theory of electrical conductivity in electrolyte solutions.
That same year, in 1923, Peter Debye developed a theory to help understand the Compton
Effect, named after American physicist Arthur Compton, discovering independently that
the wavelength of X-rays increases when they collide with electrons.
He received the 1936 Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for his contributions to the study of
molecular structure,” for his work on dipole moments and X-ray diffraction.
Applications of dielectric materials
1. They are used for energy storage in capacitors.
2. To enhance the performance of the semiconductor devices, high permittivity
dielectric materials are used.
3.Barium Strontium Titanate thin films are dielectric which are used in microwave
tunable devices providing high tunability and low leakage current.
4. Castor oil is used in high-voltage capacitors to increase its capacitance value.

35
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Experiment –7

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT BY CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A

CAPACITOR

Aim: To determine dielectric constant by using a DC charging and discharging

circuit.

Apparatus: DC power supply, voltmeter, timer, resistors of known values and

capacitor with known values of dimensions of the dielectric material
within itself, circuit unit and patch cords.

Formula:
dt1 / 2 10 −6
k=
0.693 o AR
d is the thickness of the dielectric material = ……….…….. (m)
A is the area of the dielectric material =l x b =……………. (m2)
L is the length & b is the breadth of the dielectric material
o is the permittivity of free space = 8.854x10-12 Fm-1
R is the resistance in the circuit = …………….…. 

Procedure :
➢ The required circuit is made as shown in the figure.
➢ The power supply is switched on.
➢ The capacitor is discharged completely by keeping the switch S1 in discharge
position.
➢ To begin with the toggle in the switch S2 is set to halt position.
➢ The timer is set to zero by pressing the reset button.

Charge mode studies :

➢ To start with the toggle of the switch S1 is set to charge mode.
➢ Next the toggle in switch S2 is flicked to start position, at which instant the
capacitor begins to charge to higher voltage and the timer starts counting
simultaneously.
➢ Immediately start noting down the voltage readings ‘V’ in the voltmeter at
every ten seconds interval from t = zero second until the voltage becomes
practically constant (i.e., when two or three consecutive readings remain
same).
➢ The voltage readings are entered in the tabular column under charge mode.

Discharge mode studies:

➢ As the timer progresses to zero, the toggle in switch S1 is changed to
discharge mode.
➢ Voltage readings are noted at every ten seconds interval till it becomes zero
and are tabulated under discharge mode (for t = 0s, the entry for voltage must
be same as the maximum voltage value attained during charge mode)

36
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Evaluation of unknown :

➢ From the tabular column readings, a graph is plotted with time t in seconds
taken along X-axis, and the voltage V in volts along Y-axis.
➢ The charge mode curve and the discharge mode curve intersect at the point P.
➢ By referring the position of ‘P’ on time axis, the value of its abscissa t1/2 in
seconds is found out.
➢ The value of the dielectric constant k is calculated using the above formula.

37
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Observations & calculations

Time R =…...……..ohm
sec Voltage across C in volts
(t) (V)

Charge Discharge
mode mode
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Result : The value of the dielectric constant of the material in the capacitor is found
to be k = ……………….

38
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Observations & calculations

39
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Observations & calculations

40
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Observations & calculations

41
 PHOTO DIODE

John Northrup Shive

John Northrup Shive was an American physicist and inventor. He made notable
contributions in electronic engineering and solid-state physics during the early days of
transistor development at Bell Laboratories. In particular, he produced experimental
evidence that holes could diffuse through bulk germanium, and not just along the surface
as previously thought. This paved the way from Bardeen and Brattain's point contact
transistor to Shockley's more-robust junction transistor. Shive is best known for inventing
the phototransistor in 1948 (a device that combines the sensitivity to light of a photodiode
and the current gain of a transistor).
Shive was a gifted lecturer, and became Director of Education and Training at Bell Telephone
Laboratories, he was responsible for curriculum and administration of educational programs
provided to employees of Bell Laboratories.
He invented the Shive wave machine (also known as the Shive wave generator), the wave
generator illustrates wave motion using a series of steel rods joined by a thin torsion
wire which transmits energy from one rod to the next. The high moment of inertia of each rod
ensures the wave takes several seconds to traverse the entire series of rods, making the
dynamics easily visible, the motion is analogous to high-frequency waves that are invisible to
the human eye, such as electromagnetic waves on a transmission line. The wave generator
could illustrate wave reflection, standing waves, resonance, partial reflection, and impedance
matching. Shive made two educational films in which he demonstrated the machine, Simple
Waves and Similarities in Wave Behavior, and wrote a book with the same name as the latter.

42
 PHOTO DIODE

Experiment - 8

PHOTO DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: To determine responsivity of a photodiode and to study the I–V characteristics in

reverse bias.

Apparatus: Regulated power supply, dc ammeter, dc voltmeter, white light LED

and photo diode.

Formula: Responsivity  I PD  A/W

R =   = slope
 PLED 
IPD is the photodiode current, PLED is the power across LED.

Procedure:
Part A: Determination of responsivity
➢ The white light LED and photo diode (PD) are placed face-to-face at a
distance of 10cm apart.
➢ By varying the pot in the emitter circuit the LED current is varied.
➢ A dial is provided for the potentiometer which directly reads the LED
input power (PLED= VLED ILED).
➢ The LED light arrangement is switched on.
➢ Positive terminal of the PD is connected to the negative terminal of the
power supply and negative of the PD is connected to positive terminal of
the power supply. This reverse biases the photo diode.
➢ The LED power is set from 0 to 50 mW in steps of 10 mW.
➢ At each step VPD is set to 2V and the corresponding PD current is noted &
tabulated in Table-1.
➢ A graph showing the variation of LED power on X-axis and PD current on
Y axis is drawn.
➢ A straight line graph is obtained, slope of which gives the value of
responsivity.

Part B: To study I-V characteristics of a photo diode

➢ The LED power is set to 10mW and VPD is set to 0V to -2V only in steps
of -0.5V and the corresponding IPD is noted & tabulated in Table-2.
➢ The experiment is repeated by increasing the LED power to 10 mW, 15
mW and 30 mW.
➢ A graph is drawn taking VPD along X-axis and IPD along Y-axis.
➢ This graph represents the I-V characteristics of a photodiode.

43
 PHOTO DIODE

Table-1. Set VPD=2V

Variation of current
with LED Power

PLED IPD(µA)
(mW)
10
11
12
13
14
15

Table-2
I-V Characteristics of PD
VPD (V) IPD (µA)
PLED =10mW PLED =15mW PLED =30mW
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2

Result : Responsivity Rλ = ………………. A/W

44
 PHOTO DIODE

Observations & calculations

45
 PHOTO DIODE

Observations & calculations

46
 PHOTO DIODE

Observations & calculations

47
 DIFFRACTION GRATING

Theodore H. Maiman

Theodore Harold "Ted" Maiman was an American engineer and physicist who was
widely, but not universally, credited with the invention of the laser (Others attribute the
invention to Gordon Gould).Maiman's laser led to the subsequent development of many
other types of lasers. The laser was successfully fired on May 16, 1960. In a July 7, 1960
press conference in Manhattan, Maiman and his employer, Hughes Aircraft Company,
announced the laser to the world. Maiman was granted a patent for his invention, and he
received many awards and honors for his work. Maiman's experiences in developing the
first laser and subsequent related events are described in his book, The Laser Odyssey

Dr Maiman is mentioned in the following popular publications : Time 100, “A century of

Science”; Business week’s “100 Years of Innovation”; Los Angeles Times, “Great
Moments in Science and Technology”; Who’s who in the World; Who’s Who in
America; Who’s who in Frontier Science and Technology; Who Did What (a
compendium of the 5,000 people deemed most influential in shaping our world, from the
earliest recorded history to the present); and Modern Men of Science.

Applications of diffraction grating

In optical communications, they are used for

1. Wavelength Selection: Splitting and/or combining optical signals.
2. Pulse Compression: Normally as reflectors in external cavity DBR lasers.

48
 DIFFRACTION GRATING

Experiment – 9

DIFFRACTION GRATING
Aim: To determine the wavelength of laser light using diffraction grating

Apparatus: Laser source, grating, image screen

Formula:

 = wavelength of the light (nm)

 sin n  n = order of the spectrum
= d  n  nm d = grating constant (m)
avg
n = deviation produced (deg)

Procedure :
➢ The laser is placed on a sturdy table.
➢ At about one meter away on the path of the laser a screen is placed.
➢ The leveling screws of the laser are adjusted and switched on such that the
laser beam exactly falls on the centre of the screen.
➢ The exact distance between the grating stand and image screen (f) is noted.
➢ The grating is now placed on the grating stand close to the laser source and
graph sheet is fixed on the screen, and the diffraction pattern is observed.
➢ Equally spaced diffracted laser light spots are observed for different order
(n) of spectrum.
➢ The total number of spots are counted.
➢ The central direct ray is very bright, as the order increases the brightness
decreases.
➢ The centre of the spots of the diffraction pattern are marked on the graph
sheet using a pencil.
➢ After marking the entire diffraction pattern, graph sheet is removed and the
distances between consecutive orders of diffraction are measured using a
scale and tabulated in the tabular column.
➢ The distance between the two first order diffraction spots, second order,
third order diffraction spots,…. till eighth order diffraction spots (2Xn) are
measured, from which Xn calculated.
( )
➢ Using the equation n = tan −1 Xfn , diffraction angles are calculated for
different orders of diffraction & sin θn calculated & tabulated.
 sin n 
➢ The average value  n  is calculated & then the wavelength of the
avg

laser source is determined using the formula

 sin n 
 = d  n  nm
avg

49
 DIFFRACTION GRATING

Observations & calculations

1 2.54  10−2
Grating constant d = = = ………….. m
N 500
(for a grating having N = 500 lines per inch)

f = …………… cm

Order of
diffraction
Distance
2xn (cm)
Distance
xn (cm)
 n = tan −1 ( )
Xn
f sin n
(deg) sinn
(n) n

1
2
3
4
5
6
 sin n 
  =
 n  avg

Result : The wavelength of laser source using diffraction grating is ……….. nm

50
 DIFFRACTION GRATING

Observations & calculations

51
 DIFFRACTION GRATING

Observations & calculations

52
 DIFFRACTION GRATING

Observations & calculations

53
 STEFAN’S LAW

Experiment - 10
STEFAN’S LAW
Aim: Verification of Stefan’s law of radiations.

Apparatus: Regulated power supply, electric bulb and a dc ammeter (0-10A).

Principle: Rate of energy dissipated by a hot body per unit area is proportional to the
4th power of absolute temperature (Stefan’s Law). By passing electric current through
the filament of electric bulb, the power (P=VI) and resistance R (V/I) is found by
measuring V, the potential difference across the bulb and I, the current through the
circuit. By plotting a graph of log P Vs log R, the slope is evaluated from which
Stefan’s law is verified.

Formula: 𝑬 𝜶 𝑻𝟒 or 𝑬 = 𝝈 𝑻𝟒

Where,

E is energy dissipated per second per unit area by the hot body
σ is the Stefan’s constant (5.67 × 10−8 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −4)
T the temperature of the black body in Kelvin

Procedure: The electrical connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. By
varying the voltage knob in the RPS, the current through the bulb is fixed and the
potential difference across the bulb is measured. It is important to take readings after
the bulb begins to glow. The current through the bulb is varied and the corresponding
potential difference is noted. The power, P dissipated across and the resistance R of
the bulb for each value of current is determined. A graph is plotted with log P against
log R. The slope n of the straight line is calculated. If the slope has a value 4, Stefan’s
law is verified.

Result : Slope = _____________

Stefan’s law is verified.

PP

54
 STEFAN’S LAW

Observations & calculations

Circuit Diagram:

Tabular Column:

Voltage Current, I R= V/I P=VI Log P Log R

V (Volts) (A) (Ω) (W)

1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5

Electrical power given to bulb = energy radiated by bulb per second

• 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝜎𝐴𝑇 4 where A is the surface area of the bulb filament, σ is Stefan’s
constant and T is the absolute temperature (of the bulb).
• Let 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴𝑇 4 Where it is to be proved that n = 4
Log P = Log (σ) + Log (A) + n Log (T)
But T α R (resistance of the bulb filament)
Therefore Log P= Log (σ) + Log (A) + n Log (T) + constant
• This is equation of the form y = mx+c where y=Log P, m=n and C=Log (A)
+Constant. Therefore a plot of Log P versus Log R is a straight line with the
𝐴𝐵
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑛

55
 STEFAN’S LAW

Observations & calculations

56
 STEFAN’S LAW

Observations & calculations

57
 STEFAN’S LAW

Observations & calculations

58
 VIVA-VOCE

VIVA –VOCE

1. FERMI ENRGY

1. What is meant by Fermi energy?

It is the energy of the highest occupied level of the electrons at zero absolute.
2. What is the unit for Fermi energy?
Unit of Fermi energy is eV (1eV=1.6x10-19 J)
3. What is meant by Fermi factor?
It is the probability of occupation of given energy state for a material in thermal
equilibrium.
7. What is meant by Fermi temperature TF?
It is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free electrons in a
solid becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0K.
8. What is the relation between EF& TF?
A EF=kBTF where kB is the Boltzmann’s constant.
9. What is meant by Fermi velocity?
It is the velocity of those electrons which occupy the Fermi level.
10. What is meant by Fermi Dirac distribution?
It is the representation which depicts the details of distribution of electrons among the
various available energy levels of a material under thermal equilibrium conditions.
Fermi factor is called as Fermi Dirac distribution function.
11. State Pauli’s exclusion principle?
It states that no 2 electrons having same quantum number can occupy the same energy
level at the same time.
12. What are the values of Fermi factor at different temperatures?
1.when E>EF, T=0K, f (E) =0
2. When E<EF, T=0K, f (E) =1
3. When T>0K, E=EF, f (E) =1/2
13. What is meant by mean free path (λ)?
It is the average distance travelled by the conduction electrons between successive
collisions with lattice ions. It is measured in m.
14. What is meant by mean collision time ()?
The average time that elapse between two successive collisions of an electron with the
lattice points is called mean collision time.
15. What is meant by relaxation time (r)?
Due to sudden disappearance of an electric field across a metal the average velocity of
its conduction electrons decays exponentially to zero. And the time required in this
process for the average velocity to reduce to 1/e times its value just when the field is
turned off, is known as relaxation time.
16. What is meant by drift velocity?
The velocity of the electron in the steady state in an applied electric field is called the
drift velocity (m/s)

2. WAVELENGTH OF LEDs

1. What is LED?
Ans: LED is the abbreviation of LIGHT EMITTING DIODE.

59
 VIVA-VOCE

2. What is Light Emitting Diodes used for?

LEDs have a wide range of applications ranging from your mobile phone to large
advertising billboards. They mostly find applications in devices that show the time
and display different types of data.
3. How do LEDs work?
LEDs work on the principle of Electroluminescence. On passing a current through the
diode, minority charge carriers and majority charge carriers recombine at the junction.
On recombination, energy is released in the form of photons. As the forward voltage
increases, the intensity of the light increases and reaches a maximum.
4. What is Electroluminescence?
Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and electrical phenomenon where a
material emits light in response to an electric current passed through it.
5. What are the advantages of LEDs?
LEDs consume less power, and they require low operational voltage. No warm-up
time is needed for LEDs.
6. What determines the colour of an LED?
The colour of an LED is determined by the material used in the semiconducting
element.
7. What are the primary materials used in LEDs?
The two primary materials used in LEDs are aluminium gallium indium phosphide
alloys and indium gallium nitride alloys. Aluminium alloys are used to obtain red,
orange and yellow light, and indium alloys are used to get green, blue and white light.
Slight changes in the composition of these alloys change the colour of the emitted
light.
8. What do you mean by forward bias?
The battery connection that permits current to flow across the P-N junction such as by
making P-section connected to positive of the battery and N-section connected to
negative of the battery is known as forward bias.
9. Explain the flow of electrons across P-N junction with forward bias?
When forward bias is applied to the P-N junction making P- section positive and N-
section negative, the holes in the P-section will be repelled by the positive force set up
by the power source and move towards the junction between P-and N-type material.
At the same time, the electrons in N-section will also be repelled by the negative force
set up by the battery voltage and move towards the junction. Normally a potential
barrier at the junction prevents electrons and holes moving and combining. The
applied voltage gives sufficient energy to these carriers to overcome the potential
barrier at the junction and holes move to the right across the junction and the electrons
move to left. In the region of P-N junction, electrons and holes meet and combine and
cease to exist as mobile charge carries, for each electron-hole combination a covalent
bond near the positive terminal of the battery breaks down, an electron is liberated
and enters the positive terminal. Due to this action a new hole is created which again
moves in the right towards the junction.
In the N region near negative terminal more electrons arrive from the negative battery
terminal and enter the N-region to replace the electrons lost by combination with
holes near the junction. These electrons again move towards the P-region where they
again combine with holes arriving there at the junction. This constant movement of
electron towards the left and holes towards the right produces a large current flowing
through the junction.
10. What is reverse bias?

60
 VIVA-VOCE

A reverse bias is the battery connection across P-N junction making P-section
connected to negative of the battery and N-section connected to the positive of the
battery.
11. Explain the flow of electrons across a P-N junction with reverse bias.
If the P-N junction is reverse biased, the holes are attracted to negative battery
terminal and move away from the junction, while the electrons in N section also move
away from the junction because of attraction of the positive terminal. Since there are
no hole and electron carriers in the vicinity of the junction, flow of current stops. A
small reverse current still flows across the junction. If the reverse bias is made very
high the covalent bonds near the junction break down and a large number of electron-
hole pairs will be liberated and then reverse current increases abruptly.
12. What are minority carriers and what is their function?
When electrons are liberated due to normal heat energy of crystal, electrons move
towards right across the junction, while holes move to the left. These electrons
associated with holes become carriers of a small reverse current and are known as
minority carriers.
13. What is depletion region?
The positive holes from P-type and negative electrons from N-type combine with each
other near the junction to form a charge-free region known as depletion region.( A
region devoid of mobile charge carriers)
14. What happens if the reverse bias is made very high?
If the reverse bias is made very high the covalent bonds near the junction break down
and a large number of electron-hole pairs will be liberated, the reverse current then
increases abruptly to large value.
15. Define knee voltage?
It is that forward voltage at which current starts increasing due to zero resistance of
barrier. Knee voltage depends on the material.
16. Distinguish between covalent and ionic bond?
Ionic bonds takes place due transfer of electron ex NaCl. Covalent bond due to
sharing of electron .ex silicon

3.NUMERICAL APERTURE

1. What is numerical aperture

Ans. The light gathering capability of the optical fiber is called as numerical
aperture.
2. Define acceptance angle
Ans. It is the maximum angle of a ray against the fiber axis hitting the fiber core
which allows the incident light to be guided by the core.
3. What is the phenomenon behind the propagation mechanism of optical fiber
Ans. Total internal reflection
4. What is total internal reflection
Ans. When a ray of light moves from denser to rarer medium with an angle of
incidence greater than the critical angle the light reflects back to the same medium
is called total internal reflection.
5. What is the condition for the propagation of light inside the optical fiber in
terms of acceptance angle.
Ans. The angle of incidence must be less than the acceptance angle.
6. Name the types of optical fibers.

61
 VIVA-VOCE

Ans. Single mode fiber, step index multimode fiber and graded index multimode
fiber.
7. Mention some applications of optical fibers
Ans. Point to point communication, submarine cable systems, data links etc
8. Define attenuation
Ans. Attenuation is the loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it
propagates through the fiber.
9. Define V- number
Ans. The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by
a parameter called V- number.
10. What is the unit for numerical aperture
Ans. It is unit less.
4. SERIES AND PARALLEL LCR CIRCUIT

1. Define R, C & L?
R, resistance is the opposition offered by the material for the flow of current. C,
Capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ability of the capacitor to store charge. L,
self induction of the coil is defined as the emf induced in the coil when the current
through the circuit varies at one ampere per second. Capacitor is short for ac but open
for dc. Inductor is short for dc but open for ac.
2. Distinguish between acceptor and rejector circuit?
Series circuit is called acceptor circuit because current at resonance reaches maximum
due to minimum impedance where as parallel circuit is called rejector circuit because
at resonance current reaches a minimum value due to the maximum impedance of the
circuit.
3. Define quality factor and impedance?
Quality factor is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to the band width. It
describes how under-damped an oscillator or resonator is. Resistance offered by the
circuit for the flow of ac is called impedance.
4. Define a choke?
It is an inductor which offers very high resistance for the flow of ac.
5. Define mutual inductance?
It is the phenomenon of inducing emf in one coil by varying current in the other.
6. What is the condition of resonance?
When reactive capacitance (opposition offered by the capacitor for the flow of ac)
balance inductive reactance (opposition offered by the inductor for the flow of ac)
then resonance takes place. At resonance applied frequency balances natural
frequency of the circuit.
7. What is meant by time constant?
It is the time taken by the capacitor to get charge to 63% of its maximum value.
8. When I & V will be in phase?
When power factor cosΦ=1=R/Z i.e. R=Z
9. Define Resonance?
When the applied frequency of the system matches with the natural frequency, the
system is said to be under resonance.
10. Define henry?
The inductance of an inductor is said to be 1 henry if 1 volt of emf is induced in the
coil when current through it changes at one amp/second.

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11. Define a farad?

A capacitor has a capacitance of 1F when a charge of 1 volt across the capacitor
produces a current of 1 Ampere through it.
12. Define inductive reactance.
Opposition to the flow of AC current produced by an inductor. Measured in Ohms
and is directly proportion to frequency.
X L = L = 2fL
13. Define capacitive reactance.
The opposition to current flow provided by a capacitor. Capacitive reactance is
measured in ohms and varies inversely with frequency.

1 1
XC = =
C 2fC
14. Define impedance.
The total opposition that a circuit offers to the flow of alternating current or any other
varying current at a particular frequency. It is a combination of resistance R and
reactance X, measured in ohms.
15. How do you identify the resonance in LCR circuits?
The resonance in the LCR circuit is identified by observing the current in the circuit.
In series LCR circuit, at resonance current will be maximum and impedance will be
minimum. In parallel LCR circuit at resonance the current will be minimum and
impedance will be maximum
16. What is the total impedance of the series LCR circuit at resonance?
For a series LCR circuit, the total impedance is given by z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
17. What is the effective impedance of parallel LCR circuit?
1
The effective impedance in a parallel LCR circuit is z =
2
 1   1 1 
2

  + − 
 R   X L X c 
18. What is the energy stored in an Inductor?
The energy stored in an inductor is E= 1 L I2 , where, L is the self inductance and I
2
is the current.
19. What is the energy stored in a Capacitor?
1
The energy stored in a capacitor is E= CV2 , where C is the capacitance and V is
2
the p.d. across the capacitor plates.
20. Series circuit is also called as acceptor circuit. Why?
It will give maximum response to that component of frequency which is equal to its
resonant frequency. Hence it is called acceptor circuit.
21. Why parallel circuit is called as rejector circuit?
It takes minimum current of the signal having the frequency which is equal to its
resonant frequency
22. What is band width?
Band width is the range of frequencies within which the rms value of current flows.
23. Define upper and lower half power frequencies.
If the series LCR circuit is driven by a variable frequency at a constant voltage, then
the magnitude of the current Iis proportional to the impedance Z, therefore at

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resonance the power absorbed by the circuit must be at its maximum value as
P = I m2 axZ . If we now reduce or increase the frequency until the average power
absorbed by the resistor in the series resonance circuit is half that of its maximum
value at resonance, we produce two frequency points called the half-power points.
These give us a current value that is 70.7% of its maximum resonant value
( )
as: 0.5 I maxR = (0.707  I max ) R . Then the point corresponding to the lower frequency
2 2

at half the power is called the "lower cut-off frequency", labelled ƒL with the point
corresponding to the upper frequency at half power being called the "upper cut-off
frequency", labelled ƒH. But with respect to parallel resonance circuit, these are the
frequencies corresponding to the value of current equal to I m in  2
24. Explain why the current is zero at resonance in parallel LCR circuit.
The capacitor draws a leading current, while the inductor draws a lagging current. At
resonance the branch currents are equal and opposite. Hence they cancel out and as a
result circuit draws minimum current (almost zero) as the impedance is maximum.

5. CHARACTERSTICS OF A TRANSISTOR

1.What is a transistor?
Transistor is a device which is used to amplify electrical impulses applied at its input
terminals.
2. What function can be performed by transistors?
Junction transistor can work as an amplifier or oscillator.
3. How is a transistor made?
Transistor is made by sandwiching a p type material between two n type materials or
by sandwiching n type material between two p type materials.
4. What are the two types of transistors?
Transistor are of two types P-N-P or N-P-N.
5. What is the circuit symbol for a P-N-P transistor?
The circuit symbol for P-N-P transistor is as shown in the figure. The arrow on the
emitter indicates the direction of convention current flow with forward bias.

6. What is the circuit symbol of N-P-N transistor? Why is there an outgoing

arrow an emitter in this case?
The circuit symbol for N-P-N transistor is as shown in the figure. The direction of
conventional current is opposite in direction to the flow of electrons. Considering the
figure for N-P-N basic connection, it is quite obvious that electrons flow into the
emitter from the negative battery terminal; this means that conventional current flows
out of the emitter, as indicated by the outgoing arrow in the figure.

7. Which is an emitter and collector in a PNP transistor?

P-side which is connected to the anode of the battery is called emitter because the
anode causes the positive holes to move away due to repulsive force. The other P-
side, which is connected to the cathode of the battery, collects the positive holes and
hence is called collector.

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8. Explain the conduction of current within the P-N-P transistor?

The holes in the left P-region are repelled by positive terminal to the emitter junction.
Under the influence of electric field the positive holes overcome the barrier and cross
the emitter junction into the thin base region. Most of the holes are able to drift across
the base without meeting electrons to combine with, because base region is very thin
and holes flow across the right junction into the collector. The negative collector
voltage helps in rapid sweeping up the holes that enter the collector region.
As each hole reaches the collector, electrons is emitted from the negative
battery terminal and annul the hole. For each hole that is lost by combination with an
electron in collector and base region, a covalent bond near emitter electrode breaks
down and a liberated electron leaves the emitter electrode and enters the positive
battery terminal. The new hole then moves towards the emitter junction and the
process is repeated and a continuous supply of holes is injected into the emitter
junction.
9. In how many ways can a transistor be connected?
A transistor can be connected in three different manners in order to operate as an
amplifier:
(i)common base, (ii)common emitter and (iii)common collector.
10. How do you bias the emitter base junction in the basic constructions of a N-P-
N transistor?
In the case of N-P-N transistor, the emitter-base junction is biased with a forward
voltage, because electrons are repelled from the negative battery terminal towards the
junction and the collector-base junction has reverse bias because electrons are flowing
away from the collector-base junction towards the positive battery terminal.
11. Explain the mechanism of conduction within the N-P-N transistor.
When the emitter voltage is applied, the electrons are repelled from the negative
battery terminal and after overcoming the potential barrier at the emitter-base
junction, electrons are injected into the junction. Since the base region is lightly
doped and is very thin therefore most of the electrons diffuse and reach the collector
junction. However a very few electrons combine with holes present in the base region
and at last as charge carriers. The remainders of the electrons enter the collector
region where they are rapidly swept up by the positive collector voltage. For each
electron flowing out of the collector and entering the positive battery terminal an
electron enters the emitter from the negative battery terminal. Thus electron
conduction takes place continuously.
12. Which current collector or emitter, is less in the P-N-P or N-P-N Transistor
and why?
The collector current in both types of transistors is always less than the emitter current
because recombination of holes and electrons takes place in the base region
13. How do you define the current gain constant ?
Current gain of the transistor is defined as the ratio of collector current to emitter
current at constant collector voltage and is less than unity.
14. Which circuit is better out of CB, CE & CC combinations?
The common emitter circuit is the most efficient of the three basic connections
because common emitter circuit has the highest voltage and power gain. This circuit
produces a phase reversal between input and output signals, whereas no such phase
reversal occurs in the other two types of circuits. CE mode circuit is used as voltage
amplifier.
15. Where is the common collector circuit used?
The common collector circuit is used as voltage buffer.

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16. Where is the common base circuit used?

The common base circuit is used as current buffer.
17. What is the use of all these circuits and characteristics?
These circuits are used as amplifying circuits and the characteristics are useful in
calculating the current gain of a transistor circuit.
18. How does a transistor works as an amplifier?

The basic transistor amplifies by producing a large change in collector current for a
small change in base current. This action results in voltage amplification because the
load resistor placed in series with the collector reacts to these large changes in
collector current which, in turn, results in large variations in the output voltage

6. ENERGY GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR

1. What is a semiconductor?
Ans. It is a substance with conduction properties between metals and insulators.
2. What is meant by intrinsic semiconductor?
Ans. A pure semiconductor completely free from impurities is called intrinsic
semiconductor.
3. What is the order of energy gap in a pure semiconductor?
Ans. 1 eV.
4. What do you mean by an extrinsic semiconductor?
Ans. It is a semiconductor to which an impurity from group 13 or group 15 has been
added.
5. What do you mean by a doped semiconductor?
Ans. It is a semiconductor to which an impurity from group 13 or group 15 has been
added. Or Extrinsic semiconductor is called doped semicondutor.
6. What is doping?
Ans. It is the process of addition of impurity to a pure semiconductor in order to alter
its conduction properties.
7. What are two different types of impurities ?
Ans. The impurities are p-type and n-type.
8. To which group does a (i) p-type, (ii) n type impurity belong?
Ans. p-type impurity belongs to group 13 and n-type to group 15.
9. What are the charge carriers in a pure semiconductor?
Ans. A pure semiconductor has electrons and holes as charge carriers. Their number
densities are equal.
10. What are the charge carriers in n-type semiconductor?
Ans. In n-type semiconductor, electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are
minority charge carriers.
11. What is the effect of temperature on conductivity of a semiconductor?
Ans. It increases with rise in temperature.

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12. What is junction diode?

Ans. A junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is in intimate contact
with n-type semiconductor.
13. What is meant by forward bias?
Ans. A pn junction is said to be forward biased when p-region is connected to positive
terminal and n-region to the negative terminal of battery.

7. DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

1. What is a capacitor?
Capacitor is a device which is used to store charge.
2. What is meant by capacitance?
Ability to store charge in a capacitor is called capacitance and it is measured in
farad(F).
3. What is the relation between Q, C & V?
Q = CV, Q is the charge stored (coulomb), C capacitance (Farad), V (voltage)
4. Define one farad?
It is the amount of charge required to raise the potential by 1 volt.
5. What is dielectric?
Dielectric is a non conducting material which is used to increase the capacitance of
the capacitor.
6. Classify dielectric materials.
Dielectric materials are classified into two types, polar and non-polar dielectrics
7. Describe the phase diagram for pure resistor, capacitor and inductor
In a pure resistor, I & V will been phase. In a capacitor I leads V by 90 degree but in
case of a inductor V lead I by 90 degree.

8. Define magnitude of polarization

It is the ratio of dipole moment to unit volume. It is measured in C/m2
9. Define dielectric constant r?
It is the ratio of capacitance in presence of a dielectric to capacitance in presence of
vacuum.

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10. Show that εr= dT1/2 10-6

-------------
0.693 ε 0 AR
We know that q=q0e-T/CR
When t=T1/2, q=q0 /2 then q0 /2 = q0 e-T1/2/CR
Taking natural log both sides CR lne2 =T1/2
0.693CR= 0.693 ε 0 εrA/d= T1/2
Then εr= dT1/2 10-6
----------------
0.693 ε0 AR
11. Define electric susceptibility (χ)?
It is the ease with which dielectric material gets polarized. It is dimensionless.
χ = (εr– 1)
12. Define dielectric displacement D?
It is the ratio of dielectric flux per unit area. It unit is C/m2
13. What are polar and non polar dielectrics?
In case of polar dielectrics the effective center of positive & negative charges does not
coincide. Ex Hcl, nitro benzene. In case of non-polar, effective center of positive and
negative charges coincide ex. Paraffin.
14. Explain polarization in case of polar dielectrics?
When an electric field is applied across a polar dielectrics, dipoles align along the
direction of electric field and neutralization of charges takes place & electric field
inside the dielectrics will be created opposite to that of the field, but it gets polarized
along the direction of field. Hence the voltage across the dielectrics decreases, the
battery drives some charges to the capacitor till the applied voltage balance. By the
time voltage balance more charges will be stored inside the capacitor, the capacitance
of the capacitance increase.
15. Explain polarization in case of non-polar dielectrics?
When an electric field is applied across the non-polar dielectrics, positive charges and
negative charges move apart and dipoles form. Then dipoles align along the direction
of field, neutralization takes place and polarization takes place along the direction of
field.
16. Name the different types of polarization mechanism?
The different types of polarization mechanisms are electronic, ionic, orientational &
space charge polarization.
17. What is the advantage of dielectric strength?
Higher the dielectric strength lower will be the thickness of the dielectrics and the size
of the capacitor decreases.
18. What is the equation of potential energy stored in a capacitor?
1
Potential energy stored in a capacitor is = CV 2
2
19. If area or thickness of the dielectrics is varied will it affect the value of
dielectrics?
No, because the dielectric constant of dielectrics depends on the material rather than
dimensions.
20. What is the effect of C &R on the time constant T1/2?

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As the value of C or R or both decreased, the value of time constant increases then
capacitor takes more time for charging and discharging.
21. Define dielectric loss?
It is the loss of energy in the form of heat when an ac field is applied across a
dielectric material.

8.PHOTO DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

1. What are photodiodes?

Photodiodes are semiconductor devices that respond to light energy particles &
photons
2. What are the three major types of photodiodes & explain briefly about them?
The three major types of photodiodes are (i)PN junction diode, (ii)PIN junction
photodiode & (iii) Avalanche photodiode.
PN junction photodiode comprise of a two electrode, radiation sensitive PN junction
formed in a semiconductor material in which reverse current varies with the amount
of illumination.
PIN junction photodiodes are diodes with large intrinsic region sandwiched between
p-doped & n-doped semiconductor regions. Photons absorbed in this region create
electron-hole pairs that are separated by an electric field thus generating an electric
current in a load.
Avalanche photodiodes are devices that utilize avalanche multiplication of current by
means of hole-electron pairs created by absorbed photons. When reverse bias voltage
of the diode approaches breakdown level, hole-electron pairs collide with ions to
create additional hole-electron pairs, thus resulting in signal gain.
3. What does the photodiode acts like when it is illuminated ?
Photodiode acts like a current source when it is illuminated.
4. Define responsivity
It is the ratio of photo current IPD to the incident light power P at a given wavelength.
It is the effectiveness of the conversion of light power into electrical current.
5. On what factors does the responsivity depend on
Responsivity varies with the wavelength of the incident light as well as the applied
reverse bias & temperature.
Responsivity increases slightly with applied reverse bias due to the improved charge
collection efficiency of photodiode. Also it varies due to change in the temperature.
This is due to the decrease or increase of the band gap because of the increase or
decrease in the temperature respectively.

9. DIFFRACTION GRATING

1. What is diffraction of light ?

The deviation of a light ray from its rectilinear path, when it passes across objects
whose dimensions are comparable to the wavelength of the light is called diffraction.
It is classified into two types Fresnel diffraction, Fraunhoffer diffraction.
2. Distinguish between Fresnel &Fraunhoffer diffraction?
Fresnel diffraction is the diffraction effect observed when spherical or cylindrical
wavefronts are involved. No lenses are needed to enable observing the effect since the
source & screen are at finite distances from the obstacle or aperture. Examples are

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diffraction effect produced when light passes across a thin straight edge (as that of a
razor), or a thin straight wire.
Fraunhoffer diffraction is the diffraction effect observed only when a plane wavefront
is involved. Such a condition necessitates establishing a gap of infinite distance
between both the source and the screen from the obstacle or aperture, which is
manipulated by employing two lenses suitably. The diffraction effect produced by a
diffraction grating is the most important example in this class of diffraction.
3. Distinguish between interference and diffraction
(a) Interference is due to the resultant effect of overlapping of light waves, originating
from two coherent sources.
Diffraction is due to the resultant effect of overlapping of light waves originating
from every point on the exposed part of the same wavefront.
(b) In interference, the intensity of light varies between zero and a fixed maximum
value for successive dark and bright fringes
In diffraction, the intensity of light varies between minimum and maximum for
successive dark and bright fringes in which the difference between the maximum and
minimum values decrease rapidly.
(c) The fringe width in case of interference could be either constant (ex : air-wedge
fringes) or varying (ex: Newton’s rings).
In diffraction, fringe width always varies.
4. Distinguish between diffraction and dispersion
Diffraction: Bending of light around the edges of an obstacle is called diffraction. In
this case lower the wave length lower will be the deviation.
Dispersion: When white light pass through a prism it splits into its constituent colors.
This phenomenon is called dispersion. In this case lower the wave length higher will
be the deviation.
5. What is the condition for diffraction?
Size of the obstacle should be comparable with that of the wave length of the light
source.
6. What is a diffraction grating?
An optically plane glass plate on which a very large number of equally spaced parallel
opaque straight rulings are made is called a diffraction grating.
7. What is grating constant or grating element ?
In a grating it is absolutely essential that the width ‘a’ of a clear transparent interspace
is same throughout the grating. Similarly, the width ‘b’ of the ruling, which also
constitutes the spread of the opaque part on the grating must be same anywhere in the
grating. Thus the sum (a+b)=c, remains a constant for a grating, and it is called the
grating element or grating constant.
8. Distinguish between polychromatic & monochromatic source.
Polychromatic source is one which produces radiations having different wave lengths.
Ex. Mercury vapour lamp.
Monochromatic source: is one which produces radiations having single wave length.
Ex. Laser source.
9. Distinguish between transmitting & reflecting grating.
If rulings are drawn on a transparent glass plate by a diamond point it is called
transmitting grating. If the rulings are drawn on a silvered glass plate then it is called
reflecting grating.
10. What is the acronym for LASER?
Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
11. What is the type of laser is used in the experiment?

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A Semi conductor diode laser is used in the experiment.

12. Describe the working of a semiconductor diode laser.
• When the p-n junction is heavily forward biased with large current, electrons
jump from valence band to conduction band.
• It is an unstable state & within small interval of time (~ 10-13 s) the electrons
in the conduction band drop to the lowest level in that band.
• At the same time the electrons near the top of the valence band will drop to
the lowest unoccupied levels, leaving behind the holes.
• Now the lowest level of the conduction band is full of electrons while the top
of the valence band is full of holes.
• This indicates the population inversion between valence band & conduction
band.
• At some instant one of the excited electron from conduction band falls back
into the valence band to recombine with a hole and the energy associated with
this recombination is emitted as a photon of light.
• This photon while moving stimulates the recombination of another excited
electron with a hole and releases another photon.
• These two photons are in phase with each other and have same wavelength
thus travel together and get reflected at the end face.
• While they travel back they stimulate more electron hole recombination with
the release of additional photons & thus becomes a part of monochromatic &
coherent laser beam.
• This beam by traveling back &forth finally leaves through the partially
reflecting face.

10. STEFAN’S LAW

1.What is a black body?

A black body is one which absorbs the entire heat radiations incident on it. When
radiations fall on sucha body they are neither reflected nor transmitted.

2. Define emissive power and absorptive power of a blackbody.

Emissive power of a black body:
It is defined as the total energy radiated per second from the unit surface area of a
black body maintained at certain temperature.

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Absorptive power of a black body:

It is defined as the ratio of the total energy absorbed by the black body to the amount
of radiant energy incident on it in a given time interval. The absorptive power of a
perfectly black body is 1.

3.State Stefan’s law.

Stefan’s law states that total energy emitted per second from unit area of the surface
of a perfectly black body is directly proportional to the forth power of its absolute
temperature.

4. Define radiation.
The process of transmission of heat from one place to another without aid of
intervening medium is called radiation. Ex: Heat from Sun and Stars reaches us by
this method.

5. What is a perfect black body?

A "black body" which is theoretical perfect absorber, which absorbs radiation of all
wavelengths falling on it. It reflects no light at normal temperatures and thus appears
black is a perfect black body.
Ex: Lamp black (97%) and Platinum black ( 98%) etc.

6. Identify the black- body in this experiment? Give reason.

In Bulb, tungsten filament is the black – body in this experiment. Here resistance of
the filament varies with the temperature T.
We have by Stefan’s law E α T4 or E = σ T4 → (1) where σ is a constant called
Stefan’s constant.
Here E = P and T = R
As equation (1) P = R4

7. Define Power.
Electric power is defined as the product of potential difference and current strength.

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