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1
MODULE

WORLD HISTORY

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Content Sheet

Module 1: World History 1

1. Premodern Europe and Renaissance 5
2. Enlightenment 13
3. Origin of Modern World Politics 23
4. Nation-State System 45
5. Industrialisation 59
6. Russian Revolution 75
7. World War I (1914–1918) 89
8. Interwar Phase (1918–1939) 103
9. World War II (1939–1945) 133
10. The World after World War II and International Organisations 157
11. Cold War and Unification of Europe 175
12. Disintegration of the USSR 193
13. Chinese Revolution (1946–49) and Korean War 203
14. Arab Nationalism 215
15. New Political Philosophies 227
16. Imperialism, Colonialism and Decolonisation 237
References 267

Content Sheet 3
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1 Premodern Europe and Renaissance

Introduction known as ‘commendation’. The person who

commended himself was called a vassal
Renaissance, which took place between the 14th
and assumed the obligation of serving and
and 17th centuries, was the most significant
respecting his superior, whom he called his
event in the history of Europe. Renaissance
lord.
was an ardent period of political, cultural,
y The primary rite of commendation was
artistic, and economic rebirth in Europe. It
known as ‘homage’.
put forward new ideas and achievements in
y As per the contract, the vassalage given to
economy, philosophy, religion, art, literature,
the vassal was termed as benefice or fief.
politics and science, which were generally
y Serfdom was the basic institution that
different with respect to ancient heritage. It
determined the mechanics of feudalism as
brought in developments in various spheres,
distinct from slavery, in which serfs used to
including political, cultural, artistic, economic,
work on the land for free, and serfs had to
and social.
pay for labour as well.
Most importantly, a change in how people
y The peasants used to work on the land of
viewed themselves and their world was
the feudal lord. The land was divided into
one of the most significant outcomes of the
Estates or Manor. Each manor used to have
Renaissance. Renaissance also renewed the
a castle (home of the Lord), and farms for
interest in classical learning, especially in the
peasants to work. Even the Manor had an
culture of ancient Rome. Europe came out after
abode for peasants to stay and workshops
the disorder and disunity of the Middle Ages.
to produce non-agricultural goods and
common woods for lumberjacks to cut.
Background of Renaissance
y The peasants were not independent in terms
Before this phase, Europe had a very rigid social, of freedom of movement and inheritance
political and religious life, having characteristics of land. They did not have the right to
of the Middle age. Europe was passing through purchase and sell the land they used to
the Medieval period and the most important cultivate. Even the peasants were not free
features of this period were feudalism, devout to make decisions for their marriage, family
religious faith in Christianity etc. and residence.
y Overall, the manor was his world, and his
Feudalism labour and struggle in the estate constituted
Feudalism controlled Europe as a political, his life experience.
economic, and social structure from the 9th y Villein was the class of partially free persons
through 14th century CE. The origin of the word under the feudal system who were serfs
feudalism is from the German word ‘feud’. concerning their lord but had the rights
‘Feud’ literally means a piece of land. and privileges of freemen with respect to
y In the pre-modern and pre-industrial others.
revolution era, the land was the main y The basic unit of production in the agrarian
source of wealth. The income from the land economy was the manor cultivated by
of an individual was not only an indication peasants. The manor was a kind of landed
of their economic status but also their estate which was under the control of the
social status. feudal lord. A manor could constitute land
y The legal practice by which one free man in several villages or parts of land in several
placed himself in protecting another was villages or land in a single village.

Premodern Europe and Renaissance 5

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y The peasants had to pay other dues also,

like tithe, which amounted to one-tenth of Church
the produce. These were mainly payable to y The Medieval society of Europe was
the Church. But in the early period, it was organised in ‘Three Orders’ formally.
shared by the lord. It was called a religious These ‘Three Orders’ were the Nobles
tax, in addition to the dues enjoyed by the who were landed aristocrats and
Church as a landowner. fought for the land and defended the
y An allod was land held without external land, the Christian clergy who were
obligations. It was an estate in the land over the highest authority of the church
which the allodial landowner (allodiary) had and satisfied the spiritual needs and
full ownership and the right of alienation. associated with charitable work, and
the peasants who were associated
Decline of Feudalism with manual works.
y The Crusades or Holy War weakened y In the fifth century, after the fall of
the power of feudal lords and helped the Roman Empire, Church became
the European states to learn the use of powerful and dominant due to the
gunpowder from the Muslims. Most feudal absence of a single powerful empire
lords died in this war, and those who in the West.
were alive were forced to sell the charter y The churches were not only the
of liberties to the towns which once they guardians of the social and religious
controlled. life of the people but also the owner
y This further liberated the serfs who of a very large amount of land.
participated in trade and commerce, which y It used to levy taxes such as tithe
gave rise to commercialisation and the from the land labour.
growth of mercantilism. y It had its laws and was not dependent
y The increase in trade and commerce gave on the king.
rise to the middle class, who then provided y Within the Church were hierarchical
the states with money as taxes, with which positions that mirrored those in
the king started maintaining independent society.
armies. This further helped the states to y The Church had control over the
bring the turbulent nobles under control. people’s thinking, and the concept of
y The Hundred Years’ War and Black Death humanism, an important feature of
also led feudalism to decline. The Hundred Greco-Roman classical civilisation,
Years’ War, which broke out between France was undermined by it.
and Britain in 1337, gave importance to
common people who participated in military
activities. The Black Death caused the death
of many people, especially the manor, who Reformation
was the backbone of agricultural feudal y The evil activities of the Catholic Church
society. were being raised by the philosophers
y Political changes were also taking place by of the time and being termed as errors,
that time which weakened feudalism. The abuses and discrepancies. Their corruption
legal rights of a person facing trial were and fallacies were also exposed.
expanded by Henry II of England’s (12th y This led to the emergence of a movement
century) reforms. King John was forced to called Reformation, also known as Protestant
sign the Magna Carta in 1215, a document Reformation (English Reformation), which
that obligated the people to maintain posed religious and political challenges to
common laws. the Catholic Church.

6 Premodern Europe and Renaissance

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y Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Thesis played became powerful due to the middle-class
an important role in the spread of the support.
Reformation. y The state patronised the middle-class
y He criticised the sale of indulgences which people to encounter feudal lords. These
was a way of reducing the amount of people were granted charters by the rulers to
punishment. He also insisted that the Pope trade abroad. They also had administrative
had no authority over purgatory and that responsibilities for the city municipalities
the Treasury of Merit had no foundation in founded by them.
the Bible. y Gradually this class emerged and became
y The Reformation is also considered as the very prominent to set their culture and
event which signifies the decline of the ethos in cities as per the need of the time.
Middle Ages and the beginning of the early Thus, they brought changes to the prevalent
modern period in Europe. feudal culture. The middle class was very
interested in promoting education. Thus,
Humanism an educated and trained professional class
y The craze for classicism was one of the emerged. This class included bankers,
Renaissance’s hallmark characteristics. doctors, accountants, lawyers, artists and
y Classicism upholds the best aspects of the scholars. By this, the cities became the
classical civilisation of Greece and Rome. centres of trade and commerce, education
It admires and adopts the best features of etc.
classical civilisations. y They played a crucial role in the Renaissance’s
y Renaissance, at its foundation, was popularity. The emerging merchant classes
an intellectual movement known as and prominent Medici families ruled the
humanism, which strongly affected the art city of Florence. In Rome, the Borgia family
and literature of the Renaissance era. patronised art, architecture, and literature.
y The concept of Humanism was widely y At the same time, the aristocracy was
practised in the Greco-Roman Civilisation, expelled from the cities.
but the dominance of the church devalued y Scholars, writers, poets, sculptors, and
the humanistic aspect of society. During artists of the period represented the
the renaissance period, the concept of changes that were going on in Italy. Dante,
humanism emerged that challenged the Petrarch, Boccaccio, Machiavelli, Michael
Church’s domination over the human mind. Angelo foreshadowed that very well.
y Humanism emphasised less on religious y In Central and Western Europe, the role of
issues; more on worldly subjects which had the middle class grew in importance as a
preoccupied mediaeval intellectuals. result of the Renaissance and Reformation.
y Erasmus, a prominent humanist thinker, Following the Renaissance, England, France,
emphasised human values. and Holland began granting merchant class
y Some Renaissance artists, for example, charters for overseas trade.
thought of Gothic style architecture as y Thus, trading and shipping companies were
barbaric. The Middle Age was considered to formed. New professions like shareholders,
be the ‘Dark Ages’ by them because of their clerks, and insurance agents emerged. The
intense dislike. structure of the market was transformed.
Since this class was well educated, talented
The Emergence of Middle Class and professionally skilled, they started
y The discovery of voyages led to the rise making huge profits. The class became rich
of trade and commerce, which gave birth and useful to society. But still, they had no
to middle-class people, also defined as political power, that was yet in the hands of
bourgeois. As mentioned above, the state feudal lords.

Premodern Europe and Renaissance 7

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y The middle class played a crucial role in feudalism reduced the state’s dependency
the French Revolution (1789). With the on the Church and nobles.
help of the masses, they were successful in y The discovery of voyages led to the rise of
overthrowing the old regime, and the idea trade and the growth of commercial and
of liberty, equality and fraternity was the mercantilism that assisted the state with
contribution of the middle class. money. It also led to the expansion of the
banking system, which further helped the
states to get financial stability.
Thirty Years’ War y The Thirty Years’ War also opened the
y The emergence of protestants and its way for the rise of many powerful and
struggle with the catholic led to the autonomous monarchies in Europe.
breaking out of the Thirty Years’ War y In 1469, King Ferdinand of Aragon married
in Europe (1618 to 1648), which caused Queen Isabella of Castile, establishing a
the deaths of around 8 million military new monarchy in Spain. It marked the start
personnel and civilians, mostly in of a unified Spanish Kingdom, even though
Germany. Aragon and Castile had different legal and
y This war was the result of a series of tax systems.
disputes for political and economic y Except for the Channel port of Calais, the
control, culminating in 1618 when English had been pushed out of France at
the Prostentent Bohemian nobility the end of the Hundred Years’ War. Despite
disposed of the Catholic Ferdinand this, the long battle had left the Kingdom
II of Bohemia and offered the Crown terribly divided, depopulated, commercially
to the Protestant Frederick V of the bankrupt, and agriculturally poor.
Platinate. y King Charles VII, who led France to victory,
y This war ended in 1648 with the Treaty appeared to be an odd choice. He also
of Westphalia and weakened the Holy bolstered royal coffers by levying levies
Roman Empire ruled by the Habsburgs. such as the taille (land tax) and gabelle
The freedom of private worship, (salt tax), respectively.
and the emergence of Calvinism, y Until the French Revolution in 1789, these
Lutheranism, and Catholicism, were were the monarchy’s principal sources of
seen after this war. wealth.
y The Dutch Netherland became y In England, the New Monarchy began with
independent, Brandenburg gained the Tudor dynasty, whose first monarch,
the territory which later united as Henry VII, ascended to the throne in 1485
Germany and Switzerland became after defeating the House of York in the
an independent confederation. War of the Roses. Such battles decimated
England’s big aristocratic families. The
upper nobility was no longer a danger to
Rise of Powerful Monarchy Henry VII’s power. The lesser aristocracy
y During this time, the monarch had restricted and the wealthy merchant-banker class
power that was mostly controlled by the backed him.
nobles and the church.
y The king granted land to the nobles. The
Spread of Renaissance
nobles were exempted from taxes. In y The renaissance began in Italy in the mid-
return, the nobles remained loyal to the 14th century and expanded north to the rest
king and his successors. The nobles also of Europe. In comparison to other Italian
used to provide military assistance to the towns, Florence grew more prominent
king during emergencies. The decline of throughout the renaissance period.

8 Premodern Europe and Renaissance

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y Many scholars, poets, artists, and architects y Renaissance artists knew human anatomy.
were born in Florence. As a result, they could paint from live
y Religious portraits such as Mary, Jesus and models.
the Saints were made by the artists of the y Some prominent Renaissance artists were
renaissance. They, in many cases, portrayed Leonardo DaVinci, Michelangelo, Raphael etc
these figures from Greek or Roman y At the courts of the Renaissance rulers, poets,
background. artists, and scholars mixed with politics.
y Renaissance artists learned the y Nicolo Machiavelli, Baldassare Castiglione,
techniques of perspective painting. They Desiderius Erasmus, Sir Thomas More,
painted the distant objects in such a way Francois Rabelais, William Shakespeare,
that the objects looked smaller than those and Miguel de Cervantes were some of the
close to the viewer. Artists also learned prominent figures of this field.
the techniques of three-dimensional y The great works of the Renaissance were able
paintings. to reach a large audience thanks to printing
y To make the objects real and round-shaped, in Europe; the European age of printing had
they used the technique of shading. begun with the Gutenberg Bible.

Fig. 1.1 Prominent Creations of the Renaissance Period

Causes of Renaissance mathematics, history, geography, philosophy,

y During the succession of events in the astronomy, medicine, and other subjects.
year 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured The renaissance was born as a result of this.
Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine y Vast trade networks across Asia, Europe
empire, which led to the downfall of this and Africa, created cultural interactions
empire. among different societies. The interactions
y Constantinople was the epicentre of among different societies led not to the only
learning, and after its collapse, the Greek exchange of goods but also to the exchange
intellectuals fled to other Italian cities of beliefs, ideas and values. The largest and
such as Venetia, Milan, Naples, Sicily, Rome, most well-known of these trade networks
and so on. They taught the people of Italy was the Silk Road.

Premodern Europe and Renaissance 9

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Fig. 1.2 Silk Road

y Religious and philosophical beliefs from the earlier work of Roman philosopher Cicero.
period spread easily along the routes and He was a pioneer of the Renaissance.
profoundly impacted the transition of the y The decline of feudalism and decreasing
world. authority of the church also led to the
y A series of religious holy wars were carried rise of autonomous monarchies who also
out by Christians against Muslims during played an important role in the growth of
the Medieval Period. These wars were the renaissance.
known as crusades. y Many rulers, including France’s Francis I,
y In the backdrop of these crusades (Beginning England’s Henry VIII, Spain’s Charles V, and
in 1095 CE), the European knights and Poland’s Sigismund I, the Medicis of Italy,
nobles travelled the middle east with an provided support to renaissance art and its
objective to capture the Holy lands away scholars.
from Muslim people that had controlled y In Europe, the different innovations
the region for previous centuries. of the time, especially in publishing
y The clash of religious ideals produced a and art made the environment for the
sharing of ideas between the different renaissance. One of the most important
religious groups and helped the principles of inventions of the Renaissance period was
each religious faith to spread into new areas. the printing press. In the mid-fifteenth
y The rediscovery of ancient Greek by century, Johannes Gutenberg, a German
European thinkers and Roman ideas and blacksmith, goldsmith, and printer,
texts paved the way for the renaissance. invented the printing press. To a large
y Italian scholar and humanist Petrarch extent, the invention prepared the stage
(Francesco Petrarca) rediscovered the for the Renaissance.

Black Death
y Black Death also contributed largely to the renaissance in the western world. The black
death was a pandemic spread all over the planet. It is also depicted as ‘Great Mortality’
and ‘Great Pestilence’ throughout history (ravaged Europe between 1347 and 1351).
⚪ The black Death took place during the 14th century. It had a devastating effect on
the human population throughout the world. Via trade routes and trading ports, this
pandemic spread across the planet.
⚪ This put the stage for some people to question the Catholic Church’s authority and
allowed for new ideas and change to enter European society.
⚪ Europe was thrown into upheaval. This ultimately lifted the balance of power and wealth
in European societies and facilitated the dominance of several city-states in Italy.

10 Premodern Europe and Renaissance

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Impact of Renaissance There are debates about the overall impact

and exact timing of the renaissance. But
The 14th century took off like a rocket from
undoubtedly, it gave birth to a new dawn in the
the previous centuries, launching into a new
life of people around the world. This, in the end,
universe of incredible education, technologies,
resulted in rational thinking, liberty etc. which
treatments, and lifestyles. This age will be
in return paved the way for enlightenment.
remembered because of the remarkable brains
that shaped it.
Some of the major impacts are discussed as
follows:
y Religious and social: The importance of Glorious Revolution
the church was reduced, and the idea of y The Glorious Revolution, also known
individualism flourished. as the revolution of 1688 or the Blood­
⚪ People started to view the world less Revolution in English history,
differently. dethroned James II. The revolution
⚪ A new social structure emerged. The resulted in the accession of Mary II
Renaissance brought the end of feudalism (daughter of James II) and her husband,
and the rise of cities and towns. William III. William III was the prince of
y Economic: As the demand for various Orange and stadtholder of the united
products increased, merchants benefited. province of the Netherland.
This led to an increase in trade. y The Glorious Revolution, which took
⚪ The decline of feudalism provided place in 1688 in England, contributed
peasants with a better life. It gave the rise to the enlightenment to some
to commercialisation and the growth extent. The Glorious Revolution
of mercantilism which later helped the bestowed the rights of the citizens
emergence of industrialisation. of Great Britain and vowed to
y Political: This weakened the political power protect them. Some people who
of the Catholic Church and led to the supported the revolution had a lack
establishment of powerful constitutional of religious tolerance. Therefore, it is
monarchies in Europe. not fully recognised as a part of the
y Education and technology: As new tech­no­ enlightenment.
logies were invented during the Renais­sance,
individuals’ lives changed tremendously.
⚪ During the Renaissance, there was an
Seven Year War
advance in education, the spread of
humanism, and an increase in knowledge. The seven-year war was fought between
⚪ Literacy increased to 20–30% after the England and France between 1756 and 1763.
renaissance in comparison with 5–10% It was a global military conflict that affected
before the renaissance. Europe, North America, the West African coast,
⚪ New philosophical ideas of the central America, India and Philippines.
renaissance were spread because of the y The primary reason for the war was to
printing press. possess the land of Ohio country. Great
⚪ Human anatomy, prohibited in middle Britain became victorious and gained
age, came into light and enhanced control over Canada and Florida.
holistic rationalities. y For the first time, the regent’s power was
⚪ It increased the printing press and the specified, written down, and constrained
publication of religious and scientific by the Bill of Rights. In the years following
books. the revolution, Parliament’s role and power

Premodern Europe and Renaissance 11

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shifted considerably. The event had an Conclusion

impact on the 13 North American colonies With the scientific revolution, the emergence
as well. of ideologies made a transition from the pre-
y After the seven-year war, the dominance modern era to the modern world. At the end of
of France was reduced drastically. Britain the 15th century, the beginning of international
was successful in consolidating its colonial trade escalated colonialism too. Glorious
power. It also laid down the foundation of revolution, the Seven-year war prepared
the American Revolution (1765–83) and the the ground for later revolutions such as the
French Revolution (1789). American Revolution, the French revolution etc.

12 Premodern Europe and Renaissance

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2 Enlightenment

Introduction German intellectuals to express severe

indictments of nationalism and violence.
The Enlightenment was a cultural and
y The Enlightenment was sparked by the
ideological revolution that took place in Europe
mistreatment of monarchies by authors
during the eighteenth century. The concepts of
such as Hugo Grotius and John Comenius,
the Enlightenment challenged the monarchy
who wrote against tradition and began
and the Catholic Church, demanding freedom
seeking better alternatives.
and liberty for the people.
It further contributed to the establishment Social Factor
of self-rule and democracy in Europe and
y European philosophers were fascinated by
elsewhere. The age of Enlightenment was
the physical world, exposing Europe to new
associated with various thinkers such as
cultures and ideas from around the world.
English Philosophers like Locke, Harrington,
y Scientific studies developed on the
Milton, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel
philosophy of these thinkers prompted the
Kant etc. It produced a range of ideas centred
most intelligent and vociferous to stand up
on the sovereignty of reason, scientific ideas
against the church.
and rationalism that played an important role
in the American Revolution (1776), the French
Fundamental Ideas of Enlightenment
Revolution (1789), the Russian Revolution
y The Age of Reason is another name
(1905 and 1917), and other various revolutions.
for the Age of Enlightenment. In 18th
century Europe, it was an intellectual and
Factors Responsible for Emergence philosophical movement that governed the
of Enlightenment realm of ideas.
y It was based on the principle of rationality
Religious Factor
to spread awareness about the religion
y In the 16th century, the church was the most dominated society.
dominant institution in Europe. The Pope y It was characterised by a reliance on
was the highest authority in the catholic scientific method and reductionism,
world, and catholicism was in extremely increased scepticism of religious doctrine,
orthodox form. There was no religious and attacks on conventional and irrational
freedom of any kind among the people. The values and dogmas.
interpretation of the church was followed y It encompassed progressive concepts
blindly. like liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity,
y By the 16th century, the institution of constitutional government, and separation
the church had degenerated because of religion and state, as well as beliefs
several evils had entered the church. The centred on reason as the primary source of
protestant reaction against the catholic information.
counter-reformation in Europe gave birth y The enlightenment spawned two separate
to the enlightenment. ideas: radical enlightenment, which pushes
for democracy, freedom of expression,
Political Factor individual liberty, and the abolition of religious
y The Thirty Years’ War was one of the most authority, and moderate enlightenment,
crucial reasons for the Enlightenment. The which calls for the abolition of religious
devastation created by the war prompted authority. A more moderate school of

Enlightenment 13
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thought pushed for a balance of change and y Enlightenment symbolises the intellectual
existing power and spiritual structures. maturity of mankind. It was an indication of
y Belief in the supremacy of nature was the the emancipation of human consciousness
most fundamental idea of the Enlightenment. from ignorance and error. New Zealand in
Enlightenment believed that the universe 1893, Britain in 1919, and the USA in 1920
was created by nature and, therefore, the gave voting rights to women.
universe is a perfect entity. Since the universe y The modern idea of natural rights, which has
is a perfect entity, there is no need for any been necessary to modern constitutional
God to manage it. government and civil society, was founded
y In this way, most scholars associated with by Enlightenment philosophers.
Enlightenment denied the existence of God.
y Belief in the efficiency of critical thinking Spread of Enlightenment
was also an essential idea of Enlightenment. y The ideas of Enlightenment emerged in
It was emphasised that the ideas and Holland and Britain at first, and from there,
interpretations and existing institutions they moved into the whole of Europe.
and practices should be subject to critical y It did not remain limited to Europe only.
examination. Only then will the truth come These new ideas were trendy in America
out, and the illusion will disappear. as the thinkers like Benjamin Franklin,
y Enlightenment was tolerant. It emphasised Thomas Paine etc. propagated liberal and
the idea of peaceful coexistence. progressive thinking.

Role of the Philosophers in Enlightenment

Prominent scholars associated with enlightenment

S. N. Name of scholars Years Country

1 Rene Descartes 1596–1650 Born in France, and lived in Holland.

2 Baruch Spinoza 1632–1677 From Holland

3 John Locke 1632–1704 From Britain

4 Montesquieu 1689–1755 From France

5 Voltaire 1694–1778 From France

6 Rousseau 1712–1778 From France

7 Denis Diderot 1713–1784 From France

8 Immanuel Kant 1724–1804 From Germany

14 Enlightenment
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TIMELINE
Important events of Renaissance and Enlightenment

1100 - 1394 1394 - 1483 1483 - 14 14 - 1778

1100 J 1300 Yrouba`ours This is Protestant reformation religious
a term for poets and minstrels reform movement that swept
who fourished in southern through Europe in the 1500s. It
France and in Northern Italy. The resulted in the creation of a
people elevated storytelling as branch of Christianity to refer to
an art. Entertained huge crowds. the many religious groups that
separated from the Roman
1‹ J 1331 ~ante Œlighieri He Catholic Church due to
was a major Italian poet, dišerences in doctrine.
philosopher, and political thinker.
He was famous for his work "The 1483 J 1‹0 Rapheal He began
Divine Comedy". He wrote a painting series like the Madonnas
majority of his famous works .He used art to create a 14 J 11 Shakespeare He is
while in ecile. 140 Printing Press It was movement. He created a form of one of the greatest minds of
invented by Johannes Gutenburg. art called mannerism. It English literature .He was a poet,
A device that applied pressure to infuenced the Baroque period. playwright and actor. He was a
an inked surface resting upon a prominent member of Lord
print medium. It started mass Chamberlain's acting troupe.
production of books. May 1‹, 1780 Charleston Falls to
the British The Charleston move
is part of a broader British 188 J 179 Yhomas Hobbes He
1400 J 10 Humanism Is the strategy to hang on to the was an English philosopher who
philosophical and ethical stance southern colonies, at least, now wrote a book called the
that emphasizes the value of that the war is stalemated in "Leviathan". In the book there are
human beings; individually, Pennsylvania and New York. dišerent ways for people to live
collectively and generally with each other.

141 J 10 Christopher 13‹ J 1704 John Lo·ke He was

Columbus He was an Italian regarded as the most infuential
traveler. Known for discovering enlightenment thinker. He is
the new world. He gave the known as "The Father of
Native Americans the name Liberalism ".
‘Indians’.

10 J 1800 Enlightenment An

14 Ùutenberg He was a printer intellectual movement which
and a goldsmith. He became dominated the world of ideas in
gentlemen of the court. He went Europe in the 18th century. It
blind at the end of his life. He Included a range of ideas like
was banned from France for liberty, fraternity, tolerance as
craftsmen revolt. founder of the primary source of authority
printing press and legitimacy.
1300 J 100 Renaissan·e It was 149 J 1‹7 Ma·hiavelli Italian
a cultural movement that 189 J 17 Baron `e
Renaissance historian, politician, Montesquieu He was a French
ašected European intellectual diplomat, and philosopher. He
life in the early modern period. author, man of letters and a
wrote a book called "The Prince" political philosopher. He gained
Began in Italy. It Means "Rebirth".
fame through the publishing of
1478 J 149‹ Lorenzo `e Me`i·i 100 J 1700 Œge of Exploration It "The Persian Letters" and “The
He was a magnate, diplomat, and Started in the 15th century with spirit of Laws"
1343 J 1400 Ùeoßrey Chau·er politician. He was considered one the ifrst Portuguese discoveries
Known as "The Father of of the greatest patrons of art and in the Atlantic archipelagos.
Discovery of America. This 194 J 1778 Voltaire He was a
Literature".Considered the literature. Protected and French writer, historian and
greatest English poet. "The sponsored Leonardo di Vinci, continued till the 18th century.
philosopher. Considered one of
Canterbury Tales is his most Michelangelo and Botticelli. France's greatest enlightenment
famous work. 147 J 11 Miguel `e Cervantes writers, especially for his satirical
1480 J 1‹1 Fer`inan` Magellan He is one of the most famous novella "Candide". He often was
138 J 14 ~onatello He was a he ordered an ecpedition to writers in Spanish literature. He in trouble with the French
famous artist.he made travel to Portugal. He is the ifrst wrote "Don Quicote" in 1605 in government due to his political
sculptures. person to travel all around the prison even though it didn't make writings.
world. much money it but brought him
fame.
1394 J 140 Prin·e Henry the 171‹ J 1778 Jean Ja·ques
Navigator He was a Portuguese 1483 J 14 Martin Luther Rousseau He was a Swedish
sailor and navigator. He ecplored Started the Lutheran church. 14 J 14‹ Ùalileo He was an philosopher, writer and political
and paid for his trip on the west German professor of theology, Italian astronomer. He discovered theorist. His written work
coast of Africa. He set up composer, priest, monk and the rings on Saturn. He studied inspired the leaders of the
colonies in Africa. seminal ifgure in Protestant the moons of Jupiter. He French Revolution and the
reformation. invented the telescope Romantic Age .

Fig. 2.1 Work of the Philosophers

Enlightenment 15
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Ideas of the thinkers

y The notion that reasons are the fundamental sources of authority and legitimacy was
central to the Enlightenment. Liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional
government, and separation of church and state have all benefited as a result. The idea
that happiness can only be found in paradise was challenged by enlightened intellectuals.
They asserted that happiness is attainable in this life and predicted that greater happiness
could be attained through the use of reason.
⚪ Deism: Some scholars emphasised the “Worship of Reason” that is known as Deism.
⚪ Liberalism: It was another significant idea of Enlightenment. The term liberalism
is based on the Latin word liber, which means liberty. Liberalism emphasises that
individuals shall enjoy complete freedom from their state, society and church. John
Locke is recognised as the “Father of Liberalism”.
⚪ Individualism: It was another prominent idea of Enlightenment. This ideology believes
that the institutions like society, estate and church exist for individuals, not vice-
versa. Therefore, every institution must secure the needs of citizens.

Ideas of Some Prominent Thinkers y John Calvin was also a priest from Geneva
and opposed the evils prevailing in the
John Locke (1632–1704) church.
y He was an English philosopher recognised y These Voices of dissent gave birth to the
for establishing the groundwork for modern protestant Reformation movement.
philosophical empiricism and political y The growing popularity of the ideas of
liberalism through his work. His political Martin Luther and John Calvin posed severe
ideas were comparable to those of Robert intimidation to the authority of the church.
Boyle and Sir Isaac Newton, the pioneers of That’s why the church started devising
modern science. means to suppress the movement of
y John Locke has been dubbed the “Father of protestants.
Modern Liberalism.”
y His political philosophy was based on the Montesquieu (1689–1755)
notion of the social contract between y Montesquieu was a well-known lawyer and
citizens and the need for tolerance, political scientist.
particularly in religious concerns. y He recognised the illnesses afflicting French
y He maintained that everyone had an society and politics since he was endowed
inherent right to life, liberty, and property, with a scientific temperament.
which the government should not infringe y He explored the causes and presented his
on. ideas in his book, De l’esprit des lois (The
Spirit of Laws).
Martin Luther (1483–1546) and y He studied the benefits and flaws of
John Calvin (1509–1564) different world constitutions in this work,
y Martin Luther was a German priest and was concluding that the British model was the
the first to raise his voice against the evils best.
prevailing in the church. y In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu
y In 1517, he put forward his famous 95 proposed a division of power within the
questions (Thesis) and asked the church to government between the legislative, the
respond. executive and the judiciary. This model of

16 Enlightenment
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government was put into force in the USA y He was expelled from the country because
after the thirteen colonies declared their he was a rebel.
independence from Britain. y Even Europe’s most powerful rulers were
y He admired its separation of powers, which frightened at the mention of his name. They
resulted in the protection of citizens’ despised him for his bravery and harassed
fundamental rights. The constitution’s him because of his name. Even after his
provision for separation of powers would death, the Abbé who performed his last
put an end to authoritarian governance. rituals was discharged from his office,
y He envisioned a government based on a which was an irony of fate.
system of checks and balances. y King Frederick, the Great of Prussia, who
y Montesquieu was not a radical. honoured him in his court, was the only
y He ruled out toppling the French monarchy major person who liked his writings and
as a viable solution to the country’s current bravery.
political problems. y His destructive criticism of the state
y His writings, together with those of English and church reduced the control of these
scholars Locke and Hobbes, had a significant institutions from the mind and hearts of
influence on the American Constitution’s common people.
founding fathers. y A famous quote from Voltaire - When eating
y Montesquieu was a great supporter of fruit, think of the person who planted the
constitutional monarchy. He had lined tree.
Britain for some time and realised France’s
absolute monarchy was the mother of all Jean Jacques Rousseau
evils. y Jean Jacques Rousseau (28 June 1712–2
y He demanded separation of power, July 1778) was one of the most influential
recognising men’s natural rights, and thinkers during the enlightenment. His
replacing the existing absolute monarchy political theory inspired the Enlightenment’s
with a constitutional monarchy. spread through Europe and aspects of
the French Revolution (1789) and the
Voltaire (1694–1778) emergence of modern political, economic,
y Voltaire’s political philosophy was quite and educational thinking.
similar to that of Montesquieu. But his main y His concepts on inequality and the social
focus was the evils of the church. contract are the foundations of modern
y His copious publications drew the attention political and social thought. People should
of the educated French. join civil society through the social contract,
y He underlined the prevalent injustices in he claims, to create unity while maintaining
his subjects as a critic, poet, researcher, individual freedom.
historian, lampoon, and dramatist. y His writings’ core thesis is that humans
y He mocked various institutions, including are primarily good by nature. They were,
the monarchy, in his inimitable writing style however, tainted by the complicated
(for which he became famous throughout historical events that occurred in modern
Europe). civic society. He says that people should
y His venom was directed specifically at join civil society through the social contract
the church because of its corruption and to achieve unity while retaining individual
pretensions. liberty.
y He was neither an atheist nor an anarchist, y In the social contract, he described human
but his greatest wish was for society to be beings in the state of nature.
cleansed of its vices and founded on just y He believed that the more men deviated
principles. from the state of nature, the worse off

Enlightenment 17
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they would be. This third barbaric stage y Leaders of the French Revolution were
of human social evolution, according to impressed with his political ideals and the
Rousseau, was a compromise between the Romantic Naturalism movement. To date, his
extremes of brute animals and animal-like work is seen as the epitome of classic work.
“ape-men” on the one side and decadent
civilised life on the other. As a result, Immanuel Kant
some commentators credit Rousseau with y Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) was a
inventing the concept of the noble savage. prominent German philosopher during the
y In his philosophy, society’s influence on men Enlightenment.
centres on its transformation of positive y His ideas are still influential in contemporary
self-love, representing the natural human philosophy, particularly in the fields of
desire for self-preservation, combined with epistemology, ethics, political theory, and
the human power of reason. postmodern aesthetics.
y Individuals can both maintain themselves y In his essay “Answering the Question: What is
and remain free, according to Rousseau, by Enlightenment?”, the idea of Enlightenment
joining together in civil society through the was influenced by the Latin proverb Sapere
social contract and quitting their claims to aude “Dare to be wise”.
natural rights. This is because obedience to y Kant believed that one should think for
the authority of the people’s collective will oneself, free of external authority’s dictates.
prevent individuals from being subordinated y In one of his most important works, the
to the wills of others while also ensuring Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Kant
that they follow themselves because they attempted to explain the link between
are the writers of the law collectively. rationality and human experience by going
y His discourse on the Arts and Sciences beyond the boundaries of traditional
explains that the arts and sciences have not philosophy and metaphysics.
been generous to humankind as they arose y He explained in his transcendental idealism
not from authentic human needs but rather theory that the mind forms and structures
as a consequence of vanity and pride. experience, with such structural elements
y Furthermore, the opportunities they created present in all human experience. He drew
for idleness and luxury contributed to the a parallel to the Copernican revolution with
corruption of man. his claim that worldly occurrences can be
y Rousseau was an early advocate of intuited beforehand, and hence intuition is
developmentally appropriate education. It independent of empirical fact.
recommends that the young adult learns a y Kant argued that morality comes from
manual skill such as carpentry that requires reason.
creativity and thought, keeps him out of y His other works include Critique of Practical
trouble, and provides a fallback means of Reason which encompasses ethics, and the
securing a fortunate lifestyle. Critique of Judgement looks into teleology
y In addition, Rousseau argued that rather and aesthetics.
than physical punishment, children should y Kant believed that developing universal
learn the difference between right and democracy and international collaboration
wrong by witnessing the effects of their would lead to permanent peace. He felt that
decisions. this would be the ultimate consequence of
y Rousseau was an exponential philosopher universal history, even though it could not
who provided a vision for change in society. be rationally predicted.
y He had a big influence on Immanuel Kant’s y His work adapted many differences between
ethical work. the rationalist (the reason is the ultimate way

18 Enlightenment
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to gain knowledge) and empiricist traditions does not indicate real progress, and moral
(who believed that knowledge is acquired progress is the only real progress.
through experience alone) of the 18th century. y The nature of his religious ideas is still
y His concepts had a significant impact a source of philosophical debate, with
on the romantic and German Idealist interpretations ranging from the impression
philosophers of the 19th century. The 20th- that he was an early atheist who later
century philosophers also adopted many of developed an ontological argument for God
his ideas and arguments. to more critical interpretations.
y Kant put forward the concept of “Universal y For example, Nietzsche claimed that Kant
Moral Law”. According to him, moral law is had “theologian blood” and was merely
the highest law, and the state’s law must a sophisticated apologist for traditional
be derived from it. He emphasised that if Christianity.
his state’s law contradicts the Universal y Overall, Kant’s influence on Western
Moral Law, then the people are not bound thought has been intense and enlightening.
to follow it. He changed the framework within which
y According to him, the moral law protects philosophical inquiry has been carried out.
freedom and encourages progress. The moral y He also accomplished a paradigm shift in
law is based on fundamental human virtues. the foundations of philosophy, thinkers like
y He also put forward the concept of progress. German idealists and the social sciences
He emphasised that material progress and humanities.

Philosophy of enlightenment
y Humanism: It was a central idea of Enlightenment that believed that every human being
is good by nature. Only circumstances make a person bad. It also emphasises that the
progress of mankind shall be the ultimate objective of every institution and practice.
y Empiricism: It was also a prevailing ideology in Enlightenment. It believes in accepting
only those ideas, practices and things that a person could experience through senses.
Everything else shall be rejected.
y Egalitarianism: It was a vital idea associated with Enlightenment which states that all
humans are equal in fundamental worth or moral status.
y Equality: The equality of man was the guiding philosophy. John Locke proclaimed
that all men are born equal. Discrimination based on birth and material positions was
condemned/rejected.
y Democracy: Enlightenment was democratic. It opposed absolute rule based on the
theory of the divine origin of the monarchy.
y Constitutionalism: It was a prominent idea associated with Enlightenment. Most scholars
believed in the efficacy of constitutional monarchy, i.e. the king must derive his power
from the constitution.
y Concept of Wisdom: Another important element of the Enlightenment was the emphasis
on the application of wisdom. Wisdom is the ability to differentiate between right and
wrong. It comes from real knowledge. Enlightenment emphasises that the condition of
the common man could be improved only through the application of this real knowledge.
y Liberalism: It was another prominent idea of Enlightenment.

Enlightenment 19
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While most other philosophers belonging to the age of Enlightenment appealed to the mind of
people. They used a logical approach, but Rousseau appealed to heart and emotions. This emotional
approach was highly effective, and his ideas triggered the revolutionary awakening among the
common masses in France.

Liberalism
y Liberalism is a political ideology that has been around for a long time. Its origins can be
traced back to the 16th century.
y The French Revolution created the cardinal ideas of ‘liberty, equality, and fraternity,’
while the American War of Independence emphasised the Declaration of Human Rights
a few years earlier (1775–76).
y Harold Laski, a political science expert from England, once wrote: “It (liberalism) is not
easy to describe, much less to define, for it is hardly less a habit of mind than a body of
doctrine”.
y According to Koerner, “Liberalism begins and ends with the ideals of individual freedom,
individual human rights and individual human happiness”.
y It is a democratic ideology since it advocates for constitutional government, consent-
based government, the rule of law, decentralisation, and free and fair elections.
y The three aspects of liberalism help us understand its meanings.
y In the social sphere, liberalism stands for secularism and a society that opposes all
types of social discrimination; in the economic sphere, liberalism promotes a capitalist
economy, individual ownership of the means of production, and the pursuit of maximum
profit.
y The political sphere stands for a democratic polity, individual rights and liberties,
responsive and responsible government, and a free and impartial judiciary.

Impact of Enlightenment y It was the catalyst for the rise of nationalism.

The effects of Enlightenment were evident with y There was a spread of novel ideas like
new developments in European and American rationalism, empiricism, deism, atheism
life, improved women’s rights to more efficient etc., which became the new pillars of
steam engines, more neutral judicial systems society.
to increased educational opportunities, from
innovative economic theories to a rich array of Political Impact
literature and music. Some of the significant y It set the framework for political modernisation
impacts can be categorised as the following: in the West by focusing on democratic
norms and institutions and establishing
Social Impact contemporary, liberal democracies.
y Its ideas left a lasting impact on the thinking y In many countries, rulers invited Enlighten­
and feelings of the people. ment thinkers to court and asked them to
y This awakening triggered by Enlightenment assist in creating laws and programmes to
ideas doomed the feet of medievalism in change the system, usually to strengthen
Europe and opened the doors for modernity. states.

20 Enlightenment
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y These intellectuals were invited to the discussions were held, and an increasingly
courts of Frederick the Great of Prussia, literate population read books and passed
Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph them.
II of Austria.
y The ideas of Enlightenment also paved Critical Analysis of the Enlightenment
the way for decolonisation. The people y The Enlightenment, a 17th and 18th-century
in colonies of America, Asia and Africa European intellectual movement, saw the
also came in contact with liberal and flourishing of concepts about God, reason,
progressive Enlightenment ideas. The level nature, and humanity. It culminated in a
of awakening increased among them, and worldview that found widespread acceptance
they started raising their voice against the in the West and sparked revolutionary
exploitative colonial regime. changes in art, philosophy, and politics.
y Enlightenment ideas were influential in y According to Kant, ‘Enlightenment is man’s
triggering the French Revolution, which emergence from his self-incurred immaturity’.
began in 1789 and stressed the rights of
common citizens. It also influenced the Conclusion
founding of the United States of America, Thus, it can be concluded that the Enlightenment
the world’s first great democracy. era led to the evolution of some ground-breaking
new approaches based on highly analytical
Cultural Impact investigation, reasoning and problem solving
y It boosted the arts by emphasising subjects that made human rights such as freedom
like literature, philosophy, and the fine and rationality a universal phenomenon.
arts; music became increasingly popular, The Enlightenment’s achievements, whether
especially among the middle class. viewed from an intellectual, political, or
y Areas of study increasingly explored the social perspective, converted the Western
subject matter to which the general public world into a self-aware civilisation. The Age of
could relate. It opened a path for independent Enlightenment was one of the most progressive
thought, and the fields of mathematics, periods in human history. It altered how social
astronomy, physics, philosophy, politics, orders saw the relationship between the ruler
economics, and medicine were drastically and the oppressed.
updated and expanded. It led to the springing The influence of Enlightenment accelerated
up of new knowledge like dictionaries and the pace of modernisation all over the globe
encyclopedias. and gave the birth of modernisation theories
y There was the evolution of new public that dominated the study of societies in the
places such as intellectual salons in France mid-twentieth century. It influenced the social
and coffee houses where philosophical reform movements of the 19th century in India.

Enlightenment 21
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3 Origin of Modern World Politics

Introduction by the American people due to the socio-

economic and political process adopted by
The origin of modern world politics lies with the
the British empire.
American Revolution (1775–1783) and the French
y Beginning in 1607, the British started
Revolution (1789), which had produced the idea
migrating to America. By the mid-18th
of liberty, freedom and equality, fraternity,
century, they established 13 colonies in
democracy, republic, and constitution. The
North America, such as New York, New
American Revolution started against the
Jersey, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania,
exploitative colonial policy, while the French
Connecticut, Roads Island, Maryland,
Revolution was the outcome of a dysfunctional
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,
society characterised by feudalism. The
Messat Gest, Georgia, and Bolivia.
revolutionary Enlightenment thinkers and
y About 90% of the population of these
philosophers made these significant events
colonies was of British origin. Most of the
more than just an outbreak of violence.
remaining 10% were of French origin; some
According to philosophers of that time, equality
were Spanish and Portuguese as well. Even
and other important aspects could be achieved
though most of the residents of these
by removing the prejudices prevailing in
colonies were of British origin, they had no
society.
such love or affection for their motherland
American Revolution (1775–1783) Britain.
y Most of these Americans had migrated
The American Revolution (1775–83), also known from Britain under the compulsion of
as the American War of Independence, was circumstances. Some were deported to
against British colonial rule in which thirteen America by way of punishment, while
different American colonies (North American others had migrated to live a life of freedom
continent) came together to fight against for their ideas and beliefs. In contrast,
the British colonial establishments. In this some others had migrated because of
revolution, France assisted the Americans who economic compulsions as they heard
established a new country, the United States of about the availability of huge resources in
America after defeating the British. America.
By the 18th century, the goal of being an y These Americans had to struggle hard
independent nation blossomed into a for generations against heavy odds. They
revolutionary conflict in which colonies have to face the challenge of native
gained their independence. It was essential Red Indians, wild animals, and extreme
in America’s social transformation into a nature and weather conditions. During
democratic and economic nation. this struggle, they had received no help
from the mother country, due to which
Background of the American Revolution they had developed a typical American
y The causes of the American Revolution can identity and remained little affection for
be understood through the struggles faced the motherland.

Origin of Modern World Politics 23

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TIMELINE
American Revo ution

1600 - 1772 1772 - 1777 1777 - 17 1 17 1 - 17 7

In the early 1600s, the British March to June, 1774 Britain Tries September to October, 17 1
king began estab ishing co onies to Intimidate Massachusetts: Yorktown Large British Army
in America. By the 17‹‹s, most of Britain c oses the port of Boston Surrenders : A joint French and
the sett ements had formed into and requires British troops to be American force traps a arge
13 British co onies. housed in taverns and vacant British army on Virginia's
bui dings. The acts generate Yorktown peninsu a. A though
considerab e sympathy for New York City and Char eston,
Navigation Acts, in Eng ish Massachusetts among other S.C., wi remain in British hands
history, were a series of aws co onies. unti a peace treaty is signed two
designed to restrict Eng andÙs years ater, the war for American
carrying trade to Eng ish ships, December 1777 Winter of Change independence is essentia y over.
e¸ective chiefy in the 17th and November 1775 Britain Forms an for the Continenta Army: During
1Õth centuries. The great A iance with Patriot S aves : Tens the winter, supp y arrangements
Navigation Act passed by the of thousands of African wi be improved and the September to October, 17 1
Commonwea th government in Americans wi seek their Continenta troops wi be dri ed Yorktown: Large British Army
16Ä1 was aimed at the Dutch, freedom by supporting the and emerge as a more Surrenders : A joint French and
then Eng andÙs greatest British. A sma er number wi discip ined, unifed fghting force. American force traps a arge
commercia riva s. It fght on the patriot side despite British army on Virginia's
distinguished between goods po icies that discourage their Yorktown peninsu a. A though
imported from European en istment February 177 France Enters the New York City and Char eston,
countries. War Against Britain : As a resu t S.C., wi remain in British hands
of the patriot victory at Saratoga unti a peace treaty is signed two
June 17, 1775 Batt e of Bunker and American dip omatic e¸orts, years ater, the war for American
Seven years war Seven Years’ Hi : First major action of the war, France a ies itse f with the new independence is essentia y over.
War, (1756–63), was the ast inexperienced co onia so diers American government. French
major confict before the French ho d o¸ hardened British fnancia and mi itary aid wi
Revo ution to invo ve a the great veterans for more than two hours prove critica in winning the war. January 17 2 Loya ists Leave
powers of Europe. The war ended at Breed's Hi . The patriots show America : Large y unwe come in
in 1763 with the Treaty of Paris, that they are not intimidated by the new United States, about
signed by Great Britain, Hanover, the ong ines of red-coated May 12, 17 0 Char eston Fa s to 1‹‹,‹‹‹ Americans who remained
France, and Spain, and the Peace infantrymen. the British : The Char eston move oya to the crown fnd new ives
of Hubertusburg, signed by is part of a broader British in Britain, Canada, and British
Austria, Prussia, and Saxony. strategy to hang on to the co onies in the West Indies. The
June 2 , 1776 South Caro inians southern co onies, at east, now oya ist experience wi have a
Repe British Attempt to Take that the war is sta emated in profound e¸ect on the
March 22, 1765 Passage of the Char eston: The invaders are Pennsy vania and New York. deve opment of Canada's
Stamp Act Imposed a tax on ega unab e to and their troops on nationa identity.
documents, newspapers and the is and, and the tricky waters
even p aying cards. It was hot y of Char eston Harbor frustrate October 7, 17 0 Kings Mountain
resisted. A successfu American the British navy. Victory Revives Patriot Hopes September 3, 17 3 Treaty of Paris
campaign to have the act Defeat Indicated the deep fOifcia y Ends the War and
repea ed gave Americans divisions within America, It was ratifes the independence of the
confdence that they can avoid July 1776 America Declared Its tru y a batt e among Americans 13 North American states. Canada
future taxes as we . Independence The Dec aration of about their future. remains a British province,
Independence was adopted by beginning its separate
the Second Continenta deve opment as a U.S. neighbor.
October 176 British Troops Congress. Fo owing a decade of January 17, 17 1 Batt e of
fOccupy Boston to enforce the agitation over taxes and a year of Cowpens: Continenta so diers
Townshend duties (taxes on war, representatives make the and patriot mi itia under Genera October 17 4 American Victory
paint, paper, tea, etc., passed in break with Britain. Danie Morgan defeat a British Pushes Indians Farther West :
June 1767) and c amp down on force under Banastre Tar eton at The war's aftermath wi prove
oca radica s. The troops' Cowpens. devastating to Native Americans.
presence doesn't sit we with December 1776 to January 1777 With no European a ies to re y
oca s and eads to street fghts. George Washington Crosses the upon, Indian tribes wi be under
De aware River:In a bo d move, March 15, 17 1 Gui ford increasing pressure from sett ers
fOne c ash between so diers and Courthouse: Cost y British
Washington moved his troops moving west out of the origina 13
a mob in March 177‹ wi eave Victory: British troops win a
fve dead. into New Jersey on Christmas states.
night. The patriots then surprise cost y victory over Continenta s
a force of German troops fghting and mi itia at Gui ford
Spring 1772 Committees of for Britain at Trenton. Courthouse. 17 7 U.S. Constitution Rep aced
Correspondence were Artic es of Confederation
estab ished throughout the (adopted in 1777). With
October 17, 1777 Batt e of May to June, 17 1 Ninety-Six: amendments, the Constitution
co onies to coordinate American Longest Siege of the War: The
response to British co onia Saratoga British Setback: The remains the framework of
surrender of 6,‹‹‹ British iso ated British garrison at Ninety government in the U.S.
po icy. This represents an Six is aid siege to by patriot
important move towards the regu ars at Saratoga wi shock
London and he p induce France forces. The events at Ninety Six
deve opment of a nationa under ine the fact that Britain
identity among Americans. to enter the war on the American
side. has too few troops to ho d the
southern hinter ands.

Fig. 3.1 American Revolution

24 Origin of Modern World Politics

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Colonialism is a system or policy in which one country exerts control over another to gain
economic superiority. The colonisers imposed their religion, language, economics, and other
cultural practices during the process of colonialism.

y These American colonies were no longer the good of the mother country was
a source of any significant income for the above everyone else, even if it meant
British crown. However, their control over subversion and exploitation of the
these colonies was a matter of prestige as colony.
they believed that “the sun of the British ⚪ The rigorous imposition of various other
empire never sets”. rules formed the basis of discontent
y British rule was nominal in America for among the mob, especially the educated
another reason the constant fear of class and philosophers.
French invasion from North Canada as a y The Navigation Acts of 1651 and 1663
French colony. The British government allowed the British parliament to prohibit
was apprehensive that if rigid colonial the usage of non-British ships in their trade.
regulations were imposed, the Americans ⚪ It also imposed heavy import duties
could join hands with the French. and allowed selective export of cash
y By the mid-18th century, the level of crops such as tobacco, sugar etc., into
development in American colonies was no England only. This navigation law and
less than Britain in any way. the rent system based on mercantilism
y The plantation industry was highly further burdened the colonies.
developed, and many other modern y After the Seven Years’ War, the British
industries also emerged. attempted to shift the cost of protecting
y The American iron and steel industry was America on the colonists by claiming the
more developed than its British counterpart. high tax burden. The Sugar Act of 1764
Trade and Commerce were also quite and the Stamp Act of 1765, both passed
advanced. Thus, the Americans were not by King George III, were the British Prime
economically dependent on Britain in any Minister Grenville’s initial measures to
way. improve colony defence resources. The
y In 1750, the British government imposed 1767 Townshend Acts put tariffs on paper.
several restrictions on American industries The British government backed down in the
and trade to avoid competition against face of widespread opposition, but the Tea
British industries. Many colonial regulations Act of 1773 was introduced to assert the
were applied to American People by Britain government›s right to tax the colonies.
through the Navigation Acts of 1651 and 1663.
Seven Years War
Causes of the Revolution y The royal proclamation, issued on October
y Resentment arose as a result of Great 7, 1763, aimed to control the former French
Britain’s exploitative colonial policies, possessions in North America that Britain
which prevented the American colonies had won after the war.
from progressing due to different economic y It locked colonial expansion westward
constraints. beyond Appalachia. It affected all thirteen
⚪ The colonies were regulated by colonies and restricted private citizens and
imposing taxes based on the Doctrine governments from acquiring land or forming
of Mercantilism which upheld that agreements with natives. The British empire

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was made paramount to conduct all official to be sure they had enough legislative
relations. support.
y Townshend (1767), under Pitt’s Exchequer, y Richard Henry Lee proposed a motion
imposed duties on tea, glass, lead, paper, in Congress on June 7, 1776, to declare
and colour imported into the American independence if other members agreed, but
colonies. As a result of this, the colonists several colonies were not ready. However,
suffered a huge setback and revolted. They Congress formed a committee to draft a
refused to participate in the British trading declaration of independence, and Thomas
alliance. Jefferson was given the task.
y Tax constraints, such as the Stamp Act y After issuing the Declaration of
(1765), levied stamp taxes on all business Independence, adopted by Congress on 4
transactions, inciting violent boycotts of July 1776, the 13 American colonies split
English goods. their political links with the British. The
y American revolutionaries and philosophers, Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3,
i.e., namely Milton, Harrington, Thomas 1783, between agents of King George III of
Paine, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Great Britain and delegates of the United
Henry Patrick etc., enlightened the States of America, officially ended the
American people to get united and suppress American War of Independence.
the oppressive colonists to become
a republic. They all gathered popular The Course of War
support for the emancipation of American y The Second Continental Congress choose
society. They took inspiration from English General Washington as head of the
philosophers’ works and ideas, such as Continental Army. He was in charge of 19,000
John Locke’s social contract theory based soldiers who were ill-equipped and poorly
on liberalism. trained, and he was up against 32,000 skilled
y Since the Americans had no representation British soldiers led by William Howe. At the
in the British Parliament, they opposed the Battle of Long Island, he was defeated by
taxes imposed by it. Howe, and New York was taken.
y The slogan “No Taxation without Repre­ y Washington, on the other hand, did not lose
sentation” (Gentlemen’s Resolution) is his courage. On a snowy Christmas night,
intensely appealing, inspiring, and embedding he recrossed the icy river of Delaware and
them to raise their voice against British rule. retook Trenton from the Hessians.
As a result of this, the discontent among y He followed up this victory with another at
them continued to increase and burst out Princeton.
openly in the form of a mass revolution in y At the Battle of Saratoga, General Burgoyne
1776. was defeated and surrendered in October
y Americans were absorbed in the ideas of 1777. The defeat of the British at Saratoga
Enlightenment intellectuals like Benjamin was a turning point in the colonists› favour.
Franklin, Patric Henry, Thomas Jefferson, y The French foreign minister believed that
and Thomas Paine. They had popularised the colonies in America needed help from a
the liberal ideas of Enlightenment among friendly country.
Americans, which led them to speak out ⚪ As a result, France joined the war on the
against the exploitation of the British empire. side of the Americans in 1778, hoping to
revenge for its humiliation in the Seven
Declaration of Independence
Years’ War.
y Before bringing the subject to a vote, the ⚪ It lent her money and sent volunteers to
American revolutionary leaders wanted America. During important moments of

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the war, the French fleet also played a Impacts of the Revolution
crucial role.
⚪ As France’s allies, Spain and the Political Impact
Netherlands were soon at war with y One of the biggest impacts of this revolution
Britain. was the decline of hereditary monarchy
and the establishment of democracy. The
colonies became independent.
“This hour is fast approaching on which
y The end of the old system, which reduced
the honour and success of this army and
government meddling in the economy and
the safety of our bleeding country depend.
supported capitalism’s rise in American
Remember, officers and soldiers, that you
colonies.
are free men, fighting for the blessings of
y The government fostered and aided private
liberty ... that slavery will be your portion
businesses. The Federal system was
... if you do not acquit yourselves like men.”
founded in America, with the newly drafted
–George Washington
constitution separating powers between
the Federal and State governments.
y The League of Armed Neutrals (Russia, y The new constitution endowed the
Denmark, and Sweden) took a hostile Americans with significant rights such as
stance toward Britain. As a result, Britain the freedom of speech, press and religion,
was fighting the rebellious colonists, justice etc.
thousands of miles away all by herself.
y General George Washington suffered the Economic Impact
coldest winter of his life at Valley Forge.
y There was an agricultural development in
His army was starving, and morale was at
which vast estates were dismantled into
an all-time low. In 1780, the British gained
smaller sections and distributed to the
many battles in the south. However, the
poor and middle classes.
British army in the south, led by General
y American industries got rid of the
Cornwallis, was besieged by American and
mercantilist restrictions imposed by
French troops in October 1781. Cornwallis
England and enabled the development of
and his army surrendered to Washington at
colonial industries and their economy.
Yorktown, unable to escape their plight.
y A liberal and progressive political system
y Cornwallis is the same one who went to
based on the philosophy of capitalism came
serve as the Governor of Ireland and then
into existence. Furthermore, the doctrine
came to India to serve as the Governor-
of Laissez-Faire (Free Trade) came into
General of Bengal.
operation in America, and the Mercantilist
y It was the most important event during
regulation was uprooted.
the war. The war continued till 1783, even
y It heralded the expansion of America’s
though Britain was weary.
navigation system as the colonies’ ports
y Britain lost this war because its commanders
were opened to foreign trade and private
were unable to effectively direct it. Due
navigation was encouraged.
to French intervention, it lost its marine
dominance. Fighting on foreign soil, thousands
of miles away, and lack of communication Social Impact
were other reasons for its defeat in the war. y It rejuvenated her social, religious, and
y The Treaty of Paris (1783) was signed by cultural organisations. There was a
the British in 1783, recognising the thirteen significant increase in demand for public
colonies’ independence. schools and general education.

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y It planted the seeds of the Revolution, y The idea of the natural rights of men
especially in France, by bringing social and received a concrete form for the first time
intellectual awakenings among the people in America when the American Parliament
of Europe. It instilled a new vigour into adopted the Bill of Rights in 1789.
the anticolonial revolutionaries in Europe, y The principles of liberty and democracy
Ireland, India etc. that arose from the American Revolution
y The declaration of independence widened helped the leaders who fought against the
the gulf between the patriots and loyalists. monarchy and colonial government.
y Loyalists were those who supported Britain y Its success inspired anti-monarchical,
during the American Revolutionary War. democratic, national, and independent
They constituted half a million people or movements across the world. It not only
20% of white Americans. helped the rise of the French Revolution
y The rest were the patriots whose dreams but also the Netherlands, Belgium, Geneva,
came true for the patriots. They came out and Ireland.
of houses to fire guns and cannons and y The American Revolution established that
rang church bells while the loyalists were people are born with rights and that the
too saddened and could not celebrate people empower the government. The
independence. idea of constitutionalism is derived from
y According to estimates, more than 60,000 it, which served as an inspiration for the
immigrated after the end of the American coming world.
War of Independence. y Its constitution is the first document that
y The declaration of independence, written tells the government what it could do and
before the revolution on July 4, 1776, what not.
captures the significance of the American y This revolution provided the notion of
Revolution. It resulted in a nation’s declaration federalism when thirteen different colonies
of independence and paved the way for came together to fight against the British
political philosophy and revolutionary ideals empire, and later many other colonies
in nineteenth-century European history. It joined to form the United States of America.
signalled the start of a new epoch, which Thomas Jefferson’s “Declaration of Rights”
laid the groundwork for global change. awakened the people for their rights.
y This revolution established a democratic
Significance of the American Revolution republic in the USA, but it was not truly
y The American Revolution is often regarded democratic as the women, the blacks, and
as one of the most important events in the native Americans were not granted the
human history. It resulted in the emergence right to vote. Slavery remained a problem in
of the first modern democracy and gave the the USA, which led to the outbreak of the
first written Constitution to the world. Civil War.
y The American Revolution was a Victory of y The revolution had many repercussions
Capitalism over Mercantilism. on America’s social fabric. Almost every
y The American Revolution also triggered the aspect of American life was touched by the
process of decolonisation. These American revolutionary spirit. From slavery to women’s
colonies were the first to gain independence rights, from religious life to voting, American
from foreign colonial rule. attitudes would be irreversibly altered. The
y The bitter lessons learned by the British American Revolution instilled in its citizens
government in America opened its eyes to a new vision that would have far-reaching
India, and immediately greater attention consequences. The most significant long-
began to be paid to Indians. term economic result of the revolution was

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the end of mercantilism. Trade limitations, slaves were governed by the “slave code”,
settlement restrictions, and manufacturing and they were considered the property of
restrictions were all imposed by the British the slaveholders.
Empire on colonial economies. As a result ⚪ They were denied personal liberty and
of the Revolution, new marketplaces and subjected to harsh treatment. Their
commercial linkages formed. condition was miserable because they
were illiterate and were confined to
the slaveholder’s estate. They were
The USA Between Revolution and
subjected to floggings, thrashings, and
Civil War
even executions. The Fugitive Slave
y After the American Revolution, the USA Act of 1850 required northern states to
expanded its territories towards the apprehend fugitive slaves and return
west and South. During the presidency of them to their owners.
Thomas Jefferson, the Louisiana territory y Slavery in the South was denounced by the
was purchased (1803) from the French northern states for the simple reason that
Emperor Napoleon, which almost doubled it was against their conscience.
the areas of the USA. ⚪ Slavery was abolished in the United
y Native Indians were forcibly taken from Kingdom in 1833. Anti-slavery societies
these lands and relocated west of the were created in a few towns and cities
Mississippi River. in the hopes of influencing the South
y The territory that would later become with their strong opinions on slavery.
the state of Florida was acquired from y Unfortunately, their viewpoints sparked
Spain in 1819. The defeat of Mexico in the outrage in the South. Slavery was seen as
Mexican War (1846–48) pushed the United a necessary part of the economy in the
States’ borders westward. The existing South. Slave owners reminded the north
states of Utah, Nevada, and California, as that slavery was legal and provided a source
well as sections of New Mexico, Arizona, of their sustenance.
Colorado, and Wyoming, were all acquired y William Lloyd Garrison founded The
from Mexico after the Treaty of Guadalupe Liberator, a weekly anti-slavery journal,
Hidalgo (1848). in 1831. In 1832, he established the New
y The Oregon Treaty (1846) peacefully ended England Anti-Slavery Society, which was
the British-American border dispute in followed by the American Anti-Slavery
Oregon. The US purchased present-day Society in 1833. Slaveholders in the South
southern Arizona and southwestern New began blaming northern abolitionists for
Mexico from the Mexican government in the inciting slave revolts (such as Nat Turner’s
Gadsden Purchase (1853). insurgency in 1831). They appealed to
y As a result, by the middle of the 19th century, Congress to deny the abolitionists› petitions
the United States had expanded from for anti-slavery hearings.
thirteen to approximately forty-eight states. y Slavery’s economic worth was questioned
⚪ The westward expansion created severe by American politicians such as George
problems. The American Civil War was Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and George
undoubtedly one of them that broke out Mason in the early years of the Republic.
over slavery, trade and tariff, and the They feared its divisive influence on national
doctrine of state rights. affairs.
y There were almost 4.5 million slaves in y The Missouri Compromise was enacted by
the United States at the time of the Civil Congress to maintain the balance between
War, with the majority working on cotton the anti-slavery North and the pro-slavery
and tobacco plantations in the South. The South (1820).

Origin of Modern World Politics 29

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TIMELINE
American eiCil War

1774 - 1820 1820 - 1858 1858 - 1861 1861

13 June 1774 Whode Island
abolishes slavery R ode Island 16 – 18 October 1859 Waid on January – February 1861
becomes t e rst oo t e orininal Harpers Ferry Jo n Brown Extension of secession and the
T irteen eolonies to introduce attempts to lead an armed slaCe formation of the Confederacy
anti-slaCery laws t at would insurrection by seizinn a oederal Mississippi, Florida, Alabama,
accentuate t e diCide between arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virninia. Geornia, Louisiana and Teeas all
Nort ern and Sout ern states. He belieCed slaCery could only be committed to secession in 1861.
ended by Ciolent means. T is T ese states oorm t e
eCent is ooten seen as t e last eonoederate States oo America.
4 July 1776 The Declaration of notable lfas point oo sectional
Independence T omas Jeferson tension beoore t e outbreak oo
draws up t e Declaration oo t e eiCil War.
Independence to assert t e
soCereinn rin ts oo t e American
colonists.
18 September 1850 Fugitive Slave
Act eonnress is denied
April 1793 The Cotton Gin Eli interoerence in t e slaCe trade
W itney’s inCention between states, enablinn
reColutionized cotton production Sout ern slaCe-owners to take
in t e Sout , eCentually leadinn oree blacks orom t e Nort .
to cotton succeedinn tobacco as
t e most pro table trade
commodity in t e United States.

1803 30 April The Louisiana

Purchase T e western
territories, a Cast eepanse oo land
stretc inn orom t e Gulo oo
Meeico to t e Paci c, are
acÄuired by t e United States
orom France oor oCer eleCen
million dollars.
4 March 1861 Lincoln’s ifrst
inaugural address Lincoln calls
1 January 1808 Abolishment of oor peace wit t e errinn
slave importation T e United 6 November 1860 Abraham secedinn states, statinn t at
States bans t e import and Lincoln elected President 't oun passions may aCe
eeport oo slaCes, one year aoter Republican Party candidate strained' t e Nort and Sout
Great Britain abolis ed t e slaCe Abra am Lincoln becomes t e 'must not be enemies' but
trade. Nort ern states benin a 16t President oo t e United oriends.
nradual process oo endinn slaCery, States. He won t e presidential
but t e institution strennt ens in election wit out carryinn a sinnle
t e Sout as cotton production Sout ern Cote. 12 April 1861 Fort Sumter T e
eepands. rst eec anne oo re in t e eiCil
War takes place of t e coast oo
20 December 1860 South Sout earolina at Fort Sumter, a
Carolina secedes Sout earolina, narrison t at ad been occupied
one oo t e ric est states in t e by Kentuckian Unionists. Lincoln,
country, is t e rst to secede in under public pressure, sends
t e immediate aotermat oo proCisions to t e preCiously
1854 – 1856 Conlfict over Kansas Lincoln’s election. T e Ordinance unmanned narrison and noti es
T e 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act oo Secession cites Nort ern t e Secessionists oo is
oCerturns t e Missouri ostility to slaCery and t e intentions. Jeferson DaCis takes
eompromise by cedinn rin ts to election oo a sectional party as t e decision to re on t e
indiCidual states to decide reasons oor t e state’s action. unarmed boat w ic leads to t e
3 March 1820 The Missouri w et er to be oree or slaCe- surrender and eCacuation oo t e
Compromise Since t e beninninn oldinn t roun t e process oo Federal troops.
oo t e nineteent -century, t e January – February 1861
Popular SoCereinnty. Extension of secession and the
political balance between Nort
and Sout ad been maintained formation of the Confederacy 15 April 1861 Lincoln summons
by admittinn alternately slaCe and 1858 August – October Lincoln- Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, the troops Lincoln calls on t e
oree states. T e more populous Douglas debates In Illinois, Geornia, Louisiana and Teeas all Nort ern states to supply a
Nort ad come to dominate t e Democrat Step en A. Dounlas committed to secession in 1861. 75,000 stronn militia t at would

House oo RepresentatiCes and and Republican Abra am Lincoln T ese states oorm t e serCe oor t ree mont s, enoun
t e Sout now soun t to redress ennane in seCen debates durinn eonoederate States oo America. time, e belieCes, to restore t e
t e balance. t e Senate election campainn. Union.

Fig. 3.2 Events Timeline

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y It was one of the deadliest movements in

Dred Scott Case American history for freedom and equality,
y Missouri was added to the Union as killing almost 600,000 people and many
a slave state, whereas Maine was others.
admitted as a slave-free state. The y After the United States acquired freedom,
Missouri Compromise lasted nearly the Northern and Southern states evolved
37 years until the Supreme Court in fundamentally different ways, resulting
heard the Dred Scott Case in 1857. in competition.
y The Supreme Court’s controversial y The South was predominantly agricultural,
decision in the Dred Scoot case but the North had a different economic
highlights the actual pictures of structure based on industrial prosperity.
slavery in the southern states of the
USA. Dred was a slave who went to Causes of Civil War
the North with his master and lived
Social Cause
there for some time.
⚪ He petitioned the Supreme Court y Northern states were liberal and progressive
after his return to the South, in outlook, where slavery was considered an
claiming that he had lived in evil practice. Southern states, on the contrary,
free states and thus should be were dominated by traditional values where
considered a free citizen. Despite slavery was regarded as a mark of respect.
having lived in free states, the y The controversy that started over the
Supreme Court denied him free abolition of slavery culminated in a civil war
citizenship since he was a slave. between the Northern and the Southern
⚪ To put it another way, slaves of part of America.
African descent were denied the y The territorial crisis between slave and free
right to sue in federal court. states.
⚪ The Missouri Compromise was y There was a disagreement over state rights
even declared unconstitutional since the Southern states claimed that
by Supreme Court Chief Justice because each state chose to join the Union,
Roger Taney. He ruled that they had the right to secede/leave at any
Congress lacked the authority to moment.
decide on slavery or its spread
into western lands. Unfortunately, Economic Cause
this judgment came when the y Sectionalism developed a schism due
question of slavery emerged to the North and South states’ disparate
as a crucial point in which the economies, social structures, cultures, and
Republican Party came forward political principles.
to end slavery in the US. y Plantation agriculture was the main
economic activity of Southern states, where
Northern states’ economy revolved around
rapid industrialisation.
American Civil War y Tariffs and protectionism were other sources
y The American Civil War, held between 1861 of hostility between the two republics, as
and 1865, was one of the bitterest civil wars northern manufacturing interests favoured
fought between the Union (the northern tariffs and protectionism, while southern
states of America) and the Confederates planters, who lacked mechanisation,
(the Southern States of America). desired free trade.

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Political Cause The Course of the Civil War

y In the northern state, the Republican party y For the presidential elections of 1860, the
was in power and favoured the abolition Republican Party nominated Abraham
of slavery, whereas, in the southern state, Lincoln, who faced off against Stephen
the Democratic party was in power and Douglas once more. Before his election to
opposed it. the presidency, Lincoln had stated that he
y While the South was inspired by Southern would do everything in his power to preserve
nationalism, the North was becoming the integrity of the Union of States, even if
increasingly nationalistic and rejecting the it meant the continuation of slavery.
idea of severing the Union. y The people of the south, on the other
y The Southern states interpreted those hand, thought Lincoln was an abolitionist.
northern industrialised states deliberately He would jeopardise the south’s economy,
to deprive their people of their legitimate which relied on slave labour.
property. y Before his inauguration as the sixteenth
y Abraham Lincoln’s election as President of President of the United States, seven
the United States in November 1860 served southern states (South Carolina, Florida,
as the ultimate catalyst for secession and Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana,
the Civil War. The southern states, who had and Texas) seceded from the Union and
already become a minority in the House of formed the Confederate States of America.
Representatives, proclaimed independence y Lincoln said states have no right to secede
and banded together to form the confederacy. from the unbreakable Union. The ordinances
of the southern states relating to secession
were legally null and void. Fortunately, the
Abraham Lincoln
Democratic Party candidate, Stephen Douglas,
Abraham Lincoln was born to a poor
pledged his support to President Lincoln.
family and had no formal education.
y The attack on Fort Sumter near Charleston
He went to Illinois in 1830 and started
Harbour (12 April 1861) by the Confederate
working as a storekeeper, postmaster,
troops started the Civil war.
surveyor, etc. In 1832 he participated in
y Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and
the Black Hawk War and was promoted
Tennessee joined the Confederate States of
to captain. In 1856, he joined the
America after seceding from the Union.
Republican Party and was nominated for
y All the eleven southern states which
the Senate election of 1858. He stated
seceded from the Union formed the
unequivocally that slavery was immoral
Confederacy and appointed Jefferson Davis
and that it should not be extended into
as its President.
the territories. He argued that he was
y President Davis hoped that Britain and
not an abolitionist and that he did not
France would support him at the time of
support black political equality for the
the war because of their economic relations
blacks. He lost the election, but his
with the Confederacy. However, Lincoln’s
leadership qualities were noticed by the
diplomacy resolved issues with Britain.
common people.
y When Lincoln learned of the attack on Fort
While abolishing slavery, Abraham Lincoln
Sumter, he declared war on the Confederate
said: “In giving freedom to the slave, we
States of America. To continue the fight
assure freedom to the free—honourable
against the south, he seized enormous
alike in what we give, and what we
powers.
preserve. We shall nobly save, or meanly
y He imposed a state of emergency and
lose, the last best hope of earth.”
suspended all residents’ civil liberties. He
enforced censorship on the press.

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y In July 1861, he assembled a force of 30,000 y Meanwhile, Confederate General Robert E.

troops and commanded them to march Lee’s army gained significant success in
towards the Confederate capital Richmond, the east (Seven Days’ Battles). Lee invaded
Virginia. the north, encouraged by his triumphs, and
y In the Battle of Bull Run, Confederate forces faced the Union forces led by George Meade
defeated Union forces. in the epic Battle of Gettysburg (1863).
y The Union forces were forced to y Meanwhile, President Abraham Lincoln
flee to Washington, D.C. President abolished slavery with his emancipation
Abraham Lincoln was shocked by the proclamation. The Battle of Gettysburg
defeat and ordered 500,000 additional proved to be a watershed moment in the
recruits. Civil War, changing the course of the conflict.
y Commander Ulysses S. Grant led a large y The civil war also saw some naval actions
campaign, effectively capturing Confederate along the seacoast of the southern states
forts. The Battles of Shiloh and New Orleans since the ships belonging to the Union tried
followed, with Union victory. to blockade the ports.

Impact of Civil War:

The Civil War in the United States had many significant repercussions that had a profound
and long-lasting influence on the nation. They are as follows:
y The war resolved the North-South tension permanently.
y Constitutional amendments were carried out to recognise all citizens.
y The era of reconstruction sprang up.
y Abolition of slavery in America and proclamation of the emancipation of slaves was
declared.
y The emergence of industrialism in the Southern States.
y The Union created a large professional army to fight the Civil War. After the Civil War, the
USA became a tremendous military power in the world.
y Blacks liberated from slavery were gradually granted equal status in American Constitution.
The 15th Amendment to the American Constitutional in 1870 abolished racial restrictions
on voting rights.
Although it was a long-drawn war that devastated the peace and unity of America as a
nation, it managed to attain its ultimate goal of equality for every citizen. It liberated America
from the shackles of exploitative slavery and gave impetus to a new era of progress and
industrialisation.

Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)

y In body,
(2013, Mains)
⚪ Define what mercantilism means.
 he American Revolution was an
T ⚪ Describe how the American
economic revolt against mercantilism. Revolution was an economic
Substantiate. (10 marks, 200 words) revolt against mercantilism.
Decoding the question y Conclude by highlighting the fact
y In the introduction, try to give a that it was a victory of American
brief introduction of the American capitalism over mercantilism.
Revolution.

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Answer: Act (1765), and Quarter Act (1765),

The American Revolution of 1776 was were examples of the same.
the greatest phenomenon in the History y These new taxes and rigid restrictions
of the Modern Age. This revolution left were opposed by Americans and
a lasting impact not only on Americans the developments that followed
but on the people throughout the world. triggered the revolution. Finally, the
Mercantilism: Tea policy of Lord North proved to be
By the middle of the 18th century, the last straw on the camel’s back.
thirteen British colonies had emerged It tripped the patience of Americans
in North America. Before the Industrial & the war commenced.
Revolution, British companies followed y The East Indian company faced a
the policy of mercantilism for their serious financial crisis in 1772-1773.
colonies. In mercantilism, a business To help this company, Prime minister
enterprise that makes a profit primarily Lord North formulated a tea policy.
through trade, buying goods cheap and This policy allowed East IndiaCompany
selling them at higher prices. to export its tea directly to America by
By the middle of the 18th century, the paying an additional duty. This policy
level of development in American was beneficial to Britain & East India
colonies was no less than Britain in any companies, but it was against the
way. These colonies had matured in interest of Americans.
every manner, and the Americans had y Some of the ideals of the Revolution
come of age. Economically the American like the protection of private property
colonies were well advanced in several rights, the Doctrine of Laissez-faire
spheres like: (Free Trade), judicial supremacy, and
y The plantation industry was highly meritocracy are all anti-mercantilist
developed. ideals.
y Many modern industries also
emerged. The American Iron of the
steel industry was more developed
than its British counterpart. French Revolution
y Trade & Commerce was also quite The French Revolution (1789) was a watershed
advanced. moment in European history and one of the most
y The resources were plenty. significant and dramatic events in the history
American Revolution as an economic of the world. It was the first major widespread
revolt against mercantilism: rebellion against the ruler’s autocracy. It ignited
y Economically the Americans were ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity that
not dependent on Britain in any way. spread beyond France’s borders and inspired the
Until 1763, the burden of taxes on rest of Europe. It is considered a more world-
Americans was less than being faced shaking event than the American Revolution.
by British citizens on the mainland. It became a widespread upheaval in various
y After the economic development parts of the world over which no one could
in America, the British Parliament remain neutral. This revolution opens the door
enacted several new laws and to modernity in Europe in a realistic manner.
imposed new taxes. Sugar Act There was an uprising in France against the
(1764), Currency Act (1764), Stamp monarchy from 1789 to 1799, which resulted in
the establishment of France as a republic and

34 Origin of Modern World Politics

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TIMELINE
FRENCH REVOLUTION

1789 - 1790 1790 - 1793 1793 - 1799 1799 - 181

1789-91 National Assembly ?hase June 1791 Escape of Louis XVI March 1793 Reign of Terror 1799-181 Napoleonic Era
of the French Revolution: In 1789, and Marie Antoinette:King Louis Begins In March of 1793, the Napoleon Bonaparte wasn’t
the French people were not knew his reign was over. National Convention created the satisifed with just becoming a
happy. Due to war and King Louis Therefore, the family tried to get Committee of ?ublic Safety. This military great. He wanted to be a
XVI’s spending habits, the out of France by escaping to witch hunt committee headed by ruler. So, he used his military
country was utterly broke. On top Austria. But they were caught. Maximilien de Robespierre expertise and national love to
of that, the peasants had been Austria wanted France to support worked to ifnd and eliminate become one. Using his military
through droughts and disease, their King and became a bit angry those who might attack the new dictatorship, Napoleon defeated
making the harvest inadequate. when they didn’t. Rou know what nation. From September 5th, The Directory and eventually
These poor, hungry peasants had that means: war. 1793, to July 28th, 1794, around became an emperor. However, his
enough. So, they started to 27,000 people died by execution rise to power was short-lived,
revolt. A political party, known as or imprisonment, with about and his fall imminent.
the Third Estate, called for a 1792-9¦ The Reign of Terror 500,000 arrested.
change in the government. Phase After the King and Marie
Therefore, several things tried to escape, things became a November 1799 Fall of The
happened in rapid succession, bit heated in France. Since the July 179¦: Reign of Terror Ends Directory and Rise of the Consul
which led to France becoming a French didn't want to listen to Not surprisingly, France realized After returning from the wars, the
constitutional monarchy. Austria, France declared war. that de Robespierre wasn’t a people hailed Napoleon as the
France became a republic. king good guy, using fear and hate to country’s savior and realized The
was executed using the new kill innocent people. On July Directory couldn’t do its job.
June 1789 Tennis Court ath On
O invention, the guillotine. Then the 28th, they executed Robespierre Therefore, on November 7th-8th,
June 20th, the Third Estate true Reign of Terror unfolded. ending his reign of terror. a coupe, including Napoleon,
became the National Assembly overthrew The Directory. The new
and protested on the tennis government needed a ruler, and
court of the Estate General April 1792 France Declares War 179-1799 The Directory Some Napoleon became the First
building after a failed attempt to The monarchies around Europe might see the end of the Reign of Consul, and eventually, Consul
take it over. weren’t happy about the way that Terror as the end of the French for Life in August 1802.
France overthrew Louis. However, Revolution. However,
they weren’t going to unite in war revolutionary things were still
July 1789 Storming the Bastille either.France declared war happening within the March 180¦ Institution of the
King Louis XVI tried to take back themselves on Austria, starting government. And Napoleon Napoleonic Code After becoming
absolute power by building up the French Revolutionary Wars. Bonaparte played a large part in the country’s leader, Napoleon
ammunition and supplies. the ifnal two phases of the realized that he needed a civil
However, on July 14th, a ?arison French Revolution. code for the people to follow,
mob stormed the Bastille and an August 1792 Fall of Legislative which he titled the Napoleonic
ammunition depot, defeating his Assembly While the Legislative code. It was oiffcially ratiifed in
attempt. Assembly did succeed in getting August 179 New Constitution France on March 21st.
rid of the king and starting a war, Adopted After the Reign of Terror,
they didn’t succeed in staying in France needed to have a
August 1789 Declaration of Man power. On September 20th, a constitution for the republic. The
The National Assembly nobles new leader, the National Constitution of the Rear III was December 180¦ Napoleon
renounced feudalism, and the Convention, took the stage after signed into legislation which put Crowns Himself Emperor Why be
Declaration of Man was issued. an insurrection in August. the power in a directory of only a simple consul when you could
The Declaration of Man and of ifve wealthy directory members. be an emperor? That’s just what
the Citizens was the ifrst attempt Napoleon Bonaparte did. On
at setting up democratic September 1792 Monarchy December 2nd, Napoleon
principles. Abolished For the National September 179 Rise of Napoleon crowned himself emperor of
Convention, just being a The Directory wasn’t doing that France. This let his domination of
constitutional monarchy wasn’t great of a job, and people were Europe continue.
October 1789 Women s March on
’ enough. They wanted freedom. furious. Therefore, a royalist mob
Versailles In ?aris on October Therefore, they abolished the took to the streets to bring down
5th, peasant women marched to monarchy and became a republic The Directory. On September June 181¦ Napoleon Defeated in
protest the famine. The King, on September 21, 1792. 21st, Napoleon Bonaparte saved Russia After a long and hard
Marie Antoinette and their the Directory, starting his rise to battle with Russia, they defeated
children went into hiding after power. Napoleon and his army on June
Marie Antoinette allegedly uttered January 1793 Execution of King 24th after the French lost
her famous words, “Let them eat Louis XVI With the Republic’s 300,000 soldiers due to battles,
cake,” riling up the mob. establishment in France, On 179-1799: The Creation of a hunger and weather. After this
January 21st, the king was Hero Napoleon was pivotal in the defeat, Napoleon was exiled to
executed using the guillotine. French Revolutionary Wars, and Elba but came back for 100 days
July 1790 Civil Constitution of Nine months later, on October The Directory needed him on the in 1815. Only to be defeated
the Clergy the Legislative 16th, Marie Antoinette also met battleifeld. Therefore, they give again.
Assembly was created along with the same fate. him military accolades and
a constitution on July 12th. In merits to defeat the armies of
addition to creating a limited Austria. He also went on to claim June 181 Monarchy Restored
monarchy, it also worked to February 1793 Convention Switzerland, Rome and Naples in With Napoleon defeated, the
separate the government from Declares War on Great Britain 1798. His defeat of these relation of Louis XVI mounted the
the church. and the Netherlands on February oppressors made him a hero in throne once again. On July 8th,
1st. the hearts of the people. the monarchy was once again
restored in France, ending the
French Revolution.

Fig. 3.3 French Revolution

Origin of Modern World Politics 35

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ended in 1799 with the consulate under Napoleon y Montesquieu argued against the notion of
Bonaparte. The revolution, which was inspired by the Divine Right of Kings and advocated for
liberal and progressive ideals, changed modern power separation. Rousseau declared in his
history by precipitating the global collapse of work ‘Social Contract’ that the people will
absolute monarchies and replacing them with have sovereign authority.
republicans and liberal democracies.
Economic Cause
Causes of the French Revolution y The French economic crises of the 1770s
The outbreak of the revolution in France was and 1780s.
triggered by several complex factors. The major y Intolerable heavy taxation on the common
causes are discussed below: people. The first and second estates were
exempted from all kinds of taxes.
Social Cause y Forced labour who worked for the lords.
y Domination of first estate (clergy) and y Poor wages and maximum exploitation.
second estate (nobility) who controlled y The wasteful lifestyle of King Louis XVI and
most of the administrative posts. the royal court while depriving the people’s
y The social inequities and discriminations basic needs.
that existed in French society paved the y France’s economic situation deteriorated
way for the French Revolution. as a result of Louis XIV’s foreign wars, Louis
y Discontent bourgeoisie class/middle class XV’s Seven Years’ War, and subsequent
and labour class. costly wars that led to bankruptcy.
y The success of the American revolution y Imbalanced trade and commerce due to a
also boosted the people of France. faulty tax system and lack of agrarian infra­
y The exploitation of the third estate was structure. The Peasants were impoverished
common people of the total population. as they were the most burdened by taxes.
y People were more reasonable as a result y The peasants had to pay land revenue
of intellectual movements such as the “De-la-Terre-tube” to the Church, Salt tax
Enlightenment and Renaissance. (Gable) and Feudal dues when Louis XVI sat
y Works of philosophers such as Montesquieu, on the throne in 1774.
Voltaire, and Rousseau enabled the spread y Different judicial and legal systems in
of revolutionary thinking and ideals that different provinces of France also obstructed
attacked the unjust monarchy. the movement of goods & services.
y The Guild system was also responsible for
the economic crisis in a big way.

Politico-Administrative Cause
y Louis XVI faced strong opposition from
provincial parliaments.
y The burden of feudal and serfdom system.
y Autocratic monarchy and its resentment by
the bourgeoisie.
y Centralised political system.
y Arbitrary judicial systems, where there
were no codified laws.
y The System “Letters de cachet” was an
arrest warrant that could be purchased
by an individual from the court. This was
Fig. 3.4 French Society of Estates
misused by the rich to exploit the poor.

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Religious Cause economic health of the French treasury,

y The religious system of France was and impending bankruptcy pushed France
controlled by the clergymen. The class of on the path of revolution.
clergymen had two sub-categories, i.e., y The French soldiers who participated in the
higher clergy and lower clergy. American war of independence also played
y The higher clergymen were from a noble a significant role in the revolution, at least
class, and most of them used to enter the in the initial phase.
church just to enjoy their wealth. They had y Having fought for the liberty of Americans,
no genuine interest in religious activity. these French soldiers could not digest the
y The lower clergymen consisted of the class denial of the same liberty on them in their
of commoners. They were the true men own country.
of religion, but they had to face serious y Lafayette, the leader of Paris, was one
discrimination within the church. The higher such American returned French soldier. His
clergymen used to treat lower clergymen leadership played an important role in his
with disrespect. success.
y The Lower clergymen were paid a lower
salary. It was hardly sufficient to purchase The Outbreak of the French Revolution
two pairs of clothes in a year. y Through finance ministers such as Target,
y French Philosophers like Voltaire exposed Nekar, and Kelon, Louis XVI attempted to
the evils of the church. He termed the remedy the dismal economic condition.
French Church a Monument of bigotry and y However, he failed to do so and then
a den of superstitions. planned to impose further taxes to meet
the expenses of the state. This generated
Role of the Philosophers anger and protests against the system of
y The French philosophers, in the 18th century, privileges. On June 17, 1789, members of
played the role of catalysts in France. The the general public declared themselves
writings and speeches exposed the evils of the ‘National Assembly.’ The monarch
the existing regime. summoned a joint meeting on June 23, but
y The awakening intensified the pain of upper-class members refused to cooperate.
suffering among French men. As a result, the king asked members of the
y A revolution would have taken place in assembly to leave the hall, but they refused.
France even without these Philosophers, if They convened a constituent assembly on
not in 1789, then at a later date. The efforts July 9, 1789, and people around the country
made by philosophers just brought the day awoke, organised public assemblies, and
of revolution nearer. prepared the red-white-blue tricolour
y The writings of philosophers like national flag. The revolution gained speed
Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau when revolutionaries attacked the Bastille
depicted the politico-administrative, fort on July 14, 1989. As a result, social unrest
social, religious and economic sufferings of and intellectuals’ views laid the path for the
common helpless French men. French Revolution.

Role of the American Revolution Events of the Revolution

y The ideas of the American Revolution, such y In the 18th century, France was ruled by
as liberty, equality, constitutionalism and Louis XVI of the Bourbon dynasty, who
the rule of law, had left a profound impact drained the country’s resources due to
on the deprived French people. continuous wars and extravagant courts.
y The financial budget for the war of y Increased pressure led to a tax hike followed
American independence had ruined the by a meeting of the estates general, a political

Origin of Modern World Politics 37

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body represented by the three estates with y This was the “Jacobin” phase of the revolution
ultimate power over the king. - often designated as “the reign of terror”.
y The demand for voting rights in the y Radical political factions gained control of
assembly by third estates was rejected by the executive branch.
the king who agitated the members. Finally, y The political clubs sprang up in different
in June 1789, they declared themselves the quarters.
National assembly. y The Jacobin Club and the Cordelier Club
y Apart from the National Assembly, the were the most visible of these. Robespierre,
French people had voted to protest against a radical democrat, led the Jacobin Club.
inequality, motivated by the principles of Danton was the leader of the Cordelier Club.
liberty and equality. y In 1793, the Reign of Terror commenced.
y Thousands of people marched through the Robespierre gave orders to execute thousands
streets of Paris on July 14, 1789, to storm of “enemies” of the Republic and guillotined
the Bastille, the state prison (and emblem innocent people on suspicion of treason.
of the great Bourbon monarchy), and free y As traitors, King Louis XVI and Queen
the inmates. As a result, the Bastille, a Marie Antoinette were guillotined in 1793.
symbol of the oppressive monarchy, was It shocked the monarchical countries of
demolished. For the French people, it was Europe, leading to a coalition of European
a huge psychological win. The fall of the countries against France.
Bastille coincided with the celebration of y Eventually, after Robespierre, from 1795-to
Independence Day, making it a significant 1799, the baton of power passed onto the
event in the history of the French Revolution. hands of moderate leaders known as the
On August 12, 1789, the National Assembly Directory (composed of five directors who
passed the “Declaration of Man and Citizen exercised power). During this period, France
Rights” and began drafting the constitution, went through tremendous turmoil due to a
which was completed by 1791. lack of efficient governance, giving way to
y This proclamation said that men are born the era of Napoleon Bonaparte.
free and have equal rights. It further said y He led the Directory and fought the European
that every political organisation’s goal is to coalitions, and earned the confidence of the
protect man’s natural and inalienable rights, people. With the backing of his supporters
which include liberty, property, security, (Bonapartist), he finally overthrew the
and opposition to persecution. Directory and curtailed the pillars of the
y The nation is the source of all sovereignty; Republic by declaring himself the “Emperor
no group or individual may exercise authority of the French” in December 1804.
that is not derived from the people. A
man may not be accused, arrested, or Napoleon’s France
detained unless the law requires it. The
French monarchy was deposed in 1792,
“When France is sneezing, the rest of
and the country established a republic and
Europe catches a cold.” 
provisional government based on the ideas
 —Metternich, the Austrian Chancellor
of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
y Between 1790 and 1794, mass executions were
prevalent as a segment of the middle class, Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 to 5 May
backed by the urban poor and the peasantry, 1821), a French statesman and military leader of
attempted to consolidate their control over Italian ancestry, rose to prominence during the
a fragmenting nation. The Jacobin regime French Revolutionary Wars and led numerous
persecuted not only aristocrats but even ex- successful campaigns. He ruled France from
revolutionaries in the process. 1804 to 1814 and then again during the Hundred

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Days in 1815. His political and cultural legacy Administrative Reforms

made him one of history’s most celebrated and y The Napoleonic Code, or civil laws, made
controversial figures. Napoleon is also regarded a substantial overhaul in the civil law legal
to be a product of the French Revolution. system, emphasising properly written and
Napoleon Bonaparte-Military Flair and accessible law. It was primarily based on
Statesman equality and opportunity for all, denounced
privileges based on birth and enabled
y He started his career serving as an artillery
freedom of religion.
officer in the French army when the French
y Napoleon commissioned further codes
Revolution erupted in 1789, rapidly rose
(“Les cinq codes”) to codify criminal and
through the military ranks and became
commercial law.
general at age 24. Napoleon’s ambition
y He resurrected the administrative division
and public approval encouraged him to go
outlined in France’s constitution.
further, and he became the first Emperor of
y After becoming the first consul, he began
the French in 1804.
to centralise power by dissolving the Holy
y Louis XVI was executed on January 21,
Roman Empire and establishing the Legion of
1793. So many European countries turned
Honour, a replacement for the old royalist to
against France. Napoleon was instrumental
encourage civilian and military achievements.
in resolving the conflicts. He performed
People’s rights and legislative councils were
all of the obligations assigned to him by
restricted, and he seized control of them all.
the Directory. In France, he became quite
The administration became more effective as
popular. At the same time, the Directory was
a result of this adjustment.
unpleasant to him, and his contradiction
with the Directory led him to the throne.
y Napoleon shattered the Third Coalition Social Reforms
with British forces by 1805 with decisive y Napoleon’s code was a good compromise
victories in the Ulm Campaign. between the two sources of law. He
y Another historic triumph over the Russian considered Roman law to have a lot of merits
Empire and the Austrian Empire at the because it suited his authoritarian nature.
Battle of Austerlitz led to the end of the His code exhibited a slight conservative
Holy Roman Empire. lean, particularly in family matters.
y At the battles of Jena and Auerstedt in y Paternal authority was restored, and
1806, Napoleon easily defeated Prussia, divorce was preserved, albeit with greater
and at the Battle of Friedland in June 1807, restrictions. The majority of the victims of
he annihilated the Russians. In July 1807, this code were women. Wives were subject
France compelled the vanquished nations to their husbands and were not allowed to
of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties participate in the administration or judicial
of Tilsit, bringing the continent to an uneasy proceedings. Napoleon’s law denied the
peace. Tilsit was regarded as the pinnacle equality of sexes, which had been declared
of the French Empire. During the War of by the Convention but not enforced.
the Fifth Coalition in 1809, the Austrians y He made French the only official language
and the British threatened the French once and supported primary education and
more, but Napoleon solidified his hold on secondary education.
Europe after winning the Battle of Wagram. y By establishing a system of secular and
public education in France and most of
Reforms of Napoleon Europe, Napoleon set the groundwork for a
Napoleon Bonaparte conducted long-lasting modern educational system.
and effective socioeconomic and administrative y He made French the only official language
reforms that had a variety of effects on the west. and supported primary and secondary

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education; he paid special attention to Conquests of Napoleon

advanced centres, such as the École y Napoleon was at odds with Spain. Taking
Polytechnique, which provided both military advantage of the situation, Austria declared
expertise and cutting-edge scientific war on him. Napoleon personally assaulted
research; and he negotiated the Concordat Austria and triumphed. The Treaty of Vienna
of 1801 with the Catholic Church, which was signed in October of 1809.
sought to reconcile the predominantly y During the Napoleonic Wars, the Peninsular
Catholic population with his regime. War (1807–1814) pitted Spain, the United
Kingdom, and Portugal against France›s
Economic Reforms
invading and occupying forces for control
y The introduction of the Continental System, of the Iberian Peninsula. It is considered
an economic weapon to weaken British to coincide with the Spanish War of
rule, inflicted a large-scale embargo (trade Independence in Spain.
barrier) against British trade. ⚪ The peninsular proved disastrous to
y He rebuilt industrial life by protecting Napoleon. Subsequently, he said that
indigenous industries and encouraged local it was the “Spanish ulcer” which ruined
traders to participate in economic activities. him. Similarly, the Russian campaign of
y Laid the foundation of Banque de France Napoleon destroyed his army.
to enable tax collection by the central y Russia defeated Napoleon; it was a cheerful
government and root out corruption. thing to his enemies. Immediately England,
Educational Reforms Austria, Russia, and Prussia founded the
‘Fourth Coalition’, and the War of liberation
y Earlier, the educational system was under
against Napoleon began. He was very badly
the control of religious institutions.
defeated by them in the Battle of Leipzig
Napoleon brought it under state supre­
in 1813.
macy. Education was divided into three
y With the coming back of Napoleon, all
stages, i.e. primary, secondary and higher
nations kept aside the work of the Vienna
education, and religious education for girls
conference, forgetting differences, came
made available. The University of France was
together and declared war against Napoleon.
established, and officers were appointed to
The Duke of Wellington of England and
supervise schools, and military education
Blucher of Prussia fought bravely, and on
was made compulsory in every school.
18 June 1815, in the Battle of Waterloo, they
defeated Napoleon. After this, he was sent
Continental Policy of Napoleon: to Sent Helena, the island of the Atlantic
y Except for England, Napoleon defeated Ocean, where he passed away on 5 May
practically every country in Europe. He 1821 at the age of 52 years.
was able to build a vast empire. He
declared his famous ‘Continental Policy’ Impact of the Revolution
through Berlin Decrees on October 25, y The French Revolution had a significant
1806, as part of his new approach. impact on Europe and the rest of the world.
y Accordingly, France and her allied Scholars generally recognise the revolution
countries were to boycott trade with as one of the most significant events in
England and the ships of England and human history. The changes in France were
her friend state should not launch at massive; some were universally accepted,
seaports. However, Spain and Portugal while others were hotly debated until the
refused to accept the continental late twentieth century.
policy. y Abolition of Feudalism was a crucial impact
of this revolution. All the laws of the old

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feudal regime were annulled, and the y The French Revolution ushered in a new era
privileges of elite classes were abolished. of political awakening throughout Europe,
y The establishment of equality, fraternity, and inspired ideologies of liberty, equality,
and liberty: Paved the way for the and fraternity. Tipu Sultan and Rammohan
Republicans to form the government. Roy are such Indians who were inspired by
y They came up with a new economic system this revolution. Indian leaders incorporated
widely based on prosperity and egalitarian the ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity
rule. in the preamble of the Indian Constitution.
y The notion of human rights, public welfare y The French Revolution inspired struggles
initiatives and freedom emerged as the against colonialism in India and China, Africa
central idea of the new age. and South America, and movements for
y The power of the clergy was declined, and democracy and self-rule among European
the church’s rights were curbed. People countries. The colonies of Spain and Portugal
started putting reasons and rationality over in South and Central America declared
the blind following of clergymen. themselves independent republics after their
wars with France. The idea of nationalism
Impact on the World emerged from this revolution and helped
y It inspired the revolutionary movement in Giuseppe Mazzini, Giuseppe Garibaldi
almost every country in Europe, America, and Otto von Bismarck in the unification
South Asia etc., to bring about social of Italy and Germany. This revolution also
reforms. brought the concept of secularism by ending
y Because of the wave of public consciousness, sovereignty, despotism, and corruption of the
the monarchy has become submissive. The church. It helped women to demand their
autocratic governments of Europe found it rights. Olympe de Gouges got the Declaration
increasingly difficult to rule the people. of Rights for Women and Citizens as the
y Dismantling of institutions of serfdom with Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
the coming of human rights and a republic It led to the abolition of slavery, followed by
in parts of the world. Britain in 1833 and the USA in 1865.

American and French Revolution as the Fore Founders of the Modern World:
The American Revolution (1776–81) and the French Revolution (1789–94) are the two
most important events in history. It gave a death blow to the old monarchical system
of governance and germinated the seeds of modernity. These brought socio-economic
transformation, democratic ideals, and values associated with overall human development
in various countries.

Impact of American Revolution on Modern World:

y The American Revolution of 1776 was one of the most important events in human history,
with global implications.
y America emerged as an independent sovereign nation and the emergence of the first
modern democracy on the map of the world.
y It gave the first written Constitution to the world and laid the foundation for people’s
right to govern themselves.
y It promoted democratic values like Constitutionalism, republic government, fundamental
rights, no representation without taxation etc.

Origin of Modern World Politics 41

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y The liberal & Progressive political system based on the philosophy of Capitalism came
into existence. The Doctrine of Laissez-faire (Free Trade) came into existence. It also
laid the way for an open market and new trade relations with the colonised countries.
y It inspired anti-colonial and anti-monarchical movements in various countries like
Netherlands, Belgium, India, Geneva etc.
y In the society, it brought egalitarianism, religious freedom and meritocracy, which
helped in the overall development of people and improved their quality of life.

Impact of the French Revolution on the Modern World:

y The French Revolution was the most important modern revolution, which was an
outcome of a flawed social structure for a radical transformation of society.
y It democratised society by ending the age-old feudal system and system of privileges &
concessions.
y The ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity brought political awakening to the whole
world and inspired various national movements like Indian National Movement etc.
y It also challenged the despotism & corruption of the church and emphasised the idea of
scientific and rational thinking, which in future laid the foundation of secularism.
y The monarchy was abolished, and most of France’s social and political structures were
changed to make them more rational and modern. It also developed the feeling of
nationalism among people.
y They established a republic, held parliamentary elections, implemented educational
reforms, devised a new revolutionary calendar, and reconfigured France’s electoral
divisions to improve democratic representation.
y It also emphasised on right to vote, abolition of slavery etc., for a more egalitarian
society and rule-based governance.
The French Revolution and American Revolution laid down the foundation of modernity
in the world through socio-economic and political changes in society. The revolutions
remained the philosophical basis and aspiration of the people beyond the national
boundaries and inspired and promoted a change in various countries through rational and
scientific thinking.

Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)

y In body,
(2019, Mains)
y Write how the American and French
Revolution laid the foundation of the
Explain how the foundations of the
modern world.
modern world were laid by the American
y In conclusion, try to mention
and French Revolution. (15 Marks, 250
the overall importance of both
words)
revolutions.
Decoding the question
y In the introduction, try to briefly write
Answer
about both French and American
Revolutions. The American Revolution (1776-81) and
the French Revolution (1789-94) are the

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two most important events in history. It which was an outcome of a flawed

gave a death blow to the old monarchical social structure for the radical
system of governance and germinated the transformation of society.
seeds of modernity. These brought socio- y It democratised society by ending the
economic transformation, democratic age-old feudal system and system of
ideals, and values associated with overall privileges & concessions.
human development in various countries. y The ideals of liberty, equality and
Impact of the American Revolution on fraternity brought political awakening
the modern world: to the whole world and inspired
y The American Revolution of 1776 is various national movements like
one of the most significant events Indian National Movement etc.
in the history of mankind with a y It also challenged the despotism
global impact. America emerged as & corruption of the church and
an independent sovereign nation and emphasised the idea of scientific and
the emergence of the first modern rational thinking, which in future laid
democracy on the map of the world. the foundation of secularism.
y It gave the first written Constitution y The revolutionary leaders abolished
to the world and laid the foundation the monarchy and altered most of
for people’s right of governing France’s social and political institutions
themselves. to make them more rational and
y It promoted democratic values like modern. It also developed the feeling
Con­sti­tutionalism, republic govern­ of nationalism among people.
ment, funda­mental rights, no y They proclaimed a republic,
representation without taxation etc. instituted parliamentary elections,
y The liberal & Progressive political introduced educational reforms,
system based on the philosophy of created a new revolutionary
Capitalism came into existence. The calendar, and reorganised France’s
Doctrine of Laissez-faire (Free Trade) electoral districts to make
came into existence. It also laid the representation more democratic.
way for an open market and new y It also emphasised on right to vote,
trade relations with the colonized abolition of slavery etc., for a more
countries. egalitarian society and rule-based
y It inspired anti-colonial and anti- governance.
mon­archical movements in various y The French Revolution and American
countries like the Netherlands, Revolution laid down the foundation
Belgium, India, Geneva etc. of modernity in the world, through
y In the society, it brought socio-economic and political
egalitarianism, religious freedom changes in society. The revolutions
and meritocracy, which helped in the remained the philosophical basis
overall development of people and and aspiration of the people beyond
improve their quality of life. the national boundaries and inspired
Impact of the French Revolution on the and promoted a change in various
Modern World: countries through rational and
y The French Revolution was the scientific thinking.
most important modern revolution,

Origin of Modern World Politics 43

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Conclusion
overcome, other countries adopted these, and
The American and French revolutions created modern artistic culture originated from there
a space where the idea of industrialisation and only. Thus, the American and French Revolutions
globalisation took its shape. Through responsible not only helped the colonial countries to get
governments and effective administration, trade independence, the establishment of democracy
and commerce flourished, and the economy got over the monarch, or the rights of freedom, but
boosted. As the renaissance and revolutionary they also helped to boost the modern economy,
art movements helped these revolutions society, and political structure.

44 Origin of Modern World Politics

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4 Nation-State System

The Idea of Nationalism cohesive society with equal rights under the
law.
Nationalism is an idea and movement that
Benedict Anderson has defined the emergence
believes that the nation should be congruent
of nationalism as an ‘imagined community’
with the state. As a movement, nationalism
because it entails a sense of communion or
tends to promote the interests of a particular
“horizontal comradeship” between people who
nation, especially to gain and maintain the
often do not know each other or have not even
nation’s sovereignty over its homeland.
met. Despite their differences, they imagine
During the 19th century, nationalism emerged
belonging to the same collectively, and they
as a force that brought significant changes
attribute to the latter a common history, traits,
in Europe›s political and rational worlds. As
beliefs, and attitudes.
a result of these changes, the nation-state
arose instead of Europe’s multinational royal Unification of Italy
empires. A nation-state was one in which the
majority of its population, not only its rulers, Condition of Italy in 1796
had a feeling of shared identity and history. y At this time, most of Italy was under foreign
This commonness did not exist from time domination. North Italy was under the
immemorial; it was formed through struggles, control of Austria. A branch of the French
through the actions of leaders and the common Bourbon dynasty was ruling in South
people. The first clear expression of nationalism Italy (Naples, Sicily). The Pope controlled
originated with the French Revolution in 1789. central Italy. Piedmont Sardinia, located in
The concepts of la Patrie (fatherland) and northern Italy, was the only state ruled by a
le citoyen (citizen) emphasised the idea of a native ruler.

Fig. 4.1 Condition of Italy in 1796

Nation-State System 45
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TIMELINE
UNIFICATION OF ITALY

723 - 1797 1797 - 1820 1820 - 18 18 - 1929

72. 179
8 18
8
First Doge of Venice elected, French client republics formed in Secret meeting between Cavour
after collapse of the Byzantine Northern Italy and Switzerland. and Napoleon III. France gets
government Nice and Savoy if it helps
Piedmont drive Austria out of
179
8
Northern Italy.
Papal States invaded. The
Republic of Rome was formed.
18ç
Pope Pius VI kidnapped, dies in
France. France allies itself with Piedmont
against Austria. France drives
183
1 Austria out of Lombardy, but
179ç
Revolt in Rome, organized by the drops out of the coalition leaving
French invasion of Southern Italy "Carbonari", put down by an Austria in possession of Venice.

is frustrated by a peasant Austrian army. The pope, Gregory

800
rebellion. XVI, lfees Rome.
Northern Italy and Papal states 18í0
included as "Kingdom of Italy" Tuscany and northern Papal
within the Holy Roman Empire. 179ç 18K States declare for union with
Russian/Austrian offensive forces Newly elected Pius IX Piedmont-Sardinia.
France out of Northern Italy. implements many reforms,
100K
allows a free press and restores
Republic of Genoa established as 18í0
citizenship to many radicals and
a self-governing city-state. 1800
revolutionaries. Garibaldi invades Sicily and
Napoleon seizes power in Paris Naples and brings the entire
and immediately leads an army kingdom under his control. He
11É 18
8
to reconquer Italy. voluntarily passes control to
Kingdom of Sicily established by Simultaneous revolts organized Piedmont-Sardinia.
Norman prince Roger II of Sicily. by Mazzini and "Young Italy" in
180
1
Naples, Piedmont-Sardinia and
18í
1
Napoleon signs a deal with Pope Milan.
139K
Pius VII, restoring some rights to Kingdom of Italy is declared with
Duchy of Milan created in the Church and ceding Papal Victor Emmanuel II as the head.
Northern Italy as part of Holy states. 18
8 Cavour dies at the very moment
Roman Empire, between Savoy Tuscan and Piedmont forces of his triumph.
and Venice. invade Lombardy to expel
180K
Austria. Pope Pius IX fails to join
18í
2
Northern Duchies and client- the anti-Austrian coalition,
11±
Republics joined into a "Kingdom forced to lfee Rome. Garibaldi makes an unsuccessful
Duchy of Savoy established in of Italy" with Napoleon crowned attack on Rome.
Northwest Italy as part of the as king.
Holy Roman Empire. 18ç
18í±
A ustria crushes rebellion in
180±
Northern Italy. France puts down Italy joins Prussia in war against
179í Napoleonic Era
Kingdom of Naples falls to the rebellion in the Papal States and Austria, wins Venice as its
Napoleon assumes command of French. Napoleon's brother was leaves a French guard in Rome. reward.
France's army in Italy, defeats declared king. Later replaced by
Piedmont-Sardinia and the Duchy Murat
of Milan, then invades Venice. 180 1870

Victor Emmanuel II becomes king French troops abandon Rome

180í-181É
1íç of Piedmont-Sardinia; Cavour when France is attacked by
Secular "reforms" in Naples and becomes prime minister with a Prussia. The Pope is surrounded
Grand Duchy of Tuscany, formerly Northern Italy involve closing liberal cabinet, implements anti- and forced out of Rome, into the
the Republic of Florence, monasteries, selling church clerical measures. Papal compound in Vatican City.
established as part of Holy property.
Roman Empire.
18
2 187
1
181K
Napoleon III becomes Emperor of Rome becomes capital of Italy.
179
7
Kingdoms of Italy restored to France. Pledges to protect Rome Victor Emmanuel II is the ifrst
Battle of Rivoli, Mantua pre-1789 boundaries by the from revolutionaries in order to King of United Italy. Kingdom of
surrenders. The Austrian army in Congress of Vienna. win favor with French Catholics. Italy
Italy routed. Parma and Modena
surrender.
1820 18É 192ç
Revolts in Naples and Piedmont- avour sends Piedmont forces to Vatican City created as a
179
7 C
Sardinia organized by secret the Crimean War in order to gain separate state with Rome.
Treaty of Campo-Formio cedes societies, easily put down by favor with France and England—
Belgium and most of Northern conservative governments. lays groundwork for successful
Italy to France, leaving only takeover of Northern Italy.
Venice to Austria.

Fig. 4.2 Unification of Italy

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Napoleon Bonaparte and Italy

y Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Italy by defeating Austria in 1796. He established the
Cisalpine Republic in north Italy and initiated several reforms in this republic following
the principle of the French Revolution. The aristocracy and feudalism were removed,
and the ideals of equality and liberty were implemented. The rule of law was also
established.
y The Guild system was destroyed, and the doctrine of Laissez-Faire was implemented.
y These reforms paved the way for the enlightenment of the Italian People, and when the
rule of Napoleon Bonaparte turned despotic during the later part of 1812–13, the notion
of nationalism emerged In Italy.
y The spirit of nationalism continued to get momentum with the passage of time and
accelerated Italian unification.

Background of Italian Unification coalition assembled at Vienna to resettle

the map of Europe and restore the old
The unification of Italy was one of the most
Monarchical system.
important developments in the history of
y When the conference was going on,
Modern Europe. Its unification refers to the
Napoleon Bonaparte returned from Elba,
Italian movement, which united the Italian
where he was exiled after losing the battle
states in the 19th century.
of Leipzig.
y Italy was just a geographical entity, and
y Napoleon Bonaparte was welcomed as a
there was no political existence of Italy. The
National Hero. He ruled for 100 days from
unification of Italy gave it a different identity.
March to June 1815.
y It came to an end in 1871, when Piedmontese
y Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated once
Prime Minister Count of Cavour and Italian
again in the battle of Waterloo in June 1815.
national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi unified
Now he was exiled to Saint Helena.
the South and made Rome the capital of
y After eliminating the challenge of Napoleon
the Kingdom of Italy. As a result, King Victor
Bonaparte, the Vienna Congress was
Emmanuel of Italy became the country›s
restarted.
first monarch.
y With the end of the Napoleon era, the
y The unification of Italy was accomplished
Vienna congress held the responsibility
through the efforts of men such as Mazzini,
of looking into Italy. Instead of uniting, it
Cavour, Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel II and
divided Italy into many parts and under
others, as well as international assistance.
different powers. It restored the old order
“Italian unification was reached so easily
of the day.
by a nation who had been divided and
heterogeneous for centuries,” writes Luigi Objectives of Vienna Order
Sturzo.
y Its primary purpose was to resettle the map
y The movement for its unification originated
of Europe destroyed by Napoleon Bonaparte.
in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna.
The Vienna Congress was the assembly of old
Vienna Order of 1815 monarchies. The ideas of old regimes guided
it, and it was firmly against the liberal and
y It is also known as Metternich Order progressive ideas of the French Revolution.
or European Order. After the defeat of y The outbreak of the French Revolution had
Napoleon Bonaparte, the 4th European disturbed the strategic balance in Europe.

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France had transformed into the most y Central Italy was further divided between
powerful nation in Europe, and as a result, the Pope and Austria.
the peace in Europe remained disturbed for y Finally, Southern Italy, Naples and Sicily
more than two decades. were given to the French Bourbon dynasty.
y Therefore, the Vienna Congress wanted y The House of Orange dynasty was restored
to uproot the ideas of liberty, equality & in Holland.
fraternity. y The Holy Roman Empire was restored under
the leadership of Habsburg.
Power Transfer in Vienna Congress
y North Italy comprising Lombardy and Limitation of Vienna Congress
Venetia was handed over to Austria. The y It was against the ideas of the enlightenment.
Austrian dynasty was established in Parma, It was based on the ideas and principles of
Modena, and Tuscany. old regimes, that is, anti-people.
y Piedmont Sardinia was given to the Savoy y It was anti liberal, anti-democratic and
dynasty. supported absolute regimes.

Fig. 4.3 Key Players in Vienna

July Revolution 1830 y When Louis XVIII came to power. He was an

y It was the first major reaction against the old man with a weak personality. Therefore,
Vienna Order of 1815, guided by the ideas of the French People didn’t oppose him.
Liberalism and Nationalism. y In 1824 Charles X Succeeded Louis XVIII.
y In France, the Bourbon Dynasty, restored by Charles X was an ambitious king, and he
the Vienna Congress, was overthrown, and wanted to control the power.
the Orlean dynasty was established. It was y In July 1830, Charles X Issued an ordinance
a direct attack on the principle of legitimacy that dissolved the elected house termed
adopted by the Vienna Congress. Parliament.

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y Therefore, voter’s franchise decreased and y Public reactions leading to mass rebellion
also liberty of the Press and Civil societies occurred on the streets of Paris. Therefore,
was curtailed. the King ran away, which caused the
y Election systems are changed totally & which downfall of the Bourbon Dynasty, and the
creates huge reactions from the public. Orleans dynasty came to power.

Significance of July revolution 1830

y It was the first major reaction against the Vienna Order of 1815.
y It was guided by the ideas of Liberalism and Nationalism.
y In France, the Bourbon Dynasty, restored by the Vienna Congress, was overthrown, and
the Orlean dynasty was established. It was a direct attack on the principle of legitimacy
adopted by the Vienna Congress.
y Absolute monarchy was overthrown in France, and a constitutional monarchy was
established. The change symbolizes the triumph of the middle class in French politics.
y Liberal Constitutional monarchy came into existence in Belgium, Spain & Portugal. This
is the victory of Liberalism.
y Though there was no revolutionary upsurge in Britain, the British could sense the popular
mood. As a result, this reform act was enacted in 1832.
y In Italy, Germany and Poland, the Revolution could not succeed. In Italy & Germany, it
was suppressed by Prince Metternich.
y The revolt was ruthlessly suppressed in Russia.

Revolution of 1848 y Italian nationalists led by Giuseppe Mazzini

persuaded King Charles Albert of Piedmont
y In France, the very success of the February
Sardinia to lead their struggle against
Revolution (1848 Revolution) boosted
Austria.
the Italian nationalist to strive for their
y Pope and Ferdinand II of Naples Sicily
unification.
would also persuade Charles Albert to join
y The common people of France demanded
hands with him.
the extension of franchises by recognising
y The war against Austria started with great
universal male adult suffrage. But since
enthusiasm, but Pope and Ferdinand II
the king was resting on the support of the
withdrew from the battle in the middle.
middle class, he refused to accept the
y Charles Albert was defeated in the battle of
demands of the masses.
Custoza and Novara.
y King Louis Philippe abdicated from his
y This battle sealed the face of the process of
throne, and France was declared a republic.
Italian unification.
y The success of the revolution in France
y Victor Emmanuel II became the next king
inspired the Italians, Germans and others
after Charles.
to raise the banner of revolution.

Revolution of 1848 and Unification

of Italy
y The downfall of Metternich indicated a new
beginning. This revolution also inspired the
Italian people.

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Cavour as an Italian Prime Minister

y Cavour was appointed the Prime Minister of Piedmont Sardinia by King Victor Emmanuel
II.
y The real process of Italian unification commenced with the coming of Count of Cavour
as PM of Piedmont in 1852.
y He was a strong nationalist and was inspired by the vision of one Italy.
y Cavour gave deep thought to the unification of Italy. According to him:
⚪ Piedmont Sardinia was to transform into a modern state.
⚪ Use of diplomacy to create a favourable environment to unite Italy.
y Reforms of Cavour: The main hurdles before Cavour were foreign domination of Austria
and France in Italy, economic differences between north and south Italy, the Pope’s rule
in central Italy, Ideological differences among the leaders etc. Nevertheless, he decided
to use the tool of diplomacy to win the other states.
⚪ He took several reforms in the field of politico-administrative, judicial-legal and
economic spheres.
⚪ Piedmont Sardinia could be transformed into a model state. This was necessary
to attract other Italians’ attention and convince them to accept the leadership of
Piedmont Sardinia.
⚪ He brought about various reforms in the state, such as establishing a liberal
constitutional monarchy, banks, and institutions, curbing church privileges, granting
legal freedom to citizens, free trade policy, etc.
⚪ Furthermore, he used the tool of diplomacy to seek the support of major powers.
He sent soldiers to help Britain and France in the Crimean war in 1853 and signed
the Plombieres Pact in 1858 with French king Napoleon III where France decided to
assist Piedmont in the war against Austria.
⚪ He established a liberal and constitutional monarchy.
⚪ Roads and other means of communication were developed, taxes were imposed on
the lands of nobles and feudal lords, the restrictions on trade and commerce were
removed, and the Doctrine of Laissez Faire was established.
⚪ Unnecessary privileges were cut, and liberty was given to the press and civil society.
⚪ A large military force was maintained, and the border areas were fortified by repairing
old forts and making new ones.

Early Efforts Towards Italian Unification

y Carbonari could do nothing significant
Carbonari and Italian Unification because neither had any effective leadership
y In 1810, Carbonari, a coal miner association nor any solid plan of action.
in Naples, was the earliest to unite Italy.
y They aimed to expel the foreigners from Young Italy and Mazzini
Italy and grant them legal freedom, but y Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872) was a radical
they failed. Italian nationalist. He established Young
y It was guided by two objectives Italy in 1831 to start a nationalist movement
⚪ To free Italy from foreign domination. so that Italy could be liberated from foreign
⚪ To ensure legal freedom for all Italians. rule. He highlighted:

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⚪ The elements of unity are present invited there. This gives Cavour a golden
among diverse Italians. opportunity to raise the issue of Austrian
⚪ Glorious past of Italy. domination in Italy and the suffering
y He created awareness among the masses of common Italians. Therefore, using
to awaken the spirit of nationalism and diplomatic skills, Cavour internationalised
liberation in the country. the internal problem of Italy.
y He managed to bring about an intellectual y Both Britain and France expressed sympathy
revolution that made way for political for the cause of Italy and asked Austria to
unification. respond as per popular aspiration.
y He asked Italians to sacrifice themselves y Cavour also made the Plombieres Pact with
for the cause of Italy. French king Napoleon III in 1858.
y The efforts made by Giuseppe Mazzini y Cavour resigned his premiership in a fit of
resulted in an intellectual revolution In Italy. rage, but after a brief respite, he returned
to resume the struggle. Inspired by
The Battle of Crimea Piedmontese leadership, Tuscany, Modena,
y Russia was trying to expand its influence into Parma, and Romagna revolted against their
the Black Sea across the Mediterranean Sea rulers and unanimously declared union with
against the interests of Britain and France. Piedmont, with Cavour securing Napoleon
y Cavour sent 18,000 Piedmont soldiers III›s consent through the surrender of Savoy
to help Britain and France. Britain, as and Nice. Victor Emanuel then agreed to the
well as France, greatly appreciated this annexation of the four Italian states, and
gesture. on April 2, 1860, an expanded parliament
y After the battle of Crimea, a Peace assembled in Turin, comprising roughly half
Conference was held in Paris. Cavour was the Peninsula’s population.

Fig. 4.4 Europe after Congress of Vienna 1815

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except for Rome and a tiny territory around

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) it.
y Garibaldi took the next step toward Italy’s y When Bismarck was preparing to conquer
unification. He joined the Young Italy Austria in 1866, he allied with Italy, promising
society as a young man and took part in them Venetia as a reward for fighting on
an attempted insurgency in Genoa in 1833. Prussia›s side.
He was sentenced to death but managed y The Austrians overcame the Italians both
to flee the country and travel to South on land and at sea. Nonetheless, the
America in 1834. Prussian victory at (Sadowa) Koniggratz (3
y He gathered a thousand “Red Shirts” in Genoa, July 1866) was so decisive that Prussia won
so named for the colour of their uniform, and the war and Venetia was given to the new
landed his force in Sicily in May 1860. kingdom of Italy.
y He reached the continent and pushed on y Four years later, the acquisition of Rome
Naples nearly unchallenged. The king of was made possible by the exigencies of the
Sicily, Francis II, fled as he approached. Franco-Prussian war, 1870.
y The people greeted Garibaldi with delight y Finally, in July 1871, Victor Emmanuel
as he approached the capital. Then, after a entered the eternal city with the cheers
plebiscite that was almost unanimously in of the people. Thus, the dream of Cavour
favour of annexation, Victor Emmanuel II, and the Italian patriots, which a quarter
with Garibaldi at his side, was elected. of a century earlier had provoked smiles
y Meanwhile, Piedmontese troops had in the diplomatic circles of Europe, was
conquered the rest of the Papal States, fulfilled.

Some important events

Lombardy- War of Liberation, 1859.
y The French Alliance, which Cavour secured at Plombieres in 1858, was critical to success.
The Austrians were routed at Magenta and fled to the quadrilateral after 200,000 French
troops crossed the Alps. At Solferino, Napoleon III won four more victories at great
expense and quickly made an agreement at Villafranca, transferring Lombardy from
Austria to Sardinia.

The Three Duchies and Romagna- Diplomacy, 1860

y In 1860, Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and the Papal State of Romagna became part of
Sardinia-Piedmont. Nice and Savoy were given to Napoleon III.

Sicily and Naples- Garibaldi, 1860

y Garibaldi landed in Marsala, won Sicily at the Battle of Calatafimi, and crossed the
straits to Naples with the intention to proclaim Victor Emmanuel as King of Italy.

Marches and Umbria- Cavour, 1860

y Cavour intervened to put a stop to Garibaldi’s reckless idea, which would have enraged
Austria and France. To halt Garibaldi’s advance on Rome, he dispatched the Sardinian King
and army into the Papal States, where the Papal army was destroyed at Castelfidardo.
Garibaldi was delayed a fortnight on the Volturno by the Neapolitan army, which was
fortunate for Cavour and Italy. He met Victor Emmanuel at Teano after defeating this
army and graciously gave over to Southern Italy. The Kingdom of Italy was set up in 1861

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Venetia- Austro- Prussian War, 1866

y In both Italy and Germany, Austria was a recurrent stumbling block to unity. In 1866,
Bismarck finally secured an Italian Alliance. The Treaty of Prague ceded Venetia to Italy
(excluding Southern Tyrol).

Rome- Franco- Prussian War, 1870

y After Garibaldi’s two efforts to conquer Rome (1862-Aspromonte; 1867-Mentana), French
troops controlled the city, posing a common hurdle to German and Italian unity. Victor
Emmanuel reached Rome when the French army withdrew. Rome was designated as the
Italian kingdom’s capital in 1872.

The Course of Unification wanted to establish a republic and refused

y In 1858, Sardinia and France conspired to to merge Naples and Sicily with North Italy.
invade Austria in secret. After the battles, To this, Cavour approached Napoleon III to
France forced Austria out of Lombardy, but get him on his side.
Austria kept Venetia. At this point, France y Eventually, with French backing, he conquered
withdrew from the war, fearful of a unified Umbria, Marches and Victor Emmanuel II,
Italy and realised that Austrian forces would proclaimed as the king of united Italy. When
inevitably overwhelm them. Cavour died in 1861, Emmanuel II took charge
y This finished the war with Austria, keeping of unifying Venetia and Rome, which he finally
Venetia. Finally, in July 1859, the Treaty of did in 1866 and 1870.
Zurich was signed with Austria and Lombardy, y In 1870, France sent its armies away from
where they merged with Piedmont Sardinia. Rome due to the Franco-Prussian War. As
y Meanwhile, a revolution broke out in Parma, a result, the Pope was unable to wield any
Modena, and Tuscany, which was used by influence, and Rome was designated as
Cavour diligently. He held a plebiscite Italy’s capital.
at Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Romagna, y Thus, the great vision of a unified Italy was
and Bologna, where they voted to merge attained.
their territories with Piedmont, leading to
creating the state of North Italy. German Unification
y Italian nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi led German unification, the most important
a nationalist rebellion that resulted in the political development in 19th century Europe,
formation of a full Republic from the states created the new determined character of the
and territories. As a result, northern Italy German state. One of the most significant
managed to integrate the state of Naples, events in world history was the formation of
Sicily, Umbria, and Marches with it. Germany as a nation-state. Like Italy, Germany
y The territories of Naples and Sicily were was a geographical expression and politically
ruled by the French Bourbon dynasty, divided country which was a part of the Holy
where diplomacy was insufficient. Cavour Roman Empire.
used Garibaldi as a proxy to conquer y In Germany, Napoleon Bonaparte was the
Naples and Sicily, and by 1860, they first to sow the seeds of nationalism. The
succeeded. Holy Roman Empire›s three hundred minor
y However, Garibaldi and Cavour faced states were merged to form the Rhine
ideological differences since the former Confederation of 39 states.

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y The German Bund was created in 1815 in y Schleswig-Holstein joined the German Bund
order to preserve “the independence and as a result of the war with Denmark. The
sovereignty of the individual German states”. North German Confederation was formed
y The Concert of Europe, established after the after Austria was defeated in the Austro-
Congress of Vienna, was a system devised Prussian War of 1866.
by the conservative monarchies of Austria, y It ended in Austrian exclusion from the
Prussia, and Russia to stifle the spread of German nation.
democratic ideas in Europe. y After France’s loss in the Franco-German
y The Austrian Chancellor, Prince Metternich, War of 1870–1871, the imperial German
was the principal architect of the policy, government was established.
actively suppressing democratic ideas and y The policy of Imperial Germany was to
movements, as well as challenges to royal be shaped by a national parliament, the
authority, between 1820 and 1830. As a Reichstag, and representatives from the
result, political unity in Germany in the 19th 25 German states, the Federal Council
century was difficult due to conservative or Bundesrat. The Prussian king became
monarchs’ opposition to the development the German emperor with control over
of liberal ideas. the German armed forces, and the Reich
y In 1825, Burschenschaft, a student chancellor was also Prussian.
organisation, rose against Metternick to y In due course of time, the cultural unity,
get liberty and natural rights. The idea of the role of universities, rapid growth of
nationalism and unity was propagated among industries etc., brought unity among the
the educated middle class by intellectuals German confederation of the States.
like Hardenburg, Fichte, Hegel etc.
y The Zollverein customs union was formed Bismarck and German Unification
by the minor German states and Prussia, y The ascent of Otto von Bismarck and
and more states joined, creating the path his astute diplomacy paved the way for
for innovation and industrialisation. Germany›s unification. But, according to him,
y The smaller German states like Hesse- “Even if the land tag decisions, newspapers
Cassel, Braunschweig and Saxony would have and shooting club festivals were not able
succumbed to the revolutionaries during to bring about German unity, liberalism did
the upsurges of 1830–31 but for the timely subject the princes to pressure, which made
military assistance of Prussia and Austria. them more inclined to grant concessions to
y A strong capitalist class emerged the Empire”.
in Germany that strongly supported y His doctrine was dubbed ‘Blood and Iron,’
unification. Also, the past glories of and he was dubbed the ‘Iron Chancellor.’
Germany created a national awakening y When Bismarck spoke to the Germans in
among the Germans. 1862, the concept of a German nation-state
y The fall of Metternich in the 1848 in the peaceful spirit of pan-Germanism
revolution was a turning point as the had altered from its liberal and democratic
German nationalist came out loud to unify character in 1848 to meet Bismarck’s more
Germany under the leadership of Prussia conservative realpolitik.
politically. Hence, a new constitution was y While the terms of the treaties connecting
drafted, and the power was given to the the several German states to one another
Prussian King Frederick William IV, but prevented Bismarck from taking unilateral
he died. action, the politician and diplomats in him
y In 1861 William I became the king who was an saw this as unrealistic.
ardent nationalist and wanted military action.

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Blood and Iron Policy

Blood & Iron Policy broadly emphasises war. In his famous “Blood and Iron” speech delivered
at the Prussian parliament, Bismarck stated, “Germany does not look to Prussia’s liberalism,
but to her power .... the great questions of the day are not to be decided by speeches and
majority resolutions – but by blood and iron!” When Bismarck became Prussian Chancellor,
his principal goal was to strengthen the position of Prussia in Europe further. He had the
following ambitions:
y To unite the northern German provinces under Prussian rule;
y To weaken Prussia’s primary adversary, Austria, by excluding it from the German
Federation.
y To make Berlin, not Vienna, the centre of German affairs;
y To strengthen the position of the King of Prussia, Wilhelm I, countering the demands for
reform from the Liberals in the Prussian Reichstag.

y In the 1st phase, Schleswig was integrated y In southern Germany, the majority of the
with Prussia as per the provisions of the population was Catholics and had an
Treaty of Vienna. inclination towards France. Nevertheless,
y Schleswig and Holstein were under the when France attacked Germany in the Battle of
Dutch with the majority of the German Sedan in 1870, these southern states sneaked
population. Bismarck tricked Austria, got in to join the North German Confederacy.
her alliance, and liberated these Dutchies. ⚪ The Treaty of Versailles of 1871 (signed
y Another integration came up in 1866 when on February 26, 1871; later approved in
in the Battle of Sadowa, Bismarck defeated the Treaty of Frankfurt on May 10, 1871)
Austria leading to the Treaty of Prague. formally concluded the war by reuniting
y According to it, twenty-one states of North Germany›s southern states.
Germany merged with Prussia and formed y With the victory over France in 1871, Prussian
the North German Confederation. This influence in Germany (apart from Austria)
marked the downfall of Austria’s domination was extended to the international stage.
over German affairs. Prussia assumed control of the new empire
y Following Bismarck’s victory in the Austro- with Wilhelm’s proclamation as Kaiser (title
Prussian war of 1866, it appeared that borne by Holy Roman Emperors).
German unity could only be achieved y Although Bismarck had led the transformation
through a war between France and Germany. of Germany into a federal nation-state, he had
y Napoleon III’s advisors were opposed to not done it alone. The unification process was
greater German unity, and Bismarck, too, achieved by building on a tradition of legal
hoped to strengthen the German nation- collaboration under the Holy Roman Empire
state by military triumph over France. and economic collaboration through the
y Bismarck tried to instigate a conflict with Zollverein. The impact of the 1848 revolution,
France by masterfully using the disagreement military reorganisation and strategic brilliance
over the Hohenzollern claim to the Spanish all played a part in the political unification of
throne, putting that country in a bad position Germany, which made it the most powerful
while reawakening German patriotism. nation in Europe.

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TIMELINE
GERMAN UNIFICATION

1848 - 1850 1850 - 18 1 18 1 - 18 18 - 181

May 1848
A National Assembly (all-German 1849-58 18
7
parliament) meets in Frankfurt, This is a time of political On Prussia’s initiative the
and a Prussian Constituent stagnation in Prussia and more Germanic Confederation is
Assembly (i.e., a parliament generally in Germany, caused by replaced with a new structure,
meant to draw up a constitution) disappointment and the North German Confederation,
convenes in Berlin. disillusionment among liberals as that excludes Austria and four
much as by clever government South German states. Designed

1848 >4e @e<olutions of 1848 manipulation and repression. by Bismarck to ensure Prussian
dominance in veiled forms, the
Following revolution in Paris in Confederation greatly resembles
February, there were popular 1849-
0 a federal state; it is the
revolts in Vienna, Berlin and This is a time of political immediate precursor of and
other German cities in March. repression in Austria model for the German Empire
accompanied by fnal attempts to founded in 1171.
October 1848 restructure the Austrian Empire
as a centralized modern state.
an Austrian army overthrows the Austria’s defeat in the wars of 18
7
new government in Vienna; Italian unifcation in 1185 makes 18
2 Under irresistible pressure from

this policy politically and The Prussian King in desperation the Hungarians and the German-
December 1541: Prussian troops fnancially impossible. appoints Bismarck as Minister- Austrian public after the
reoccupy Berlin and dissolve the President (prime minister) in the humiliation of Sadowa, Austria
Constituent Assembly 1854-5
6 hope he can resolve the reconstitutes itself into the Dual
constitutional deadlock. Monarchy, Austria-Hungary. The
Austria’s neutrality in the Bismarck defes the Prussian new system consists of two
April 1849 Crimean °ar isolates her parliament and conducts a four- kingdoms, each with its own
internationally at a critical time. year confrontation with it. parliamentary system but linked
the Frankfurt National Assembly
dissolved itself. by a common ruler, a single army,
1858 and a joint foreign policy.
18
3
1848 ÑecembeÜ The ascension of King William I Bismarck solidifes Prussia’s
of Prussia makes hopes for alliance with Russia by 18
0
Prussia’s frst constitution goes reform and results in opposition
into force, imposed by decree of cooperating with the Tsarist In the Franco-Prussian °ar,
victories in Prussian elections government during the Polish incited by Bismarck but declared
the King (to obviate a from 1185 to 1164. The new King
constitution designed by the revolt of this year. Russia by France, Prussia fghts side by
proceeds with reforms, but accordingly leaves Prussia a free side with the South German
Constituent Assembly). This draws the line when parliament
constitution by 1181 is very hand in its coming struggle with states, surrounds and defeats
asserts some rights of control Austria. the main French forces at Sedan
restricted featuring the notorious over the army.
three-class franchise and after only six weeks, and
remains in place until the end of occupies much of France.
18
4
the °°-I
Joint Austro-Prussian war against
Denmark to liberate the 18
0
1849-5
0 (German-speaking) territories of The South German states are
Austria frustrates the Prussian Schleswig and Holstein from now willing to join a united
Union scheme to reorganize the Danish rule. Denmark is easily German state. The peace
Germanic Confederation so as to defeated, but there is a confused settlement of 1171 gave the
give more formal power to and contentious aftermath French provinces of Alsace and
Prussia while edging Austria to between the victors. Lorraine to the new German

the periphery of German affairs. Empire.

This is the start of an aggravated 18

6
rivalry between the two powers 1859-
0 18
1
for leadership in Germany. The Austro-Prussian °ar ends
Austria loses her Italian suddenly after seven weeks with The foundation of the German
possessions in the wars of Italian an overwhelming Prussian victory Empire is proclaimed in

Unifcation and also faces state in the Battle of Sadowa which Versailles. The Prussian King
bankruptcy. has the effect of pushing Austria becomes Emperor °illiam I of
out of German affairs. The South Germany, and the constitution of
German states allied with Austria the North-German Confederation
18 0-
1 are treated generously. is remodeled into a constitution
In Austria the October Diploma of for the German Empire.
1160 and the February Patent of 18
6
1161, two successive
constitutions, create national Bismarck capitalizes on war
parliaments for the frst time in enthusiasm in Prussia by offering
the monarchy’s history. Both are a Bill of Indemnity that the
rescinded after failing to win the Prussian Parliament happily
monarchy enough key domestic passes, ending its conlfict with
support. the Prussian government.

Fig. 4.5 German Unification

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Fig. 4.6 Prussia

y While the North German confederation y The unification of Germany was based on
established a unified foreign policy and war and diplomacy.
military organisation, smaller nations’
independence was respected.
Improvement of Military
y The failure to create a Southern
Confederation indicated that the southern y Bismarck and Wilhelm I sought to build up
states would eventually join Bismarck’s Prussia’s army in the 1850s so that it would
North German Confederation. be ready if conflict broke out with other
y Although Baden was willing to join, there German states or Austria. They needed to
was resistance in Bavaria and Wurtemberg. raise funds through taxation to do so. The
y The conflict with France in 1870 led to Prussian Parliament, on the other hand,
military victories, which led to the creation refused to allow money to be raised in this
of the German Empire. The four southern manner.
states, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden and y Bismarck disregarded parliament and raised
Hesse, joined the German Empire in 1871. funds for military reforms through direct
y The unification of Germany was completed taxation. These reforms included:
under Kaiser William I. Soon, Germany ⚪ An increase in army conscription from
emerged as the leading power in Europe, two to three years.
building a colonial empire to further German ⚪ The introduction of new battle tactics.
economic interest and increased German ⚪ The introduction of weapons such as
influence in the world. the needle gun.

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Was bismarck really that influential?

y There is much debate about Bismarck’s aims to unify all German states under Prussian
rule. Some historians argue that Bismarck only intended to unify the north German
states. According to this opinion:
⚪ Bismarck did not begin with a master plan to control all German states.
⚪ Bismarck reacted to and capitalised on political changes in other German states.
⚪ The strength of nationalist feelings after 1866 led to German unification under its
own steam.
⚪ Economic co-operation meant that unification might have happened eventually
anyway.
⚪ Bismarck made sure that it happened.
y However, other historians believe that unification would not have happened without
him:
⚪ He made sure that the army reforms took place.
⚪ He successfully isolated other countries by making them look like aggressors.
⚪ He made Prussia appear to be the defender of the German states and protector of
their rights.

Conclusion
In the 19th century, Germany and Italy became whether willingly or unwillingly waged, provided
nation-states. While the concept of nationalism the push that brought people together and
can be traced back in time in both cases, aided in the formation of separate nations.
the real creation of nation-states occurred After the unification, Italy and Germany started
only in the 19th century. In the instance of industrialisation, and the Industrial Revolution
Germany, the unification process was not the began in these states.
same as in Italy. While economic and political With the emergence of a huge, wealthy, and
unification was achieved at a far higher degree powerful nation-state in central Europe, the
in Germany, political and cultural unification delicate “balance of powers” established at the
was achieved primarily in Italy. In comparison, Congress of Vienna was radically disrupted.
Italy’s economic unity was noticeably weaker. A broader concept of “nationalism” emerged
In Germany, unity was brought about mainly as the by-product of German unification.
from above. Popular mobilisation, on the Politically, the conservative order tried to limit
other hand, had a significant influence in Italy. the influence of liberal politics by making minor
Aside from these considerations, the conflict, concessions to liberals.

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5 Industrialisation

Introduction y In addition, the colonies served as possible

markets for finished commodities.
The Industrial Revolution was a shift in the
y England also had a lot of key resources like
economy’s manufacturing practices, facilitated
coal and iron, which were needed to run the
by technological improvements and popular
industries. As a result, capitalists invested in
acceptance, which boosted the rate at which
the development of new machinery in order
commodities could be produced.
to increase production and profit margins.
The transition from hand to machine
y The Industrial Revolution was a vital turning
manufacture, new chemical manufacturing
point in history, involving economic and social
and iron production processes, increased
changes in Europe and the United States due
use of steam and waterpower, development
to new production methods from around
of machine tools, and the advent of the
1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840.
mechanised industrial system were all part of
y This change included switching from
this revolution.
hand to machine production, developing
new chemical and iron manufacturing
How Relevant is the Term ‘Revolution’? techniques, increasing steam and water
y The term “Industrial Revolution” was power use, developing machine tools, and
coined by French economist Auguste ushering in the mechanised factory system.
Blanqui. The Industrial Revolution has ushered in a
y Some historians contend that the period of unprecedented population rise.
term “revolution” is inaccurate when
used to describe a complex set of Change in Mode of Production
forces, processes, and discoveries
y There was a decline in the Guild System
that worked slowly but steadily to
when the quantity of trade increased
build a new economic order.
further, and therefore the Guilds were
y It was referred to as a revolution
unable to deal with the demand as they
because it reformed not just the
were unsuited for production.
economic sphere but also the social
y This resulted in the coming of the Putting
and political sphere of society. The
Out System, under which the staple and
Industrial Revolution began in Great
final product were owned by the merchant
Britain, and by the mid-eighteenth
and the worker was only an earner. The site
century, the United Kingdom
of labour was the house or the backyard of
had become the world’s premier
the worker.
commercial nation.
y The invention of machines changed
everything, and even this technique was
replaced by the Factory System, under
English Industrial Revolution which the centre of production shifted
1760s to 1830s from home to the factory. For the first
y The Industrial Revolution began in England time, workers travelled from home to the
in 1750 AD. This was made possible by the worksite on a daily basis.
fact that English merchants had earned large y They, for the primary time, aggregated in
riches through international trade, and her such large numbers under a shed performing
colonies had access to raw commodities. on machines.

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in England in the second half of the 18th

Causes of the Industrial Revolution century were ideal for the country›s launch
y Until the mid-18th century, European of the Industrial Revolution.
society was primarily agricultural. Whatever y The legal and cultural foundations laid by
industries were present, there were the United Kingdom allowed entrepreneurs
confined to the “domestic” sphere, with to pioneer the Industrial Revolution.
manual labour being the main workforce. y The major causes of the Industrial revolution
The political and economic conditions are given below.

Fig. 5.1 Major Causes of the Industrial Revolution

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Why Did It Begin in England? progressive law by the British Parliament

and Scientific invention.
y The political and economic conditions in
y British Parliament passed an enclosure law
England in the latter part of the 19th century
where peasants were allowed to fence their
were ideal for the start of the Industrial
fields to keep the wild animals and hunting
Revolution there.
habits away to save crops.
y The United Kingdom was the world’s first
y The British Parliament recognised private
industrialised country. Industrialisation
ownership of land. As a result, land became
began in the second part of the 18th century
a valuable commodity and consolidation of
in the United Kingdom. Only much later
landholding took place.
in the 19th century did other countries of
y At the beginning of the 18th century, Jethro
Europe begin witnessing industrialisation.
Tull invented a horse-drawn seed drill for
y The unique elements of the British politico-
sowing seeds and later, he developed a
administrative system, Economy, Society
horse-drawn hoe.
and religion played a pivotal role in the
y Rotherham plough was invented in 1730
outbreak of the Industrial Revolution much
and consisted of an iron blade, and it was
before other countries of Europe.
lighter and easier to use than the traditional
Politico Administrative Factors wooden plough.
y All these factors resulted in surplus
y A Glorious revolution that replaced the
production in Agriculture. As a result, some
absolute monarchy of Britain with a
small peasants were liberated from the
constitutional monarchy took place in 1688.
compulsion of agricultural activities and
It created a liberal and progressive political
worked in factories as labour.
environment and provided political stability,
y British mercantile policy had accumulated
which provided a favourable environment
huge capital, which allowed British
for economic growth.
manufacturers to purchase machines and
y Since there was no inter-state tax in
establish factories.
Britain, the whole British island worked as
y Being an island nation, the international
a unified market. There was no obstruction
trade routes were always open for British
in transporting goods from one end to the
merchants, who helped immensely.
other end of the island. If we see other
y The Industrial Revolution in Britain was also
European nations like France and Germany,
aided by the proximity of iron and coal mines.
had multiple divisions with interstate tax
systems. Social and Cultural Factors
y The British had an extensive colonial
y The liberal and progressive socio-cultural
empire. The British government issued a
life of Britain created an environment of
royal charter favouring private companies
free social thinking that facilitated scientific
to colonise different parts of the world.
inventions.
These colonies ensured chief raw materials
y British scientists have invented different
for industrial production and a large market
tools which had immediate applications.
for British finished goods.
y In 1733 the flying shuttle was invented by
John Kay and brought significant changes
Economic Factors in weaving technology.
y Britain started experiencing changes in the y In 1769 James Watt invented the steam
field of agriculture in the 16th century. By engine.
the middle of the 18th-century agricultural y In 1785 power looms were invented. This
revolution had taken place in Britain. The invention brought major changes in weaving
Agricultural Revolution was an outcome of technology.

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y The spinning mule was invented in 1794 to

spin cotton and other fibres. Politico administrative factors:
y All these inventions enhanced agricultural The Glorious Revolution which
production on a large scale and triggered replaced the absolute monarchy of
the Industrial Revolution in Britain. Britain with a Constitutional monarchy
took place in 1688. It created a liberal
Religious Factor
& progressive political environment
y Protestant ethics dominant in Britain had & provided political stability, which
also created a liberal and progressive provided a favourable environment for
religious environment in Britain. economic growth.
Since there was no inter-state tax in
Britain the whole British island worked as
Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) a unified market. There was no obstruction
(2015, Mains) in the transport of goods from one end to
the other end of the island.
 hy did the Industrial Revolution first
W If we see other European nations like
occur in England? Discuss the quality France & Germany at that time they had
of life of the people there during multiple divisions with interstate tax
industrialisation. How does it compare systems.
with that in India at present times? The British had an extensive colonial
(12.5 marks, 200 words) empire. The British government issued
Decoding the question a royal charter in favour of the private
y In the introduction, start with a companies to carry out colonization
brief introduction to the Industrial in different parts of the world. These
Revolution. colonies ensured the availability of chief
y In body, raw materials for industrial production
⚪ Discuss the factors responsible. and a large market for British finished
⚪ Discuss the impact of the goods.
Industrial Revolution on the Economic factors:
quality of life of people. y Britain started experiencing changes
y Then compare with that in India at in the field of agriculture in the 16th
present times. century. By the middle of the 18th
century, the Agricultural Revolution
Answer: had taken place in Britain.
y The Agricultural Revolution was
Britain was the first country in the
an outcome of progressive law by
world to experience industrialisation.
the British Parliament & Scientific
Industrialisation started during the latter
invention.
half of the 18th century in Britain. Only
y The British Parliament passed an
much later in the 19th century did other
enclosure law where the peasants
countries of Europe start witnessing
were allowed to fence their fields
industrialisation. The unique elements
to keep the wild animals & hunting
of the British politico-administrative
habits away to save crops.
system, economy, society & religion
y Private ownership of land
played a pivotal role in the outbreak of
was recognised by the British
the Industrial Revolution much before
Parliament.
other countries of Europe.

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y As a result, land became a saleable y In 1785 power looms were invented.

commodity & consolidation of This invention brought major
landholding took place. changes in weaving technology.
y The emergence of large farms y The spinning mule was invented in
increased production efficiency. 1794 to spin cotton & other fibres.
y In the 17th century, agro research All these inventions enhanced agricultural
played a pivotal role in agricultural production on a large scale & triggered
development. the Industrial Revolution in Britain.
y At the beginning of the 18th century, Religious factor:
zethrotal invented a horse-drawn y Protestant ethics dominant in
seed drill for sowing seeds & later Britain had also created a liberal &
he developed a horse-drawn hoe. progressive religious environment in
y Rotherham plough was invented in Britain
1730 and consisted of an iron blade
Impact of industrial revolution on
& it was lighter & easier to use than
quality of life of people:
the traditional wooden plough.
y The Industrial Revolution in Britain
y All these factors resulted in surplus
was guided by the ideology of
production in Agriculture. As a result,
capitalism. The means of production
some small peasants were liberated
were privately owned. The capitalists
from the compulsion of agricultural
were the owners of the factories.
activities & worked in factories as
y Before the Industrial Revolution,
labour.
most people in Europe worked either
y British mercantile policy had
as farmers or artisans making hand-
accumulated huge capital, which
crafted goods. How people lived had
allowed British manu­ facturers to
not changed significantly since the
purchase machines and establish
Middle Ages. Once industrialisation
factories.
began, however, work and family life
y Being an island nation, the routes
would be transformed forever.
of international trade were always
y Small farmers and seasonal labourers
open for British merchants.
of the land started migrating to
y The Proximity of iron & coal mines
urban centres.
also facilitated the Industrial
y It had positive impacts like various
Revolution in Britain.
high-quality cheap goods were
Social & cultural factors:
available, which gave a boost to
y The liberal & progressive socio-
urbanisation. At the same time, it
cultural life of Britain created an
was a moment of flux as the old
environment of free social thinking
social structures and institutions
that facilitated scientific inventions.
were being transformed.
y British scientists have invented
y There was a trend towards nuclear
different tools which had immediate
families, increased social mobility, and
applications.
more emphasis on achieving status.
y In 1733 the flying shuttle was invented
y Ethical and moral foundations
by John K and brought significant
are undermined due to problems
changes in weaving technology.
arising from slums, social crimes,
y In 1769 James Watt invented the
etc. Children tended to enter the
steam engine.

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y Edmund Cartwright’s 1787 power loom,

workforce at younger ages in the allowed textile weaving to catch up with
industrial districts. yarn spinning.
y Many new factory owners preferred y The first inventions for speeding up spinning
to employ children as they viewed and weaving were devised by weavers and
them as more docile and tractable spinners, who were essentially artisan
than adults. tinkerers. The cotton industry’s continual
y Labour exploitation was also another expansion, as well as the ongoing demand
important feature. for more cotton goods, has increased
Comparison with India at present times: the demand for new and more complex
y After independence, India started technology. The introduction of the steam
on the journey of planned engine catapulted the cotton industry to
industrialisation on a socialistic even higher levels of output.
pattern.
y Unlike Britain, the role of the state Revolution in Steam Power
was vital with a focus on industrial y The steam engine revolutionised the
goods. manufacturing of cotton items and caused
y There is less exploitation of the the factory system to spread to other
working class as many labour laws industrial areas, resulting in the creation of
are formulated to protect their entirely new industries during the Industrial
rights. Revolution.
y Social institutions such as marriage y James Watt, a Scottish engineer, invented
and family are getting transformed the steam engine in 1769.
due to industrialisation. y Cotton spinning and weaving were powered
y However, 47% of the economy is still by steam, and steam-driven cotton factories
agriculture-based, much higher than sprung up throughout Britain.
Britain in the 19th century. Rural- y Steam provided seven-eighths of the power
urban migration in search of new job available to the British cotton industry by
opportunities landed people in slums 1850. Entrepreneurs had more options in
and poor hygienic conditions. terms of the site because coal-fired steam
engines were no longer obliged to be built
near rivers.

Components of the Industrial Revolution Revolution in Iron Industry

y The emergence of the iron industry was, in
Revolution in the Cotton Industry many ways, a response to the demand for new
y The development of the flying shuttle sped machinery. High-quality wrought iron was
up the weaving process on a loom and the most widely used metal until the 1860s
enabled weavers to double their output, but when cheaper steel became accessible.
this resulted in yarn shortages until James
Hargreaves’ spinning jenny, perfected by Revolution in Transportation
1768, enabled spinners to produce yarn in y In the 18th century, entrepreneurs
larger quantities. recognised the need for a more efficient
y Richard Arkwright’s water frame spinning means of transporting resources and
machine, which was perfected by 1768, goods, which prompted the construction of
enabled spinners to produce yarn in larger transportation infrastructure in the United
quantities. Kingdom.

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y New roads, canals, and railroads were built starved, and the Industrial Revolution
between 1760 and 1830. would have been stifled.
y To many economic historians, railroads
were the “most important single factor in Impact of Industrial Revolution
promoting European economic progress in
The Industrial Revolution brought about several
the 1830s and 1840s.”
improvements in manufacturing, development,
y The railroad’s demand for coal and iron aided
and distribution that profoundly affected
the growth of those sectors, contributing
people’s economic and social lives.
greatly to the success and maturation of
the Industrial Revolution.
Economic Impact
Revolution in Agriculture For the purposes of manufacturing, machines
y The historian Arnold Toynbee created the began to take over part of the work previously
idea that between 1750 and 1830, there was performed by humans and animals. It marked
an ‘Agricultural Revolution’. the beginning of mechanised production and
y Without the Agricultural Revolution, the mass production that replaced subsistence-
growing population of England would have based production.

The Spread of the Industrial Revolution

y After being established in Britain, the Industrial Revolution spread throughout the rest of
Europe and North America over several decades.
y Belgium was the first country after Britain to witness industrial development because they
discovered important coal fields, forming the base for other inventions. Rail connections
connecting England, France, Germany, and Holland to Belgium were established in
Belgium.
y It made it the commercial entrepot of Western Europe and the metallurgical centres,
making it the best machinery seller all over Holland, Germany, and even Russia. Also, it
became a self-sufficient economy in its entire requirements of food and other economic
industries.
y After 1830, France, Switzerland, and Germany began to imitate the English industrialisation
process by introducing machinery into the production process, concentrating workers in
factories, and building their transportation network.
y In Europe, Industrialisation has its features, such as the greater role of the governments
who provided capital for the industrialisation process such as the building up of railroad
systems, banks that financed major initiatives in industry, the development of the railroad
system, which eventually stimulated other industries to meet its needs by the markets
it created.
y In the United States, the Industrial Revolution began in the 1820s with the textile industry
of the northeast, and it then continued with the development of the heavy industry.
y US industrialisation followed patterns borrowed from England and Europe. Like England,
it also had a vast supply of raw materials but relatively better labour conditions. After
1865, the US industry began to expand rapidly.
y In Japan, the Industrial Revolution was motivated by the restoration of Japanese national
pride, which was carried out by a set of nationalists known as the Meiji restoration,
eventually pushing Japan from isolation to industrialisation.

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y Expansion of trade worldwide, both inland most exploited class with poor wages, long
and overseas. working hours, unsafe environment, etc.
y There was a continuous expansion of the y Growth of extreme ends in the society in
population and the economy as Britain the form of slums and rich giving way to
produced 66% of the world’s coal, and 50% communism and socialism.
of the cotton cloth and iron and dominated y The replacement of enlightenment with
the resources of its colonies. romanticism was a critique of the Industrial
y Spread of urbanisation and booming of new Revolution as it caused suffering to the
urban centres with the transformation of mob.
the countryside into a ready labour market y The Industrial Revolution thus brought
in the factories. about an all-around change in the world’s
y Expansion of the market based on capitalist socio, economic, and political dimensions,
lines and dependence of various countries leading to further progress in human life.
on the supply of Britain.
Impact of Industrial Revolution on
Political Impact Quality of Life of People
y The emergence of a new political class, y In Britain, the Industrial Revolution was
mainly capitalists and workers. guided by the philosophy of capitalism. The
y Awakening of the general mass, which now means of production were privately owned.
demanded political rights. The capitalists were the owners of the
y Spread of progressive and democratic factories.
ideals. y Before the Industrial Revolution, the
y Strengthening of colonialism and majority of Europeans worked as farmers
Imperialism since the colonies became or artisans, producing handcrafted goods.
the ready market for the home country’s Since the Middle Ages, people’s lifestyles
finished goods. had remained mostly unchanged. However,
as industrialisation began, employment
Social Impact and family life would be irreversibly
y Despite new developments and the changed.
introduction of new machinery to increase y Small farmers and seasonal labourers of the
productivity, society became uneven. land started migrating to urban centres.
Alteration in the social stratification and y It had favourable consequences, such as
growth of class consciousness as it divided the availability of a wide range of high-
society into three classes based on the type quality, low-cost items, which aided
of property, they owned that is aristocracy urbanisation.
owned land, bourgeoisie owned capital y At the same time, existing social structures
enterprises and the working class (the and institutions were changing, resulting in
proletariat as they were later called) who a period of transition.
owned their labour and received wages. y There was a trend toward nuclear families,
y Evolution of a well-educated and rational increasing social mobility, and a greater
society that was more secular and less emphasis on gaining status, with ethical and
orthodox. moral foundations being eroded as a result
y Establishment of new ideas such as of slums, social crimes, and other issues.
individualism and materialism based on y Children were preferred by many new
human rights and profit accumulation, factory owners because they were more
respectively. docile and tractable than adults.
y The increased struggle of the working class, y Labour exploitation was also another
women, and children as they were the important feature.

66 Industrialisation
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Fig. 5.2 Industrialisation of Europe by 1850

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Comparison with India at Present Times

y Following independence, India proceeded on a socialist-style path of the planned industry.
In contrast to Britain, where the emphasis was on industrial goods, the role of the state
was critical. There is less exploitation of the working class because numerous labour
regulations are designed to protect workers’ rights.
y Marriage and the family are changing as a result of industrialisation. Agriculture, on
the other hand, still accounts for 47 per cent of the GDP, which is far higher than in
nineteenth-century Britain. In search of new job opportunities, people migrate from rural
to urban areas, resulting in slums and unsanitary living conditions.

became an American invention as a

Industrialisation in Other Countries result of its success.
y The industrialisation of the United States ⚪ Railroad transportation began in the
constitutes an important chapter in 1820s, and by 1860, more than 30,000 miles
American history. Several historians agree of railroad tracks had been completed
that over 100 years (1815–1914), the US was in the United States. Railroads reduced
transformed from an essentially agricultural transportation costs and allowed farmers
country into an industrial giant. to obtain farm machinery and send farm
y The Transportation Revolution: The products from eastern cities.
Americans realised that they needed to ⚪ Most of the funding for railroad con­
connect their vast territory with a network struction came from local communities,
of upgraded roads and turnpikes. The and local and state governments.
development of roadways allowed New y Along with railroad construction, the
England’s territory to be connected to the communication revolution was kick-started
interiors of the West. The construction by Samuel Morse’s telegraph. Morse and
of highways was funded by the state and other investors founded the Magnetic
municipal governments. Local governments Telegraph Company, which built the
received assistance from the federal first commercial telegraph line between
government in connecting the major east- Washington, DC, and New York City in 1846.
west route. Maryland, Cumberland, and y The Factory System came into being shortly
Illinois were all connected by highways. after the war with Britain in 1812. In the
⚪ Canals were first built in the 1820s northeastern part of New England, textile
to connect rivers and lakes, allowing industries began to operate.
people to move from east to west and ⚪ Textile machinery was powered by water,
vice versa. The canals provided cheap and hundreds of workers were engaged
means of transportation with the advent in the textile industry. It’s worth noting
of steamboats. Farm and dairy products that Samuel Slater, a British pioneer,
from the interior could be transported founded the textile business in the
to major ports at a meagre cost. United States.
⚪ The canal navigation system in the ⚪ He imported advanced British textile
United States was revolutionised by technology to America and established
Fulton’s steamboat (1807). In the early the ‘Rhode Island System,’ a factory
19th century, the use of steam power system that employed children. He is
by ships for inland water transportation known as “The Father of the American
was a huge success. The riverboat Factory System”.

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⚪ In Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814, The Cast-Iron Plow was designed by

the Boston Manufacturing Company, Jethro Wood in 1817 for use in agricultural
directed by Francis Cabot Lowell, operations, while John Deere later invented
devised the Waltham System, an the Steel Plow (1837).
enhanced labour and production model y Following new inventions like the Harvester
that employed local farm girls known as and Thrasher, large-scale mechanisation
‘mill girls.’ of agriculture began in the 1860s. The
American Middle Western states of Kansas
The Industrialisation of the USA and Nebraska produced enough food grains
y Between 1865 and 1914, America witnessed to feed the entire country›s population.
“one of the great industrial expansions of y The railroads aided shepherds and
all time. It emerged from that period the cowboys in transporting cattle to Chicago
arsenal of two world wars and the prime slaughterhouses. Chicago became a great
industrial power of the planet” (Carl Degler, centre for the production of meat.
Out of Our Past). y The mining industry prospered after
⚪ It possessed vast mineral resources discovering gold in California and silver
such as iron ore, coal, copper, minor in Arizona, Montana, and Wyoming. The
metals, the black gold of oil, etc. discovery of gold at Pikes Peak in Colorado
⚪ Gold was discovered in California, and attracted thousands of people searching
there was what was known as the ‘Gold for jobs.
Rush’ by miners and speculators. y Large corporations led by industrialists
⚪ Oil was discovered in Texas. Mining like Rockefeller (founder of Standard Oil
companies were formed to extract Company), Edward Harriman (Railroad
these two important natural resources. Executive), Cornelius Vanderbilt
y The civil war in the United States sparked the (Entrepreneur in the shipping and
country’s second wave of industrialisation. railroad industries), Andrew Carnegie
By 1914, the United Kingdom and a few (Steel Industry), Henry Ford (Automobile
European countries had contributed a total Industry), and JP Morgan (Banking
of $3.4-billion to the growth of American Industry) rose to prominence in America at
industry, with the total amount reaching the end of the 19th century.
roughly $7-billion. More than five million y Industrialists initiated what is known as
immigrants arrived in the United States in consolidation movements in the 1890s
search of work in the 1880s, while iron and and early part of the 20th century. They
steel production began in the early 19th organised trusts to avoid competition,
century. and thus the era of trusts in American
y Frederick discovered the new technology commercial history started.
for producing pure iron in 1833. y The Sugar Trust, Oil Trust, Money Trust, and
y Another inventor was William Kelly, who Meat Trust have all emerged. The United
developed the technique of smelting States Steel Corporation (founded in 1901)
iron with coal to make steel. Due to owned 60% of the iron and steel industry at
the plentiful supply of iron ore and coal, the time. These trusts set the cost of their
Pennsylvania became the centre of the iron products in a way that would be detrimental
and steel industry over time. Pittsburgh in to consumers in the long run.
Pennsylvania became known as the ‘Steel
City’ and “the City of Bridges”.
Industrialisation of Germany
y Commercial crops like cotton, tobacco, y Germany did not make serious efforts
and hemp dominated American agriculture. to industrialise until Bismarck (the Iron
Crop rotation was used by agriculturists. Chancellor) rose to power. Following

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Germany›s unification, Bismarck realised steel, chemicals, dyes, textiles, electrical

that industrialisation was the key to the items, and other goods throughout time.
country›s modernisation. After the United States, Germany ranked
y Before its unification (1870), Germany was second in iron and steel production.
a divided country with 38 states competing y By the end of the 19th century, the German
for supremacy. During this time, Prussia chemical industry, led by BASF, Bayer, and
took the lead in uniting these states by Hoechst, controlled the world market for
forming a Customs Union (Zollverein). synthetic dyes.
y By reducing trade restrictions, this union y They produced 90% of the dyestuffs in
laid the groundwork for the country’s the world on the eve of the First World
economic unity. This union did not include War. They also diversified industries for
the Austrian Empire. The Zollverein pharmaceuticals, fertilisers, and photographic
pushed governments to improve their films, among other things.
transportation and communications y German agricultural productivity expanded
infrastructure. by leaps and bounds as a result of the
y In 1839, the British government provided use of fertilisers and new technologies.
financial aid to the German states for In the 1870s, Karl Benz and Nikolaus
the construction of railways. Trunk lines Otto invented the four-stroke internal
connected major states by 1840. combustion engine, which ushered in the
y A German economist, Friedrich List, automobile industry.
emphasised the significance of railways y Germany was producing 900 cars per year
in encouraging nationalism and economic at the beginning of the 20th century. Krupp,
progress. Berlin and Hamburg were a steel behemoth founded by Friedrich
connected by trains within a decade. Krupp in the early 1800s in Essen, also
y Following the unification of Germany in 1870, produced armaments and ammunition,
the German government founded the Imperial which were crucial in Prussia›s triumph
Railway Bureau with the goal of establishing over France in 1870.
a network railway system that would connect y During the first decade of the 20th century,
towns from various states. Improvements in Germany began to develop battleships to
communication technologies coincided with address the danger posed by the formidable
the growth of railways. British fleet. It deepened the Kiel Canal
y The Imperial Bank of Germany began to make it easier for its battleships to
operations in 1875, and it provided loans navigate. During the colonisation of Africa,
to industrialists to help them to establish the German navy played a major role.
their businesses.
y Fortunately, Germany’s material resources, Industrialisation of Russia
such as coal and iron ore, were plentiful in the y Russia stayed politically, economically, and
Ruhr and Saar regions. Germany benefited socially behind Western Europe. The Czarist
from the mineral resources of seized French regime maintained a conservative viewpoint.
territories such as Alsace and Lorraine. It Despite the abundance of resources in the
allowed the country to establish iron and country, the Czarist leadership remained
steel businesses. averse to industrialisation for fear of losing
y Bismarck convinced the German control.
Parliament to approve tariff legislation to ⚪ Regrettably, Russia lacked a middle
safeguard German industries from foreign class that could demand reforms.
competition, and Germany established a ⚪ Russia was completely reliant on the
number of facilities to produce iron and West for modern technology because

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its economy was based on primitive discovery of oil in the Baku region, which
agriculture. sparked the rise of Russia’s petroleum and
y Although there were a few enterprises in refining industries.
some towns and cities, they were small- y Russia’s textile industry had made
scale and only produced home products. significant progress, and it excelled in the
There was a noticeable scarcity of capital manufacturing of pig iron.
for establishing large-scale industries.
y Historians, on the other hand, attribute Industrialisation of Japan
two factors to the start of the Industrial y After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan
Revolution in backward Russia. The Crimean made significant progress toward industria­
War (1854–56) was Russia’s worst defeat lisation, expanding its transportation and
and a serious diplomatic setback at the communication networks and revolutionising
Congress of Berlin (1878). its light industry by the turn of the century.
y The emancipation of the serfs by Czar But the Japanese Industrial Revolution (IR)
Alexander II in 1861 was one of Russia›s had many factors that were different from
redeeming features. Those who were freed the western Industrial Revolution.
from serfdom became the majority of the y Some of the different factors involved in
working population. the Japanese Industrial Revolution and
⚪ In the meantime, Russia’s population the Western Industrial Revolution are as
began to expand. The Russian Czar follows:
realised that it was vital to establish ⚪ Scientific discoveries and inventions were
favourable conditions for the the focal points in western IR, whereas
development of industries. Sergei de Japanese IR mainly depended upon the
Witte was appointed Minister of Finance reverse engineering of the technologies.
and Commerce (1892–1903) during Czar ⚪ The western world had many raw
Alexander III’s reign (1881–1894). materials and energy resources (coal,
⚪ He wanted international assistance iron, etc.). Still, Japan had to import the
to jumpstart the country’s economic raw materials as they had significantly
development because he was pragmatic. fewer resources in comparison.
The railroad, coal, iron and steel, chemical, ⚪ Western industrialisation had a
and oil industries in Russia were heavily strong background in the agricultural
financed by countries such as the United revolution and commercial Revolution
Kingdom, France, and Germany. before the IR. Japan did not have
y Witte’s crowning achievement was the these advantages before the Industrial
construction of the Trans-Siberian railway Revolution.
connecting European Russia to the Pacific ⚪ In the case of western industrialisation,
coast. finance used to come from colonies,
y Tariff acts were passed. However, Russia landholders, and business people
continues to lag in road construction. Only voluntarily. In the case of the Japanese
5,000 km of its 30,000 km of highways were Revolution, finance was forcefully
still asphalted. collected from the agriculture sector by
y During the first decade of the 20th century, the state. Japan did not depend upon
Russia’s small-scale industry employed colonies for financial assistance.
almost 5-million people. It contributed a ⚪ The Japanese Industrial Revolution
third of the total industrial output. was state-led, whereas the western
y By 1900, Russia’s steel production had Industrial Revolution was private
significantly increased, thanks to the sector-led.

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⚪ Quality-wise western products were

better than Japanese products. Western Different Factors Involved in the
products, unlike Japanese products, Japanese IR from the Western IR:
were sold worldwide. The Japanese y Scientific discoveries and inventions
products did not find any markets to were the focal points in western
sell their products outside the country, IR, whereas the Japanese IR
especially in Europe. mostly depended upon the reverse
y Though the Japanese Industrial Revolution engineering of the technologies.
can be termed a ‘latecomer’, as it began y The western world had a huge
approximately after three decades of the IR number of raw materials and
in the West, it can also be termed as the energy resources available to them
first among the Asian countries to raise the (Coal, iron, etc.), but Japan had to
flag of the Industrial Revolution. It helped import the raw materials as they
Japan modernise their army and industry had significantly fewer resources in
to the extent that it could stand toe to toe comparison.
with the major European powers. y Western industrialisation had a strong
background in the agricultural
Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) revolution and commercial revolution
(2013, Mains) before the IR, Japan did not have
these advantages before the Industrial
 ‘Latecomer’ Industrial Revolution in
“ Revolution.
Japan involved certain factors that y In the case of western
were markedly different from what the industrialisation finance used to
West had experienced.” Analyze. (10 come from colonies, landholders,
marks, 200 words) and businessmen voluntarily. In the
Decoding the question case of the Japanese revolution,
y In the introduction, try to give a brief finance was forcefully collected
introduction to the background of from the agriculture sector by the
the Japanese Industrial Revolution. state. Japan did not depend upon
y In body, mention how the Japanese colonies for financial assistance.
Industrial Revolution differs from y The Japanese Industrial Revolution
the western Industrial Revolution. was state-led, whereas the western
y In conclusion, try to show that, even Industrial Revolution was private
being a ‘latecomer’, how it helped sector-led.
Japan become a global power. y Quality-wise western products were
better than Japanese products.
Answer: Western products, unlike Japanese
Japan made rapid strides to products, were sold worldwide.
industrialise after the Meiji Restoration The Japanese products did not find
of 1868, boosting its transportation any markets to sell their products
and communication networks and outside the country, especially in
revolutionising its light industry by the Europe.
turn of the century. But the Japanese Though the Japanese Industrial Revolu­
Industrial Revolution (IR) had many tion can be termed a ‘latecomer’, as
factors that were different from the it began approximately after three
western Industrial Revolution. decades of the IR in the west, it can

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Conclusion
also be termed as the first among the The Industrial Revolution was ushered
Asian countries to raise the flag of the in by technological advancements, which
Industrial Revolution. It helped Japan transformed the lives of the working classes,
modernise their army and industry to particularly in England. By introducing social
an extent that it could stand toe to toe and economic transformations, the Industrial
with the major European powers. Revol­ution signalled the transition from a
stable agrarian and commercial society to a
contemporary industrial society.

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6 Russian Revolution

Introduction of an Asian country (Japan) psychologically

bolstered Asian independence movements,
The 1917 Russian Revolution was one of the
while on the other hand, it weakened
most significant events in world history
the Russian Czarist state at home. The
throughout the 20th century. The revolution
setback was a crucial component in the
had affected the world as a whole, either
Czar›s authoritarian power crumbling. It
directly or indirectly. In 1917 two revolutions
culminated in the Russian revolution of 1905,
were witnessed in Russia. The first was in March
which established a limited constitutional
(February), and the second was in November
monarchy and, later, the Communist state
(October). Both revolutions were basically two
in 1917.
phases of one revolution in Russia. The first
y Majorly key issues of revolution and
revolution overthrew the Czar and set up a
counter-revolution took place during 1917,
moderate provisional government. When this
in which aspects of Bolshevik ideology
coped no better than the Czar, it was itself
played a significant role. Revolution and
overthrown by a second uprising; the Bolshevik
civil war in Russia have had a substantial
revolution (October/November). The new
social, economic, and political impact on
Bolshevik government was uncertain at first,
Russia and the world. The Czar or Czar
and its opponents (known as the Whites) tried
means Emperor of the Romanov Dynasty (a
to destroy it, triggering a bitter civil war (1918–
dynasty of Slavs).
20). Under the direction of Lenin and Trotsky,
y The process of transformation started by
the Bolsheviks (Reds) won the civil war and
the French Revolution in Europe was carried
started calling themselves communists. Lenin
to its culmination point by the Russian
commenced the task of leading Russia to
Revolution in 1917. The 1917 revolution
recovery, but he died prematurely in January
transformed Russian political, economic,
1924.
and social life, bringing in contemporary
notions of liberty, equality, and brotherhood.
y The Russian Revolution was an age of
In Russia, the revolutions are still known political and social revolution across
as the February and October Revolutions. the territory of the Russian Empire,
The Russians were using the old Julian which started with the abolishment of
calendar, which was 13 days behind the the monarchy and concluded with the
Gregorian calendar used by the rest of establishment of the Soviet Union by the
Europe. Russia adopted the Gregorian Bolsheviks and the end of the civil war. It
calendar in 1918. The February Revolution, resulted in bringing down the autocratic
as it is known in Russia, began on rule of the Czars and the building up of
February 23, 1917 (Julian), which was socialism in the USSR.
on March 8, 1917, elsewhere. When the
Bolsheviks took power on 25 October
(Julian), it was 7 November everywhere.
Socio-Economic Environment
y The Russian society was divided into a
Background wealthy and impoverished population.
y On the one hand, Russia’s defeat in the ⚪ The rich class included nobles, feudal
Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) at the hands lords, and the wealthy. The poor class

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⚪ The workers were at the mercy of

capitalists, who were mostly foreigners.
y Agrarian Concerns: Agrarian issues were
crucial in the revolution since agriculture
was such a large component of the Russian
economy, and peasants made up the
majority of the population.
⚪ Russian Agriculture was also in a
medieval state. Most of the land was
under the control of feudal lords. The
peasants had tiny land with them.
y Worker’s problem: Substantial firms
with a large concentration of workers
existed throughout the early stages of
industrialisation. The Russian working-class
movement, on the other hand, was opposed
to autocracy and the Russian bourgeoisie,
or capitalists, and therefore to a common
struggle among numerous workers.
y Trade and Commerce, as well as
other economic activities, were also
underdeveloped in Russia.
y The evils of maladministration were
affecting economic life as well. Practices
like black marketing and hoarding were.
Fig. 6.1 Vladimir Lenin Inflation was very high. The merchant and
traders created artificial scarcity to make
the maximum possible money at the cost
included peasants, labourers, and of the common masses.
serfs. In Russia, peasants made up the y Spread of Nihilism: Nihilism’s preachers
majority of the population. came out to abolish the current order,
⚪ The ‘Serfdom’ was abolished by Czar culture, and religious faith to establish a
Alexander II. new world. Its main goal was to overthrow
y The growth of the urban workforce in the the Czarist regime in Russia. They used
form of the industrial working class was their organisations to persuade people to
another major factor. oppose Russia’s current regime.
⚪ The employees were employed in the y Influence of Industrial Revolution:
city’s mines, factories, and workshops, Economic obsolete Russia and its people
where they were subjected to low were attracted to the innovations and
wages, inadequate accommodation, and development that evolved with the
numerous accidents. As a result, there industrial revolution in the world.
were numerous strikes and ongoing y Series of wars like The Crimean War (1854–
clashes between the police and the 56), Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), Russo-
workers. Japanese War (1904–1905) etc. were the
⚪ There was hardly any trace of the triggering events as they had exhausted all
industrial revolution in Russia. There the workforce and resources of the country,
were just 500 factories in the entire leading to the suffering of its citizens and
Russian empire. the economy.

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y Germany, Austria, and Italy established the y Up to 1917, Russia had an autocratic
Triple Alliance during World War I. Britain administration with the following
and France, on the other hand, formed the characteristics:
Entente Cordiale. Russia likewise engaged ⚪ There were no representative
in a coalition with Britain and France institutions.
and went against Germany without prior ⚪ It was illegal for people to form political
planning. organisations.
⚪ Germany’s quick decision not to extend ⚪ Strict censorship and arbitrary arrests
Russia’s Reinsurance Treaty triggered were maintained by the authorities.
Russia’s involvement in this accord. ⚪ There is no religious tolerance, and all
⚪ The German Kaiser was not a fan of nationalists other than Russians are
Russian friendship. The Triple Entente oppressed;
was founded as a result. Following the y The Russian Empire was a multinational
assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, empire that utilised its might to suppress
Austria launched an invasion of Serbia all democratic movements in Europe. The
in 1914. The conflict escalated into a ‘Policeman of Europe’ was the name given
global conflict, with Russia attempting to this feature of Russia.
to assist Serbia. Czar Nicholas II’s y The landed aristocracy and the bourgeoisie
participation in the First World War was continued to support the Russian government.
the pinnacle of foolishness on his part. In exchange, the autocracy ensured that
⚪ The country was ill-equipped to these classes maintained their favoured
undertake such a large-scale war at such status in Russian society.
short notice. The war’s ramifications y As a result, by 1917, a conflict had developed
were terrible. not just between old and new social forces,
but also between these new social forces and
the Russian state. As a result, the Russian
The Reinsurance Treaty revolutionary movement attempted to
Through the Reinsurance Treaty, signed destabilise the autocratic regime in Russia.
in 1887, Bismarck attempted to uphold
a Russo-German alliance. It said that if The Course of the Revolution
one of the countries became involved in
y The Romanov family ruled Russia as Czars
a war with a third major power, the other
for three centuries. The majority of Russians
would remain neutral; however, this did
were serfs who laboured on the land and
not apply if Germany attacked France or
could be bought and sold like property until
Russia invaded Austria.
Czar Alexander II freed them in 1861.
y The culmination of serfdom was a major
event in Russia, yet it just was not enough.
Causes of the Revolution Since the early 19th century, Russian
y There were numerous causes for the revolutionaries had attempted to bring
outbreak of the Russian Revolution. They about change through assassinations.
are as follows: y In 1881, revolutionaries succeeded in
y Czar’s regime was absolute. It was based assassinating Czar Alexander II after several
on ideas of the semi-divine monarchy. The failed attempts.
Czarist autocracy created unrest among the y The Russian citizens became agitated as
general public, such as labourers, peasants, the new Czar, Alexander III, tried to restore
intellectuals, and students of Russia. Over order. The Russian citizens were on the
time, it took the shape of hatred towards verge of civil war when Nicholas II became
the Czardom. Czar in 1894.

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y The Russian people, in general, were living to settle in Siberia, where land was
a minuscule livelihood marked by massive available in plenty.
famine and distress. By 1905, catastrophic ⚪ Inspectors were appointed to ensure
military defeats in the Russo-Japanese better working conditions and suitable
War (1904–1905) had devastated Russia’s wages for the factory labourers. As
finances. In response, protesters lost a result of which the conditions of
their calm and took to the streets. It was factories had started improving.
also called a “dress rehearsal” for the 1917 y By 1911 it was appearing as if the Czar’s
Revolution. regime would survive the crisis. However,
⚪ The workers and peasants started to the assassination of Prime Minister Pyotr
demand a “democratic republic”. It Stolypin in 1911 derailed the process of
was the first time when a mass general reforms. As a result, a revolution in Russia
strike broke out in Russia in which the became unavoidable.
sections of the army also revolted. y The decision of Czar Nicholas II to participate
y Over 200,000 workers and their families in World War 1 (29 July 1914) brought the
attended a rally headed by Russian Orthodox day of the revolution nearer.
priest Georgy A. Gapon on January 22, 1905. ⚪ The Czar was expecting glorious
They chose to express their dissatisfaction success in war. He was hopeful that the
with the Czar at the Winter Palace. success on the war front would restore
⚪ However, it turned out to be cruelly the credibility of the Czarist regime. The
popularly termed as ‘Bloody Sunday’ people will forget their real difficulties
as about 300 people were killed and as the alienation would get diverted to
hundreds more were wounded. the battlefront.
⚪ As the news spread, the Russian people ⚪ On the other hand, the Russians fared
responded by striking, mutinying, and badly in the war. In a series of battles,
fighting peasant uprisings. they were thrashed. Thousands of
y The Russian Revolution of 1905 had begun. Russian soldiers and peasants were ill-
Czar Nicholas II was able to put an end to the equipped and untrained to fight German
uprising by issuing the ‘October Manifesto,’ troops on the frontier. On the Russian
in which he made significant concessions. side, there were numerous casualties.
y Personal liberty and the institution of a
Duma (parliament) were the most crucial February Revolution
of these. y The first revolution began on February 23rd,
y The first Soviet, which was a revolutionary when bread riots erupted in Petrograd (St
organisation of working people, was founded Petersburg). A group of hungry women
during the 1905 revolution. Although the attacked a shop selling bread on Petrograd,
workers and peasants were unable to leading the revolution to break out.
overthrow the dictatorship, the experience ⚪ In Petrograd, female factory workers
gained during the revolution was vital. walked out and protested in the streets.
y Until 1911, a Revolution was not imitable International Women’s Day had arrived,
in Russia despite the fact the situation and Russian women were ready to
was deplorable. From 1906 to 1911, Prime speak up.
Minister Pyotr Stolypin initiated several ⚪ Approximately 90,000 women marched
serious steps to improve the condition of through the streets, chanting “Bread,”
the peasantry and factory workers. “DownwithAutocracy!”and“StoptheWar!”
⚪ The land was distributed among the ⚪ These ladies were drained, hungry, and
small and marginal farmers. More than furious. To feed their families, they worked
a million of them were encouraged long hours in deplorable conditions.

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⚪ This mob was fired upon by police y Within weeks of the revolution, the
leading to the death of 40 people. Over Provisional Government abolished the death
150,000 men and women flocked to the penalty, granted amnesty to all political
streets the next day to demonstrate. prisoners and exiles, ended religious and
⚪ The news of the incident spread like ethnic discrimination, and guaranteed civil
willow fire, and mass agitation started liberties.
emerging everywhere.
y Nicholas II, who was not in Petrograd at Significance of February Revolution
the time, did not take the revolt seriously, y The February Revolution was primarily
despite a few incidents of police and political in character because the Czarist
soldiers shooting into the crowds. regime had collapsed, and a liberal
⚪ By 1 March, everyone but the Czar government was formed in Russia.
himself realised the Czar’s reign was Initially, this government was led by Prince
coming to an end. Georgy Lvov. After some time, Alexander
⚪ To find out solutions to the immediate Kerensky became the leader of the
crisis, Czar advised his commanders to government.
abdicate in favour of his brother Michel y The absolute regime based on the theory of
on 15 March 1917. divine monarchy disappeared.
⚪ When the crown was offered to Michel, y The election took place on a regular
he refused to accept it, leading to the democratic basis.
downfall of the Czarist regime. y No socio-economic transformation could
y In the absence of a monarchy, the question be carried out immediately because the
of who will control the country next socio-economic objective of the revolution
remained unresolved. remained unfulfilled.
⚪ Former Duma members made up the y This revolution saw the autocrat overthrown,
Petrograd Soviet, and the first was made and a Provisional Government headed by
up of former Duma members. the bourgeoisie and landed aristocracy
formed.
⚪ Former members of the Duma
y Workers and peasants had a vital role in
represented the middle and upper
the revolution, which was also supported
classes, while the Soviet Union
by the bourgeoisie. It was a democratic-
represented workers and soldiers.
bourgeois revolution.
Finally, the country was governed by
a Provisional Government formed by
former members of the Duma.
⚪ Initially, the Duma, struggling to control, Bolsheviks argued that the party must
formed a mainly liberal provisional work with the industrial workers and
government with Prince George Lvov the peasants to get them involved in the
as the Prime Minister. In July, Lvov revolutionary activity. Mensheviks had
was replaced by Alexander Kerensky, little faith in peasants cooperating in
a moderate socialist. However, the new revolutionary activity because peasants
government was just as perplexed by were the most conservative group in
the enormous problems facing it as Russian society.
the Czar had been. On the night of
25 October, a second revolution took
place, which overthrew the provisional October (November) Revolution
government and brought the Bolsheviks When Russia was revolutionised by the February
to power. Revolution, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Ilyich

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Lenin was exiled. He slammed the Provisional Causes of October Revolution/

Government and demanded a fresh revolution. Bolshevik Revolution
He reminded the people that the country was y In the November 1917 revolution, red guards
still at war, and the Provisional Government led by Vladimir Lenin captured power, and
had done little to assist the people in obtaining the Bolsheviks emerged and dominated.
food and land. The prerequisites for the This second revolution was complementary
proletarian-socialist revolution were formed and supplementary to the 1st revolution of
between February 1917 and October 1917. March 1917.

Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (often known as Lenin) was born in the Volga city of Simbirsk in 1870.
He studied law at Kazan University, where he was introduced to Karl Marx’s teachings. When
his elder brother, whom he admired greatly, was captured and killed by Russian police for
plotting to assassinate the Czar, he was shocked.
y Lenin turned into a revolutionary and for his activities, he was caught and exiled to
Siberia. During his incarceration, he wrote a book about Russian capitalism that drew the
attention of many Marxists.
y In 1916, he wrote his famous book Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism.
y Lenin returned home and preached Marxism.
y “The dictatorship of the proletariat” was established in Russia under the leadership of
Lenin. Lenin’s right-hand man was a Jew named Braunstein (Trotsky). Both of them
returned to Russia in 1917 to lead the November (or rather October according to the
Russian calendar) revolution.
y Vladimir Lenin, the Bolshevik leader, returned to Russia from exile in April 1917. Since
1914, he and the Bolsheviks have opposed the war. He believed it was now time for the
Soviets to take control. He demanded that the conflict be ended, that land is given to
the peasants, and that banks be nationalised. Lenin’s ‘April Theses’ were these three
demands.
y Lenin’s successful coup established the proletariat dictatorship. In the end, however, it
was Lenin’s dictatorship that was established.
y With Trotsky as his foreign minister, Lenin attempted to put Marx’s communist teachings
into practice.
y The Czar and his family were executed, and the nobles fled the country; the church
was deprived of its land and privileges, and its officials were killed or expelled from the
country, and the church was deprived of its land and privileges, and its officials were
killed or expelled from the country during the bloody revolution.
y The violent nature of the Russian Revolution made western European countries cringe,
and its people were reminded of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution of 1789.
y As a result, Western countries provided weaponry, money, and soldiers to the counter-
revolutionary movement led by Kerensky, Kornilov, Denikin, and others.
y Lenin launched an ambitious push to transfer Soviet influence to neighbouring countries,
forging commercial and diplomatic ties with all of the world’s major nations. The success
of Lenin’s early economic reforms was largely dependent on his terrorisation policy.
⚪ Criticism was prohibited, democratic rights were taken away, and party leaders
coerced the people to embrace the government’s new policies.

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y After the collapse of the czarist regime, y The economic destitution being faced by
a liberal government led by Alexander the masses was intact as the fundamentals
Kerensky was formed. This government of socio-economic life did not witness any
committed several serious mistakes. change.
y The Russians wanted a government to sign a y In April 1917, Lenin returned from Geneva. He
separate peace with Germany to come out was living in exile and was out of Russia at the
of the war, but the Kerensky government time of the February Revolution. He returned
decided to intensify the war. to Russia with German help. Lenin gave air
y A major offensive was launched in June 1917, to popular discontent prevailing among the
which ended in miserable failure. When the masses through his writings and Speeches.
corps of soldiers started returning from the y The Koehler affair had also played an
battlefield, the popular discontent against essential role in trashing the government.
the government intensified enormously. y In August 1917, General Kornilov decided
y The government postponed the election in to undertake a military operation to wipe
the name of war. out the Communists. He surrounded the
y No serious step was taken to improve the Government buildings for the safety of the
conditions of the peasantry and the factory government before initiating actions against
workers. Communists.

Significance of October Revolution

y The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia was one of the most significant developments in the
history of the 20th century. This revolution was in Russia; its effect was felt in the whole
world.
y It transformed the theory of communism in practice.
y For the first time, a Communist regime came to power anywhere in the world.
y The Russian Revolution resulted in an internationalised ideological rivalry that continued
to increase over time. This ideological difference was responsible for the Civil War, which
threatened world peace for more than 4 decades.
y The Bolshevik Revolution also pushed Russia into civil war. The anti-communists known
as Whites fought against the newly formed communist regime for almost four years.
y The process of politico-administrative and socio-economic transformation triggered by
the French Revolution of 1789 was carried to its culmination by the Russian Revolution
in 1917.
y The emergence of Communist Russia was one of the crucial factors in forcing western
democracies into the policy of appeasement concerning Germany, Italy and Other fascist
forces.
y The Bolshevik Revolution transformed Russia into a super-power within less than three
decades. By the end of the Second World War, Russia was the strongest nation in entire
Europe.
y The success of the Russian socialist economy, especially when the Capitalist world was
facing a severe economic crisis, convinced many leaders in the world, such as Jawaharlal
Nehru, that socialism was the solution to their problems.
y The Bolshevik Revolution inspired and encouraged the Socialists and Communists all
over the world. The Communist Party emerged in many countries, and Red flags became
a common sight in Europe.

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y Most of the Russian Soldiers were Pro- The Bolsheviks became Russia’s new rulers
Communist, and they arrested Kornilov. after that.
His move was portrayed as an attempted y Almost immediately, Lenin stated that
coup as his action was without government the new government would put a stop to
permission. the conflict, eliminate private property
y Taking advantage of this volatile socio- ownership, and institute a system of factory
economic-political situation, Lenin, supported worker control.
by Trotsky and his red revolutionary guards,
captured power on the night of 6–7 November Civil War
1917. y Following World War I, the Russian Civil War
⚪ He adopted ‘War Communism’ as the erupted in 1918 between the Whites (those
policy in 1918 to counter the challenge opposed to the Soviets, which included
of the Russian Civil War. monarchists, liberals, and other socialists)
⚪ As a result of the success of the and the Reds (the Bolshevik regime), causing
Bolshevik revolution, Russia had millions of Russians to suffer because the
emerged as a Communist Nation. mob was hungry, tired, and desirous of
⚪ The Communist regime nationalised the regaining their jobs.
property. y Without private land ownership, farmers
y Russia signed a separate peace (Treaty of began to raise only enough food to feed
Brest-Litovsk) with Germany to come out themselves, with little incentive to produce
of the war. more; also, there were no job opportunities.
y This Move of Communist Russia was against Manufacturers were no longer able to fill
the western Capitalist-Nation. Because huge orders without a battle to fund them.
of this, Western Nations-supported anti- The people’s basic problems were not solved;
communist groups known as white to wipe rather, their lives deteriorated significantly. In
out communism. June 1918, Russia was engaged in a civil war.
y This division sparked a civil war in Russia, y At the commencement of the Russian Civil
which lasted from 1918 until 1921. War, the Reds were concerned that the
y ‘Peace! Land! Bread! Democracy!’ became Whites would liberate the Czar and his family,
the current and widespread slogan. giving the Whites a psychological boost and
possibly leading to the restoration of the
Russian monarchy. The Reds never wanted
Immediate Cause
something like that to happen again.
y The revolution began on October 10, 1917, y On the night of 16–17 July 1918, Czar Nicholas
with a secret meeting of Bolshevik party and his entire family were shot dead. The
officials. The telegraph, post office, power Civil War was a two-year-long battle marked
station, critical bridges, train terminals, and by violence, vengeance, and inhumanity. The
state bank were all taken over by Bolshevik Reds won, but it came at a cost of millions
soldiers. Without firing a single shot, the of lives. The social structure of Russia
Bolsheviks grabbed control of this and was broken by the Russian Civil War. The
other nearby stations. progressives were no longer with us. After the
y By late that morning, much of Petrograd Soviet Union split apart in 1991, Russia was
had fallen under Bolshevik hands, with the ruled by a ruthless, authoritarian dictatorship.
exception of the Winter Palace, where the
Provisional Government’s leaders remained. Consequences of the Civil War
Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky was y The Russian Revolution’s first accomp­
able to leave, but Bolshevik troops had lishments were abolishing autocracy and
taken the Winter Palace by the next day. the dissolution of the bourgeoisie, and the

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church’s influence. For the brief Soviet Union, the nationalisation of industries and
the Czarist Empire was turned into the Union resources, and the efficient distribution of
of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). manufactured goods, it was thought that
y Private benefit has been removed from the the country’s economy would be effectively
manufacturing system. managed.
y State-led economic planning was introduced y It completely transformed the government
to quickly grow a technologically advanced and outlook on life in the country of Russia,
economy and eradicate conspicuous gaps which ultimately pushed the world for a
in society. change in the form of a revolution.
y The freedom to work became a civil right,
and it became the state’s responsibility to War Communism in Russia
provide work for all. y The Policy of War-Communism adopted
y A high emphasis was placed on the to counter the challenge of the Civil War
education of the entire population. emphasised:
y The constitution granted nationalities’ ⚪ Nationalisation of all industries.
republics autonomy in developing their ⚪ Introduction of strict centralised
languages and cultures. management in industries.
y The socialist movement’s theories about ⚪ State control over foreign trade.
socialism contributed to the promotion of ⚪ Strict discipline for workers.
internationalism. ⚪ Strikes prohibited.
y Influenced independence movements in ⚪ Imposition of obligatory labour duty on
the sense that they eventually broadened non-working classes.
independence goals to include social and ⚪ Requisition of entire agricultural surplus
economic inclusion through organised from peasants for centralised distribution,
economic growth. After land redistribution, among others.

Why Radical Reforms Failed in Russia

y The early radical reforms of Lenin were a massive failure, partly due to mismanagement
and partly due to millions of peasants’ refusal to cooperate.
y Imports of all resources from the West were halted during and after the revolution, leaving
factories starving and regular strikes leading to severe shortages of consumer goods.
y When consumer items stopped flowing to villages, villagers stopped supplying their
surplus food grains. They turned to hoard as a last option. Due to the lack of fertiliser
imports, agricultural production fell from 1920-to 21. In 1920–21, agricultural and industrial
production fell sharply (almost by two-thirds) as compared to 1913 levels.
y The country was in the midst of one of the worst famines in its history, and Russia was
on the point of collapse, with the people on the precipice of the uprising.
y The sailors and soldiers at the naval fortress of Kronstadt revolted, yelling “Down with the
Soviet Government,” as Lenin realised the gravity of his error.
y After land redistribution, the nationalisation of industries and resources, and the efficient
distribution of manufactured goods, it was thought that the country’s economy would
be effectively managed. However, none of these events occurred, resulting in severe
shortages of essentials in both towns and villages.

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⚪ Rationing of foods and other y The new economic policy moved away from
communities. the complete nationalisation of the unfair
⚪ Military-style controls were imposed industry to create a mixed economy in Russia.
on railways. ⚪ The Russian Government required foreign
investment and foreign technology to
New Economic Policy boost and carry out industries.
y It was introduced in Russia in March 1921 ⚪ The Public and Private sectors were
as a replacement for War Communism. The permitted to co-exist in the new
policy of War Communism had ruined the economic policy.
Russian economy badly. In the absence of ⚪ The put individuals were allowed to own
enterprises, there was no motivation among small enterprises.
the citizens to work harder to produce more.

Lenin’s NEP and its Influence on India

The New Economic Policy, of 1921 partially revoked the complete nationalisation of the
industry, which was established during the War Communism of 1918 to 1921. It introduced
a mixed economy system that allowed private individuals to own small enterprises while
continuing to control banks, foreign trade, and large industries.
y In 1926, India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, visited the Soviet Union and was
much inspired by the Soviet Union’s socio-economic pattern.
⚪ Despite his worries about communism’s growing political form, he admired and strove
to mimic the Soviet economic model.
⚪ The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 recommended a mixed economy influenced
by the New Economic policy of 1921.
y The economic measures promulgated as part of the NEP brought about significant
changes in the agricultural sector, the distribution system, the industrial sector, and
organisational forms.
⚪ The second five-year plan (1956–61) inspired NEP 1921 and laid the foundation for
economic modernisation.
⚪ It was based on the Mahalanobis Model that encouraged rapid industrialisation
focused on heavy industries and capital goods.
y India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, attempted to build an economy substantially
influenced by the Soviet model, including five-year plans, central planning, and a dominant
public sector that would assume the “commanding heights” of the economy, to borrow
Lenin’s words.
y Historically, Russia’s influence on the Indian economy can be seen through India’s
Economic Model, i.e., a Mixed Economy. Russia’s NEP was a mix of Capitalist as well as
Command economy; similarly, India adopted an economic policy that has a combination
of capitalism as well as socialism. One of the ambitions of NEP 1921 was to have a link
between the rural economy and the urban economy. In the Indian economy, the five-year
plan emphasised establishing linkages between the urban and rural areas.

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y State control was maintained over banks, in its recovery. Large scale industrialisation
foreign trade and large industries. was carried out successfully.
y The Policy of Taking away the entire surplus y The success of new economic policies
from the farmer was abolished. A tax was helped popularise socialist ideas in other
imposed on them so that a balance could Countries.
be maintained between individual and ⚪ Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas
collective interests. Chandra Bose were deeply influenced. As
y The implementation of new economic a result, India also adopted the model of
policies aided the Russian economy much a mixed economy after independence.

Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) the welfare of all rather than a few. The
(2014, Mains) political leaders believed that since
planning was not possible in a market
 he New Economic Policy – 1921 of
T
economy, they took inspiration from
Lenin influenced the policies adopted
the Soviet economy and combined the
by India soon after independence.
best features of socialism for India’s
Evaluate. (12.5 marks, 200 words)
economic model. Few features of
Decoding the question
the Indian Economy were inspired by
y In the introduction, briefly write
Lenin’s NEP 1921.
about Vladimir Lenin’s NEP 1921
Lenin’s The New Economic Policy, 1921
and how India’s economy took
and its Influence on India:
inspiration from that.
y The complete nationalisation of
y In body, substantiate how the
the industry that existed between
New Economic Policy 1921 of Lenin
the periods of 1918 to 1921 (also
influenced the policies adopted
known as The War Communism)
by India like the Mixed Economic
was partially undone by The New
model or the capitalist tendency in
Economic Policy, of 1921.
the economy.
y System of mixed economy was
y Here, you can conclude with the
started by The New Economic Policy
historical relationship between
1921. It let private individuals to own
India and Russia. Example: Russia’s
small enterprises and simultaneously
influence on the Indian Economy can
maintained control over banks, foreign
be seen through India’s Economic
trade, and large industries.
model, i.e., a Mixed Economy.
y Jawaharlal Nehru (the future Prime
Minister of India) visited the Soviet
Answer:
Union in 1926 and got impressed by
The Kronshtadt Rebellion of March the socio-economic pattern of the
1921 convinced Vladimir Lenin of the USSR. He however didn’t find much
need to retreat from socialist policies scope in the growth of political
and introduce The New Economic sphere of Communism but was
Policy (NEP 1921). In Independent India, thoroughly inspired by the USSR’ s
the leaders had to decide the type of economic model and tried to take a
economic system most suitable for the leaf from its book.
nation, a system that would promote

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Foreign Policy: Counter-Revolution Fails

y The Industrial Policy Resolution of y Russia defeated the Western-supported
1948 proposed a mixed economy anti-communist drive in 1919–20.
which was influenced by the New y In November 1919, Admiral Kolchak’s forces
Economic policy of 1921. surrendered at Omsk, and in February
y The economic measures promul­ 1920, Kolchak was caught and executed in
gated as part of the NEP brought Irkutsk.
about significant changes, in the y In a similar vein, General Denikin retreated
agricultural sector, the distribution when his men were repeatedly defeated by
system and the industrial sector and the Red Armies.
its organisational forms. y Counter-revolutionaries backed by the
y The second five-year plan (1956-61) French attempted but failed to destabilise
took inspiration from NEP 1921 and the communist revolution.
laid the foundation for economic y The French-backed Poles were defeated,
modernisation. and Poland and Russia signed a peace deal
y It was based on the Mahalanobis in Riga.
Model that advocated rapid indus­ y The Red Army destroyed General Wrangel’s
trialisation with a focus on heavy forces, forcing him to flee to Constantinople;
industries and capital goods. similarly, the Red Army crushed counter-
y After India became an independent revolutionary forces, effectively ending
country, its first Prime Minister Ukraine’s independence.
Jawaharlal Nehru modeled its eco­ y Thus, the Red Army of Russia saved the
nomy on Soviet lines. Its key features country from foreign invasions, enabling
included five-year plans, central the Bolsheviks to sit firmly on the saddle.
planning and a dominant public
sector that according to Nehru would The USSR
assume the role of “commanding y The Bolshevik government split with
heights” of the economy. European areas that had previously
Historically, Russia’s influence on the belonged to the ancient Russian empire in
Indian economy can be seen through a series of treaties concluded between 1921
India’s Economic Model, i.e., a Mixed and 1922. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Economy. The New Economic policy and Poland were all granted independence.
of 1921 was a mix of Capitalist as well y It formally protested Romania’s annexation
as Command economy, similarly, India of Bessarabia.
adopted an economic policy which has y Special rights and “spheres of influence”
a combination of capitalism as well as acquired by the Czarist rule in countries
socialism. One of the ambitions of NEP like Turkey, Persia, and China were rejected
1921 was to have a link between the by the new communist government.
rural economy and the urban economy. y In communist Russia, specific political
In the Indian economy, the five-year changes were made. The former Russian
plan emphasised establishing linkages empire was divided into four states and
between the urban and rural areas. renamed the “Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics.”

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y It had grown to eleven by 1936, and in Second, they set in action the factors that
1918, a new constitution was approved that would eventually lead to the establishment
recognised the proletariat’s power. In 1923 of a just and equitable society. The post-
and 1936, the constitution was revised. revolutionary Russian society was built based
y The strain of labour took its toll on Lenin’s on equality, allowing everyone to develop
health. He died in January 1924 after suffering themselves. Third, the Russian Revolution
two strokes. The Russian people built a tomb encouraged worldwide struggles for freedom
over his bones in Red Square (Moscow). and greater order among subject peoples
and states. The Indian liberation struggle, in
particular, gathered momentum and certain
Conclusion Radical trends, Nationalism direction from
The 1917 Russian Revolution is significant for the Russian Revolution. Finally, the Russian
a multitude of reasons. To begin with, they experience provided a new model for social
constituted a fundamental shift in Russia’s liberation, economic progress, and political
political, social, and economic structures. revolution for the rest of the globe.

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7 World War I (1914–1918)

to weaken, and America began to rise to the

Introduction top. New ideas, institutions, and leadership
The First World War began in the third quarter evolved as a result of the war. The globe had
of 1914. It was primarily limited to Europe. changed dramatically by the end of the war.
The war then extended around the globe and World war I was the consequence of a chain of
continued for another four years. The world events in Europe and other parts of the world
was witness to an unprecedented holocaust. that disorganised the existing socio-economic
Established dynasties fell apart, Europe began and political structures.

Extreme Nationalism
y The rise of nationalism was an important event in Europe during the nineteenth century.
y The Congress of Vienna’s efforts came to nought, and the catastrophic wave swept down
numerous monarchs.
y In the Balkans, numerous Christian countries broke away from the Ottoman empire’s
dominance, most notably Belgium, Italy, and Germany.
y It appeared as if Europe was engulfed in flames, the explosive element being nationalism.
Germany, which arose from the ashes of war, took an uncompromising approach to
achieve its imperial aims.
y “Strong nations, rigidly and patriotically pursuing their national desires, have inevitably
clashed with one another.”
y In the absence of an international peacekeeping force, these countries were free to
break international laws. This was a terrible mistake. The international environment had
become so tainted that the twenty-five years leading up to the Great War were dubbed
the Era of Armed Peace.

Hostile Military Alliances

y The globe was split between two adversarial alliances: the Triple Alliance and the Triple
Entente. It was this event that sparked the Great War. Bismarck built the Triple Alliance
primarily to insulate France from the rest of Europe to safeguard the newly formed
German empire (1871).
y Bismarck was careful not to alienate the sympathy and assistance of other great powers,
such as Russia and Britain, by isolating France.
y After 1890, however, the new German monarch, Kaiser William III, rejected his policy of
relative restraint.
y Following the departure of the previous Chancellor (1890), the German Emperor began to
consider a grandiose plan for world conquest. He devised a new policy, the Weltpolitik,
that would guide him for the rest of his life.
y The new policy said that Germany should no longer be satisfied with her current situation
and should instead strive for world dominance through military victories as well as trade
and commerce expansion.

World War I (1914–1918) 89

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y Germany had already prospered rapidly in the industrial sector by then and it looked
forward to capturing world markets by establishing some colonies in Asia and Africa like
other western nations.
y Germany let the Reinsurance Treaty lapse, and Russia was similarly hesitant to renew it.

y The competitive militarism of the moment

was the third fundamental motive for the war.
Factors and Forces Responsible
Another contributing cause of the war was
for the First World War
economic competitiveness and imperialism.
The First World War was the consequence of y Imperialism was a cause of ongoing
the developments going on for more than a contention among the powers. As a result
generation. of the Imperialism mindset of the time, a
y The first underlying reason for the war nation’s greatness was determined not
was the dominance of nationalism, which only by its position in Europe but also by
was one of the legacies of the French the value and extent of its non-European
Revolution. The success of nationalism conquests.
in Italy and Germany gave it a new lease y Immediate cause - The immediate occasion
on life and transformed it into a powerful of the war was the bitter enmity between
political force. Austria and Serbia in the Balkans. Austria
y The second key reason for the conflict was has created a second Alsace-Lorraine
the vogue of militarism and the military in the Balkans, akin to Serbia in blood
alliance system. The grouping of powers into and language, by annexing Bosnia and
mutually questionable organisations posed Herzegovina. The assassination of Archduke
a serious threat to international peace. Francis Ferdinand, the heir apparent to

Fig. 7.1 The Europe in 1914

90 World War I (1914–1918)

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the Hapsburg throne, sparked the war. He y It was just the pretext. The causes of the
was killed on June 28, 1914, by a group of war can be traced to the international
Bosnian extremist interwar nationalists. On political-economic developments that
the other hand, the assassination was not have occurred since the Franco-German
the source of the dispute. War (1870).

Causes of International Friction

There was a various factor those affected Europe’s peace:
y The naval competition between Germany and the United Kingdom.
y The annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany at the end of the Franco-Prussian War
(1871) infuriated the French.
y The Germans claimed that the UK, Russia, and France were trying to encircle them.
y The Russians were sceptical about Austrian ambitions in the Balkans.
y The most dangerous source of conflict was Serbian nationalism (the desire to free the
country from the authority of individuals of another nationality).

Events Leading to First World War

y The Moroccan Crisis (1905–06): The y The First Balkan War (1912): The First
Germans were attempting to put the Balkan War, which began in 1912, was fought
recently signed Anglo-French Entente in the Balkans. Serbia, Greece, Montenegro,
Cordiale 1904 to the test. In exchange for and Bulgaria (dubbed the Balkan League)
British approval of a prospective French launched an attack on Turkey, conquering
annexation of Morocco, France would the majority of her remaining European
recognise Britain›s position in Egypt. territory. The British foreign secretary, Sir
y The Bosnia Crisis (1908): The Austrians, Edward Grey, convened a peace conference
taking advantage of a revolution in Turkey, in London with the German government.
annexed the Turkish province in Bosnia. The former Turkish islands were distributed
This was a deliberate smack in the face to among the Balkan states as part of the
Serbia, which had planned to seize Bosnia settlement. However, Serbians were not
and Herzegovina because of the country’s happy with their gains.
heterogeneous population of Serbs, Croats, y The Second Balkan War (1913): The second
and Muslims, which numbered around 3 Balkan war began because the Bulgarians
million Serbs. were dissatisfied with the peace settlement.
y The Agadir Crisis (1911): The crisis was They were hoping for Macedonia, but most
a further development in the Moroccan of it was given to Serbia. They had hoped for
situation. To put down an insurrection Macedonia, but Serbia received the majority
against the Sultan, French armies entered of it. Bulgaria, hence, attacked Serbia, but
Fez, Morocco’s capital. The French appeared their plan misfired.
to be on the verge of capturing Morocco. As y The July Crisis and Declaration of War:
a result, the Germans sent the Panther, a Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb student,
gunboat, to Agadir, Morocco, in the hopes of shot and assassinated Archduke Franz
forcing the French into making reparations, Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian
possibly in the French Congo. crown, in Sarajevo on June 28. Princip was

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TIMELINE
WORLD WAR-I

1914 1914 1914 - 191 191 - 1919

June 28, 1914 August 1, 1914 1914 – 191
7
Austrian Archduke Franz Germany declares war on Russia. Deadlock and growing death
Ferdinand and his wife Sophia tolls. The two huge armies are
are killed by Serbian nationalists. deadlocked along a 600-mile
August 4, 1914
front of trenches in Belgium and
German army invades neutral France. For four years, there is
Belgium on its way to attack little change.Attack after attack
France. Great Britain declares fails to cross enemy lines, and
war on Germany. the toll in human lives grows
rapidly. Both sides seek help
August 3, 1914 from other allies. By 1917, every
continent and all the oceans of June 191
7
Germany declares war on France. the world were involved in this
war. American troops begin landing in
France.
August ¦, 1914
Austria declares war on Russia. February 191
5
July - November 191
7
The frst Canadian soldiers land
in France to fght alongside Third Battle of Ypres
August 12, 1914
Britishtroops.
France and Britain declare war
on Austria.
December 191
7
April - May 191
5 Americans declare war on
The Second Battle of Ypres. Austria.
Germans use poison gas and
break a holethrough the long line April 191 Vimy Ridg
e
of Allied trenches. Death tolls are
rising steadily into the millions. Allied forces succeed in taking
control of Vimy Ridge, a very
strong German position in France
May 191
5 with a high slope and a system of
Italy declares war on Austria. trenches and tunnels heavily
The political objective of the protected by barbed wire and
assassination was to free Bosnia German artillery.
and Herzegovina of Austria- August 191
5
Hungarian rule and establish a Italy declares war on Germany. August 4, 1918 to November 11,
common South Slav ("Yugoslav") 191
8
state.
July - November 191
6 The Allied forces advance
Battle of the Somme. Allied steadily on the Western Front.
forces move forward only six
The assassination precipitated This period has come to be
miles, and suffer 600,000 deaths.
the July Crisis which led to known as "The Last Hundred
Austria-Hungary declaring war on
Serbia and the start of World War October 1, 1914 236,000 Germans are killed; they Days,” in which Canadian troops
played an important role.
The frst Canadian troops leave refer to this battle as das
Blutbad — the blood bath.
I.
to be trained in Britain.
November 3, 191
8
July 2¦, 1914
October – November 1914 February 191
7 Austria signs an armistice (peace
Austria declares war on Serbia. agreement).
Russia, an ally of Serbia, prepares First Battle of Ypres, France. Germany begins all-out
Germany fails to reach the submarine warfare to control the
to enter the war.
English Channel. North Atlantic. November 11, 191
8
July 29, 1914 Germany signs an armistice
agreement. When peace fnally
Austria invades Serbia. came, there was an underlying
sadness to the celebrations. In
the end, Belgium had been freed
but at the cost of wiping out an
entire generation of youngmen.

June 191
9
Allied and German
representatives sign the Treaty of
Versailles. The United States
April 191
7 signs a treaty of guarantee,
The United States declares war pledging to defend France in
on Germany. case of an unprovoked attack by
Germany.

Fig. 7.2 World War Timeline I

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a member of Young Bosnia, a group whose Austrians in the Battle of Cer, taking
goals included the union of the South slaves defensible positions on the southern side of
and independence from Austria-Hungary. the Drina and Sava rivers. Austrian attacks
y War on Serbia: On 28 July, Austria-Hungary were repulsed during the next two weeks,
declared war on Serbia. On July 29, the but with heavy costs.
Russians ordered a full mobilisation. On July y German Forces in Belgium and France: The
31st, the German government requested Germans were initially quite successful in
that this be rescinded, and when the the Battle of the Frontiers (14 August-24
Russians refused, Germany declared war on August). On the other hand, Russia launched
Russia and France on August 1st and August an attack on East Prussia, pulling German
3rd, respectively. On August 6th, Austria- soldiers away from the Western Front. The
Hungary declared war on Russia. Later, First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August-2
other countries joined. September) was the first of a series of
battles in which Germany destroyed Russia.
Progress of the War y Asia and the Pacific (APAC): New Zealand
British, French, and German armies fought in attacked German Samoa on August 30 (later
some of the early battles in colonial Africa. Western Samoa). On September 11th, an
Togoland, a German possession, was overrun Australian naval and military expeditionary
by French and British forces on August 7. On force arrived in Neu Pommern (later New
the 10th of August, German soldiers in South- Britain), which was part of German New
West Africa launched an offensive on South Guinea. Germany’s Micronesian colonies
Africa, sparking sporadic and violent fighting were captured by Japan. Following the Battle
that lasted the rest of the war. of Tsingtao, allied forces in the Pacific took
y Serbian Campaign: Beginning on August all German territory in a matter of months,
12th, the Serbian Army battled the invading including the German Coaling Port at Qingdao.

Trench Warfare:
y Before World War I, military tactics had not kept up with technological advancements.
It necessitated formidable defence systems, which out-of-date tactics were unable to
penetrate during the majority of the war.
⚪ Following the first battle of the Marne, both the Entente and German forces started
on the ‘Race to the Sea,’ a series of outflanking manoeuvres. Britain and France were
swiftly arrayed against entrenched German soldiers from Lorraine to the Flemish
coast of Belgium. They wanted to go on the offensive while Germany defended the
conquered lands; as a result, German trenches were generally far better built than
their adversaries.
⚪ On July 1, 1916, the opening day of the Battle of the Somme, the British Army suffered
its worst day in history, with 57,470 injuries and 19,240 dead. The majority of the
deaths occurred during the first hour of the strike.
⚪ Neither party was able to come to an agreement. However, the exhausted French
army was on the verge of crumbling in 1916 as a result of extended German fighting
at Verdun, compounded by the Entente’s failure at the Somme. Due to the strategic
and technical approaches taken by the combatants, Britain and France lost more
casualties than Germany from 1915 to 1917.

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y Fighting in India: The war began with an unpre­ ⚪ In February 1917, the German general
cedented expression of loyalty and good­will staff persuaded Chancellor Theobald
towards the British from mainstream political Von Bethmann Hollweg to declare
leadership, opposite to initial British concerns unrestricted submarine warfare in order
of an Indian revolt. India under British rule to starve Britain out of the war.
contributed enormously to the British war ⚪ The United Kingdom was spared hunger,
force by providing man and resources. while German industrial output dropped.
⚪ The Indian National Congress did this to ⚪ The Allies formed the Supreme Allied
achieve self-government as India was Council to coordinate plans at the
very much in control of the British. Rapallo Conference after Austria-
⚪ The British disappointed the Indians by Hungary and Germany’s victory at the
not providing self-governance, which led Battle of Caporetto.
to the Gandhian Era, commonly known ⚪ The central powers concluded an
as mass nationalism, in Indian history. armistice with Russia in March. The
y Eastern front: The war in the East Central Powers knew they couldn’t win
continued while the Western Front was at a a long war, but they were optimistic
standstill. Initially, Russian plans called for about a swift onslaught.
simultaneous invasions of Austrian Galicia y Entry of the United States in the war: The
and German East Prussia. United States initially pursued a policy of
⚪ Although Russia’s initial drive into Galicia isolationism, avoiding conflict while trying
was largely unsuccessful, Hindenburg and to broker peace. As a result, tensions
Ludendorff forced them back from East between Berlin and London have risen. In
Prussia at Tannenberg and the Masurian 1915, a German U-Boat sank the British ship
Lakes in August and September 1914. Lusitania, killing all 128 people on board.
⚪ By the spring of 1915, the Russians had ⚪ Germany began unrestrained submarine
withdrawn from Galicia, and the central warfare in January 1917, when the Navy
powers had made an unexpected forced the Kaiser to do so. Room 40,
advance on Poland’s southern borders. a British Royal Navy cryptanalytic unit,
On August 5th, they captured Warsaw had cracked the German diplomatic
and drove the Russians out of Poland. code. They agreed to enter the war as
⚪ Protests in St Petersburg resulted in Germany’s ally against the United States
Tsar (Czar) Nicholas II’s abdication and after receiving a proposal from Berlin
the creation of a feeble Provisional (the Zimmermann Telegram).
Government that shared power with the ⚪ When the British revealed the message to
Petrograd Soviet Socialists in March 1917. the US, President Wilson, who had gained
⚪ The war and the government are re-election on the promise of keeping the
becoming more and more disliked. The country out of the war, was furious.
growth in popularity of the Bolshevik ⚪ Although it became an “Associated
party, led by Vladimir Lenin, who vowed Power” in its own right, the United
to draw Russia out of the war and was States was never an official member
able to achieve power as a result of the of the Allies. It had a small army, but
unhappiness among Russians. it enlisted four million men and was
y Developments during 1917–1918: The events sending 10,000 new soldiers to France
of 1917 were crucial in bringing the war to every day by the summer of 1918.
a close, though their consequences were ⚪ As part of the Jones Act, the United
not fully realised until 1918. The United States Congress forced Puerto Ricans
Kingdom’s naval blockade had begun to to become citizens of the United States
have a considerable impact on Germany. in 1917. Germany had miscalculated.

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Fig. 7.3 Spread of World War I

Europe had divided itself into two alliance systems:

y The Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
y The Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia

y German spring offensive (1918): German November 1918. The continuation of the war
General Erich Ludendorff drew up the plans would have meant the invasion of Germany.
for the 1918 onslaught on the Western Front This had unforeseeable consequences.
(codenamed Operation Michael). The spring ⚪ Berlin was nearly 900 miles (1,400
attack sought to divide the British and kilometres) from the western front,
French forces with a series of feints and and no Allied forces had ever set foot
advances. on German soil in anger. The Kaiser’s
⚪ To enter the British and French trenches, armies withdrew from the battlefield
novel approaches were developed, in good order. Many Germans, including
frequently referred to as Hutier tactics Adolf Hitler, were persuaded that their
after General Oskar von Hutier. Previous armies had not been defeated.
attacks were characterised by long
artillery bombardments and mass End of World War I
assaults. During the spring offensive,
the German army, on the other hand, Important Events At the End of the
employed artillery very briefly and World War I
infiltrated small units of infantry into y The Central Powers were quickly
susceptible locations. defeated; Bulgaria was the first to sign a
y Allied superiority and the ‘stab in the truce on September 29, 1918, at Saloniki.
back’ theory (November 1918): The Allies On October 30, the Ottoman Empire
had plenty of personnel and supplies in surrendered at Mudros.

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y On October 24, Italy started a counter-

offensive to regain territory lost in the battle Five treaties signed by the leaders of
of Caporetto; on October 29, the imperial the paris peace conference:
authorities ordered a cease-fire, but the y Treaty of Versailles, 28 June 1919
army continued to advance, reaching Trento, (Germany)
Trieste, and Udine. y Treaty of Saint-Germain, 10
y Austria-Hungary sent a peace flag to September 1919 (Austria)
request an Armistice on November 3rd. y Treaty of Neuilly, 27 November 1919
y On November 3rd, with the fall of the (Bulgaria)
Habsburg monarchy, Austria and Hungary y Treaty of Trianon, 4 June 1920
signed separate armistices. (Hungary)
y On November 9, following the start of the y Treaty of Sèvres, 10 August 1920;
German Revolution, a republic was declared. subsequently revised by the Treaty
y On November 11th, an armistice with of Lausanne, 24 July 1923 (Ottoman
Germany was signed in a railroad carriage Empire/Republic of Turkey).
in Compiegne.
y A truce was declared at 11 a.m. on November
11th. y The Treaty of Versailles was most important
y On June 28, 1919, Germany and France because Germany was the most significant
signed the Treaty of Versailles. Later power among the defeated nations.
treaties were signed with Austria, Hungary,
Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Trianon (1920) With Hungary
y On July 24, 1923, the Allies and the country
y Because of political unrest in Budapest
that would soon become the Republic of
(Hungary’s capital), this was not signed
Turkey signed the final Peace Treaty in
until 1920; the Communists led by Bela
Lausanne.
Kun seized power and were afterwards
Paris Peace Conference deposed.
y Hungary was dispossessed of its non-
Following the end of World War I, Allied
Magyar subjects by the Treaty of Trianon,
power delegates assembled in Paris in 1919 to
just as Austria had been stripped of its
negotiate peace deals with defeated forces.
non-German subjects. Hungary delivered
y The Treaty of Versailles followed by four
Transylvania to Romania and Slovakia to
other treaties was concluded at several
Yugoslavia and Croatia to Czecho-Slovakia.
places near Paris.
Hungary, like Austria, lost all maritime
y Lloyd George, Clemenceau, Wilson, and
access.
Orlando represented the main four powers:
the United Kingdom, France, the United
States, and Italy. The Treaty of Sevres (1920) With Turkey
y Italian representative Orlando left Paris due y Turkey was treated harshly by the allied
to differences with American representative powers.
Wilson. Due to this, the business of peace- y Turkey, led by Mustafa Kamal Pasha, rejected
making and post-war settlements mainly the Treaty and drove the Greeks out of Smyrna.
was carried on by the big three (Great Only British troops remained at Chanak after
Britain, France and the United States). the Italian and French occupation forces
y The Italian prime minister left the departed from the straits area.
conference midway because he was not y Eventually, a compromise was reached, and
taken seriously by the big three. These the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) changed the
three foremost leaders decided on all the agreement, allowing Turkey to regain Eastern
provisions of the treaty. Thrace, including Constantinople and Smyrna.

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As a result, Turkey was the first country to y In addition to these leaders, other diplomatic
successfully dispute the Paris Agreement. representatives played a considerable part
in the conference. Though French President
The Treaty of Neuilly (1919) With Bulgaria Poincare and French Commander Marshall
y Greece gained territory, depriving Bulgaria Foch were not representatives of the
of its Aegean coastline, as well as Yugoslavia conference, they significantly influenced its
and Romania. She might say, with some processing.
justice, that the Treaty of Neuilly had y Japan played a good part in the conference
placed at least a million Bulgars under the because of the clarity of views about the
control of foreign governments. Far East. Rest leadership about dealing with
Germany and European problems remained
with the big three: Wilson, Llyod George,
Mandate System
and Clemenceau.
y Peacemakers of Paris devised this
y American President Wilson was an
system to settle the administration of
influential leader at the conference, and
the colonies of the defeated powers
both the allied and axis powers had hoped
under the guidance of the League of
for much from him.
Nations to prepare them for democratic
y It was hoped that President Wilson would
self-rule.
play the similar role played by Czar Alexander
y This system was created to ensure
I at the Vienna Congress, but that did not
better administration of German
happen. Germany had hoped that President
colonies and Turkish provinces that
Wilson would protect their interests, but
were under the control of the Allies.
unfortunately, that did not happen.
y The relinquished lands were turned over
y Wilson was a brilliant orator and a person
to some allied nations as governors
with rigid convictions. He was also an
in trust under the League of Nations’
idealist, and as such, he could not be
Mandates system; Great Britain acq­uired
correctly understood by all.
Palestine, Mesopotamia, German East
y At the Paris Conference, England was
Africa, and a portion of Togoland and
represented by her Prime Minister Llyod
Cameroon under these Mandates. Syria
George, a well-informed and realistic person
and a portion of the German colonies in
and sufficiently clever. He was a good
Africa were assigned to France. German
diplomat and enjoyed the full support of the
South-West Africa joined the South
British People.
African Union. Japan was given Kiaochao
y Llyod George had a challenging time at the
and Germany’s holdings in Shandong,
Paris Peace Conference because he decided
China.
to play the role of a leader to adjust the
differences between Wilson and Clemenceau.
y France was represented at the conference
The Leaders of the Paris Conference
by George Clemenceau. He was popularly
y The conference’s five major leaders were known as Tiger. He was a person with
the United States, the United Kingdom, complete determination. Though he was an
France, Japan, and Italy. experienced diplomat, he was also cynical.
⚪ Japan concerned itself primarily with He also had literary and artistic insight, and
the eastern issue and as such remained considerable knowledge of world politics,
away from European problems. and influenced his counterparts at the
⚪ After some time, Italy also withdrew conference. He did not care much for the
from the conference because she more minor powers but knew that he would
opposed the discussion on Adriatic take big nations like the USA and Great
problems. Britain with himself.
World War I (1914–1918) 97
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Fig. 7.4 Leaders of Paris Conference

Destruction of Belgium
y The downfall of totalitarian regimes and the
y German Troops, in trepidation of French emergence of democratic governments in
and Belgian guerrilla fighters, massacred Europe. Such democratic governments were
townspeople in the cities of Belgium, i.e., formed in Germany, Austria, Hungary and
Andenne (211 dead), Tampines (384 dead) many other nations such as Czechoslovakia
and Dinant (612 dead). and Poland.
y The principle of self-determination adopted
Impact of First World War by the peacemakers of Paris further
No other war had altered the map of Europe so strengthened the nationalist forces. It can
dramatically as World War I did. Four empires be seen as a triumph of nationalism. The
vanished, the German, Austro-Hungarian, pacemaker of Paris created several new
Ottoman and the Russian. After the conflict, nationalities by using the principle of self-
the dynasties of the Hohenzollerns, Habsburgs, determination. Estonia, Lithuania, Austria,
Romanovs, and Ottomans, as well as their Hungary, Poland, and Czechoslovakia came
subsidiary aristocracies, all fell. Belgium into existence as independent sovereign
and France were both heavily damaged, with nations.
1.4 million soldiers killed, without counting y New political philosophy emerged in Europe.
other deaths. Germany and Russia were both The role of a state became necessary
affected in the same way, and Poland regained because a strong state was required to lead
its independence after more than a century. reconstruction. The new balance of power
Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were entirely occurred in Europe.
new nations. Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and y Germany, Austria Hungary had been
Latvia became independent countries after decimated.
Russia became the Soviet Union. Trench railways y Britain and France emerged as major
were created to convey massive amounts of European powers.
food, water, and munitions to huge troops in y World War I inculcated a sense of inter­
regions where traditional transportation lines nationalism because the European leaders
had been damaged. realised the need for an international
platform to work for peace in the world
Political Impact so that the possibilities of military conflict
y World war I collapsed great empires like the could be eliminated. The League of Nations
German, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire in January 1920 was an example of the
and Russian empires. same.

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y This resulted in the Russian Revolution in the entire young generation has been wiped
1917 and Turkey’s Revolution in 1921. out.
y The Russian Revolution affected not only y It affected the functioning of social
Europe but the whole world communism institutions like the family.
emerged as a major political ideology due y Massive disasters caused by the war
to the Russian Revolution. shattered the notion of life and happiness.
y Turkey’s Revolution led by Mustafa Kamal People started questioning the very purpose
Pasha resulted in the end of the Caliphate of life assets built by people lost due to
and the emergence of Turkey as a major conflicts.
progressive nation. y The aesthetic attitudes of Europeans lost
faith in the existence of God. They found it
Economic Impact difficult to understand even in the presence
y The economy was highly devastated. It cost of God that such a disaster could take place.
about $400-billion dollars. y Anti-War attitudes developed in Europe
y Death blows the economic superiority of because nobody could understand the
Europeans. European trade failed to 25% of efficacy of war. People realised that no war
the pre-war label. could resolve the differences and disputes.
y The industrial superiority of Europe y The orthodox catholic society was not in
dropped many bombs on industries. Altered favour of the participation of women in
production in many places. public life. When the compulsion of war
y There was a change in the direction of forced the women to come out, society had
international trade. Europe was no longer to accept the transformation. This resulted
a prominent exporter of manufacturing in the liberation of women.
goods. In reality, European nations were y The feminist movement gained significant
independent of imported goods for many strength. Equality for women began to be
years after the war. demanded.
y Europeans were in a severe debt crisis y The franchise was granted to women in
during the war period. European nations Britain in 1938 and the US in 1920.
had taken huge loans from America. y The need for reconstruction persuaded the
y End of war: The US demanded the return of government in Europe to take steps for the
loans, but there was no money in European spread of learning.
nations, and an extremely severe debt crisis y Several policies were initiated to promote
emerged. education among citizens. In 1925 primary
y Challenge of inflation: Many governments education was free and compulsory in
of Europe resorted to pumping priming. France, and in 1933 secondary education
The new currency is printed to increase the was mandatory.
market’s liquidity since no corresponding y Improvement of the social status of the
increase in output causes inflation. working class because of the increase in
y The labourers emerged as an important the economic value of labour.
economic group. Their economic significance
increased because of the shortage of Technological Development
workforce. y World War I began as a collision of twentieth-
century strategies, resulting in a significant
Socio-Cultural Impact number of casualties.
y $65-million men had mobilised during the y The Haber process of Nitrogen fixation
war period. Out of the $8.5-million soldiers was used to give the German soldiers a
who lost lives, more than $21-million were constant supply of gunpowder in the face
wounded. In some countries like Bulgaria, of the British Naval blockade.

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y Chemical warfare and small-scale strategic were not allowed to merge with Germans. A
bombing were used in this war. It outlawed large number of Germans were left in North
the 1907 Hague Conventions. Schleswig and given to Denmark.
y The employment of chemical weapons was y The Treaty of Versailles was extremely harsh.
widespread during the fight, and the most The Peacemaker of Paris had completely
powerful land-based weapons were railway dismembered the German empire. All the
cannons weighing hundreds of tonnes each. known German territories were taken.
y Fixed-wing aircraft were first employed ⚪ Germany was dimmed into two parts to
militarily by the Italians for reconnaissance grant Poland access to the sea (Polis
in Libya on October 23, 1911, during the Corridor).
Italo-Turkish War. ⚪ All the German colonies were captured
y Toward the conclusion of the war, aircraft by the winning powers.
carriers were used for the first time, with ⚪ The Rhineland was declared a
HMS Furious executing a raid against the demilitarised zone. German forces were
Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918. not allowed to enter.
y Flamethrowers, another new weapon, were ⚪ Almost the entire Germany was taken
first deployed by Germany and then adopted away by Britain. Only six battleships
by others. were left with Germany.
⚪ The German part of Danzig was declared
Critical Examination of Nature and a free international part and was put
Character of The Treaty of Versailles under the administration of the League
y The Treaty of Versailles was a dictated peace. of Nations.
It was imposed on Germany by the Nectars ⚪ Elements of impracticability were also
powers through the threat of military action. present in the Treaty of Versailles.
Germany was not even allowed to oppose ⚪ The pacemaker of Paris imposed an
the provision of the Treaty. extremely heavy war indemnity, around
y The Treaty of Versailles was an example of $6600-million pounds on Germany on
unilateral peace because the prominent the one hand, and on the other hand,
three leaders decided their provisions in 70% of German industry was taken away.
consultation with Germany. ⚪ The German Coal-rich region Sarr was
y They were cased at the last moment and given to France for 15 years.
were instructed to sign the document. y Under these conditions, Germany couldn’t
y The Treaty had several morally severe pay the instalment of war indemnity.
defects; it was not based on the provisions y The German military strength was fixed
of 14 points of president Wilson in which at 100,000 soldiers. This number was less
the extent of power was expressing their than that of Belgium. The military force was
faith during the war. not sufficient to maintain law and order In
y The principle of self-determination was Germany.
applied selectively (The process by which y The Treaty of Versailles was vindictive as
a country determines its statehood and well. France made possible efforts to take
forms its gouts). The known Germans were revenge for her humiliation of 1871.
given the right to decide their fate, but y The German representatives were made to
the same thing did not happen to the all- sign the Treaty in the same hall of mirrors
German people. One million Germans left of Versailles palace where Germany’s
for Poland, and 3 million Germans left for unification was proclaimed in 1871.
Czechoslovakia. German Representatives were not even
y Austria was also a German state having a allowed to sit at the time of signing the
population of $7-million. These Germans Treaty.

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Fig. 7.5 The Treaty of Versailles: Major Provisions

y The Treaty of Versailles proved to be just an were humiliated in every possible way. This
armistice (Drop of Arm) for 20 years. The national humiliation of Germany triggered
examination of provisions of the Treaty reveals an extremely radical nationalist reaction.
that the peacemaker of Paris was extremely y These German nationalists condemned
hostile in their attitude towards Germany. It the Treaty of Versailles. The German
appears as if they were fighting a war against democrats who signed the treaty were
the grain at the Paris Peace Conference. termed, traitors.
y These waves of nationalist reaction
Consequences of continued to gain strength over time. The
The Treaty of Versailles emergence of Hitler in German politics was
y The Treaty of Versailles had several severe the outcome of the same. Hitler was the
limitations because it failed to establish symbol of this radical German nationalism.
lasting peace in Europe.
y The Peacemakers of Paris tried to eradicate “There was not only a difference of principals
Germany. The German representatives but a clash of personalities in Paris.”

Prominent Leaders
y Woodrow Wilson: He was an idealist in outlook. A firm believer in the idea of permanent
peace believed in the principle of equality. He wanted just and fair. He had little
appreciation for ground-level reality prevailing.
y Lloyd Gorge: He was a pragmatic person who believed in realities prevailing Treaty wanted
permanent peace in Europe but knew that only ideas would not maintain stability. He
wanted to punish Germany but not destroy it to prevent the possibility of a reaction.
y B.G Clemanclar: He was a former military commander, a man of a robust and assertive
personality, who believed that peace would be possible only by deforming Germany
Completely.
y Orlando: He was a narrow nationalist outlook. He saw the maximum possible gain from
the peace process. He did not bother much about the issue of lasting peace.

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Clash of National Interest y France wanted Germany to be made to

pay for the dysfunction caused by German
American Interest soldiers during the period of war.
y Did not desire any specific territorial gain.
The US wanted Japan’s rise to be checked. Conclusion
y Lasting peace in Europe such that American The First World War began in 1914 and lasted
goods would get to market in Europe. through the fourth quarter of 1918. The conflict
y Desired to curb British naval power but did lasted four years and three months. The killing
not emphasise. of Archduke Ferdinand, the heir apparent to
the Austrian throne, gave gasoline to the fire.
Italy’s Interest Because of economic rivalry, disagreements
y Wanted compensatory losses in the war. over colonies, and opposing alliance structures
Seven lakhs of Italian soldiers died in the among European powers, the world reached
war. The financial burden was also immense. an explosive state. The conflict claimed
y Versailles, Trishe Istria, Dalmetra, Arestios the lives of almost $ 18-million people and
Islands of fume Italy wanted. cost approximately $ 333-billion. The Peace
Treaty, which was negotiated and offered to
Britain’s Interest the defeated, brought the war to an end. The
y Naval supremacy is unchallenged. terms were humiliating and harboured the
y Germany should be weakened but not seeds of future outbursts that would be far
destroyed; otherwise, France would more serious. Europe was devastated, and its
significantly influence continental politics. status as a major power fell. The United States
y Wanted to use Germany as a counterweight of America became a superpower. Japan grew
to France and a frontier against Communism into a major power. Turkey became a republic
in West Europe. after becoming modernised. In Europe,
despotic kings made way for democracy.
France’s Interest Despite suffering a bad deal at the hands of
y Complete dysfunction of Germany in future. the peacemakers in Paris, colonial peoples
y France would not have to face any German such as India and European dependencies
Invasion. became excited by the revolutionary ideas
y France wanted complete dysfunction of unleashed by the war and were encouraged
Germany’s military power and demili­ to launch more vigorous national liberation
tarisation of Rhineland. movements.

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8 Interwar Phase (1918–1939)

Introduction Mussolini, and the Spanish Civil War. 1929 was

The period between the end of the First World a transitional phase of world history. Following
War on 11 November 1918, and the beginning 1929, Europe began to veer toward World War
of the Second World War on 1 September 1939 II.
is marked as the inter-war phase. The terror Some of the significant events are the death
of World War I shattered the whole world. In of Stresemann (1929), the Wall Street Crash
the 1920s, new concepts and life patterns (1929) and the rise of Hitler to power in 1933 (he
emerged that shifted people’s perspectives became Chancellor) etc. In the 1930s, several
on the world. Important episodes of the Inter- countries: including Japan, Germany, and Italy:
war phase are forming the League of Nations, adopted aggressive, militaristic policies and
the great depression, the rise of Hitler and eventually, those policies led to war.

The Changing Map of Europe

y Germany handed over Alsace and Lorraine to France, which it had conquered in 1871, as
well as parts of the north to Belgium and Denmark.
y Poland was given a specific territory, which has been mentioned previously. Aside from
its European losses, Germany also gave up its African colonies and Chinese privileges. As
a result, the Germans were disgruntled a lot after WWI.
y Italy joined the Allies in the war to further its territorial goals in Austria, the Ottoman
Empire, and Africa.
y However, as a result of the peace treaty, Italy only acquired a little bit of Austria. In the
war, Russia lost more soldiers than the Allies combined. In March 1918, it withdrew from
the war after signing a pact with Germany. This pact included Poland, Finland, and the
Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Civil conflict, military intervention, and
economic collapse were all thrown in for good measure.
y Poland, which had vanished from the map after being captured by the three empires
of Austria, Prussia, and Russia in 1815, reappeared when the three empires collapsed
simultaneously. On the other hand, earlier animosity toward the new neighbouring
countries could not be easily expunged. Austria was reduced to a tiny state by a separate
treaty, and its imperial dignity was stripped away.
y The newly established countries of Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia
were granted independence by Austria, while Britain was handed Palestine and Iraq as
mandates, and France was given Syria. They’d rule until the people figured out how
to govern themselves. These mandates, on the other hand, were governed similarly to
colonies.

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y The idea of collective security was adopted

The League of Nations by Paris so that the peace-loving nations
y US President Woodrow Wilson put forward of the world could stand against any
the idea of the formation of the League of aggression collectively if any such situation
Nations. The pacemaker of Paris created arose in future.
it to protect future generations from the y On January 10, 1920, the League of Nations
effect of wars and battles. was formally founded, the same day that
y The League of Nations was based on the the Treaty of Versailles entered into
principle of collective security because effect. It was headquartered in Geneva in
Paris abandoned the principle of balance Switzerland. One of the main aims was to
of power. settle international disputes before they got
y The Vienna Congress of 1815 adopted the out of control and thus prevent war from
balance of power concept to maintain ever breaking out again.
peace in Europe. Still, with the emergence y The origin of the League of Nations was
of the unified German Empire, the balance found in the war aims of the Allied Powers.
was no longer possible, and disturbance Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points provided the
of this balance of power had pushed the creation of an international body that would
world into World War I in 1914. work to maintain world peace.

Fig. 8.1 Aims of the League of Nations

y However, the League’s authority was Germany’s disagreements with Poland and
questioned multiple times during the Czechoslovakia, which culminated in the
1930s, most notably when Japan invaded Second World War.
Manchuria in 1931, and again when Italy
Structure of the League of Nations
attacked Abyssinia (1935). Both Japan and
Italy disobeyed the League›s withdrawal y Membership: Initially, there were 42 member
orders and forcing them to comply proved nations. When Germany was admitted to the
ineffective for a variety of reasons. club in 1926, the total number of members
y As the League’s flaws became more apparent had risen to 55.
after 1935, support for it plummeted. y General assembly: The Assembly met once
The League was not consulted during a year and made decisions unanimously.

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Each member of the Assembly was given nationalities. It is still in operation as part
one vote. The Assembly was a policy-making of the United Nations today and is known
body, and its job was to make decisions on as the International Court of Justice (ICJ).
broad policy issues. y Secretariat: This support unit was
⚪ It was also in charge of the League established to manage paperwork, make
of Nations’ finances and had the reports, and prepare the agenda.
authority to amend the peace treaty. y Commissions and committees: Commissions
The Assembly’s specific tasks included were formed, each dealing with a different
the admission of new members, the topic. Commissions on Military affairs,
periodic election of non-permanent disarmament, mandates, and other topics
members to the council, the election of were examples of vital commissions. While
the Permanent Court Judges’ Council, on the other hand, essential committees
and budget management. In practice, were those dealing with areas of labour,
the League’s actions were directed by health, women’s rights, child welfare,
the Assembly. drugs etc.
y Security council: The League had a United
Nations Security Council, like Security Evaluation of Working of
Council, with eight members at the start, League of Nations Success
four permanent and four non-permanent y Many of the commissions and committees
members. The non-permanent members achieved valuable outcomes which fostered
were elected for a three-year term by the international cooperation. One of the most
General Assembly. notable achievements was establishing
⚪ By 1926, the council had 13 members, the International Labour Organisation
with the seats for non-permanent (ILO) under French socialist director Albert
members now increasing to 9. Britain, Thomas. Its goal was to improve labour
Italy, Japan, and France were the four conditions around the world by urging
permanent members. governments to:
⚪ The decisions in the council were taken ⚪ Fix a maximum working day and week.
unanimously. ⚪ The adequate minimum payment must
⚪ The Security Council’s mandate was to be specified.
deal with political matters. ⚪ Sickness and unemployment benefits
y Peacekeeping function: All issues that should be implemented.
could lead to war were to be brought before ⚪ Introduction of old-age pensions.
the League, and any member who went to y The Refugee Organisation, led by Norwegian
war would be subjected to collective action explorer Fridtjof of Nansen, handled the
by the other members. difficulties of thousands of former prisoners
⚪ The Security Council would have the of war trapped in Russia, returning roughly
authority to suggest the amount of half a million of them home.
military, aviation, and naval resources y After 1933, significant help was provided
that each League member should provide to thousands of people escaping from the
for collective action against the aggressor. Nazi persecution in Germany.
y Permanent court of international justice: y The World Health Organisation did an
It was founded in The Hague (Netherlands). outstanding job identifying epidemic
Its mission was to deal solely with legal causes and successfully managing a typhus
problems between member countries, not outbreak that threatened to spread across
political ones. It had 15 judges of various Europe in Russia.

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y The Mandates Commission was in charge to pay compensation to Bulgaria. When

of overseeing the governments of the Turkey began claiming the Mosul province,
regions acquired from Turkey and Germany, which Britain controlled, the League ruled
while the Saar was administered by in Britain’s favour.
another commission. It did so effectively, y The League solved a territorial dispute
culminating in the 1935 plebiscite, in which between Columbia and Peru.
a huge majority of voters decided to return y When Poland and Germany had a dispute
the Saar to Germany. over Upper Silesia (an industrial region) in
y Resolving small international disputes: The 1921, the League successfully persuaded
League had some success in this area. When both parties to reach an agreement, and
Greece invaded Bulgaria, it was obligated Upper Silesia was divided between the two.

Fig. 8.2 Example of Small International Disputes

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Fig. 8.3 Dispute over Upper Silesia

1926. The USSR was not recognised till 1933.

Why Did the League Fail to
When the USSR jointly marched before that,
Sustain the Peace?
Germany and Japan left in 1933, realising
y The League of Nations was established with that the League of Nations was essentially
high hopes. It was expected to maintain an Anglo-French affair.
peace in Europe for the next generation. y Britain and French leadership resorted to
Still, to everyone’s disappointment, the the policy of appeasement to maintain
League of Nations failed measurably, and peace, and the League of Nations moved
within 20 years, Europe had to face another on to a backburner.
devastating conflict. y The League of Nations was burdened with
y The League of Nations was primarily an the impossible responsibility to maintain a
Anglo-French affair because the US did faulty and discriminatory system created by
not join. Germany was not allowed to join in Paris.

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y The League of Nations had no military force. the disappointing territorial gains of the
In 1923 a resolution was adopted that every Italians.
member nation decided voluntarily whether y Rejection by the USA: The League suffered
to participate in a conflict under the League a severe blow in March 1920 when the
of Nations or not. The arbitration was not US Senate rejected both the Versailles
binding on member nations. settlement and the League. The League
y The treaty provisions were inherently without a powerful member like the USA
troublesome, such as the inclusion of was deprived of great psychological and
Germans in Czechoslovakia and Poland and financial benefits.

Fig. 8.4 Members of the League of Nations

y Conference of Ambassadors: This ⚪ During the World Disarmament

temporary body was established to settle Conference in 1932–33, Hitler requested
conflicts related to peace treaties until the equal armament with France.
League was constituted and made fully ⚪ France, on the other hand, declined
operational. However, it continued to exist because it was concerned that Germany
even after the establishment of the League. would arm itself to become a military
⚪ The League’s authority and validity were force equal to France’s and so pose a
harmed as a result of this. The Conference threat to its borders.
of Ambassadors frequently reversed y This served as a reason for Hitler to withdraw
League decisions, notably in the case of from the World Disarmament Conference.
the Corfu crisis (1923), which saw Italian He’d soon reject the League of Nations and
forces briefly occupy the Greek island of force Germany to leave as well.
Corfu. y A British/French affair: In the absence
y Failure of disarmament: Only Germany was of the USSR and the USA, along with the
disarmed as part of the Versailles Agreement. hostility of Italy, made the League very
y The League was unable to persuade other much a British/ French affair. However,
strong powers to begin disarmament nego­ as their rejection of the Geneva Protocol
tiations. Self-disarmament was opposed by showed, the conservatives in Britain were
France and the United Kingdom. not very enthusiastic about the League.

108 Interwar Phase (1918–1939)

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Instead, they preferred to sign the Locarno y In all the above cases, the League looked
Treaties (1925) outside the League instead powerless and failed to check the military
of negotiations. aggression by the member states.
y The world economic crisis of 1929 and its y Following Japan’s invasion of Manchuria
impact started drifting out of control with in 1931, the League decided that Japan
the onset of the financial crisis of the Great should leave. Japan, on the other hand, did
Depression of 1929. not follow this choice and left the League
⚪ The economic depression that struck of Nations in 1933. Economic or military
the capitalist world proved to be the sanctions against Japan were not even
last nail in the coffin of the League. considered because France and the United
After that, every nation became busy Kingdom were both suffering from the
tackling its crisis. There was no time to Great Depression.
worry about the League. y When Abyssinia complained to the League
y Rising unemployment and decline in living in 1935 about Italian aggression, the League
standards became a common scene in most enacted sanctions that were only partially
countries. It resulted in the rise of extreme implemented.
right-wing governments in Germany and ⚪ Italy was still allowed to import critical
Japan; together with Mussolini, they declined goods like steel, oil, and coal, therefore
to follow the rules and took a series of actions the sanctions were ineffective in forcing
that revealed the League’s weaknesses. Italy to leave Abyssinia. Over the period,
⚪ For example, Japan invaded Manchuria small states lost all faith in the League
in 1931, Italy invaded Abyssinia in 1935, because of its inaction against the invasion
the Spanish Civil War of 1936 saw military of Manchuria and Abyssinia by Japan and
intervention by Hitler and Mussolini in Italy. The seeds of Fascists started taking
favour of France, Japan’s invasion of roots. This boosted Hitler’s confidence to
China in 1937 and Hitler’s annexation of violate the Treaty of Versailles. World War
Austria in 1938. II could not be prevented.

India after World War I

y Despite not being a direct participant, India was not immune to the war’s effects. The
global war had a significant impact on Indian society and the economy.
y Different segments of the population were affected differently by the war.
⚪ It resulted in increasing misery and poverty among the poorest classes of Indians, as
well as increased taxation.
⚪ Due to the demands of the war, agricultural produce and other daily necessities
became scarce. As a result, their prices soared high significantly.
y People became desperate enough to join any campaign against the government, and the
war years became years of intense nationalist political activity as a result.
⚪ Soon after, Gandhi spearheaded a large popular movement in India known as the non-
cooperation movement. The industrialists, on the other hand, benefited greatly from
the war. It caused an economic catastrophe in the United Kingdom, forcing them to rely
on Indian businesses to meet wartime demands. During this time, the jute industry,
for example, prospered. In this way, the conflict aided India’s industrialisation.

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y The Indian industrialist made the most of the chances that were presented to him. They
had made fortunes and desired to keep them even after the battle was over. As a result,
they were willing to organise and support the organised nationalist movement. As a result,
the conflict aided in the emergence of a wave of nationalism among various segments of
the populace, albeit in different ways.
y India’s independent economic progress began to take shape, and it would continue to
flourish over the years.

Germany After World War I

Fig. 8.5 Germany after WW I

Political Crises Germany and the Central Powers in

y In the early twentieth century, Germany, November 1918, leading to the emperor’s
a powerful empire, fought alongside the abdication, allowing parliamentary parties
Austrian Empire against the allies in the to reorganise German politics.
First World War (England, France and y At Weimar, a National Assembly drafted
Russia). a democratic constitution with a federal
y All countries gladly joined the war, intending structure, and all adults, including women,
to benefit from a quick triumph. They had no cast equal and universal votes to elect
idea that the war would drag on indefinitely, deputies to the German Parliament or
destroying Europe’s resources. Reichstag.
y Germany received initial gains by seizing y By 1919, the German Parliament agreed
the territories of France and Belgium. on a new constitution meeting in Weimar
y The allies, strengthened by the United because Berlin was still torn by political
States’ entry into the war in 1917, destroyed unrest.

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y This Weimar constitution gave its name revolt, which was modelled after the
to the Weimar Republic and lasted until Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.
1933. y In several cities, workers’ and sailors’
y The humiliating and loathed Treaty of Soviets were formed.
Versailles had been agreed upon. It was y Berlin’s political climate has been accused
not warmly embraced by its own people, of encouraging Soviet-style rule.
and the allies’ peace settlement at y Opponents, such as socialists, Democrats,
Versailles was cruel and humiliating. and Catholics, gathered in Weimar to shape
⚪ Germany had to lose a tenth of its the democratic republic.
population, 13% of its territory, 75% of y With the help of a military veterans
its iron, and 26% of its coal to France, organisation named Free Corps, the
Poland, Denmark, and Lithuania due to Weimar Republic put down the revolt. The
overseas colonies. distraught Spartacists later founded the
⚪ The allies disarmed Germany to weaken German Communist Party.
it, and the Conflict Guilt Clause held y Following that, communists and socialists
Germany accountable for the war became irreconcilable foes, unable to unite
and the reparations paid to the allies. against Hitler.
Germany was obliged to pay a total y Radical solutions were desired by both
compensation of £6 billion. revolutionaries and militant nationalists.
y Allied soldiers controlled the resource-rich
Rhineland for much of the 1920s, and most Economic Crises
Germans blamed the defeat of the war and y Because Germany had fought the war
the humiliation at versailles on the new mostly on borrowed money and had to pay
Weimar Republic. war reparations in gold, the economic crisis
y The war had a devastating psychological and of 1923 increased political radicalism. This
financial impact on the entire continent, depleted gold stocks at a time when there
and the nascent Weimar Republic was were insufficient supplies.
compelled to pay for the misdeeds of the y Germany created paper money carelessly
old Empire. in 1923, and the French conquered its
y Conservative nationalists made easy biggest industrial area, the Ruhr, to grab
targets of those who supported the Weimar their coal.
Republic, primarily socialists, catholics, and y In April, the US dollar was worth 24,000
democrats. marks, 353,000 marks in July, 4,621,000
y Soldiers came to be placed above people, marks in August, and 98,860,000 marks
and they were mockingly dubbed the in December, when it had risen into the
November criminals. trillions. Commodity prices declined in
y There was a customary lack of respect tandem with the value of the mark. There
for democratic government and a great was evidence of hyperinflation.
admiration for the army. y The Americans intervened and bailed
y The creation of the Weimar Republic Germany out of the crisis with the Dawes
coincided with the Spartacist League’s (a Plan, which changed the conditions of
Marxist revolutionary movement based in restitution to reduce the financial burden
Germany during World War I) Revolutionary on Germans.

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of Nazism because Hitler blamed the

Dawes Plan Jews for Germany’s defeat in the war.
y It was formulated in 1924. It was an He believed in the purity and superiority
example of a policy of appeasement. of the German race, which he described
When Germany failed to pay the as pure-blood Aryans, and desired the
instalment of war reparation, France unification of all Germans to build a
occupied the industrial town Ruhr. Greater Germany.
French action was so aggressive that y In 1932, the Nazi party, which had only 12
clouds of the conflict started brewing. seats in the Parliament when it was founded
y To end the dispute, American repre­ in 1928, became the single largest party.
sentative Charles Dawes formulated y President Hindenburg gave Hitler the
a plan under which the USA gave a chancellorship which was the highest
loan of 800 million gold marks to position in the cabinet of ministers on
Germany to pay instalments. January 30, 1933, and Hitler immediately
began a reign of terror. All democratic
values were thrown out the window.
y His move was assisted by an unexpected
The Emergence of Hitler in
fire that broke out in the German parliament
German Diplomacy
building in February 1933.
y In 1919, a new constitution established y The blame was put on the socialists and
a Republican-style of government, with communists.
a president, chancellor, and elected y The Weimar constitution granted civic
Parliament, as a result of World War I. liberties, including freedom of speech,
y During World War II, Adolf Hitler served in press, and assembly, which were suspended
the German army and fought valiantly for forever by February 28, 1933, fire decree.
four years, earning the Iron Cross. By this time, the Nazis had enlisted the
y He decided to enter politics after being support of conservatives. Then he turned on
disappointed by Germany’s defeat. his adversaries, the communists, who were
y As a result of his remarkable speeches and rushed to the newly created concentration
organisational abilities, Hitler became the camps. The communists were severely
leader of the National Socialist German repressed.
Workers’ Party, or Nazi party, in 1921. y After Hindenburg died on August 2, 1934,
y The ‘Stormtroopers’ or ‘Brownshirts,’ Hitler was elected President of Germany.
identical to the Italian Fascists, had their y Of the 6,808 arrest files that survived in
army. By 1930, the Brownshirts had grown Dusseldorf, a tiny city with a population
to roughly 100,000 men. of half a million, 1,440 were Communists
y Following the victory of the Fascists in alone.
Italy, Corporal Adolf Hitler tried a coup in y Nonetheless, they were just one of the 52
Germany in 1923, but it failed and Hitler sorts of victims persecuted by Nazis across
was imprisoned. the country. The historic Enabling Act was
y Nazi programmes aspired to rectify passed on March 3, 1933.
Versailles’ humiliation and make Germany y This act established a dictatorship in
dominant and feared around the world. Germany and provided Hitler with all powers
y Hitler published Mein Kampf (My to sideline Parliament and rule by decree.
Struggle) while imprisoned, laying out y By mid-1933, all political parties had been
his intentions to construct the cruellest outlawed, except for the Nazi party. All
tyranny in modern history. The elimination labour unions were outlawed, except for
of the Jewish race became a major part the Nazi Party and its adherents.

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y The economy, media, army, and judiciary didn’t want conflict. The Polish corridor
have all been taken over by the state. was most fragile.
Special surveillance and security units were y In January 1935, the Saar region was
established to regulate and order society in reintegrated into Germany through a
the Nazis’ preferred manner. plebiscite.
y In addition to the previously existing y In March 1935, reintroduced conscription
Regular Police in a green uniform and (a compulsory enrollment for service in a
the SA or Storm Troopers, these included country›s armed forces.).
the Gestapo (Secret state police), Schutz­ y In June 1935, an Anglo-German naval pact
staffel (Protection squads), Criminal was signed. German navy at 35% of that of
police, and Security service (a paramilitary Britain.
organisation). y In November 1936, Rhineland was
y The extra-constitutional capabilities of reoccupied.
these newly organised armies helped the y In October 1937, the Anti-Comintern pact
Nazi state establish its reputation as the was signed with Japan.
most feared criminal state. People might y In November 1937, the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo
now be kept in Gestapo torture cells, axis formed.
kidnapped and taken to concentration y Participation in the Spanish Civil War led to
camps, deported at will, or arrested without the victory of the German alliance, which
going through the legal system. The police encouraged Hitler.
forces obtained powers that allowed them y In March 1938, Austria was annexed.
to govern with impunity. y In September 1938, 3 million Germans
y An organised campaign for the total lived in Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia.
extermination of Jews was launched. The Peacemaker of Paris had given it to
y At the same time, a militarisation drive was Czechoslovakia when Hitler demanded
launched. The victory of the Nazis moved Sudetenland; British Prime Minister Neville
the world closer to war. Chamberlain pressured the Czechoslovakian
y The 1936 Olympic Games were held in Berlin. government to accept the demand. It was
The games were designed to reinforce transferred to Germany through the Munich
Hitler’s conviction in the supremacy of Pact.
the Aryan race. Hitler was so ruthless y In March 1939, Hitler annexed the whole of
that he ordered the death of hundreds of Czechoslovakia.
stormtroopers who had supported him in y In April 1939, Hitler demanded the port of
his rise to power in a single night, but his Danzig be returned to him.
attempt failed because the game’s most y He also demanded rail and road links
popular character was an Afro-American across the Polish corridor to connect East
sprinter, Jesse Owen. On June 30, 1934, the Germany and West Germany.
Night of Long Knives happened. y In September 1939, Hitler attacked Poland
and World War II Commenced.
Hitler’s Foreign Policy
Nature of Hitler’s Foreign Policy
y In October 1933, Hitler withdrew from
the League of Nations and Disarmament y He stood firmly against the Treaty of
conference. He claimed that the proposed Versailles, intending to restore national
disarmament was discriminatory. prestige.
y In January 1934, Hitler signed a y He had no faith in internationalism.
nonaggression pact with Poland. It was a y He followed a radical expansionist foreign
move to Convince everybody that Hitler policy.

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y He had a militaristic attitude, so he raised y The Beauty of Labour (Schönheit der

a large army. Arbeit) scheme changed workplaces,
y He persuaded the idea of Lebensraum making workers better off. This contained
(living space)- wanting to provide sufficient new lighting and ventilation systems in
living space for Germany for the next 1000 factories.
years.
y He reared the idea of the Third Reich. He
Martin Niemöller, who was a Lutheran
wanted to create a third German empire
minister, early Nazi supporter and later
to continue the legacy of the first German
imprisoned for opposing Hitler’s regime,
Empire of Frederick the Great and the
wrote the following lines to express
second German Empire of Bismarck.
Nazism in Germany:
y He had a radical outlook. He wanted to
bring all German living territory under his
First, they came for the socialists, and I
control.
did not speak out—because I was not a
y Domestic compulsion had also strongly
socialist.
influenced his foreign policy.
y He was a symbol of nationalism. He raised Then they came for the trade unionists,
a large army, re-enforced the conscription and I did not speak out— because I was
system and persuaded aggressive foreign not a trade unionist.
policy. He had an idea of a natural frontier; Then they came for the Jews, and I did
some historians believe that Hitler wanted not speak out—because I was not a Jew.
to expand the German Empire up to the
Ural mountain. Then they came for me—and there was
no one left to speak for me.
Nazi Economic Policies
y Six million Germans were unemployed at
the start of 1933. Hitler›s government took Italy After World War I
attempts to minimise this number while y Italy’s engagement in World War I is
also creating a large number of jobs. often neglected, with the Western and
y The Nazis undertook a public works Eastern Fronts being the focal points of
programme that included the construction remembrance. Still, its involvement in the
of schools and government buildings, as war caused significant loss and human
well as the planting of forests across the suffering for the Italians. Italy joined the
country and the construction of autobahns war in April 1915.
(motorways). ⚪ Around 600,000 Italians were thought
y Thousands of jobs were produced as a result to have died in battle by the end of the
of these programmes, greatly lowering war, with over a million more maimed
unemployment, and it also began to rebuild or handicapped. More money was spent
Germany’s military (often breaking the on the war by the Italian government
Treaty of Versailles). than it had in the previous 50 years. The
y More employment was established in the country was effectively bankrupt as a
army, navy, and air force. This resulted result of the war debt, food shortages,
in increased jobs in weapon-producing poor harvests, and huge inflationary
businesses, such as planes and tanks. spikes, with an estimated half-million
y The Nazis also strove to improve the citizens dying.
working circumstances of those who were ⚪ Furthermore, the territorial gains were
employed. minor in comparison to the monetary

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cost of the war; the debt contracted to y The gains of Italy from the war were
pay for the war’s expenses was finally compensated with sacrifices.
paid off in the 1970s. ⚪ More than seven lakh soldiers died,
y After the war, at the Paris Peace Conference and the cost of the war was more than
that led to the Versailles Treaty, the Italian 12 billion US dollars.
government fought the other allied leaders, ⚪ The war had left Italy in destruction
the big three (Britain, France, and the when the pacemaker of Paris refused
United States), to gain all they believed had to appreciate Italy’s aspirations in
been promised them. the wake of radical nationalism that
⚪ Even though Italy had control of most emerged in Italy.
European requests, they were unable
to realise its colonial ambitions and Disappointment With the
believed it had not received what it had Treaty of Versailles
promised. y Italy was not given all the territory she was
⚪ This produced anger toward the promised in 1915 to enter World War I on the
allies, particularly among Italians, who Allies’ side. For example, some of the parts
believed they had paid a heavy price in promised to Italy were given to Yugoslavia.
terms of soldiers and money to fight for Also, Albania, which had pledged to Italy,
the allies. was made an independent country. That
⚪ These resentments aided Benito decreased the prestige of the government,
Mussolini’s fascist movement’s triumph; and the public sentiment turned against
four years after the war, Mussolini and the government.
his Blackshirts rose to power. y Italy felt humiliated and radical
nationalism, so produced was responsible
Rise of Fascism for the emergence of Fascism represented
y The term Fascism refers to the ideologies by Benito Mussolini.
of the Fascist party of Benito Mussolini. y The rise of Fascism was aided by the
Mussolini founded the Fascist Party in political instability that prevailed in Italy.
1919. He was appointed as Italy’s Prime ⚪ Several governments changed in Italy
Minister in October 1922, and after that, he within three years after the end of World
established his despotic regime in Italy. War I. This instability allowed Fascism
y The emergence of Fascism in Italy was the to spread its wings in Italy.
outcome of the circumstances created by ⚪ System of proportional representation:
the First World War.  In the 1919 elections, voting for
⚪ The crisis prevailing in Italy had pushed only “men” and the proportional
Benito Mussolini to the forefront. representation system had been
⚪ Dissatisfaction with the provision of the introduced (women were given the
Paris Peace had played an important voting right in 1945 for the election
role in the rise of Fascism. of the constituent Assembly after
⚪ At the time of Benito Mussolini’s entry WWII).
in 1915, many territorial gains were  As in the system of proportional
promised. But the promises were not representation, the parties had
kept by the big powers after the end of allocated seats in the Parliament in
the war. Italy was denied Dalmatia and proportion to each party’s votes in
Fiume. the elections. This system resulted in
y Italy’s Prime Minister Orlando was not taken many parties coming to parliament
seriously by the big three in Paris Peace, (the Liberals, the Nationalists, the
and he had left the conference midway. Socialists, Communists, Catholic

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Popular Party, and Italian Fascists y Fear of communists forced the entire
Party). capitalists to support Benito Mussolini
 Thus, it could form only a weak because he was a strong anti-communist.
coalition government as no single ⚪ The communist-led a surge of strikes
party could get most seats. These between 1919 and 1920. From 1919
governments remained unstable onward, there were many violent strikes,
(five governments from 1919-to 22 rioting, looting of shops, and factory
all unable to take decisive action). occupation.
 That led to a decline in the  Soviet-like organisations began to
Parliamentary form of government’s prop up and evict wealthy landlords
credibility. However, when the from their lands. Thus, there was
economy deteriorated, his popularity a real danger of the communist
skyrocketed. The masses felt that the revolution in 1920. But after that,
system was impotent in providing a the threat, of course, declined
decisive government. as suppliers did not supply raw
y The economic crisis prevailing in Italy had materials to workers. Hence the
also played an important role in the rise of factory occupation began to fail.
Fascism.
 Also, the formation of the Communist
⚪ The economic conditions of Italy
Party in 1921 decreased the chances
worsened due to high war expenditure.
of revolution because it implied a
Also, Italy had incurred massive debt
split in the left wing (Socialists party
from the US to fund its war effort. This
and Communists party). The Italians,
debt would now be repaid in dollars.
on the other hand, were afraid of the
The conventional measures adopted by
process.
the democratically elected government
 In 1922, the communists had tried
had failed to tackle the crisis.
out a general strike. The credibility
⚪ There was massive unemployment as
of the government declined due
heavy industries had to cut down their
to depriving the security of the
wartime production levels. There were
property. In such an atmosphere,
2.5 million ex-servicemen who were
Mussolini led the March on Rome.
unable to find a job.
⚪ Because of the cost of World War I, the  The popularity of Mussolini helped
post-war economic crisis, and the debt to achieve momentum.
from the US, which was now repaid- ⚪ Mussolini was a famous journalist and
Italy’s currency “lira” depreciated (as began as a socialist but turned against
there was an outrush of dollars and Italy’s WW I participation. He then
lessen in production), and consequently, founded a newspaper.
there was inflation that hurt the ordinary ⚪ He was a socialist who created the
people who were unemployed. Italian Fascist Party in 1919 with
⚪ The severe hardship being faced by the slogan “socialist and republican
the masses forced them to look for program.” He had supported factories’
alternatives. It was this dissatisfaction occupation by workers from 1919-
with the prevailing condition that to20, but he changed course when the
resulted in the emergence of Fascism. trades began to fail.

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Fig. 8.6 Reasons for Mussolini came to the Power

⚪ From 1920 onwards, he took a more y Finally, Mussolini openly chastised Italy’s
reformist stance against communists, government.
and his Black Shirt squads began ⚪ Fascists dressed in black shirts attacked
attacking socialist offices. By the end socialists and communists on the
of 1921, the propertied class saw him streets. His opponent is terrified by this
as a saviour, especially following the effort.
foundation of the communist party in ⚪ Because he used the threat of a workers’
1921. He gave pro-church speeches from revolt, Mussolini began to gather support
1921-to 22 to reach out to the catholic among the middle classes, aristocracy,
church. and industrial leaders.
⚪ In 1922, he eliminated the republican y In October 1922, 30,000 fascists assaulted
party from his party platform, softening Rome. They asked that Mussolini be given
the king’s stance on Mussolini. power by King Victor Emmanuel III. The king
⚪ Therefore, Mussolini’s policies from believed that Mussolini was the best hope
1920–22 made him popular among for the survival of his dynasty; therefore,
the conservative and right-wing he permitted him to assemble a cabinet.
sections like the army, the church, the Mussolini seized power “legally” as a result
industrialists, and the landlords. Also of serious violence and a threat of violent
blamed socialists for failing to work insurrection. He was regarded as “an actor,
with the government to check violence a dangerous rascal, and probably slightly off
by Fascist squads. his mind” by a foreign official at the time.

Interwar Phase (1918–1939) 117

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and prestige, with the implication that

What Does the Term ‘Fascism’ Stand for? one’s own country is superior to others.
y It is critical to try to explain what y One-party state:
the name “fascist” meant because ⚪ There was no space for democratic
it was afterwards given to various discourse, making decision-making
regimes and rulers, like Hitler, Franco impossible. Only fascism possessed
(Spain), Salazar (Portugal), and Peron the foresight required to assure Italy’s
(Argentina), who were very different bright future.
from the Italian version of Fascism. ⚪ There was also a big charismatic leader
It is a right-wing government and cult that would direct and rouse the
social organisation that is dictatorial, population to focus on vital concerns.
intolerant, and patriotic. Fascism, Mussolini preferred to be referred to as
unlike communism, has no clearly il Duce (‘the leader,’ as Hitler did) rather
defined philosophy or programme. than Prime Minister or President.
⚪ Economic self-sufficiency (Autarky)
was essential to the state’s development;
the government had to lead the nation’s
Basic Characteristics of Fascism economic life (though not in the Marxist
y A stable and autocratic government: sense of the state-owned land and
⚪ The fascist movement in Italy rendered factories).
stable democratic government y Modern forms of propaganda:
impossible at a time when strong and ⚪ Uniforms, marches, songs, and displays
clear leadership was required. demonstrate that fascists were a wholly
⚪ By mobilising a huge number of ordinary new and dynamic alternative to the
people and enforcing rigorous control bland, old-fashioned traditional parties
on many aspects of people’s lives, and mobilise mass support behind the
an authoritarian government was determined leader.
sparked. One of the hallmarks of this y Military strength:
was the ‘corporation state.’ Efficiency ⚪ Military might and violence were
was increased by having a separate inextricably linked to the fascist way of
organisation of workers and employers life. They are willing to employ extreme
for each economic branch. Every violence against opponents in home
‘corporation’ had a government official issues. ‘Peace is absurd: fascists do
appointed to that, which was a nice way not believe in it,’ Mussolini said. When
of managing the workforce. Mussolini was invited by the king to
y Extreme nationalism: form a government, the Italian fascists
⚪ A focus on the nation’s rebirth after a time pushed the notion that they had seized
of decline, to raise the state’s stature power by force.

Fascism and Communism

y Unlike communism, Fascism had no defined theory or program.
y Despite this, the bulk of Fascists contributed a variety of ideas. They were addressing a
particularly virulent form of patriotism or nationalism. They felt that peaceful governments
were doomed to be conquered, and that nations needed to struggle to live. They swore
allegiance to the state’s dictatorial ruler. Fascists wore separate colour uniforms, organised
massive parades, and used special salutes in each country.

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y In some ways, fascism and communism were similar. Both are headed by tyrants who
only permit the existence of their political party (one-party rule).
y Individual rights were denied in both cases. The state was paramount, and there was no
such thing as democracy.
y However, unlike communists, Fascists did not advocate for a classless society. Instead,
they believed that each social class performed a unique purpose and held a distinct place
in society. Communism claimed to be a working-class dictatorship. Businessmen, lords,
and war veterans, as well as members of the lower middle class, founded fascist parties.
Fascists aspired to unite workers from all over the world, whereas Communists hoped to
unite workers from all over the world.

Changes Introduced by achievements. Mussolini, the Il Duce,

Mussolini’s Fascist State had a cult of personality that was
y There was no sudden change in state propagated by the media.
institutions or government; Mussolini began y Education system:
his career as the Prime Minister of a union ⚪ The secret police closely supervised
cabinet. education. The focus was on promoting
⚪ Only four ministers were fascists out the idea of “believe, obey, fight,” as
of twelve, and he needed to forward everything was viewed as a struggle.
cautiously. Removed anti-fascist teachers from the
⚪ However, until 1923, the king had given system, and children were forced to join
him exceptional powers to deal with youth organisations that indoctrinated
the problem. In the summer of 1924, them favouring the duce and extreme
Mussolini used a combination of violence nationalist ideology.
and was forced to quickly build a fascist y Employment policies:
government and society in Italy, aided ⚪ The Fascist system relied heavily on
by divisions among his opponents. the ‘corporate state.’ It was aimed,
y Only the fascist party was authorised: according to the government, to foster
⚪ Government critics were either barred or collaboration between employers
killed, with the most prominent case being and workers and to stop the class
the assassination of Giacomo Matteotti, conflict.
the Italian Parliament’s socialist leader. ⚪ Fascist-controlled unions had sole
y Local government: authority to bargain on behalf of workers,
⚪ Mayorships and elected town councils and they incorporated unions and
were abolished. The towns were to employers’ groups into businesses. They
be controlled by Rome-appointed planned to work together to reach an
administrators. These authorities were agreement on working conditions and
on par with the local fascist party bosses remuneration.
in terms of power (also called ras). ⚪ Work stoppages and strikes were
y Censorship: not tolerated. By 1934, there were 22
⚪ Anti-Fascist publications and magazines corporations, each dealing with a certain
were made illegal, and their editors industry and containing a government
were replaced with pro-fascists. official as a member, and the entire
⚪ The media was instructed to glorify system was managed by a minister of
war and popularise the Fascist Party’s corporations.

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y Agriculture:
How Totalitarian was Mussolini’s System? ⚪ Italy, under Mussolini, won the “battle of
y Despite his greatest attempts, Mussolini wheat,” which was initiated by Mussolini
did not achieve totalitarianism in to achieve self-sufficiency in food. The
the fascist sense of “no persons or farmers got many incentives to grow
organisations not controlled by the wheat.
State,” as did the Nazis in Germany. ⚪ Still, there was a downside to this
The influence of King Victor Emmanuel success story: increased wheat output
and the Pope was never completely came at the expense of dairy farming
removed by Mussolini. and other crop productivity (unlike
y When Mussolini began harassing Jews India, where rising MSP drove wheat and
in the late 1930s, the Pope became a rice production).
harsh critic of him. The masses only ⚪ It started a Land Reclamation Program,
tolerated fascism till it brought them which included a variety of actions
benefits. aimed at bringing additional land into
y The corporate state did not lead to productive use. Planting woods in high
complete state control over business places and draining marshes were
people as they only made gestures among the operations. Only 1/10th of the
of submission and instead bought plan’s aim was met by 1939, indicating
their freedom by making significant that the programme was only partially
contributions to the funds of the successful.
Fascist Party. y Public works programme:
y Mussolini’s system may be described as ⚪ It was an awe-inspiring programme
authoritarian rather than totalitarian. that was successful in overcoming
the challenges of unemployment and
infrastructure development.
Analysis of mussolini’s rule and the y Public morale: In propaganda, the emphasis
aspects of fascism that fascism on nationalism, the economic recovery, the
brought to the Italian people: reduction in unemployment, and improved
Mussolini took various measures to improve crop output bolstered public morale.
the economy and the life of people. Mussolini’s regime was also capable of
maintaining law and order.
Positive Aspects y “After Work” Organisation: This organisation
y Industry: was established to provide workers with
⚪ The industry was aided by Mussolini’s leisure activities. The organisation, for
government, which provided subsidies example, organised cruises and provided
where they were needed. Iron and steel vacation funds to employees. This aided
production increased between 1922 to in improving employee morale, happiness
1930. quotients, and job satisfaction.
⚪ The textile industry saw a tremendous y Foreign policy successes:
upswing. Artificial silk production had ⚪ Mussolini’s foreign policy was also
expanded tenfold by 1930. In the same effective, as seen by the Corfu incident
way, there were gains in the energy (1923), the annexation of Fiume in
sector. 1924, and the invasion of Abyssinia. As
⚪ Initiated many hydropower projects, a result of these occurrences, Italians
and hydropower production doubled by gained notoriety and grew to regard
1937. themselves as powerful people.

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⚪ The promise made by Mussolini’s rule rich and had the majority of industries,
was never fulfilled. Even before Italy’s whilst the south was poor and relied on
involvement in WWII, fascism had failed agriculture. It’s worth noting that the
to solve many of the country’s problems. Italian south is currently lagging behind
the northern section of the country in
Negative Aspects terms of economic development.
y Economic issues: y Social services:
⚪ Even though the ‘Battle of Wheat’ was ⚪ Mussolini was a failure when it came to
a victory, it came at the expense of providing social services. For example,
arable farming and dairy production. Mussolini’s Italy was not a welfare state
The climate in the south is much better because there were no government
suited to grazing and orchards than to health insurance systems until 1943.
growing wheat, and these would have y Corruption and inefficient:
been far more profitable for the farmers. ⚪ The regime was inefficient and corrupt,
Italy continued to face critical raw and a lot of money went into the pockets
material shortages, such as coal and oil. of the officials. For example, despite all
As a result, energy security has always publicity of land reclamation, only one-
been a problem for Italy. Hydropower tenth of the program was carried out
capacity creation should have received until 1939, and work was at a stop even
more attention. before the war began.
⚪ Exports suffered as a result of Mussolini’s y Over-centralisation of administration:
decision to overvalue the lira to ⚪ A significant issue was that Mussolini
demonstrate that Italy had a strong did not delegate work which left
currency. Thus, state control of the him overburdened. He gave many
market had adverse effects on foreign orders, and the officials would take
exchange earnings. those orders but not do anything as
y Economic crisis of 1929 Mussolini had not implemented a
⚪ The Great Depression harmed Italy’s comprehensive mechanism to monitor
economy. Italian exports began to the implementation.
decline as Europe’s export destinations,
Factors Eventually Responsible
and the United States was experiencing
for the Mussolini Downfall
a recession and erecting trade obstacles.
Yet, Il Duce did not allow the lira to It was a disastrous blunder to enter World War
depreciate, which made the exports II on Germany’s side. The majority of Italians
uncompetitive. were against it; they had previously expressed
 Instead, Mussolini cut wages and their displeasure when Mussolini began
salaries that hurt the commoner. dismissing Jews from significant positions in
The economic crisis led to 1938, and they believed that Italy was becoming
unemployment, and the buying a German satellite.
power of people further decreased. y Italy was incapable of conducting a major
Although the cost of living declined war, equipped with an army of outdated
because of “depression,” the rifles and artillery. There were a thousand
wages fell faster than the prices planes and no heavy tanks.
of commodities resulting in “real” y The general populace had to endure hardships.
inflation experienced by the people. To pay for the war, taxes were raised; food
⚪ In Italy, there was a regional disparity restrictions and massive inflation occurred
in economic prosperity. The north was and a 30% decline in real earnings happened.

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y After November 1942, the British began y The fascist regime was totalitarian. Every
raiding major cities. Strikes in Turin and aspect of humans was controlled by the
Milan began in March 1943, the first since state rigidly.
1922. The Italians were crushed in line after y The Fascist regime guided the ideology of
some early triumphs, finally surrendering militarism. No faith in the efficacy of peaceful
all of their troops in North Africa (May 1943). manners in resolving disputes of differences.
y Mussolini appeared to be losing his grip on y Emphasis on territorial expansion was
the situation. He was suffering from both a another common feature of Fascism.
stomach ulcer and a nervous breakdown. Territorial expansion of a state was
He couldn’t help but dismiss some of the considered a symbol of life.
ministers who had been harshly critical of y They believed the state was an organic
him. The allies’ capture of Sicily was the entity (must grow over time).
turning point (July 1943). y They firmly believed in anti-internationalism.
y Even though many fascist authorities saw They had no faith in the idea of international
the war’s futility, Mussolini refused to make cooperation and harmony. It was thought
peace since doing so would mean betraying that the interests of different nations
Hitler. Due to objections from the Fascist clashed with each other.
Grand Council, Mussolini was fired by the y Centralised administration was also an
king. Fascism faded away as no one ran to important feature. It was necessary for
his rescue. maintaining effective control over the affairs
of a state.
Features of Nazism and Fascism y Emphasis on the self-sufficiency of the
The Inter-war period (1914–1939) witnessed a state was also an important feature. It was
remarkable political transformation in Italy and considered necessary to ensure the highest
many other parts of the world. The environment prestige of the nation in the world.
of political instability and economic crisis y One party-one leader and one idea was
prevailing in many countries had created their vision and mission. Divergence of
extreme nationalist governments of the Fascist opinion was not tolerated.
variety. Nazi regime of Adolf Hitler In Germany, y The Fascist regime was anti-parliamentary
Benito Mussolini In Italy, Antonio Salazar In as they had no faith in the efficacy of debate
Portugal, Juan Peron in Argentina, Metaxas in and discussion.
Mexico, Dolfus in Austria, General Francisco y Anti individualism and anti-liberalism were
Franco in Spain, and General Tojo in Japan were some other ideas they believed in.
some of these Fascist regimes. The Politico- y In terms of social policy Fascist regime was
Administrative system and its dominance and re-actively in outlook.
external policy and their approach to different y Elements of the welfare state were present
problems were similar. in the policy and programmes of the
Fascist regime because leaders emphasise
Common Features of Nazism and Fascism maintaining a minimum standard of living
y The fascist regime was guided by extreme for the citizens.
nationalism. The national interest was y It was anti-communist because communist
persuaded by them aggressively, irrespective Ideology was considered a severe threat
of the consequences. to the existence of socio-economic order,
y Believing in the supremacy of the state is values and life.
another common feature. The state was y It relies on a populist approach. The leader
considered the highest entity. They believed promised what people wanted to hear.
in the idea of a state system. y The Fascist regime is cynical. They drew
their attention by blaming others. They are

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always against something in one form or the systems of the corporate state to
another. tackle the socio-economic and political
y Use of tactical approach. They did not have crisis prevailing in Italy.
any specific ideology. Their responses were y At this time, when Benito Mussolini came
determined by prevailing circumstances. to power, Italy was passing through a phase
of severe economic crisis, such as:
Difference Between Nazism and Fascism ⚪ World War 1 had left Italy in complete
devastation. The economic burden of
Difference Between Nazism and Fascism war was more than $12-million.
⚪ The conventional economic strategies
Nazism Fascism
adopted by the elected government
Not so in his policy further intensified the crisis.
Extremely radical. ⚪ The Industries were closing down, which
and programmes.
caused unemployment and clashes
With a big power, of conflict between capitalists and
the larger army Resources In Italy Working-class because the standard of
could pursue were much lesser in living was witnessing a sharp decline.
radical design comparison. ⚪ This environment was promoting the
aggressively. fertile ground for communism.
⚪ The socio-economic crisis prevailing
Racist in in Italy was responsible for political
character. Hitler instability, and that is a hooey several
was strongly anti Such a kind of racist Governments came in and went out of
semitism. More outlook was absent power within three years.
than $6-million in the policy of ⚪ To tackle the Socio-economic and political
Jews were killed fascism in Italy. crisis, Benito Mussolini developed the
in concentration system of the corporate state.
camp.
Mechanism of Corporate State
Pro- Peasant bias:
y Creation of syndicates: In 1926, Benito
Peasants were
Mussolini took the first step to establish his
considered purest
corporate state by dividing all the economic
in blood. They Such bias was
groups into 13 syndicates. Out of these, six
were thought to absent in the policy.
were capitalist, six were working-class, and
be the closest
one was an independent professional. The
descendants of
syndicates were placed under the ministry
Aryans.
of corporation headed by Benito Mussolini.
Corporate state y Labour character:
Corporate state policy to tackle ⚪ To harmonise the relationship between
policy was absent. Socio-economic and the capitalist and the working class.
political crisis. Benito Mussolini issued the labour
character in 1927.
⚪ Labour character defined the duty and
Corporate State of Benito Mussolini
responsibilities of various economic
y After becoming Italy’s Prime Minister, in groups. Labour was declared a social
October 1922, Benito Mussolini developed duty, and nobody could deny it.

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⚪ Strikes and lockouts were prohibited. y The relations among various economic
The state was declared the final groups got harmonised as a result of this
authority to solve all disputes. economy has started increasing.
⚪ The labour character helped in reducing y The revival of the economy served as an
the conflict between the capitalist and antidote to the threat of communists, and
working class. gradually the popularity of Communist
y Political representation to Ideology diminished.
occupational Gap: y The revival of the economy and elimination
⚪ In 1929, various organisations were of social conflict paused the way for
granted political representation to strengthening the foundation of the Fascist
improve the relationship between the Regime; as a result, Benito Mussolini
political class and organisations. It was could rule successfully for more than two
a move to bring multiple stakeholders decades.
closer to each other.
y Creation of corporation:
Military Fascism in Japan
⚪ In 1934, all the economic activities were
y Japan had been the only Asian country
divided into 22 corporations; out of
to avoid colonisation until the end
these, eight corporations were related
of the nineteenth century when her
to industrial production. Eight were
expansionist policies led to a conflict
related to agricultural activities. Six
with China.
were related to the service sector.
y As a result of China’s defeat, Japan was
⚪ All these corporations were put under
able to develop a foothold in China.
the National Council of Corporations
y In 1905, Japan beat Russia in a war
headed by Benito Mussolini.
and annexed Manchuria, the Russian
⚪ The state outlined economic activity in
sphere of influence in China. This was
which the members of each corporation
the first time in history that an Asian
were to participate.
country beat a major European state in
⚪ The state fixed targets for various
a war. Later, Japan attacked Korea, and
economic activities.
the outbreak of World War I allowed
⚪ Unnecessary competition among the
her to seize Germany’s assets in China
producers was eliminated so that all
as well as certain German-controlled
could concentrate on increasing their
Pacific islands.
production.
y Following the war, the League granted
y Chambers of fascist and corporatisation:
her the mandate over the islands.
⚪ In 1939, the popularly elected lower house
Japan’s military had established itself
of parliament was replaced by chambers
as a major influence in society by this
of fascism and corporatisation.
time. The country’s democracy was
⚪ In this, the Fascist party and repre­
damaged, and extreme nationalism
sentatives of corporations used to
and expansionism were fostered. In
set so those best policies could be
less than fifty years, Japan transformed
formulated to serve more extensive
from being a peaceful country to an
national interests.
aggressive military state.
y In the 1930s, she was supposed to
Significance/Outcome
build close links with the fascist
y The system of corporatisation developed governments of Germany and Italy
by Benito Mussolini was highly successful. in order to prepare for a new world
It could tackle the root causes of the Socio- division.
economic and Political crisis.

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Britain-USSR Relations (1919–33) other hand, preferred an open engagement

Relations between Britain and USSR can be in with at least one capitalist nation.
the following manner: y The following were significant milestones in
y In 1907, Britain-Russia agreement led to a the relationship:
reduction in bilateral tensions, and greater ⚪ In 1921, the USSR and Germany
trade and investments. signed a Trade Treaty, and as a result,
y The relationship was better whenever the German businessmen received trade
Labour party was in power and bitter when concessions in Russia.
the conservatives came to power. This was ⚪ Rapallo Agreement (1922) was very
so due to the difference in the ideology of significant in this regard and had the
Leftist Russia and Right-wing conservatives following provisions:
in Britain.  Full diplomatic relations were re-
y British involvement in the Russian Civil War established between Russia and
(1918–20) also added major dimensions to Germany.
the relationship.  The special relationship between
y Trade Agreement (1921): Lenin intended for Russia and Germany.
trade and investment to boost the Russian  Cancelled any war reparations that
economy. In addition, the communist they had to pay one another
administration received recognition from  Germany was permitted to build
Britain as a result of this deal. factories for manufacturing aero­
y Genoa Conference (1922): The schism planes and ammunition in Russia.
between the Russians and the British Thus, Germany avoided the Treaty
intensified over the issue of the Czarist of Versailles clause dealing with
regime’s war debt. disarmament.
y On-off diplomatic ties: In 1927, British  German officers began their training
conservative government abruptly stopped in Russia. They started learning to
diplomatic relations with Russia after use weapons that were prohibited
knowing about comintern activity in India in Germany due to the Treaty of
and Britain. In 1929, the Labour government Versailles.
of Britain again re-established diplomatic  The reasons for this geniality
ties with the USSR. between Russia and Germany were
y Rise of Hitler: After Hitler became multifarious. Russia and Germany
Chancellor in 1933, there was an increase in both sought to keep Poland in a weak
positive feelings between the two countries. position. Russia wanted Germany as
Hitler posed a threat to Russia›s borders, its buffer state against any future
and Nazi propaganda was outspoken in attack from the Western front. The
its condemnation of communists. This primary reason for creating the
may be because German communists buffer state was to safeguard Russia
were fierce opponents of the Nazis. After from Western Capitalist blocs
1917 the Bolsheviks had tried to provoke a antagonistic to a communist Russia.
communist revolution in Germany. Russia wanted to have friendly
relations with at least one capitalist
country.
USSR-Germany Relations (1919–33) ⚪ The Treaty of Berlin (1926) renewed the
y Relations between Russia and Germany Rapallo Agreement till 1931. Germany
were generally friendly until 1930, thanks promised to remain neutral if any other
to Stresemann’s efforts. The USSR, on the power attacked the USSR. Also, both

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the states agreed not to use economic ⚪ Russia-Poland War (1920): France
sanctions against each other. deployed troops to Poland’s aid, and the
⚪ After the 1930s: Poles were able to force the Russians
 Russia and Germany did not have a out of Warsaw (Polish capital).
good relationship as the Russians ⚪ The Little Entente (1921–37): The
were against the increasing influence Little Entente’s France-Poland Alliance
of the Nazis in Germany, who were (agreed in 1921) was aimed as much at
radically anti-communists. Russia as it was at Germany. Due to the
 Russia disagreed with the idea of development of the Nazis in Germany,
the Austria-Germany Custom Union the Franco-Russian relationship became
(1931). more positive after 1930.
 The justification for this was the
rise of German nationalism, which France-Germany Relations (1919–33)
could constitute a future threat y France insisted on a punitive treaty during
to Russian frontiers. Stalin’s focus the Versailles talks. France employed three
increasingly shifted to Poland, the measures to prevent a future German
United Kingdom, and France. Hitler attack: to maintain Germany economically
attempted to mend relations with and militarily weak. The elements that were
Russia after 1934. In 1939, he signed included were as follows:
a Nonaggression Pact with Russia. ⚪ France emphasised that Germany bears
⚪ Non-Aggression Pact (1939): This was the full burden of reparations.
signed by Russia and Germany. Both of ⚪ Occupation of Ruhr (1923) to compel
them pledged not to attack each other. Germany to pay reparations: The British
Poland is divided into two halves, one were fiercely opposed to the occupation
for the USSR and the other for Germany, of Ruhr because they wanted a lenient
under this arrangement. As a result, when approach to dealing with Germany.
Germany launched a war on Poland, A successful Germany, Britain believed,
the USSR remained neutral. This was would boost Europe’s stability and
a calculated victory for Hitler because exports.
it prevented the United Kingdom from  Coal from SAAR will be used for 15
forming a strategic alliance with the years.
Soviet Union. With such an alliance,  When the Treaty of Versailles was
Britain would have been able to better being drafted, France emphasised
protect Poland, whose security it had Germany’s disarmament and
guaranteed. demilitarisation of the Rhineland.
 France was upset when the United
USSR-France Relationship (1919–33) Kingdom withdrew from the Geneva
y The relationship was strained until 1930 as Protocol, as was the United States,
a result of the following: which had reverted to the Policy of
⚪ Treaty of Versailles: Due to the French Isolation and so refused to guarantee
opposition, Russia was not invited to the in advance any help to France in the
Treaty of Versailles’ discussions. This case of war.
was because, after 1917, the Bolsheviks ⚪ Forming alliances: From 1921 to 1927,
attempted to inspire communists in France made treaties with Yugoslavia,
France to revolt. Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Romania to
⚪ Russian Civil War (1918–20): France deter future German attacks.
dispatched troops to aid whites battling  The term “Little Entente” refers to
the Bolsheviks. a collection of accords. The Little

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Entente, however, was unable to potential future allies such as the Soviet
achieve anything due to its ineffective Union:
allies. France required an ally like  Austria Germany Custom Union (1931):
Russia to engage Germany on two Germany suggested the Custom Union
fronts at the same time. However, in 1931, and it made economic sense.
the Communists now dominated France’s appeal was dismissed by
Russia, which many in France saw as the Permanent Court of International
a greater threat than Germany. Justice in The Hague, which ruled
 Following 1917, the Soviet Union against the customs union.
attempted to advance its communist  World Disarmament Conference
revolution by dispatching secret opera­ (1932–3): If all nations do not
tives to France to aid communists. agree to disarm, Germany demands
⚪ Reconciliation/Friendship: Through equality of arms with France at the
the Dawes Plan (1924), the Locarno conference. France opposed it, and
Treaties (1925), the Young Plan (1929), under Hitler’s leadership, Germany
and the Lausanne Conference (1932). withdrew from the meeting and the
 Stresemann was Germany’s foreign League of Nations.
minister from 1923 to 1929. During
the tough decade following World Policy of Appeasement
War I, he was a key force in German Appeasement refers to the approach of keeping
foreign policy. someone happy by accepting illegitimate demands.
 The relationship between France The policy of appeasement was persuaded by
and Germany remained tight until western democracies, Britain in particular.
the Dawes Plan (1924).
 Under the Weimar Republic, Germany’s Why Was the Policy Persuaded?
economy rebounded with the Dawes y The primary reason was to avoid another
Plan, and tensions between the two devastating conflict during the interwar
countries decreased. period. Appeasers wanted to prevent
 The problem with the reconciliation another disastrous war.
strategy was that even Stresemann, y The realisation of mistakes in Paris peace
the man behind Locarno Spirit, towards Italy and Germany.
wanted to fulfil German objectives y Western democracies were not prepared to
and make apologies for German counter Germany and Italy militarily.
disappointments after World War I. y Fear of communism also triggered this
 Under Stresemann, Germany still policy. Germany and Italy would be safe
wanted the Polish Corridor and from communism under Nazis and fascists.
Danzig port, as well as a union y Failure of the League of Nations drew the
with Austria, the Sudetenland from attention towards appeasement.
Czechoslovakia, and a revision of the y Germany was a big market for British goods.
Treaty of Versailles, which included a The recovery of Germany is, therefore,
reduction in German reparations, the beneficial for Britain.
abolition of the disarmament clause,
and the rearmament of the Rhineland. Example of Appeasement
 The Nazis’ dominance expanded after y Dawes Plan: already discussed
the 1929 crisis, as did Germany’s y Locarno Pact: In October 1925, seven
strong nationalism. European nations assembled at Locarno
⚪ The French tightened their stance (Switzerland) to discuss the problems
against Germany and began addressing and challenges of Europe. Five treaties

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(16 October 1925) were designed to alleviate y Lausanne Conference (1932): At the
postwar Europe. Locarno seemed indeed a Lausanne Conference in 1932, the United
second peace conference and was greeted Kingdom and France agreed to exempt
with cheers and relief in world capitals. Germany from paying the majority of
y Rhineland Pact: The main treaty of the remaining reparations. The Great
Locarno, the Rhineland Pact, enjoined Depression was to blame; by 1932, there
France, Belgium, and Germany to recognise were six million unemployed Germans.
the boundaries established by the Treaty y Hitler was allowed to violate the provisions
of Versailles as inviolate and never again one by one. Nobody opposed when Hitler,
to resort to force in an attempt to change and Benito Mussolini when they attacked
them. Manchuria Abyssinia.
⚪ Moreover, the pact was guaranteed
by Britain and Italy, who pledged to Significance of Appeasement Policy
resist whatever country violated the y It allowed Germany and Italy to violate the
demilitarised Rhineland. Germany also provisions of the Paris Peace.
signed arbitration agreements with France, y It shuttered the credibility of the League of
Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, Nations.
agreeing to submit future disputes to y It exposed the weaknesses of Western
international authorities. democracies, which convinced Hitler and
⚪ To appease Germany, Britain refused to Benito Mussolini.
guarantee Germany’s eastern frontiers, y It was responsible for rearming Germany.
i.e. borders with Czechoslovakia and Hitler transformed Germany into a major
Poland. Germany was firmly against the military power. The anglo-German naval
existing eastern frontier as 4 million pact was recognised. This was the rearming
Germans were living there. of Germany.
⚪ Germany was allowed to join the League y Policy created an environment of confusion in
of Nations. The Locarno Pact was a big Europe. In 1925 Britain refused to guarantee
setback for the League of Nations as the sanctity of the Eastern frontier, which
the League of Nations was supposed to encouraged Hitler to invade Poland. Nobody
maintain the system created by Versailles. said anything at the time of the annexation of
y The Little Entente: The Little Entente was Austria. This seeded World War II.
an alliance created in 1920 and 1921 by
Czechoslovakia, Romania, and the Kingdom
Spanish Civil War
of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (after 1929,
Yugoslavia) to fight Hungarian revanchism y It was fought between a democratically
and the threat of a Habsburg restoration. elected republican government, Spain,
y Kellogg-Briand Pact: On August 27, 1928, the and an alliance of church and dissatisfied
Kellogg-Briand Pact was signed, making war military commanders.
illegal. y The Spanish republican government was
y Young Plan, 1929: The Young Plan, proposed democratically elected and was recognised
in 1929 by a commission led by Owen D. by the USSR, British and France.
Young, the CEO of General Electric and a y Germany and Italy supported Spanish
member of the Dawes Committee, reduced rebels led by General Franko.
Germany’s overall reparations request to y In 1931 monarchy collapsed in Spain, and
121 billion gold marks ($29 billion), payable the republican system was adopted. A
over 58 years. In addition to reparations, the severe economic crisis emerged.
Young Plan pushed for the establishment of y The Republican government adopted a
a Bank for International Settlements. leftist approach. Big estates of church

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and senior military commanders were Causes of Depression

nationalised. Salaries of officials were y Over-availability of consumer credit:
reduced. Privileges of various groups were ⚪ There was a sudden increase in durable
curtailed. These resulted in a civil war that consumer goods. However, most
started in July 1936. Americans were not able to pay for
these goods. As a result, the banks and
Significance of Civil War businesses moved in to offer credit to
y Though the Spanish civil war was the outcome people to purchase these goods.
of internal differences and disputes, it was ⚪ Over time, many Americans were not
not an internal affair for Spain once the capable of paying back their loans and
conflict commenced. It was having a serious defaulted on them.
international effect. The real fight was ⚪ Many countries funded their investments
between the USSR and Rome-Britain alliance. through the loans supplied by the US.
y The Spanish Civil war was a prelude to In the first half of 1928, the overseas
starting the drama (WWII) that was to be loans of the US were approximately
played. It was a rehearsal of a great drama $ 1-billion.
that was playing in theatres of Europe very ⚪ Ultimately, with the collapse of stock
soon. markets, America stopped providing
y It revealed the possibilities of an alliance loans to foreign nations and thus leading
between capitalism and communism against to a global depression.
Fascism and Nazism. These alliances were y Agricultural overproduction:
fought in World War II. ⚪ Agricultural overproduction accom­panied
y German and Italian forces used the Spanish by falling agrarian prices remained a
civil war to use their largest weapons and problem. As the prices fell, the agricultural
strategies and to taste their effectiveness. income was also reduced.
Germany and Italy employed these weapons ⚪ This made farmers produce even more
and strategies in World War II and bring a larger production volume to
y The victory of the German alliance in the maintain their overall income.
Spanish civil war greatly emboldened Hitler. ⚪ This move pushed the prices further
He used this newfound confidence to annex down.
Austria, demand Sudetenland, and take over y First World War:
the whole of Czechoslovakia. This confidence ⚪ Some People also believe that the
allowed Hitler to invade Poland without first world war is also a reason for the
bothering about the British warnings. depression.
 According to them, the post-war
The Years of Great Depression period caused deflation due to the
y The first Great Depression took place in excessive manufacturing activities
1929. during the First World War.
y The Great Depression refers to the severe  This resulted in the pile-up of huge
economic crisis faced by the USA in stocks of unused items.
particular and other capitalist economies  In addition, the wartime expenditure
in general during 1929–39. destitute many European Countries.

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Recovery of the Great Depression

Policy Instrument Deployed to Contain the Great Economic Depression

The term Great Economic Depression was used for the severe economic crisis forced by the
USA and other capitalist economies in general from 1929 to 1939. The American economy
witnessed a rapid contraction of employment, increasing to 25%, and international trade
declined by more than 50%. This process of contraction continued quarter after quarter, and
the entire capitalist world was severely affected.
With the election of F.D Roosevelt as the US president in March 1933. The government started
initiating several measures to counter the prevailing depression. This policy instrument
adopted by the US government was known as the ‘new deal’. Two ‘new deals’ came into force
during 1933–1934 and 1935–1938. ‘New deals’ constructed by Relief, Recovery and Reforms.
y Emergency Banking Relief Act was enacted by parliament and powered by the President
to regulate banking power and foreign exchange to pave the way for the restoration of
faith in the banking sector.
y Federal Deposit Insurance was enacted to ensure the banking deposits of the US citizens
so that public faith could be restored in the bank.
y A Federal Relief Emergency was announced through which 500 million dollars were
distributed to state and local governments to face the economic crisis.
y The Civilian Conservation Corps was to employ citizens. So that people could have some
amount of money to buy food.
y Agricultural Adjustment Administration was to ensure the availability of markets for
peasants. This is the step to revive US Agriculture.
y Tennessee Valley Authority was to undertake developmental projects in the Tennessee
Valley region, as it was severely affected by the depression.
y The National Industrial Recovery Act was enacted to stimulate competition and increase
production; the government also emphasised pursuing a good neighbour policy to improve
relations with neighbours to pave the way to increase international trade.
These measures were highly successful as America came out of the Great Economic
Depression soon, and by 1939 depression was no longer visible. Similar policies were followed
successfully by other countries after World War II to battle the economic crisis.

y The good neighbour policy was initiated to the United States national income fell
increase international trade. by half. Factories shuttered, exports
y German investments and industrial recovery plummeted, farmers suffered losses,
were dependent on short-term financing, and speculators withdrew their funds
particularly from the United States. This from the market.
aid was discontinued when the Wall Street y The recession’s repercussions on the US
Exchange collapsed in 1929. Fearing a price economy were felt all across the world. The
collapse, people made hasty attempts to German economy bore the weight of the
sell their shares. global recession. Industrial production had
⚪ $13-million shares were sold in a single plunged to 40% of 1929 levels by 1932.
day on October 24th. This was the y Workers lost their employment or had
beginning of the Great Depression. Over their earnings reduced, bringing the total
the next three years, from 1929 to 1932, number of unemployed to an all-time high
of $ 6-million.

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y On the streets of Germany, it was easy to

see men with placards around their necks Policy instruments deployed to contain
saying, willing to do any work. the great economic depression:
y Jobless youth stood on street corners, With the election of F.D Roosevelt as
played cards, or waited in long lines the U.S president in March 1933. The
at the local employment exchange. As Government started initiating several
jobs disappeared, young people turned measures to counter the prevailing
to criminal activity, and abject poverty depression. This policy instrument
became the norm. adopted by the U.S government was
y As a result of the economic crisis, people’s known as the ‘new deal’. Two ‘new
anxieties and fears have increased. The deals’ came into force during 1933-1934
middle classes, largely salaried employees & 1935-1938. ‘New deals’ constructed by
and retirees watched their savings diminish Relief, Recovery & Reforms.
as the currency lost value. Small company y Emergency Banking Relief Act was
owners, self-employed individuals, and enacted by parliament and powered
retailers suffered as their businesses were by the President to regulate banking
devastated. power & foreign exchange to pave
the way for the restoration of faith
in the banking sector.
Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)
y Federal Deposit Insurance was ena­
(2013, Mains)
cted to ensure the banking deposits
of the U.S citizens so that public
What policy instruments were deployed
faith could be restored in the Bank.
to contain the Great Economic
y A Federal Relief Emergency was
Depression? (10 marks, 200 words)
announced through which 500
Decoding the question
million dollars were distributed to
y In the introduction, try to start
state & local governments to face
by defining the Great Economic
the economic crisis.
Depression with some background.
y The Civilian Conservation Corps was
y In body, discuss the anti-depression
to employ citizens. So that people
measures deployed.
could have some amount of money
y Conclude with commenting on the
to buy food.
impacts of anti-depression measures.
y Agricultural Adjustment Admini­
Answer: stration was to ensure the availability
The term Great Economic Depression of markets for peasants. This is the
was used for the severe economic step to revive U.S Agriculture.
crisis forced by the USA in particular & y Tennessee Valley Authority was to
other capitalist economics in general undertake developmental projects
from 1929 to 1939. The American in the Tennessee Valley region, as
economy witnessed a rapid contraction it was severely affected by the
of employment increased to 25% and depression.
international trade declined by more y The National Industrial Recovery
than 50%. This process of contraction Act was enacted to stimulate com­
continued quarter after quarter and petition and increase production,
the entire capitalist world was severely the government also emphasized
affected. pursuing a good neighbour policy to

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After World War I, Europe went from being a

improve relations with neighbours continent of creditors to one of the debtors.
to pave the way to increase The richest fruits were harvested by the semi-
international trade. belligerents or non-belligerents. The United
These measures were highly successful States became a major economic power, Japan
as America came out of the Great strengthened its economic and naval supremacy
Economic Depression soon, and by 1939 in the Pacific, and India made substantial
depression was no longer visible. Similar strides toward independence. Despite attaining
policies were followed successfully by specified objectives, the victorious Allies left
other countries after World War II as behind a devastating legacy of destruction,
well to battle the economic crisis. debt, poverty, refugees, minority issues, and
inter-allied tensions.
The seeds of the Second World War were sown
in the treaty of Versailles signed after World
War I. In this way, an inter-war phase has
Conclusion witnessed these international equations and
The conflict had a devastating psychological their consequences, such as Nazism, fascism,
and financial impact on the entire continent. the Spanish civil war, the Great Depression etc.

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9 World War II (1939–1945)

Introduction y Hitler used the hopes and anxieties of

Western democracies to his advantage.
The Second World War, unlike the First,
The Nazi ruler would declare an end to his
was a fast-paced conflict. It was a far more
demands once he gained fresh territory.
complicated affair, with major actions taking
Peace appeared to be assured until Hitler
place in the Pacific and the far East, North
began growing again.
Africa, and deep within Russia’s heartland, as
well as central and western Europe and the Causes of World War II
Atlantic. The prelude of World War II was the
German invasion of Poland in 1939, after which y The debate is still going on about the
the two competing alliances were the Axis and reasons that led to World War II. The
the Allies. Allied victory in the war had been Versailles Treaties were blamed for filling
accomplished at a very high cost. World War II the Germans with the desire for revenge
had altered the political landscape of Europe. and bitterness.
It weakened some countries and strengthened
others. The Soviet Union and the United States
The Treaty of Versailles
had come out of the war as allies. Nevertheless,
The Treaty of Versailles made with the
once World War II ended, the differences in their
Germans (28 June 1919) resulted from
post-war goals emerged. These differences
a series of bargains and compromises,
stirred up disputes that would shape the
which resulted in a patchwork type of
modern world for decades.
unstable peace. Ultimately Germany
Factors Responsible for the World War II suffered internal territorial losses: Alsace-
Lorraine to France, Rhineland to Allied
y Germany and Italy appeared to be on the forces, minor border areas to Belgium
verge of a military defeat by the mid-1930s. and Denmark, and colonial possessions
Significant democracies such as the United to Britain and France. Economically, it
Kingdom, France, and the United States were did not have a significant impact on
diverted by domestic economic concerns Germany because the country was making
and desired to maintain peace. The Soviet tremendous growth in the mid-1920s.
Union had no intention of going to the The post-Versailles international system
camp. Many people looked to the League foundation was weaker than in previous
of Nations for peace while the globe was decades. The Peace Accord lacked ‘moral
on the verge of war. Fascism surged across force.’ The peace, according to Germans,
Europe, and a great Asian nation followed was a betrayal of Wilson’s Fourteen
suit. Japan was ruled by the military after a Points’ core convictions. France perceived
period of progress and reform in the 1920s. it as a defeat.
y Japan’s military leaders had dreams of an
empire like Hitler. Japan was over-crowded
and met shortages of raw materials. To solve y The concept of collective security and
these problems and encourage nationalism, The League of Nations has been criticised
the Japanese began an empire-building because they failed to control potential
programme that would lead to war. aggressors and secure general disarmament.

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y The world economic crisis has been prepare defences against a possible
mentioned since; without it, Hitler would German attack.
probably never have been able to occur to y Distrust between USSR and the
take power. While these factors undoubtedly allied powers:
help create tension and an atmosphere ⚪ Britain and France appealed to the
that might have led to a war, and something Soviet Union to join them in halting
more was needed. Therefore, some of the Hitler’s aggression. Negotiations went
other important factors responsible for slowly. The two democracies doubted
World War II are: the Communist government, and Stalin
y Appeasement and its effect: resented being left out of the Munich
⚪ Some historians have proposed that Conference.
appeasement was primarily accountable ⚪ Right-wingers in France sympathised
for the situation that deteriorated into with Hitler and admired his accomp­
war. They argue that Britain and France lishments. In the 1935 agreement
would have taken a healthy way with between France and the USSR, a section
Hitler before Germany became much for military collaboration was prevented
stronger. by the conservatives in France.
⚪ In 1930, an Anglo-French attack on western  If there was a case of two countries
Germany at the time of the Rhineland signing a military treaty, Germany
occupation would have toppled Hitler would have been beaten in a limited
from power. The appeasers increased conflict in Eastern Europe, or it
his prestige at home by giving way would not have gone to war at all.
to him. y Role of Hitler:
⚪ Hitler might not have had any proper plans ⚪ By attacking Poland on all fronts rather
for war, but after giving up at Munich, he than merely occupying Danzig and the
was convinced that Britain and France Corridor, it could be hinted at Hitler’s
would remain passive again and decided intent to not only to get back the
to gamble on war with Poland. Germans lost at Versailles but also to
y Nazis and soviets sign non- destroy Poland. Martin Gilbert argues
aggression pact: that he intended to remove the stigma
⚪ The USSR was accused of making war of defeat in the First World War.
unavoidable by agreeing on the non-  The German non-aggression pact
aggression pact with Germany on 23 with Russia was easing Russian
August 1939, which also covered a secret suspicions and keeping it neutral
agreement for Poland to be divided until Poland dealt with it.
between Germany and the USSR. ⚪ Hitler was a brilliant opportunist taking
 It is asserted that Stalin ought to advantage of the appeasers’ mistakes
have federated with the West and and events, such as the Czechoslovakia
Poland, thus panicking Hitler into crisis in February 1939.
keeping the peace. ⚪ Hitler set himself two goals; a war of
 On the other hand, the British were conquest and the elimination of the Jews.
most hesitant to ally with the Russians;  The ultimate goal of Hitler was to
Chamberlain suspected them establish a greater Germany than
(because they were communists) and had ever existed before in history.
Poles. He thought they were militarily ⚪ In 1936, Hitler had made alliances with
fragile. Japan and Italy. The military alliance of
 Russian historians defend the pact this trio of the nation was called the
because it gave the USSR time to Axis Powers.

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Fig. 9.1 Groupings in WW II

y Japan’s militarism ⚪ Japan needed natural resources for its

⚪ The civilian government had maintained companies in order to produce more
power as long as Japan remained rich. items. The Chinese are rich in minerals
The Great Depression struck in 1930, and resources were conquered by the
and the government was to blame. Japanese troops. China approached the
Military commanders gathered back League of Nations for assistance. Japan
and took control of the country within continued to seize Korea and China
a short time. while avoiding the League of Nations.
 The militarists, unlike the Fascists ⚪ The United States became concerned
in Europe, did not attempt to about its Asian colonies, including the
construct a new political structure. Philippines and Guam, as Japan invaded
They wanted the military to take other portions of Southeast Asia,
over the government’s usual control. notably Vietnam. In December 1941,
The militarists made the emperor Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii,
the emblem of state power rather believing that the US military could
than a strong leader like Mussolini threaten its expansion. World War II had
or Hitler. begun in Asia.

Fig. 9.2 Aggression in Europe and Asia 1930–39

World War II (1939–1945) 135

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Fig. 9.3 Different Phases of WW-II

Different Phases of Second World War

⚪ German troops marched into Poland
Unlike the 1914–18 conflict, World War II was a on September 1, 1939. The Poles were
war of rapid mobility; it was a far more complex quickly beaten by the German Blitzkrieg
affair, with successful campaigns taking place (lightning war), for which they were
in the Far East, the Pacific, North Africa, and unprepared. It was made up of
deep within Russia’s heartland, as well as motorised divisions and tanks (Panzers)
central and western Europe and the Atlantic. that were backed up by airpower. The
Luftwaffe (German air force) devastated
Opening Moves (September the Polish railway system as well as the
1939 to December 1940) Polish air force.
y By the end of September, the Germans and ⚪ Britain and France declared war on
Russians preoccupied Poland. Germany on September 3rd. Because
y After a seven-month truce (dubbed the the French mobilisation method was
“phoney war”), German troops conquered cumbersome and outdated, and it was
Denmark (April 1940). difficult to get enough troops to Poland
y Attacks on Holland, Belgium, and France to be effective, Britain and France
in May, all of which were quickly defeated, actively assisted their ally.
left Britain alone to confront the tyrants ⚪ As a result, the start of World War II was
(Mussolini had declared war in June, just signalled by the invasion of Poland. The
before the fall of France). German armies could conquer Poland in
y In Britain’s Battle (July to September less than three weeks because no aid
1940), Hitler’s effort to bomb Britain into reached Poland. Despite the declaration
submission failed, but Mussolini’s army of war, little actual fighting went on for
invaded Egypt and Greece. several months.
⚪ As a result of the phoney war, which
Major Events of This Phase lasted from September 1939 to April 1940
y Poland’s defeat Germany took Norway and Denmark.
⚪ After World War I, East Prussia was Following the German invasion of
divided from the rest of Germany. Poland, an offensive on eastern Poland
⚪ Danzig, which separated East Prussia from was launched by the Soviet Union,
the rest of Germany, was declared an conquering territory that had previously
autonomous city outside German control. been part of the Russian empire. This
⚪ It was demanded by Hitler that Danzig occupation was thought to be part of
be returned to Germany, but the United the Soviet-German non-aggression
Kingdom refused such a demand. pact’s secret terms.

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Fig. 9.4 Powers during WW-II

The Phoney War

y On September 29, Poland was split between Germany and the Soviet Union (as agreed in
the August 1939 treaty). In 1940, the Baltic States of Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania, which
had gained independence after World War I, were conquered by the Soviet Union. They,
along with Moldavia, became Soviet republics. The Soviet Union declared war on Finland
in November 1939, dubbed “The Phoney War.”
y The ground war in Europe was unusually quiet for over seven months after Poland’s
collapse. The British and French troops had mobilised following their declaration of war.
Their men were stationed along the Maginot Line, a defensive structure that ran along
France’s border with Belgium.
y They waited there for the Germans to attack, but nothing came of it. The disgruntled
Allies turned their gaze eastward toward the Germans. German soldiers scowled back
from their Siegfried Line a few miles away, equally bored. It was dubbed the “sitting war”
by Germans, and it was dubbed “The Phoney War” by a few media.
y The Phoney War came to an end on April 9, 1940. The invasion of Denmark and Norway by
Hitler began as a surprise. To attack Great Britain, he planned to create strongholds along
the Norwegian and Danish shores. Denmark surrendered four hours after the invasion.
Norway also surrendered two months later.

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y Denmark and Norway Invaded, April 1940 thirds of whom were British. Because
⚪ On April 9, 1940, Hitler’s army seized a third of a million allied men were
Denmark and landed at the major evacuated from fighting, the events at
Norwegian ports. To attack Great Britain, Dunkirk were necessary, and Churchill
he planned to create strongholds along the used them to boost British morale with
Norwegian and Danish shores. Denmark the ‘Dunkirk spirit.’
fell four hours after the bombing. Norway ⚪ Benito Mussolini of Italy joined up with
also surrendered two months later. Hitler on June 10th, sensing a quick
⚪ Quisling, the leader of Norway’s fascist win, and declared war on the United
party, helped the German invaders in Kingdom and France. From the south,
Norway. He had established a puppet Italy launched an invasion of France.
government in the country while it was ⚪ Soon after, the capital city of Paris had
occupied by the Germans. The term almost completely fallen into German
‘Quisling’ has evolved to imply a traitor hands-on 14 June 1940 when the
who aids and abets his country’s invaders. German troops marched into France. On
⚪ This Norwegian campaign had significant June 22, 1940, the French government
results. surrendered and signed a deal with
 Germany was assured of its bases Germany, which allowed Germany to
and iron-ore supplies. occupy almost half of France.
 It demonstrated Chamberlain’s ⚪ The Germans seized control of the
government’s incapacity. Winston country’s northern regions. They handed
Churchill became British Prime up control of the southern provinces to
Minister after he was forced to leave. a counter-government led by Pétain.
Although Churchill’s omission has The government’s headquarters were in
been criticised, there is little doubt the city of Vichy.
that he provided what was required ⚪ The remainder was under the control
at the moment. of the French government, which was
y Attacks were made in Holland, Belgium, compelled to disband the French army
and France: in order to keep the German troops in
⚪ In early May, the invasion of Belgium and France.
Holland was completed before the end ⚪ The French administration has now
of May. taken up residence in Vichy. With
⚪ In May of 1940, Hitler started a dramatic France’s loss, Germany ascended to the
rush through Holland, Belgium, and throne of Europe’s continent.
Luxembourg. This was part of a plan to ⚪ On June 14, Paris was seized, and France
hit France. surrendered on June 22. Blitzkrieg,
⚪ Belgium stood out for a long time, which literally means “lightning war,”
but when it surrendered at the end of is the name given to Germany’s fast-
May, the British and French troops in paced and forceful war.
Belgium were exposed to great danger. ⚪ Following the fall of France, a French
German automated divisions swept com­mander named Charles de Gaulle
across northern France; only Dunkirk (duh GOHL) fled to London. He set up a
continued to be in Allied hands. government-in-exile there with the goal
⚪ Between May 27 and June 4, the British of retaking France. On 18 June 1940, he
navy played a key part in evacuating called people on broad-casted England. He
nearly 338,000 men from Dunkirk, two- asked the people of France to withstand.

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Fig. 9.5 France Occupied by Axis Powers

y Battle of Britain (1940) and provided a commendable retaliation

⚪ After the collapse of France, Britain was by conducting air raids against German
the only major force left in Europe, and territory.
it had stood alone against the Nazis. ⚪ The RAF inflicted substantial casualties
Germany felt that because she had no on the Luftwaffe (1389 German planes
allies in Europe, Britain would surrender lost to 792 British), and Hitler called off
shortly. With the collapse of France, British the invasion when it became evident
Prime Minister Winston Churchill swore that the British air force was far from
that his country would never surrender. being destroyed.
In a speech, he said, “We shall fight on ⚪ The Battle of Britain was the war’s first
the beaches, we shall fight on the landing major turning point, demonstrating for
grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the first time that the Germans were
the streets . . . we shall never surrender.” not invincible. Britain was able to stay in
⚪ In August 1940, the bombing operations the fight long enough to confront Hitler
on Britain began by the German air force (who was ready to attack Russia) with a
with the goal of terrorising the country serious war situation on two fronts.
into surrender. The Royal Air Force of y Italy and Germany on the other parts:
the United Kingdom played a heroic role ⚪ In September 1940, Mussolini sent
in defending the country from airstrikes an army from the Italian province of

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Libya into Egypt, infiltrating roughly ⚪ British troops were also pushed out
60 kilometres, while another Italian when they invaded Greece.
force conquered Greece from Albania ⚪ The campaigns in Greece had significant
(October). The British, on the other effects:
hand, drove the Italians out of Egypt,  It was a humiliating defeat for the
drove them back into Libya, and beat Allies, who lost around 36 000
them at Beda Fomm, capturing 130,000 troops.
prisoners and 400 tanks in the process.  Many troops were pulled out of North
The Greeks drove the Italians out of Africa, weakening British forces at a
Albania and annexed it. Mussolini was time when they needed to be most
becoming a disgrace to Hitler. effective against Rommel.
⚪ Germany, on the other hand, conquered  Hitler’s involvement in Greece and
the Balkans, including Greece, Yugoslavia (which the Germans
Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and significant invaded at the same time as Greece)
swaths of North Africa. may have delayed his attack on
Russia in the long term. This was
The Axis Offensive Widens From originally scheduled for the 15th
1941 to the Summer of 1942 of May but was postponed for five
y The war now began to become a worldwide weeks. The Germans could have
war. overrun Moscow before the winter
y First, Hitler, certain of a quick triumph over set in if the annexation had taken
Britain, invaded Russia on June 22, 1941, place in May.
breaking a non-aggression pact struck less y Operation Barbarossa (1941):
than two years before. ⚪ Hitler might move through with his plan
y Hitler had always lusted after the Soviet to invade the Soviet Union now that
Union’s immense land and riches. the Balkans are under his authority.
y He estimated that the Soviet Union would That strategy was dubbed Operation
be destroyed in about eight weeks. He had Barbarossa by him.
badly overestimated the Soviet Union’s ⚪ The thunder of German tanks and aircraft
might. proclaimed the start of the blitzkrieg
y The United States was drawn into the conflict invasion early on Sunday morning, June
by the Japanese by assaulting the US naval 22, 1941. This attack caught the Soviet
station at Pearl Harbor (December 1941). Union off guard. The Red Army was the
Then the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and world’s largest army, with a force of 5
Burma, which were all spread out over a large million troops. However, it lacked both
territory, were occupied by them. equipment and training.
y At this point in the war, it appeared that ⚪ The German attack was three-pronged:
there was no way to stop the Germans  In the north towards Leningrad,
and Japanese, albeit the Italians were less  In the centre of Moscow,
successful.  In the south through Ukraine.
⚪ Hitler’s motive behind the attack:
Important Events of This Phase  He feared that the Russians would
y North Africa and Greece: attack Germany while his troops
⚪ The forces were sent by Hitler to help were still preoccupied in the
Italy. The British were driven out of Libya West.
and partly from Egypt by the German  He anticipated a Japanese invasion
troops. of Russia in the Far East.

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TIMELINE
WO RLD WAR-II

1918 - 1919 1919 - 1939 1939 - 1940 1940

1938 German Anschluss with 3 Sept 1939 11 June 1940 Italy entered the
On 11 o ember 1918
N v
Austria : Hitler went ahead with Britain and France declare war war on the side o] Axis power
s
the Armistice agreed between his plans to unify all German- on Britain and France declared Italy entered the war on the side
the Allies and Germany brought speaking people. He annexed war on Germany. Neville of the Axis powers. Italy’s motive
an end to ifghting in orld ar
W W Austria then demanded the Chamberlain broadcast the for entering the war was the
One.
liberation of German people in announcement that the country hope of rich pickings from the
the Sudetenland region of was at war. spoils of war.
Czechoslovakia.
Treaty of Versailles, was a peace Sept 1939-May 194
0
document signed at the end of
World War I by the Allied and
‘Phoney War ’: The months

associated powers and by following Britain’s declaration of

Germany in the Hall of Mirrors in war are referred to as the
‘phoney war ’ because Britain saw
the Palace of Versailles, France,
on June 28, 1919; it took force on no military action.
January 10, 1920.
April«May 194
0
Hitler invades Denmark and
Norway: Hitler invaded and

occupied Denmark and Norway

to safeguard supply routes of
30 Sept 1938 Swedish ore and also to
Treaty of Munich- Hitler, establish a Norwegian base from 22 June 1940 France signs
Chamberlain, Daladier of France which to break the British naval armistice with Germany

and Mussolini of Italy met in blockade on Germany.
The French, Marshall Petain,
Munich and agreed that Hitler signed an armistice with
should have the Sudetanland of 10 May 1940 Blitzkrieg Hitle
r Germany taking France, which
Czechoslovakia. had been devastated, out of the
launched his blitzkrieg (lightning
war) against Holland and war and into German occupation.
Hitler assured those at the Belgium. Rotterdam was bombed
meeting that this was the extent almost to extinction. Both 10 July – 31 October 1940 Battle
of his ambitions for expansion. countries were occupied. o] Britai
n
The Battle of Britain comprised
In the 1919 by the Treaty of March 1939 13 May 194
0 four phases:
Versailles, the victorious powers
Hitler invades Czechoslovakia Neville Chamberlain resigned
(the United States, Great Britain, Despite the assurances given by after pressure from Labour
France, and other allied states) Hitler in the Treaty of Munich members for a more active
imposed punitive territorial, (Sept 1938), he marched into prosecution of the war and
military, and economic provisions Czechoslovakia and occupied the Winston Churchill became the
on defeated Germany. Outside country. new head of the wartime
Europe, Germany lost all its
coalition government.
colonies. In sum, Germany
forfeited 13 percent of its March«April 1939
European territory (more than
Britain rearms and reassures 26 Ma 1940 Dun
y kirk (Operation
27,000 square miles) and one- D namo
Poland Britain had begun re- y

tenth of its population (between arming and a highly secret radar The British commander-in-chief,
6.5 and 7 million people).
early warning system was General Gort, had been forced to
installed along the east coast. retreat to the coast at Dunkirk.
The Great Depression lasting Conscription was introduced and The troops waited, under During July Hitler sent his
almost 10 years (from late 1929 assurances were given to Poland, merciless ifre, to be taken off the Luftwaffe bombers to attack
until about 1939) and affecting who was being threatened by the beaches. British ports. His aim was also to
nearly every country in the world, Fuhrer. assess the speed and quality of
was marked by steep declines in response by the RAF.
industrial production and in late Aug 1939
prices (delfation), mass
unemployment, banking panics, Russia and Germany sign pact: The Blitz – From September 7th
and sharp increases in rates of Hitler and Stalin signed a the city of London was heavily
poverty and homelessness. nonaggression pact which bombed. Hitler hoped to destroy
included secret clauses for the the morale of the British people.
division of Poland.
The wave of resentment over the
Night Bombing – With the failure
perceived injustices of the Treaty
of Versailles was fully exploited 1 Sept 1939
of daylight bombing raids Hitler
by Hitler and his Nazi Party. began a series of nightly bombing
Hitler invades Poland: Adolf Hitler raids on London and other
Hitler promised to undo wrongs invades Poland.
of the Versailles Treaty. important industrial cities.

Fig. 9.6 World War - II Timeline

World War II (1939–1945) 141

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 The stronger Japan became, the less substituting the experienced generals.
likely it was that the United States A slow mobilisation policy was also a
would join the war (or so Hitler cause.
thought). ⚪ But Germany lost to Moscow and
 Except for his hatred of communism Leningrad (now called St Petersburg)
and yearning for Lebensraum, that in 1941. Because high rains in October
is (living space). turned the Russian roads to mud,
 Germany attacked from the centre, and then frost during November-
south, and north and marched December (temperature as low as
towards Moscow, Leningrad, and minus 38 degrees Celsius) also limited
Ukraine, respectively, using Blitzkrieg the forward march by the Germans.
tactics, including simultaneous and So, German hopes of a quick victory
swift attacks by aeroplanes, men, were thwarted.
and tanks. ⚪ The German army lacked winter
⚪ The Germans were highly successful at clothing, despite the fact that they
first as they confronted an inexperienced were supposed to destroy Russia by
Russian army. Stalin removal of 1937 November. The Battle of Stalingrad was
had led to inexperienced young officers lost by the Germans in 1942.

Fig. 9.7 Nazi Power in 1943

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y Significance of the USSR invasion: and Italy, it was one of the three
⚪ A new vast theatre of war had been participants of the Anti-Comintern
opened by the German invasion of the Pact. In September 1940, these three
Soviet Union. A significant development powers forged a new deal that binds
that followed was the emergence of the them even closer together.
British-Soviet-American unity to fight ⚪ Japan acknowledged Germany and
against aggression. Italy’s leadership in establishing a new
⚪ Soon after the invasion, British Prime order in Europe, and Japan’s leadership
Minister Winston Churchill and American in developing a new order in Asia was
President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared recognised.
their support for the Soviet Union in the ⚪ On 7 December 1941, the Japanese
war against Germany and promised aid, attacked Pearl Harbour, an American
resulting in agreements between the naval base in Hawaii, without declaring
Soviet Union and the United Kingdom and war. With this attack, the United
the Soviet Union and the United States. States broke its policy of isolation and
Germany, Italy, and Japan were finally joined the Allies. The American Pacific
vanquished as a result of this unification. fleet that was stationed there was
y Entry of USA: completely destroyed. The Americans
⚪ The Japanese started a new invasion lost 20 vessels, 250 planes, and about
of China in 1937. Along with Germany 3000 people.

Fig. 9.8 Pearl Harbor

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y The United States of America had already China. In addition, when the belligerent
aided the allies with substantial financial General Tojo became Prime Minister of
help to Britain and war equipment to Russia Japan, the war became inevitable.
through the Lend-Lease Act (April 1941). ⚪ After the attack on Pearl Harbour, Japan
y Japan had secured an agreement on the got control of the Pacific, captured the
naval limit with the United Kingdom, France, British colonies of Malaya, Singapore,
and the United States at the Washington Burma, and Hong Kong, it captured the
Conference. It had reaffirmed its commitment Dutch East Indies, Philippines, Guam,
to the maritime limit in 1930, but it had soon and Wake Island, the latter three being
broken it, thus violating the Washington US colonies.
summit agreement.
y Under the Washington Conference (191921– Significance of Japanese Attack
2), it likewise committed to respecting y The attack on Pearl Harbor amid negotiations
China’s neutrality, but in 1931, it invaded was a testimony to the determination of the
Manchuria. By 1937, Japan had launched a Japanese to conquer Asia and the Pacific.
full-scale invasion of China, and the second y This attack resulted in the Second World
Sino-Japanese war had merged into World War truly becoming a global conflict.
War II. On December 8, 1941, the United States
y The following are the reasons for Japan’s declared war on Japan, and Germany and
attack on Pearl Harbour: Italy followed suit shortly after. Following
⚪ Japan desired dominance of the Greater the United States’ entry into the war,
East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere. This numerous latin American countries joined
was an imperial notion, implying that all the fight against Germany, Italy, and Japan.
Asian nations in East Asia were ruled by y Important wins were achieved by the Japanese
Japan and were free of other forces. in the Asian war. They had captured Malaya,
⚪ Japan needed raw materials, thus the Indonesia, Burma, Philippines, Thailand, Hong
British sought Malaya and Burma, which Kong, Singapore, and other areas within six
were wealthy in rubber, oil, and tin. It months following the attack on Pearl Harbor.
also desired to colonise the Dutch East y The fascist powers had reached the pinnacle
Indies, which had an abundance of oil. of their authority by mid-1942. After that,
⚪ Japan had no desire to fight the United things started to go downhill.
States, but the latter proved to be a
stumbling block in their objectives. Declaring War on the USA Was
The United States was assisting China Hitler’s Most Serious Fault
in its war against Japan. The US had y There was no need to commit to war with
also imposed an oil embargo on Japan the United States at this stage, in which
because it refused to comply with the case the Americans might have focused on
US demand that it withdraw from the the Pacific war.
French Indo-China Treaty (Indo China y The help was already assured by the
is the region comprising Laos, Vietnam, Germans to the Japanese in case of their
and Cambodia). war with the US. Because of his belief that
⚪ A puppet government was formed by the United States would declare war on
Hitler after the Battle of France, in Vichy Germany at some point, Hitler wanted to
France, which gave the Japanese Indo- assert his dominance by wanting Germany
China (1940). The negotiations came to a to declare war first to show the German
halt after the United States insisted on people that he, not the Americans, was in
Japan’s withdrawal from Indo-China and charge.

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y The US Congress was understandably y The Germans, led by Rommel, were halted
determined with an intent to exact at El Alamein in October and later driven
vengeance on Japan but was wary of out of North Africa.
becoming entangled in European affairs. y The third fight took place in Russia. The
Roosevelt would have had a hard time Germans infiltrated Stalingrad on the Volga
persuading Congress to launch the war on River in September 1942. The German army
Germany; Hitler’s action rescued him. was besieged and forced to surrender in
y Germany was now confronted with the February after the Russians put up such a
tremendous potential of the United States. strong fight.
This was an indication not in favour
of an Axis triumph in the event of war
continuation, owing to the USSR’s and the The Battle of Midway (1942) was a
British Commonwealth’s vast resources. watershed moment in the war because
Before the American contribution was it saw US bombers destroy Japanese
effective, they needed to deliver quick aircraft carriers. Without aircraft carriers,
knockout blows. winning naval engagements is nearly
impossible. Following this fight, the US
The Offensives Held in Check embarked on a campaign known as
Summer 1942 to Summer 1943 ‘island hopping,’ in which it reclaimed
y During this period in Warsaw, the Axis Pacific islands from Japan one by one
armies were beaten in three major battles. between 1942 and 1944, using an aerial
y In June 1942, the Americans successfully bombardment tactic followed by ground
repelled a Japanese attack on Midway Island, assaults.
although suffering terrible casualties.

The Battle of Stalingrad (1942)

The alliance of countries battling fascist forces was strengthened in January 1942. The United
Nations Declaration was signed by delegates from 26 countries, including the United Kingdom,
the United States, and the Soviet Union. The signatories to this statement agreed not to
have a separate peace treaty and to use all of their resources to prosecute the war until
victory was won. They also promised to cooperate against the common enemy. The Battle of
Stalingrad was one of the most pivotal battles of World War II (now called Volgograd).
y It took place in southern Russia. By August 1942, Germany had reached Stalingrad and
destroyed the city’s infrastructure.
y The German troops reached the outskirts of Stalingrad.
y The battle waged for about five months. It involved about 2 million men, 2000 tanks, and
2000 planes, and the civilian population of Stalingrad joined the soldiers in defending
the city. However, the Russians refused to surrender and launched a counteroffensive
in November. The German invasion of Moscow was repulsed in November and December
1941.
y In February 1943, around 90,000 German officers and soldiers were surrounded and
surrendered. In total, Germany lost approximately 300,000 men in this conflict. This
battle was pivotal in the war’s outcome.

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y The Battle of Stalingrad was crucial because if Germany had won, it would have been
able to disrupt Russia’s oil supply routes that delivered oil from the Caucasus. Germany
would have been able to strike Moscow from the southeast if Stalingrad had been under
its control. The victory strengthened Russian troops’ morale, and Germany was driven out
of Leningrad and eventually Russia.
Battle of El Alamein, October 1942
The setback in Egypt [Battle of El Alamein, October 1942] was a watershed moment because
it prevented Germany from gaining control of the vital Suez Canal. It also put a stop to the
chance of the Axis nations and the Middle East forming an alliance. The desert war depleted
Germany’s resources, which could have been better used against the Soviet Union. As a
result, Italy’s poor performance harmed Germany. Most crucially, the Battle of El Alamein
resulted in the Axis powers’ full withdrawal from North Africa. As a result, Allied forces were
able to land in Morocco and Algeria to strike Axis forces from the west. Libya and Tunisia
were retaken, and Italy was invaded as a result.

Fig. 9.9 Libya and Tunisia

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The Axis Powers Defeated July y Operation Overlord (1944):

1943 to August 1945 ⚪ This was the D-Day invasion of France,
y The massive force and resources of the USSR which began on June 6, 1944, to free
and the United States joined with an all-out the country from German domination.
effort from Britain and its Empire, slowly but For a variety of reasons, the operation
steadily bringing the Axis nations down. was carried out. Since 1941, the Russians
y After an Anglo-American invasion of Normandy have demanded that this second front
in June 1944, which saved Belgium, France, be opened.
and Holland, Allied troops crossed the Rhine ⚪ By this time, the German U-boats had
and captured Cologne. been sunk. In addition, the Allies had
y In the east, the Russians drove the secured air superiority, and Italy had
Germans out and advanced on Berlin via joined the Allies. As a result, the Allies
Poland. Germany surrendered in May 1945, could now concentrate their efforts on
and Japan surrendered in August after rescuing France, Belgium, and Holland.
the Americans dropped atomic bombs on y Invasion of Normandy:
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. ⚪ The allied invasion of Normandy on
June 6, 1944, headed by an American
Important Events of This Phase leader, General Eisenhower, was one of
y Fall of Italy (1943): the most significant events of WWII. The
⚪ As the Battle of Stalingrad fulminated, Allies captured northern and western
Stalin persuaded the British and the France after a few weeks of intense
Americans to conquer France. In January combat with the Germans. They moved
1943, Roosevelt and Churchill met at closer to Belgium and Holland as a result
Casablanca, Morocco, and determined of this. In August 1944, another Allied
to attack Italy first. On 10 July 1943, force landed in Germany-controlled
allied troops of 180,000 soldiers arrived southern France and advanced towards
in Sicily and captured it from Italian and the Upper Rhine. The Allies were
German troops by August. advancing beyond German borders.
⚪ Mussolini was removed from power after ⚪ The opening of this front played a really
the conquest of Sicily. On July 25, King crucial role in the defeat of Germany.
Victor Emmanuel III fired and imprisoned This is referred to as the opening of the
the dictator. Italy surrendered on ‘Second Front.
September 3rd. However, the Germans y Invasion of Germany (1944–45):
took control of northern Italy and ⚪ The United States and the United Kingdom
reinstalled Mussolini as dictator. disagreed on this. While the UK hoped to
⚪ Finally, the Germans withdrew reach Berlin before the Russians, the US
northward, and the victorious Allies advised caution following a disastrous
entered Rome on 4 June 1944. Fighting German invasion effort in 1944.
in Italy was pursued until Germany fell ⚪ The Germans fought the “Battle of the
in May 1945. Bulge” in December 1944 and succeeded
⚪ The Italian resistance ambushed some in halting the advance of the Allies.
trucks on April 28, 1945, as the Germans Because German troops could burst
were leaving northern Italy. Resistance through American lines and advance 60
soldiers discovered Mussolini disguised miles, causing a large bulge in the front
as a German soldier inside one of them. line between the two forces, it was given
The following day, he was shot, and that name.
his body was hanged in Milan’s town ⚪ They were pushed back by the United
square. States and the United Kingdom. As a

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result, Hitler had expended all of his ⚪ The nuclear bomb was dropped on
resources in this conflict and was unable Japan because the United States
to replace them. Germany’s demise was intended to finish the war as quickly as
now unavoidable. possible to prevent Russia from gaining
⚪ The Allies, on the other hand, began to more territory in the Pacific. The Soviet
break through Germany’s frail defences. Union had vowed to help the Allies in
Simultaneously, a Russian force arrived the invasion of Japan, but the United
in Berlin and bombarded it fiercely. States did not want Russia to win any
⚪ Russia captured Berlin in April 1945. territory in Japan. There is also a belief
Hitler took his own life. The war came that the US wished to establish itself
to an end on May 8th, when Hitler’s as a superpower by demonstrating the
successor, Admiral Doenitz, signed an strength of the new bomb to the Soviet
armistice agreement. Some notable Union.
Nazi officials were assassinated, while
others were put on trial. Peace Treaties After World War II
y The Defeat of Japan (1945): y Soon after Germany’s defeat, the USA
⚪ Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, President Truman, British PM Clement
the Allies reassembled their forces Attlee, Chiang Kai-shek of China and Marshal
in Australia, led by American Five- Stalin of Russia met in Potsdam (a suburb
Star General Douglas MacArthur, and of Berlin). The four great leaders drew out
captured the Coral Sea and Midway (May- blueprints that detailed what they wanted
June 1942). They captured New Guinea to do with defeating Germany.
and the Solomon Islands. They went on ⚪ Germany and its capital, Berlin, were
to conquer more islands in the central separated into zones and occupied until
Pacific and reclaim the Philippines. they were converted into a peaceful and
⚪ Meanwhile, in Burma, the Allies fought democratic nation.
and took Rangoon. The Allies next ⚪ Armed forces would be liquidated.
acquired control of the two islands of ⚪ War industries would be dismantled.
Jima and Okinawa, which were within ⚪ Power would be transferred to a
striking distance of Japan. They began democratically elected government.
bombarding Japan. ⚪ The Nazi leaders would be tried and
⚪ After President Roosevelt’s death, punished for their crimes.
Truman became the new president of ⚪ Nazi Party and its elements would be
the US. He took the most decisive step destroyed.
to end the war by dropping atomic ⚪ The Franco-German border of 1939 was
bombs on Japan. restored, and the Saar was annexed to
⚪ The anatomic bomb was unleashed western Germany after a plebiscite.
on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, by the ⚪ Many issues between Russia and the
United States, killing up to 84,000 people Western Allies remained unresolved,
and causing many more to succumb to and many issues surrounding Germany’s
radiation illness. The atomic bomb on unification remained unresolved.
Nagasaki was dropped three days later, y The leaders gathered in Potsdam also
killing maybe another 40,000 people; the discussed how Japan should be treated
Japanese government then surrendered. following her loss. They decided that she
Of the entire conflict, this decision to should be occupied in the same way that
launch these bombs was the most Germany was, with the majority of her
contentious. This nuclear holocaust came conquest-acquired colonies being returned
as a finale to the Second World War. to China and some to Russia.

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y The Atlantic Charter, as well as the y Approximately twenty-five million civilians

conferences at Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam, died due to starvation and disease incurred
had made the goals of the Allies crystal plain. due to World War II.
y A council of foreign ministers drafted peace y About 1,60,000 people in Japan died due to the
accords to be signed by Italy, Hungary, dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima
Bulgaria, Romania, and Finland, the five and Nagasaki. Even today, the children who
Nazi satellite governments (July 1945). survived the Holocaust are plagued by skin
y The Paris Peace Conference, which was ailments and other serious illnesses.
attended by twenty-one countries, was held y The United States of America spent almost
in July 1946, and these satellite countries 350 billion dollars. The other countries may
of Nazi-Germany ratified the treaties after have spent a trillion dollars or more (i.e., 1,000
pleading their respective cases in February billion). The cost of damage was another
1947. trillion dollars, with commodities in limited
⚪ Italy surrendered all her territorial supply and prices rising as a result. This
conquests gained after the First World created a problematic situation for common
War. people to manage their households.
⚪ Albania won independence and became y The issue of resettlement of the homeless
a communist state after Italy abandoned became a task of great magnitude.
all of its territorial conquests following y World War II created a new global order.
World War I. Britain and France lost their positions of
⚪ Trieste was split into two zones, one supremacy as superpowers. The USA and
occupied by Anglo-American forces and the USSR gained that place.
the other by Yugoslav forces. y World War II left devastating residues all
⚪ Austria was split from Germany and over the world like food shortage, inflation,
occupied by the Four Great Powers until and unemployment.
1955. y The post-war world witnessed the end of
⚪ Hungary and Bulgaria were ruled by colonialism in Africa and Asia. Following the
communist regimes. South Dobrudja war, Britain and France were presented with
was received from Romania by Bulgaria. a slew of domestic and international issues.
⚪ Finland gave over some territory to the They couldn›t hang on to their different
Soviet Union. colonies much longer. Following that, the
⚪ After receiving the Japanese surrender, colonies began to demand independence.
the Allies under General MacArthur y Europe’s position as the cradle of Western
occupied her territories until 1951. civilisation was eroded.
Japan signed treaties with Britain, y One of the significant results of the
France and the USA. She gave up her war was the birth of the United Nations
control over Korea, Formosa, Sakhalin, Organisation. However, the League failed
Kuriles, and the Mandated Islands. She to deliver its promises. People did not
signed a defence treaty with the USA, altogether lose their hopes of making the
permitting her forces to remain in Japan world a safer and happier place to live
and granting joint defence bases. in. The UN Charter resurrected the hopes
and ideals of humankind based on which
Results of World War II countries can work together to maintain
y The war continued for five years and ten lasting peace.
months; it was estimated that twelve million y The Second World War caused untold suf­
soldiers were killed in this long tenure. fering to millions of people all over the world.

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Factors Responsible for the Defeat of Axis Powers

y Shortage of raw materials:
⚪ Japan and Italy both had to import goods, while Germany was short on rubber, cotton,
nickel, and oil after mid-1944.
⚪ The Allies, on the other hand, possessed significant resources in the United States, the
Soviet Union, and the British Commonwealth. The USSR relocated its manufacturing
east of the Ural Mountains, ensuring uninterrupted output away from the battleground.
In addition, the axis powers were unable to match the US in terms of weapon production.
⚪ In Germany’s situation, Mussolini was somewhat to blame: his inefficiency was a
perpetual drain on Hitler’s resources.
y The Allies soon learned from their early failures:
⚪ By 1942, they had figured out how to counter Blitzkrieg attacks and understood the
need for air support and aircraft carriers. As a result, they developed air and naval
superiority, winning battles in the Atlantic and Pacific while gradually starving their
adversaries of supplies.
⚪ Hitler didn’t seem to realise that a war against Britain would entail her empire and
that his troops would be spread too thin on the Russian front, both sides of the
Mediterranean, and along the French western coast.
⚪ The Japanese failed to learn the importance of aircraft carriers and concentrated too
much on producing battleships.
⚪ Hitler miscalculated Russian resourcefulness and resolve when he failed to supply for
a winter battle in Russia. As the German army advanced deeper into Soviet territory,
its supply and communication routes were more vulnerable to enemy counter-attacks.
Hitler also became preoccupied with the idea that the German troops must not retreat.
⚪ After Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, Hitler made a grave blunder by declaring war on the
United States.

Effect of Second World War was wiped out. The majority of the young
y Alliance victory in the war had been achieved men had served in the military, while the
at a high cost. World War II had wreaked women had worked in the war industry.
more havoc and killed more people than Some people stayed to work in the fields.
any other conflict in history. It generated Because of the devastating transportation
60 million dead, 50 million uprooted from system, the meagre harvests did not always
their homes, and property damage ran into make it to the cities.
billions of US dollars. y A lot of accords were signed in this regard.
y About 40 million Europeans had died— Italy lost its African territories, and its claims
two-thirds of civilians. Hundreds of cities to Abyssinia were renounced (Ethiopia).
had been destroyed by constant shelling The eastern part of Czechoslovakia, the
and bombing. Petsamo district, and the area around Lake
y The ground war has destroyed the countryside. Ladoga were taken from Finland by Albania
Thousands of displaced people from several and the Soviet Union. They were able to
countries were fighting to return home. hold on to Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia,
y Even after the war ended, misery in which they had taken over in 1939.
Europe continued for years. The fighting ⚪ Northern Transylvania was reclaimed by
has wreaked havoc on Europe. Agriculture Romania, which had been captured by the

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Hungarians during the war. Trieste, which conflicts that would shape the modern
is claimed by both Italy and Yugoslavia, world for decades.
has been declared an UN-protected y The war uplifted the movement toward
free territory. Later, in San Francisco decolonisation. Britain, Holland, and France
(1951), it was promised by Japan to give were defeated by Japan and the European
up all of the territories it had acquired tradition of dominance and invincibility was
over the previous 90 years, including shattered by the invasion of their territories
a total withdrawal from China. There by the Japanese - Burma (British) and Malaya,
was, however, refusal from the Russians French Indo-China, Singapore, and the Dutch
to agree to any settlement regarding East Indies.
Germany and Austria, except that Allied y Typically underdeveloped and industrially
soldier would occupy them and East backward new nations were often unsure
Prussia would be partitioned between of both capitalism and communism’s
Poland and Russia. motivations, and there was hatred towards
y Many Germans migrated to Germany from their economic dependency on the world’s
Allied-occupied areas outside of the country. wealthier powers.
This was done to prevent any future German y MacArthur was adamant about being fair
government from claiming these lands. and not sowing the seeds of a future war.
y Nuclear weapons were developed as a Nonetheless, a process of demilitarisation
result of World War II. was launched by him- disbanding the
y With World War II, European dominance Japanese military forces- to assure that
came to an end, and the balance of power the combat would cease.
changed in favour of the USSR and the US. y The United Nations Organisation emerged as
Italy, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the inheritor of the League of Nations with
France were all on the verge of bankruptcy its main aim is to maintain world peace and
due to hefty war costs. The United Kingdom socio-economic development across the
was heavily indebted to the United States world.
as a result of US help supplied under the
Lend-Lease Act (1941).
y The United States and the Soviet Union had
Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)
risen to be the world’s two most powerful
(2014, Mains)
nations. Also, they were no longer as far
apart as they had been before the war. The What were the major political,
United States had incurred some casualties economic, and social developments in
in the war but had compensated by earning the world which motivated the anti-
significant benefits from delivering war colonial struggle in India? (12.5 marks,
resources and food to the other Allies. 200 words)
However, in the post-World War II era, Decoding the question
adversaries not only became allies, but also y In the introduction, start your
allies became enemies. Allies turned into answer by mentioning multiple
foes. The political landscape of Europe had events that influenced the Indian
been altered by World War II. It weakened freedom struggle.
some nations and strengthened others. y In the body, discuss those events and
y The USA and the USSR fought in the war as their influence on the Indian freedom
allies. Nonetheless, once the fighting was struggle.
over, disagreements about their post-war
goals emerged. These differences whipped

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y Conclude the answer by mentioning y Communist movements all over

the overall significance of the the world, especially the Bolshevik
struggle. revolution in 1917, attracted Indian
masses as they carried the message
Answer: of freedom and anti-colonialism.
Multiple events which took place y The home rule movement in Ireland
globally motivated the anti-colonial greatly motivated the Indian freedom
struggle in India, such as: struggle. Under these ideas, Home
y The unification of Italy and Germany Rule Movement started in India in
motivated Indians to a great extent. 1916.
The history of the unification of Thus, multiple ideas, multiple events
Germany and Italy motivated Indians and development in the world shaped
to be united as a nation. the Indian anti-colonial movement on a
y French revolution and American large scale.
revolution-The American and French Conclusion: Germany’s role in causing
revolutions had huge impacts on the two world wars:
India, unlike the common belief. Though putting fingers on Germany alone
These revolutions inspired the Indian for launching the world wars would be
Freedom Movement and its leaders. unfair, as the allied powers were equally
It also instilled a drive in Indian condemned for opening the door for
nationalists to establish a rule of the the infamous war to occur in the first
common people in India. The urges place, which has its root in colonial
for liberty and equality in the French and imperialist interests. However, for
revolution motivated Indian freedom most of it, Germany could be held more
fighters to demand the same. responsible.
y The First World war had also a y Germany and WW I:
huge impact on the anti-colonial ⚪ Though Germany did not induce
movement in India.it led to the entire war, it did play a role in
industrialisation in India. It also its initiation. After the unification
contributed a lot to the Indian of its 30 states, the German
freedom struggle. Ill-treatment of people gained many strong
Turkey by the victor powers led by nationalist feelings. Bismarck
the British motivated the Khilafat created a complex foreign policy
movement, and subsequently the to maintain peace in Europe.
non-cooperation movement.  The primary purpose of his
y The Second World War was one of foreign policy was to isolate
the most important events which France. After the formation
contributed a lot to the anti-colonial of new alliances between
struggle in India. British made India France and Britain, France
a party of the second world war and and Russia, and the Triple
resulting in the resignation of the Entente, France’s isolation
Congress ministry. In 1942, the Quit came to an end.
India Movement was launched. The  Over thirty years, they became
INA was formed during this time. the most substantial industrial
power in Europe after the

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Franco-Prussian war with the  Therefore, Germany began the

most robust economy and fight against them in place of
military. Their civilians were conquering Europe and gaining
cocky, which could potentially the pride back.
be dangerous and perceived  Later, Hitler remilitarised
as a threat to other countries. the Rhineland in response to
 This creates tension, which is the Versailles and Locarno
the basis of enemies’ hatred. Treaties. Other European
Germany had also planned an nations were largely un­
attack on France and Russia interested in opposing him.
for about three years before The Rome-Berlin Axis was
the war started. founded by Germany and Italy.
 The formation of Triple Alliance The Anti-Comintern Pact
and Triple Entente thus split was then signed by Germany
Europe into two rival armed and Japan, with Italy joining
camps and worsened the the following year. All of this
powers’ relations. culminated in World War II.
y Germany and WWII: y Thus, despite having a predominant
⚪ After losing World War I, role in the World Wars, Germany
Germany was forced to pay large cannot be held solely responsible for
reparations to the victorious causing the world wars. It can be held
nations. Its economy was accountable only to a certain limited
unable to withstand the strain extent.
and collapsed. ⚪ Many other factors and prevailing
 The Treaty of Versailles and socio, political and economic
the economic disasters circumstances of those times
that followed infuriated the played a significant role. Other
German people, who were actors, including Britain, Russia,
especially angry at the World the USA, and the League of Nations,
War I winners, France and can by no means be discounted.
Great Britain. They cannot be absolved.

TIMELINE-1919–1945
y 28 April 1919 – League of Nations set up
y 28 June 1919 – Treaty of Versailles signed
y 29 July 1921 – Hitler becomes the leader of the Nazi party
y Oct. 28–29, 1922 – March in Rome, Mussolini forms a government
y 29 October 1929 – Stock market in USA crashes
y 30 January 1933 – Hitler appointed Chancellor of Germany
y Aug. 2, 1934 – Hitler becomes President as well

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y 7 March 1936 – German troops occupy Rhineland

y 9 May 1936 – Mussolini’s Italian troops take Ethiopia
y 18 July 1936 – Civil war begins in Spain
y March 12, 1938 – Anschluss – Nazis take Austria
y 30 September 1938 – Munich pact signed
y 23 August 1939 – Nazi-Soviet pact signed
y 1 September 1939 – Nazis invade Poland
y 3 September 1939 – Britain and France declare war on Germany
y April – May 1940 – Nazis invade Norway, Denmark, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg and France
y 10 July 1940 – Battle of Britain begins
y 13 September 1940 – Italians invade Egypt
y 12 October 1940 – Operation Sea-Lion put off
y 22 June 1941 – Operation Barbarossa begins
y 5 December 1941 – German attack on Moscow abandoned
y Dec. 7–8, 1941 – Japan attacks Pearl harbour, US enters war suffer from 1942- Battle of
Stalingrad begins
y 2 February 1943 – German surrender at Stalingrad, Soviet troops push back the German army
y 25 July 1943 – Mussolini was arrested, the fascist government falls in Italy
y 6 June 1944 – Second Front – Allied troops land in Normandy
y 16 April 1945 – Soviet final attack on Berlin
y 28 April 1945 – Hitler commits suicide
y 7 May 1945 – Germany surrenders
y Aug. 6 and 9, 1945 – Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
y 2 September 1945 – Japan signs the surrender agreement.

Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)

y In the body, discuss the respon­
(2015, Mains)
sibility of Germany in causing two
 o what extent can Germany be held
T world wars.
responsible for causing the two World y Concluding with the notion Germany
Wars? Discuss critically. (12.5 marks, only cannot be blamed, it is a
200 words) collective failure.
Decoding the question
Answer:
y In the introduction, try to start with
a brief introduction to Germany and Though putting fingers on Germany alone
the two world wars. for launching the world wars would be
unfair, as the allied powers were equally

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to be condemned for opening the door Germany and WW II:

for the infamous war to occur in the y Germany was defeated in World
first place, which has its root in colonial War I and was compelled to pay
and imperialist interests. However, for heavy reparations to the victors. Its
most of it, Germany could be held more economy could not take the pressure,
responsible. and it fell apart. As a result of the
Germany and WW I: Treaty of Versailles and the economic
y Though Germany did not induce the disasters that followed, the German
entire war, it did play a role in its people became extremely resentful
initiation. After the unification of its towards the victors of World War I,
30 states, the German people gained particularly France and Great Britain.
many strong nationalist feelings. y Therefore, Germany began the fight
Bismarck created a complex foreign against them in place of conquering
policy to maintain peace in Europe. Europe and gaining the pride back.
The main purpose of his foreign Later Hitler opposed the Versailles
policy was to isolate France. and Locarno treaties by remilitarising
y The French isolation ended after the Rhineland.
new alliances were formed between y He faced little opposition from other
France-Britain and France-Russia European powers. Germany and Italy
and the Triple entente. Over thirty- together formed the Rome-Berlin
years, they became the strongest Axis. After that Germany and Japan
industrial power in Europe after signed the Anti-Comintern Pact,
the Franco-Prussian war with the which Italy joined in the following
strongest economy and military. year. This all led to World War II.
y Their civilians were cocky, which Thus, despite having a predominant role
could potentially be dangerous in the World Wars, Germany cannot be
and perceived as a threat to other held solely responsible for causing the
countries. This creates tension, which world wars. It can be held accountable
is the basis of enemies’ hatred. only to a certain limited extent. Many
y Germany had also been planning other factors and prevailing socio,
an attack on France and Russia for political and economic circumstances
about three years before the war of those times played a major role.
started. The formation of Triple Other actors, including Britain, Russia,
Alliance and Triple Entente thus, the USA, and the League of Nations,
split Europe into two rival armed can by no means be discounted. They
camps and worsened the powers’ cannot be absolved.
relations. .

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10 The World after World War II and

International Organisations
Introduction ⚪ In that war, communist forces won and
Joseph Stalin became the leader of
The Second World War caused untold suffering
Russia in 1929.
to millions of people all over the world. During
⚪ Joseph Stalin was well aware that
the five years and ten months of the war, it was
future attempts by capitalist powers to
estimated that twelve million soldiers were
undermine communism in Russia would
killed in action. Another twenty-five million
be made. The German invasion of Russia
civilians died due to starvation and disease.
happened in 1941.
Everything was in short supply, and prices rose.
y The necessity for self-preservation
Some of the significant events after the Second
against Germany and Japan led to unity
World War were the establishment of the
among the USSR, USA, and Britain. USA
United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement,
and Britain to forget their differences and
the Formation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
work together.
Organisation) and the Cold War between Russia
y Poland, Yugoslavia, Albania, Hungary,
and the United States.
Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria
Post-war Soviet expansionism in the eastern
were among the Eastern European countries
parts of Europe led many Americans to
that were under Russia’s communist
become wary of a Russian strategy to control
regime. All of these countries converted
the world. The USSR resented the perceived
to communism. The Kuril Islands, South
American officials’ aggressive rhetoric, arms
Sakhalin, Dairen, and Port Arthur in the far
piling up, and interventionism in international
East were also captured by Russia, while
relations. An inevitable lack of trust between
the Soviet Union’s propaganda machine
the contemporary superpowers resulted in
pushed communism throughout Asia and
policies and their implementation, both covert
Africa. In their quest for independence, the
and overt, as a Cold War in the Post-war World.
people of Africa and Asia received moral
Cold War backing from Stalin.
y Following a revolution in 1949, communist
The establishment of two poles, the United China rose to prominence, accelerating the
States and its allies (Capitalists) on the one spread of communism around the world.
hand and the Soviet Union and its satellite y To achieve quick economic development,
states (Communists) on the other, was one of the Soviet Union urged other Afro-Asian
the most significant outcomes of World War II. countries to emulate its economic model
With the loss of status as big powers, Britain based on five-year plans.
and France finally yielded to Stalinist Russia to y Stalin confronted the western world with
fill the political vacuum in Europe. the Soviet Union’s military strength at
y The Capitalist block were afraid of spreading the time of his death. America’s nuclear
communism in their countries. This would monopoly was broken when it detonated
result at the end of private ownership, end an atomic weapon in September 1949
of political power of the wealthy classes. and a hydrogen bomb in 1953. Stalin felt
y The Civil War in Russia broke out in 1918. that wars should be waged until capitalist
Several Capitalist states like- the USA, countries accepted communism. The Cold
Britain, France and Japan sent troops to War erupted as a result of Stalin’s anti-
Russia to help anti-Communist forces. capitalist policies.

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Third World conditions are some of the conditions

imposed by Western countries on
y The developing countries of Africa, Asia,
developing countries.
and Latin America are referred to as the
y Through North-South Dialogue, the newly
Third World. The Third World is made up of
independent nations of the Third World
a huge majority of the fifty-three African,
(Asia, Africa and Latin America) were trying
forty-seven Asian, and twelve South
to engage the industrialised countries of
American countries.
the north (the US, Canada) and Western
⚪ They were all colonised by European
Europe “in negotiations over Changes to the
countries, exploited economically, and
International Economic Systems during the
maintained social backwardness, and
1970s.”
the imperialist powers used a divide and
y The UN established two important agencies
rule tactic to keep the people divided.
to bring about economic stability. The UN
y The colonial system disintegrated after
Development Programme (UNDP) and the
World War II, and European imperialists were
UN Council for Economic Development
compelled to offer Third World countries
(UNCTAD-1964). The United Nations
freedom. The US and the UN began to give
Conference on Trade and Development
aid to the Third World.
(UNCTAD) attempted to bring Third World
⚪ Some of these nations adopted the
countries (South) into contact with
soviet economy model; some adopted
industrial democracies in the north in order
a market economy like the US. Some of
to reach agreements on key development
them persuaded a mixed economy.
issues.
y The majority of the topics discussed at
Neo-colonialism is the practice of the north-south dialogue were trade and
using economics, globalisation, cultural tariffs, foreign aid, international finance,
imperialism, and conditional aid to and “multinational company and institution
influence a country instead of the previous governance.” The World Commerce
colonial methods of direct military control Organisation (WTO) was also involved in
(imperialism) or indirect political control discussions over global finance, trade, and
(hegemony). tariffs. Meanwhile, the UN’s Millennium
Development Goals aimed to bring the
north and south closer together.
y A majority of the Third World countries ⚪ These goals included the eradication
joined the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) of “poverty and hunger; achieve
during the years of the Cold War. universal primary education; combat
⚪ Third-world countries and the NAM HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases;
became concerned that the west would ensure environmental sustainability,
engage in a new kind of colonialism and develop a global partnership for
known as neo-colonialism. development all by the year 2015.”
⚪ When one considers the terms and y Meanwhile, south-south collaboration has
conditions imposed by the World begun. It all started with the Africa-South
Trade Organisation (WTO), the World America (ASA) cooperation. Unfortunately,
Bank, and the International Monetary the ASA is beset with issues as a result
Fund (IMF), neo-colonialism becomes of a severe lack of capital (due to a lack
clear. Agricultural subsidies, global of organisations like the IMF and World
warming challenges, and existing labour Bank).

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Brandt Commission Report

y A commission headed by Willy Brandt, a former German chancellor, investigated what
was creating a rift between the affluent North and the poor countries of the South.
y The affluent north depicts the countries situated in the Northern hemisphere. The South
represents developing countries located in the Southern hemisphere.
y It is also true that the affluent countries of the North exploited the South politically and
economically for many centuries depriving it of many aspects.
y Willy Brandt hoped to reach an amicable agreement between the two, claiming that the
north’s wealth was attributable to the sale of highly complex products and commodities
to the south. Unfortunately, the South lacks the capacity to make these goods.
y The commission’s report received little attention because it was released during the
height of the Cold War.
y The study was also ignored by the north, as well as foreign financial organisations.
y Brandt proposed that the north provide huge amounts of aid to the needy south (similar
to the Marshall aid given to western countries after WWII). He said that this would assist
not only the poor countries of the South but also the wealthy countries of the North in
the long run.

The United Nations

UN Charter
Formation of United Nations y At the United Nations Conference
y The foundation of the United Nations Decla­ on International Organisation in
ration was on the principles of the Atlantic San Francisco (25 April - 26 June
Charter. It was signed by representatives 1945), delegates from fifty countries
from twenty-six countries on 1st January produced the United Nations Charter,
1942. which they signed on 26 June 1945.
y This was followed by a meeting of the y When the United Nations was founded,
foreign secretaries of four major powers Poland, which had not attended
(the United States, the United Kingdom, the San Francisco Conference, was
the Soviet Union, and China) in Moscow. admitted as the fifty-first member.
The agenda of the meeting was to discuss y The UN charter contains 111 articles
the necessity of forming an international and includes four clear objectives:
organisation, the United Nations (UN). ⚪ To maintain international peace
y The drafting of the UN Charter was done and security
at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference on 7 ⚪ To promote friendly relations among
October 1944. nations based on equal rights and
y The United Nations (UN) is an international self-determination of people,
organisation that was founded on October ⚪ To achieve international co-operation
24, 1945. in solving various problems,
⚪ To encourage respect for human
“The United Nations was not created to take
rights, dignity, and freedom.
humanity to heaven, but to save it from hell.”
—Dag Hammarskjold.

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y In terms of scope and membership, the Security Council, General Assembly, the
United Nations (UN) was the world’s second economic and social council and also other
multipurpose international organisation. bodies.
The Treaty of Versailles established the y Apart from the best-recognised work for
League of Nations in 1919, and it was peacebuilding, peacekeeping, conflict
dismantled in 1946. prevention, and humanitarian aid, the UN
y The United Nations is based in New York and its specialised agencies have a variety of
City, with regional offices in Geneva, Vienna, additional impacts on our lives and help to
and Nairobi. reform the world. The United Nations’ work
y This international organisation is dedicated can be found in every corner of the globe.
to maintaining international peace and y There are numerous issues that the
security and is responsible for cultivating organisation works on to ensure its
friendly ties among nations, promoting purpose and coordinate efforts for a
higher living standards, societal growth, safer world for all. These issues include
and ensuring respect for human rights. environmental protection, disaster relief,
y There is a wide range of issues that the counterterrorism, human rights, gender
organisation can take action on. It provides equality, women’s advancement, clearing
an opportunity for its 193 member states landmines, expanding food production,
to express their opinions owing to its sustainable development, disarmament and
unique international character and the non-proliferation, democracy, governance,
powers vested in its founding document. economic and social development,
The member states can do so through the international health, and more.

Fig. 10.1 Main purpose of UN

Structure of United Nations (UN)

The United Nations has six main organs: UN Secretariat. The UN System also includes
the General Assembly, Security Council, specialised agencies such as the World Bank
Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Group, World Health Organisation, World Food
Council, International Court of Justice, and Programme, UNESCO, and UNICEF.

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General Assembly member has one vote, and the approval of

all permanent members is required in all
y This assembly is made up of every member
situations.
of the United Nations. It’s similar to a global
y Every permanent member of the United
legislature. It meets once a year, with the
Nations Security Council has veto power.
possibility of a special session depending
⚪ First, the Soviet Union used its veto
on the circumstances.
authority frequently, and the United
y Charged with extensively discussing,
States is doing the same now.
reviewing, deliberating, supervising, and
⚪ A veto has a negative vote cast by a
criticising the United Nations’ work, the
permanent member to thwart the future
General Assembly has the authority to
course of action taken by the Security
discuss and propose measures in order to
Council. Only during the Suez crisis
safeguard international peace and security.
that the veto cast proved futile since
It is in charge of directing and supervising
the issue was discussed in the General
global, economic, and social cooperation.
Assembly.
The outline of how the trusteeship system
⚪ The veto power has been criticised, yet
works is provided by this organ. It is also in
it appears that the Big Powers do not
charge of the finances.
want to join the United Nations if they
y It is responsible for admitting suspended and
do not have veto authority.
expelled members. It adopts conventions
⚪ They would oppose anything done
of international nature and also proposes,
by the UN merely because smaller
studies, and makes recommendations for
governments, who may be in the
the nurturement of fruitful progress of
majority in the UN, would decide on
international law.
something that the influential Powers
y A large number of members of several
would oppose.
organs of the UN are appointed by this
y The fundamental mission of the Security
organ. It can discuss amendments to the
Council is to ensure international peace
Charter of the United Nations Organisation.
and security.
Security Council y There are annual or special reports that are
y It is the executive body of the UN. It consists to be given to two General assemblies.
of five permanent members (UK, France, y It can enlist the assistance of the Military
Russia, USA and the People’s Republic of Staff Committee in carrying out its mission.
China) and 10 non-permanent members. y It can submit a proposal to the General
y The Security Council meets more frequently Assembly for the regulation of armaments
than the General Assembly, and it is made among the members.
up of some permanent members and y The authority to create regional agencies lies
others who are chosen for two years by the with the Security Council. It is responsible for
General Assembly on a rotational basis. overseeing and regulating trust territories,
y The primary objective of this council is to which are administered by many states. Its
deal with “any threat to the peace, breach offices must be used to peacefully resolve
of the peace, or act of aggression”. international conflicts. It has the authority
y If any dispute occurs, the security council to request that parties settle disputes by
can suggest the nations involved in the talks, investigation, mediation, conciliation,
dispute settle it in the International Court. arbitration, and judicial settlement, as well
y When electing members, region-specific as regional agency action or other peaceful
concerns are taken into account; each ways, whenever it deems suitable.

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Economic and Social Council Collective Security Under United Nations

y Members of the Economic and Social Council y Article I of the UN Charter asks for
are elected by the General Assembly for effective collective action for preventing
three years. Every year, though, one-third of and removing threats to peace and for the
them leave the workforce. Its main job is to vanquishing of aggressive acts or some
start studies and reports on international, other forms of breach of the peace.
economic, social, cultural, educational, y It is to be determined by the Security
health, and other pertinent topics. Council the presence of any threat to the
y It can draft a plan for conventions on similar peace or act of aggression and suggestions
topics and send it to the General Assembly. shall be made, or a decision is to be
It has the ability to coordinate the activity of taken on what steps ought to be taken to
specialised agencies and oversee the flow maintain or restore international peace
of reports from such agencies on a regular and security.
basis. y To prevent the situation from getting
y It has to do those functions given to it by worse, the Security Council may call upon
the General Assembly and such functions the concerned parties to abide by such
for which the request has been made by the temporary measures as it deems adequate.
member states and the specialised agencies. Such measures will be bereft of prejudice
against the rights, claims or position of the
Trusteeship Council concerned parties.
y The trusteeship system is thought to be y The Security Council shall rightly take
an improvement over the mandate system measures in case of failure to abide by the
outlined in the League of Nations charter. provisional measures. It must decide what
This work still lies under the supervision type of measures not involving armed forces
of the Trusteeship Council. The petitions are to be applied to practice its decisions
are evaluated in collaboration with the and may call upon the UN members to
administering authority, and it also apply such measures.
considers the reports that are submitted. ⚪ The measures may include full or partial
y To keep a check on the administration of the blockage of economic relations and rail,
territories under the trusteeship system, the sea, air, postal, telegraphic radio, as
visits are made by the trusteeship council. well as other forms of communication
The Trusteeship Council might submit a list and the aggravating of relations
of questions to the relevant states in order diplomatically.
to obtain information on the mandated y Suppose such measures are considered
territories’ political, social, economic, and not adequate by the Security Council. In
educational status. that case, it may take such steps by air,
sea or land troops as may be required
International Court of Justice for maintaining or restoring international
y It’s a step forward from the Permanent peace as well as security. Such steps may
Court of Arbitration. include demonstrations, blockades and
y It includes 15 members elected by other operations by air sea or land troops
the General Assembly. by members of the UN.
y It has two kinds of jurisdiction. y All members of the UN, in order to bring
y It decides on cases that are the subject international peace as well as security,
of dispute between two or more states. have undertaken to present to the Security
y It has also been given advisory Council, on its call and following special
jurisdiction. agreements, armed forces, assistance as
well as facilities including the passage right,

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adequate for the objective of maintaining consult the Security Council with regard to
international peace and security. a solution to those problems.
⚪ Such agreements shall govern the y Article 51 suggests that nothing in the
members and types of troops, their charter shall impair the inherent right of
degree of readiness and general location individual or collective self-defence if an
and the type of facilities as well as armed attack occurs against a member of
assistance to be provided. the United Nations until the Security Council
y The agreements shall be negotiated as has taken the measures necessary to
early as possible with the initiative of the maintain international peace and security.
Security Council. They shall be conducted y Measures were taken by the members in the
between the Security Council and the exercise of the right of self-defence shall
members, and the signatory states must be immediately reported to the Security
ratify the treaty in compliance with their Council. The authority and responsibility
respective constitutional processes. of the Security Council shall not be taken
y Once the Security Council has decided away in any way to take at any time such
to use force, it will, before calling upon a action as it deems necessary to maintain
member not represented by it to provide or restore international peace and security.
armed forces, invite that particular member y A collective security system, as provided
to take part in the Security Council’s decision in the United Nations Charter, has failed
concerning the employment of contingents to achieve its objective, as shown by the
of the armed forces of the member. experience. Despite the salutary provisions,
y In order to enable the UN to take urgent there has been plenty of aggression in all
military steps, the members shall immediately parts of the world and the members of the
place available national air-force contingents United Nations have failed to work together
for combined international action. to meet the danger.
⚪ The Security Council shall decide the
robustness and degree of readiness Specialised Agencies
for their action with the assistance y Along with the above main organs, there
of the Military Staff Committee. The are 18 specialised agencies of the UN to
Security Council shall make plans for the promote the economic, social, educational
application of armed forces with the aid and cultural well-being of the people of the
of the Military Staff Committee. world.
y The action required for carrying out y International Labour Organisation (ILO): It
its decisions for the maintenance of was established to improve the conditions
international peace and security is to be of labour all over the world. It had been
taken by all UN members, as the Security functioning since the early years of the
Council may determine. League, with its Headquarters in Geneva
y The members shall join in affording mutual (Switzerland).
assistance in carrying out the measures y Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO): It
decided upon by the Security Council. was established in 1945. Its headquarters
In the cases where the Security Council are in Rome. The main tasks carried out by
takes preventive or enforcement measures this organisation are:
against any state, than any other State, ⚪ To review food and agricultural situations
whether a UN member or not, which finds the world over,
itself confronted with special economic ⚪ To introduce higher standards of
problems arising from the carrying out nutrition,
of those measures shall have the right to ⚪ To conserve natural resources,

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⚪ Offer suggestions to countries regarding as a United Nations specialised agency.

the improvement of land tenure. Its main goal is to make the international
⚪ Provide agricultural credit. postal service easier. The Universal Postal
y The United Nations Educational, Scientific Congress, which meets every five years, is
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO): the USA’s main body. Berne is home to UPU’s
started functioning in 1945 with Paris as headquarters (Switzerland).
its headquarters. It promotes friendly y International Telecommunications Union
cooperation among member nations (ITU): It was established in 1932. It allocates
through collaboration in the fields of radio frequencies and registers its assign­
education, science and culture. It tries to ments. It makes studies and recommen­
preserve historical monuments, folk art, dations and facilitates communication among
dance and music from total extinction. its member nations.
y World Health Organisation (WHO): It took y World Meteorological Organisation (WMO): It
birth in 1948, and its main objective is was started in 1951. Its main job is to facilitate
to achieve the “highest possible level of the exchange of weather data, establish
health” for all people of the world. It took a worldwide network of meteorological
steps to eradicate deadly diseases, prevent stations, and encourage research and training
epidemics, improve nutrition, and spread in meteorology. The WMO’s Headquarters is
hygienic habits among people. It has in Geneva (Switzerland).
successfully controlled malaria and totally y Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative
eradicated smallpox. Its headquarters are Organisation (IMCO): It started in 1959.
in Geneva. Its purpose is to provide a mechanism
y International Bank for Reconstruction for cooperation between governments in
and Development (IBRD or World Bank): maritime regulations and practices. Its
It started working in 1946. It was initially Headquarters is in London. A Secretary-
created to help war-devastated countries. General administers this organisation with
The World Bank provides loans to member the assistance of a council consisting of
countries for specialised projects such as sixteen members. As of 2013, it has 170
power expansion, transportation, agriculture, member nations.
and communication. Its Headquarters is in y The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Washington, DC. (GATT): In 1947, twenty-three nations formed
y International Monetary Fund (IMF): It was the GATT. It is a collection of multilateral
set up in 1945. The IMF’s primary goal is to trade agreements to extend privileges and
assist member nations in overcoming adverse concessions in trade among themselves
balance of payment crises. By ensuring by lowering tariffs and removing certain
currency stability, reducing exchange limi­ restrictions. In January 1995, the GATT was
tations, and enabling global trade, it promotes replaced by the World Trade Organisation
international monetary cooperation among (WTO), headquartered in Geneva.
member nations. Its headquarters is situated y International Development Association
in Washington, DC. (IDA): IDA was founded in 1960. All members
y The International Civil Aviation Organisation of the World Bank are eligible to become
(ICAO): It was started in 1947. Its main members of the IDA. Developing countries
motto is to facilitate international aviation. that are members of IDA can avail of the
Its headquarters is located in Montreal loan facility.
(Canada). y International Finance Corporation (IFC): It
y The Universal Postal Union (UPU): Formerly is a private sector arm of the World Bank
known as the General Postal Union, was that finances private sector investments
founded in 1874. In 1948, it was designated in developing countries. It procures capital

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from international financial markets and the ownership and rights of inventors and
helps clients in all possible manners, discoverers registered with it.
including providing technical assistance y International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):
and rendering advice to governments and As of February 2014, 162 countries have
businesses. become members of the IAEA, a leading
y International Fund for Agricultural Develop­ body created to supervise peaceful uses of
ment (IFAD): The IFAD was established in 1977 atomic energy.
for the agricultural development of backward y United Nations Industrial Development
countries. Organisation (UNIDO): The UNIDO became a
y World Intellectual Property Organisation specialised agency of the UN in 1985, with its
(WIPO): Fifty-one nations signed the Headquarters in Vienna (Austria). It renders
Stockholm Convention of 1967 about advice and recommendations regarding
WIPO setting-up, which came into being many aspects of industrial policies by the
in 1970. It is an organisation dealing with developing and under-developed countries.

UN Programs
y United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF): The UN set up this fund in 1946 to
serve poverty-stricken children after the Second World War.
y United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): This provides funds, technical assistance
and reinvestment cooperation to developing and less developed countries.
y UN Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA): This organisation was created in response to
the rapid rise in the population of developing and under developed countries after the
war.
y UN Environment Programme (UNEP): The Stockholm Conference in 1972 highlighted
the degradation of the world’s environment and the reasons for it. In response to this
challenging problem, the UN set up the UNEP. This programme advocates sustainable
development “through sound environmental practices”.

The Achievements of the United Nations effectively intervened, and eventually,

y The UN has tackled many difficult situations Indonesia achieved independence in
in its way, such as Iran and the Soviet Union 1949.
dispute in 1946. y The Balfour Declaration (1917) and the
y After the Second World War, the Japanese withdrawal of British troops from Palestine
left the East Indies, formerly held by the (1948) call forth the birth of Israel. The
Dutch. The nationalists of the East Indies members of the Arab League invaded
wanted to establish an independent republic Israel. The UN intervened and arranged for
under the leadership of Sukarno. a ceasefire (1948–49).
⚪ On the other hand, the Dutch wished to y In 1950, the Korean War broke out. When
reinstate their former colonies. Thus, an the Japanese left Korea after the Second
inevitable war of liberation broke out. World War, it was agreed that North Korea
This dispute between Indonesia and was to be controlled by the Soviet Union
the Dutch was referred to the Security and South by the USA. Unfortunately, North
Council by India and Australia. The UN Korean troops crossed the 38th parallel

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and attacked SouthKorea. SouthKorea ⚪ The world was on the brink of yet another
complained to the Security Council. world war since Khruschev, the Russian
⚪ The UN troops led by the USA launched leader, threatened Britain and France
offensives against North Korea, and the with War.
war was prolonged for nearly two years ⚪ Fortunately, the USA diffused the situation
(1950–52). Finally, a truce was signed in by appealing to both Britain and France
Panmunjom, followed by an exchange of to stop the war. The UN conducted “quiet
prisoners of war. South Korea was thus diplomacy”, and she restored peace in
saved from the jaws of communism. the area.
y In the early 1950s, the UN also enabled both y The Cyprus issue happens to be the next
Morocco and Tunisia to achieve independence. important crisis faced by the UN. The fight
y The UN played a crucial role in the Suez crisis. between the Greeks and the Turks for
⚪ President Nasser of Egypt nationalised control of the island of Cyprus (situated in
the Anglo-Egyptian-owned Suez Canal the Mediterranean Sea) after the British left
Company in 1956. in 1960 posed a challenge for the UN. The
⚪ Britain and France encouraged Israel to UN brought about a ceasefire and sent the
attack Egypt and subsequently joined her UN peace keeping force there to maintain
by invading Egypt. peace.

Human Rights
y There are many instances in history where groups of people demanded that the government
respect their rights. For example, a group of barons in England demanded that King John
recognise their charter of rights (Magna Carta) in 1215 AD.
y The UN Charter was path-breaking in this respect since it included “universal respect
for, observance of human rights, and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as
to race, sex, language, or religion”. This was adopted in the UN General Assembly on 10
December 1948.

y After the Belgians left abruptly in 1960, the y South Rhodesia declared independence
UN sent its forces to Congo (Africa) to quell from Britain in 1966, and the UN placed
a civil conflict, and its Secretary-General, economic sanctions on the racist country.
Dag Hammarskjold, died in an aviation In 1973, the United Nations peacekeeping
crash while inspecting the situation. force was assigned to the war zones of
y In 1965, India and Pakistan fought over Sinai and Golan Heights.
Kashmir, and the United Nations had to y The Gulf region faced another conflict
intervene to bring about a ceasefire. The when Iraq’s President Saddam Hussein
United Nations convened discussions among invaded Kuwait in August 1990.
nuclear nations to reduce all sorts of arms.
y The United Nations established two
The superpowers agreed to a limited nuclear
important human rights agreements in
test embargo in August 1963. In January 1967,
1966, the first of which covered civil and
it was agreed that nuclear weapons would
political rights and the second of which
not be tested in space. Following that, the
covered economic, social, and cultural
superpowers reached an agreement on a
rights.
nuclear Non-Proliferation treaty.

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The UN’s Failures The Challenges Faced by The United Nations

y There has been much discussion over y Although the most publicly feared terrorist,
the last decade over whether the United Bin Laden, was killed by US forces in May
Nations is ineffectual or redundant. Many 2011, his organisation, Al Qaeda, vowed to
detractors argue that the UN has devolved exact revenge a Jihad against the West and
into a pawn in the hands of the world’s India. While Taliban militants have confined
single superpower, the US. It could follow their violent activities to Afghanistan and
in the footsteps of the League of Nations. Pakistan, active members of Al Qaeda are
⚪ The UN has failed to achieve disar­mament believed to have been secretly organising
and full implementation of nuclear non- themselves.
proliferation, among other things. ⚪ Terrorist operations are not limited to a
⚪ It has allowed the big powers to keep single region or country but are found
nuclear stockpiles. all throughout the world.
⚪ It has failed to resolve the West Asia ⚪ Not just the United States but also
crisis, and the role is assumed by the European Union countries, Afghanistan,
US. Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and the
⚪ It had remained helpless when big Philippines, have been severely impacted
powers were involved in wars, such as by terrorist actions.
Vietnam, Afghanistan, and West Asia. ⚪ Many political observers say Pakistan
⚪ It had remained helpless when human has become the “epicentre of terrorism”
rights were trampled in countries like because the world’s most sought
Myanmar, Afghanistan, China and some terrorists are based there.
African countries. ⚪ Despite its dubious credentials, Pakistan
⚪ It has given the United States, as the has remained a strong ally of the US
world’s lone superpower, the ability in the fight against global terrorism.
to dictate terms and conditions in It should be highlighted that Pakistan
international organisations such as the has provided a safe haven to Al Qaeda
World Trade Organisation, the Inter­ terrorists while receiving military and
national Criminal Court, and the Kyoto economic aid from the United States.
Protocol. ⚪ Because the United States has led the
⚪ Some argue that the United Nations’ ‘global war on terror’ since 2001, the
responsibility is limited to firefighting UN’s role in countering terrorism is
(i.e., separating combatants) rather unclear. The United Nations is aware
than fire prevention (i.e., preventing of the threat that Pakistan’s nuclear
situations likely to cause wars). arsenal could fall into the hands of
y Because small powers are mostly observing Pakistani Taliban insurgents or Al Qaida
the situation with crossed fingers, the future terrorists. India and Pakistan have been
of the UN is essentially in the hands of the urged by the United Nations and the
larger nations. The war against Iraq and United States to sign the nuclear non-
the occupation of the country by a US-led proliferation treaty.
coalition alarmed peace-loving individuals ⚪ Pakistan received its ballistic missiles
around the world who had implicit faith in from North Korea, as the rest of the
the UN as a peacekeeper. world knows. Pakistan has provided Iran

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and Libya with nuclear weapons making ⚪ The fact that the nuclear nations
know how. still retain massive stocks of nuclear
y The Arab-Israeli conflict has raged for weapons is surprising. The United
decades, and the United Nations has failed States continues to defend NATO,
to find a solution. The United States has claiming that it is intended to be used
taken a number of steps to bring this against rogue states. It does not sit well
conflict to a close. with the Russian Federation. The threat
y The United Nations had significant of nuclear war erupting unexpectedly,
involvement in the Afghan Civil War. for example, still looms over the US
However, the Afghan government, led by government, prompting it to build a
Hamid Karzai, fought Taliban militants nuclear defence shield.
across the country. NATO troops aided the
Afghan government in combating Taliban NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)
insurgents. y The founding members of NATO signed the
⚪ In April 2021, NATO agreed to withdraw treaty on 4 April 1949. It worked in sync
its troops from Afghanistan by 1 May. with the UN, the World Bank, as well as
This gave the Taliban a sense of victory the International Monetary Fund, which
and demoralised Afghan troops. By July was created during the Bretton Woods
2021 US claimed that it had withdrawn Conference in 1944.
90 % of its forces from Afghanistan. y NATO’s main aim was to protect its
Finally, after 1996 the Taliban seized members from threats by mainly communist
Kabul. countries.
⚪ On 15 August 2021, Taliban forces seized y The United States also desired to maintain
Kabul after capturing much of Afghanistan its presence in Europe. It aimed at
following the withdrawal of US troops preventing the resurgence of aggressive
from Afghanistan. 300000 Afghan soldiers nationalism and working on bringing political
collapsed in hours. This Afghan army was union.
trained and equipped by the US. y In this way, the formation of the European
y The UN is also dealing with a potentially Union was made possible by NATO.
deadly situation as a result of the Indian- y US protection gave European nations the
Pakistani conflict in Kashmir. India does required environment to rebuild after the
not want the United Nations or the United second world war destruction.
States interfering in its internal affairs over y During the Cold War, NATO’s mission was
the Kashmir problem. Pakistan, on the expanded to prevent nuclear war.
other hand, is adamant that this problem y After West Germany entered NATO, the
(conflict) be resolved in its favour by the Warsaw Pact alliance was formed by the
UN or through US intervention. Because communist countries. USSR, Bulgaria,
both countries have nuclear weapons, any Hungary, Romania, Poland, Czechoslovakia,
confrontation between them might turn and East Germany were included.
into a nuclear war. The United Nations must ⚪ In response, the “Massive Retaliation”
assist in a peaceful resolution of this issue. policy was adopted by NATO. It made a
y Nuclear disarmament is one of the major promise of nuclear weapon usage if the
challenges facing the United Nations. The Pact attacked. NATO’s deterrence policy
UN’s principal goal is to create a world free allowed European nations to focus on
of nuclear weapons. Attempts were made economic development. It did not have
throughout the Cold War period to resolve to diversify its focus toward building
the question of disarmament in stages. large conventional armies.

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y The Soviet Union continued to strengthen which ended the war. By December 1999,
its military capabilities. Towards the end of NATO placed a peace keeping force of
the Cold War, it was spending about three 60,000 soldiers. That concluded in 2004
times what the United States was, with when NATO transferred this function to the
only one-third of the economic power. European Union.
y When the Berlin Wall fell in the year 1989, y Protecting democratic freedom among its
the reasons were both economic and 28-member nations remains the primary
ideological. purpose of NATO. Being a political as well as
y NATO’s relationship with Russia defrosted a military alliance, the coalition’s value to
after the fall of the Soviet Union in late 1980. global security continues to be paramount.
y In 1997, NATO-Russia Founding Act was ⚪ Since its formation in 1949, its longevity
signed to build cooperation bilaterally. is attributed to its members’ shared
y In 2002, NATO-Russia Council was formed values of championing democracy,
to partner on shared issues on security. freedom, and free-market economies.
y The collapse of the USSR resulted in NATO has remained America’s most
disruption in its former satellite states. important alliance.
NATO got involved when the civil war in y After the 9/11 terrorist attacks in America
Yugoslavia became a genocide. in 2001, the members of NATO invoked
y NATO’s initial support by the United Article 5 (NATO Charter). It joined the US in
Nations naval embargo led to a no-fly zone. its global war on terror. The United Nations
Violations then led to some airstrikes until Security Council established a security
September 1999. That is when a nine-day mission called the International Security
air campaign was conducted by NATO, Assistance Force (ISAF) in December 2001.

Fig. 10.2 Principles of the NATO

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The Objectives of NATO Were ⚪ It is composed of civilians, military

y NATO was meant to bring fear to the Union officers, officers of diplomatic missions,
Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR). partner countries’ diplomats as well as
y It warned Russia that if it attacked Europe or international staff.
America, the USA would help that affected ⚪ International military staff filled from
country. working members of the armed forces
y This organisation also aimed at the unification of member states, non-governmental
of all the countries of Europe and America groups have also grown up in favour
under one umbrella. It also aimed at the of NATO, broadly under the banner of
economic stability of these countries and the the Atlantic Council/Atlantic Treaty
advancement of the military front. Association movement.
y This organisation also mentally stabilised y The military structure includes The Military
European nations. Committee (MC) of NATO, includes member
y NATO’s fundamental objective was to save states’ Chiefs of Defence (CHOD) and
Europe and America, which were to be directs the North Atlantic Council (NAC) on
attacked by Russia. military policy as well as strategy.
y All agencies, as well as organisations of NATO, ⚪ The national CHODs are frequently
are integrated into civilian administrative represented in the MC by their permanent
as well as military executive roles. Military Representatives (MilRep), mainly
y For most of the parts, they execute roles two- or three-star flag officers.
and functions that directly and indirectly ⚪ Like the council, the Military Committee
support the security role as a whole of the also meets at a higher level from time
alliance. to time, namely the Chiefs of Defence,
y The civilian structure includes: The North the most senior military officer in each
Atlantic Council (NAC) has effective nation’s armed forces.
governance authority and decision-making ⚪ The MC is headed by its chairman, who
power in NATO, consisting of members directs NATO’s military operations.
and permanent representatives or repre­ ⚪ Until 2008, the Military Committee did
sentatives at the higher level (foreign affairs not include France due to the 1966
minister or defence, or the heads of state). decision of France to remove itself from
⚪ The NAC meeting takes place at least the NATO Military Command Structure,
once a week and makes important which it joined again in 1995.
decisions regarding the policies of NATO. y Until France rejoined NATO, it was not
⚪ The Secretary-General heads the meetings represented in the Defence Planning
of the council, and when decisions are Committee, which led to conflicts between
to be taken, action is agreed based on France and NATO members. The case was
unanimity and common accord. in the lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom.
⚪ Voting or decision by the majority does International Military Staff supports the
not take place. operational work of the Committee.
⚪ Each nation represented at the council y Allied Command Operations (ACO) is the
or in its subordinate committees retains command of NATO responsible for its
full sovereignty and responsibility for its operations worldwide.
decisions. y Allied Command Transformation (ACT) is
y NATO Headquarters is located in Haren, liable for the transformation and training of
part of the City of Brussels. NATO forces.
⚪ The headquarters is composed of national y The rapidly deployable corps include Euro,
delegations of member countries. German, and multinational corps Northeast

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and NATO Rapid Deployable Italian Corps. y Until March 1959, it was known as the
High Readiness Naval Forces (HRFs), which Middle East Treaty Organisation, included
all report to Allied Command Operations. Iraq, and had its headquarters in Baghdad.
y The organisations, as well as agencies y Formed at the initiative of Britain as well
of NATO, composes of Headquarters for as the United States, the Central Treaty
the NATO Support Agency in Capellen Organisation was aimed to counter the
Luxembourg (site of the current NATO threat of Soviet expansion into important
Maintenance and Supply Agency – NAMSA. Middle Eastern oil-producing areas. It
y The NATO Communications and Information never became an effective organisation.
Agency Headquarters is in Brussels, as will y Iraq took itself out of the alliance in 1959
the minimal staff design the new NATO after its anti-Soviet monarchy was removed.
Procurement Agency. The US was made an associate member the
y A new NATO Science and Technology same year, the name changed to CENTO,
Organisation (S &T) was formed before July and its headquarters was moved to Ankara.
2012, including Chief Scientist, a Programme After the debacle of the shah in 1979, Iran
Office for Collaborative (S &T), and the withdrew, and CENTO was dissolved.
NATO Undersea Research Centre (NURC). y Central Treaty Organisation was another name
y NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO PA) for the Baghdad Pact. In the year 1955, Iraq
sets broad strategic purposes for NATO, and Turkey signed the Baghdad Pact, whose
meeting at two sessions every year. purpose was to prevent the Middle East from
⚪ NATO PA interaction occurs directly the influence of Russian Communism. Later
with the parliament of the concerned on, Great Britain and Pakistan joined it.
governments of the member states
y The US gave financial help to the Baghdad
that appoint Permanent Members or
Pact. However, in 1959 Iraq resigned from
ambassadors to NATO.
Baghdad Pact and the organisation was
⚪ The NATO Parliamentary Assembly
named ‘Central Treaty Organisation’ or
consists of legislators from the
CENTO.
members of the North Atlantic Alliance
y The CENTO had the following principles:
and thirteen associate members.
⚪ The members were to pay attention
⚪ However, it is officially a different
to their own security and to make the
structure from NATO and aims to join
defence of other countries strong.
together as deputies to debate and
⚪ A member country should not interfere in
deliberate security policies.
the affairs of another country. The member
CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) countries would not keep relations with
other countries of the world.
y Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO),
formerly the Middle East Treaty Organisation ⚪ This organisation would remain in force
or Baghdad Pact dating from 1955 to 1979, for five years.
includes Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, as well as ⚪ This organisation would be given a new
the United Kingdom. shape after the expiry of five years

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Fig. 10.3 Objectives of CENTO

The Southeast Asia Treaty US and the USSR. They instead opted to
Organisation (SEATO) pursue an independent course of action in
y The establishment of the Southeast Asia international politics.
Treaty Organisation (SEATO) was done to y The Non-Aligned Movement was formed
ensure collective defence in South East during the Cold War.
Asia. It was formed by the Southeast Asia y At that time, several colonies were becoming
Collective Defense Treaty, or Manila Pact, free.
which was signed in September 1954. y The long-term goals of NAM were to
y Majorly created for the purpose of promote peace, development, economic
obstructing further communist motives in cooperation, and healthy international
Southeast Asia, SEATO is generally regarded relations among member states.
as a failure because internal conflict, as
well as a dispute, paralysed the general Causes of NAM
objective of the SEATO military. It has, y Firstly, the countries of Asia and Africa
however, funded cultural and educational dislike being under a capitalist promoter
programs which have left long-lasting country like America or a Communism
effects in Southeast Asia. promoter country like Soviet Russia.
y After many of its members lost interest y Secondly, all the nations of Asia, as well as
and withdrew from SEATO, it was hence Africa, wanted to negotiate for themselves
dissolved on 30 June 1977. to make economic progress.
y Thirdly, they realised that the armament
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) race is certainly not suitable for every
y The term ‘non-alignment’ is employed to nation.
explain the foreign policies of these states y Fourthly, they imagined a ‘Third World’, which
that refused to align with either of the two would help them in developing economic
blocs led by the two superpowers, i.e., the and cultural cooperation.

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y Finally, the underdeveloped nations strived y This conference not only united Asian and
to help each other and decided not to African countries but also strictly opposed
interfere in the internal affairs of any colonialism.
country. So, these countries came together y The principles of former Prime Minister
to form the Non-aligned Movement. of India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, i.e.,
‘Panchsheel’ (Mutual respect for each
Course of NAM other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty,
y Primary steps were taken for the Non- non-aggression, non-intervention in each
aligned Movement on 18 April 1955. other’s domestic affairs, mutual benefit
y The first meeting of the NAM took place in and equality and peaceful co-existence),
Bandung (Indonesia) in 1955 at the initiative were adopted by this conference.
of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Chou En-lai y This conference took a resolution to fight
and President Sukarno. It was attended by against the apartheid system to establish
twenty-nine countries from Asia and six friendly relations with all member countries,
countries from Africa. solve the intentional problems peacefully,
respect others’ territorial sovereignty,
give respect to the law and ideas of the
The Principles of the Bandung UNO, etc. The Afro-Asian countries were
Declaration inspired.
y Respect for fundamental human rights
and the objectives and principles of
the charter of the United Nations. Challenges Faced by NAM
y Respect for the sovereignty and
y The current challenges facing the NAM
territorial integrity of all nations.
today are combating terrorism, eliminating
y Recognition of equality among all
weapons of mass destruction, defending
races and all nations.
human rights, making the UN strong and
y Non-intervention or non-interference
effective, and seeking social and economic
in the internal affairs of another
justice.
country
y It is falling short of many expectations
y Respect for the right of every nation
relating to the Third World. It could not
to defend itself.
play an influential role in the Arab-Israeli
y Refrain from joining defence pacts
conflict, and the Iraq-Iran war and also
and non-use of pressure against the
could not prevent the US attack on Iraq
other countries
in the Gulf War. It could not bring about
y Refraining from carrying out or
an effective disarmament program by the
threatening to carry out aggression
nuclear powers.
or employing the use of force against
y Many political analysts believe that it could
any independent country.
still play a positive role in persuading the UN
y A peaceful solution to all international
to bring about socio-economic development
conflicts
in the Third World. The NAM could play an
y Promotion of mutual interests and
important role in bringing about structural
co-operation.
changes in the UN (with more Asian and
y Respect for justice and international
African countries represented in the United
obligations.
Nations Security Council).

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not an international organisation. It is created

Conclusion by states and reacts to them. When states
Countries have conflicts and disagreements agree to create it, it becomes a reality. Once
with each other. That does not inevitably mean established, it can assist member states in
they must go to war. In this situation, the role peacefully resolving their differences. Thus,
of an international organisation can be critical. they help countries cooperate to make better
A super-state with control over its members is living conditions for us all.

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Cold War and Unification

11 of Europe
Introduction collectively owned and shared by
all citizens. The economy should
Soon after World War II, the Cold War erupted
be centrally managed, and state
in Europe, pitting communist countries led
social programmes should protect
by Russia against capitalist countries led by
the interests and well-being of the
the United States of America. The Cold War
working classes.
was characterised by an ongoing state of
 The capitalist system, on the other
tension and psychological warfare between
hand, is built on private ownership
two groups of power. The Cold War, which
of a country’s riches. Private
plagued international relations, lasted until
entrepreneurship in the pursuit of
1989. The desire by the Soviet Union to rule the
profit and the preservation of private
entire world through the dissemination of its
wealth are the driving forces behind
ideology, which the capitalist West despised,
capitalism.
was the main cause of the Cold War. The two
y Economic: Economically, the United States
superpowers, the United States and the Soviet
wants to see free trade flourish all over
Union, had a conflict of interest over spheres of
the world. The Soviet Union aimed to keep
influence. The Soviet Union (USSR) attempted
international trade out of its own realm.
to impose communist control on Europe, Asia,
The United States and the Soviet Union had
Africa, and Latin America using both covert and
a tense relationship as a result of these
overt means.
disparities.
The conflict, which continued to bedevil
y Atomic power:
diplomacy, lasted until 1989. There was a conflict
⚪ The possession of atomic weapons by
of interest over spheres of influence between the
America led to fear in the Soviets.
two superpowers, the USA and the USSR. The
⚪ Both countries had a fear of an attack
Soviet Union made covert and overt attempts
from each other.
to impose a communist rule on the countries
y Territorial disputes:
of Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. The
⚪ The Soviet Union’s step of getting control
Western Allies, led by the United States of
over Eastern Europe was a major factor
America, attempted to prevent communism’s
behind suspicion of the US.
growth by providing military and economic help
⚪ America was not happy with the Soviet
to a number of Asian, African, and Latin American
Union’s actions in the German parts it
countries. They also started anti-communist
had taken possession of.
propaganda named ‘Free World’.
⚪ The Soviets had a fear that America would
Causes of Cold War use Western Europe as a base to attack it.
y Power rivalry:
y Differences of principles: ⚪ After World War II, with the debacle
⚪ The fundamental source of conflict of Europe, the power domain primarily
was ideological disagreements between lay between Soviet Russia and the US.
communist and capitalist or liberal As one wanted to dominate the other,
democratic regimes. conflicts were inevitable.
 The communist system of govern­ y Stalin’s foreign policies: He intended to
ment and society was founded on enhance Russian influence in Europe by
Karl Marx’s beliefs, which held exploiting the military crisis. As the Nazi
that a country’s wealth should be army fell apart, he attempted to capture

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as much German territory as he could, appear to have taken a more moderate

and from countries like Finland, Poland, stance.
and Romania. He was extremely effective ⚪ The Western Allies led by the US tried
at this, but the West was worried by what to contain the spread of communism by
they perceived to be Soviet aggressiveness; rendering military aid to many nations
they believed he was devoted to spreading of Asia, Africa and Latin America. For
communism throughout the world. example, she aided Europe’s war-torn
countries with a concept known as
The Outbreak of the Cold War Was the Marshall Plan. The US government
Caused by a Number of Factors provided $12-billion in help to many
y Firstly, it can be considered that the democratically elected governments in
differences between Soviet Russia and the Europe over the period of a few years.
USA were the cause behind the Cold War. y Fifth, America’s nuclear programme was a
The Soviet Union’s Communist orientation big contributor to another Cold War cause.
was too much for the United States to bear. Following America’s bombings of Hiroshima
Russia, on the other hand, had difficulty and Nagasaki, Soviet Russia became fearful
accepting the United States’ domination of its own existence. As a result, it followed
over the rest of Europe. the same course in combating America.
y Secondly, the Armament race between y Finally, the Veto Enforcement by Soviet
the two superpowers was another reason Russia against western countries made them
behind the Cold War. After World War II, loathe Russia, resulting in the emergence
the military strength of Soviet Russia had of the Cold War. When western countries
enormously increased, which posed a threat expressed an opinion in the United Nations
to the West. This prompted America to start Organisation’s Security Council, Soviet
manufacturing the Atom bomb, Hydrogen Russia used its veto authority to block it. As
bomb, and other weapons of deadly nature. a result, Western countries became irritated
Participation in this race took place in by Soviet Russia, resulting in the Cold War.
other European countries, also. As a result
of which, the globe was divided into two Phases of the Cold War
powers, paving the path for the Cold War. The Cold War did not happen overnight, and it
y Thirdly, ideological differences fueled went through various stages.
the Cold War. At the time when Soviet
Russia was spreading communist doctrine, First Phase (1946–1949)
America was a proponent of capitalism. y The three Allied leaders, Stalin, Roosevelt,
y Fourth, Russia’s declaration also was a and Churchill attended the Yalta Conference
catalyst in fueling the Cold War. Mass media in February 1945.
was used by Soviet Russia to promote ⚪ The decision was made to establish
communism, which aided and flavoured the United Nations to replace the failed
the labour movement. America, on the League of Nations.
other hand, backed the capitalists in their ⚪ Germany was to be divided into three
fight against Communism. This resulted in zones: Russian, American, and British
the expansion of the Cold War. (a French zone was added later), with
⚪ The USSR continued to spread Berlin (which was in the heart of the
propaganda about capitalism’s ills. Russian zone) being separated into
Communist parties arose in all of the equivalent zones as well. Austria was to
countries that benefited from the Soviet be treated in the same way.
Union’s moral backing. In contrast to the ⚪ Eastern European governments would
Soviet Union’s plan, the Western allies be permitted to have free elections.

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⚪ Roosevelt and Churchill were not happy Minister Molotov denounced the idea as
about Stalin’s demands that Poland ‘dollar imperialism and assistance went
should be given all German territory to Western European countries in eastern
east of the rivers Oder and Neisse, no Europe.
agreement was reached on this point. y Cominform (Communist Information Bureau
y At the Potsdam Conference (July 1945), the from 1947 to 1956): It was a successor to the
main disagreement occurred. Truman and Comintern (1919–43) and comprised European
Churchill were irritated because Germany communist parties. The goal of Cominform
east of the Oder-Neisse Line had been was to strengthen Soviet influence over its
occupied by Russian troops and was being Eastern European satellite governments. It
administered by the pro-communist Polish wasn’t enough to be communist; it had to
government, which had expelled some five be Russia-style communism, which meant
million Germans living in the area, despite communist parties had to obey the Soviet
the fact that this had not been agreed upon Union’s directives. Eastern Europe had to be
at Yalta. industrialised, collectivised, and centralised.
y During this time, neither America nor Soviet ⚪ All relations with non-communist
Russia believed in each other. In the months countries were discouraged, and
following Potsdam, the Russians intervened member countries were required to
methodically in eastern European countries trade primarily with other Cominform
to install pro-communist regimes. In Poland, members.
Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and ⚪ When Yugoslavia objected in 1948, it
other East European countries, the Soviet was evicted. When Nikita Krushchev
Union established Communism. took power in 1956, the Cominform was
y In order to weaken Russia’s hegemony, the dismantled. He claimed in his famous
United States aided Greece and Turkey by 1956 address that there were various
implementing the Truman Doctrine, which paths to socialism and that there was
took effect on March 12, 1947. no need to impose the Russian path on
y According to the Marshall Plan, which was other communist countries.
declared on 5 June 1947, American Secretary y The refusal of Soviet Russia to withdraw
of State George Marshall produced his its soldiers from Iran, as well as the Berlin
European Recovery Programme (ERP), embargo, exacerbated the cold. The Cold
which offered economic and financial help War came to a standstill after the creation
wherever it was needed. Russian Foreign of NATO in 1949.

The US, France and Britain tried to recover their occupation zones in Germany while the
USSR did the opposite. The result was that:
y the wealth of the western zones and the Russian zone in Germany became starkly
contrasted. As a result, the USSR was put under pressure as discontent among the
people of its zone grew.
y In the western zones, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France created a new
currency. It was impossible for the USSR to have two currencies in the same city (Berlin). Soon
after, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France began exerting pressure on the Soviet
Union to combine the four zones into a single Germany. East Germany appeared to be slipping
away from the Soviets. The Soviet Union retaliated with the historic West Berlin Blockade
(1948–49).

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Second Phase (1949–1953) (West Germany), with Berlin city being

y The influence of communism swept many split between the two.
countries of Asia and Africa. The Russians ⚪ Concerned about the Soviet Union’s
supported the Chinese communists in all aggressive behaviour, five western
possible ways to cause a revolution in 1949. European countries, primarily the
After the revolution of 1949, the communists United Kingdom, France, Belgium, the
came to power in China. The nationalist Netherlands, and Luxembourg, signed
Chinese, led by Chiang Kai-shek fled to the the Treaty of Brussels on March 17 1948,
nearby island of Formosa (Taiwan). The fall forming a military defence alliance.
of China into the hands of the communists y Along with seven other countries, namely,
in 1949 was a tremendous victory for the the US, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway,
Soviet Union. It was a significant blow to Denmark and Iceland, the allies of
the efforts made by America to determine Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands and
a “Free World”. Luxembourg signed the North Atlantic
y With the onset of the civil war in Greece, Treaty in Washington DC on 4 April 1949
the Cold War gained steam. With the help with the notion that the US should protect
of the Soviet Union, local communists them from the danger posed by Soviet
attempted to overthrow the democratically expansionism.
elected government. Turkey, too, was ⚪ This collective military alliance came to
vulnerable to communist influence. In light be known as the North Atlantic Treaty
of these circumstances, President Truman Organisation (NATO). Subsequently,
provided military and economic assistance Greece and Turkey joined NATO. In 1950,
to these two countries, allowing them to General Eisenhower was appointed the
defend themselves. supreme commander of the NATO forces.
⚪ By blocking rail, road, and canal access y Till 1949, the USA was the only country globally
to West Berlin (sectors of Berlin with the knowledge of manufacturing an
controlled by western allies), the atom bomb. However, this monopoly was
western zones (zones of Germany under broken when the USSR tested its first atom
western occupation) were deprived of bomb in September 1949.
food and other essential commodities, ⚪ The threat of a nuclear war between
forcing the western allies to supply food the two superpowers loomed large
and other essential items to West Berlin before mankind. The Cold War further
by air (Berlin Airlift). accelerated when President Truman
⚪ During the blockade, the Berlin Airlift ordered American scientists to
was a huge success, with more than manufacture a bomb that would be
two million tonnes of food and other a thousand times deadlier than the
supplies reaching West Berlin. atomic bomb.
⚪ The West also replied by slapping a ban ⚪ The American scientists succeeded in
on strategic exports from the Soviet their efforts to produce and test the
Union. Finally, on May 12, 1949, the hydrogen bomb in 1952. As against
Soviet Union had to lift the blockade. this threat, the USSR also produced
⚪ This resulted in the formation of two a hydrogen bomb and tested it
German states, namely, the German successfully in 1953. Thus, the two
Democratic Republic (East Germany) superpowers entered into a race, making
and the Federal Republic of Germany the word bipolar.

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y In this phase, a treaty took place between y During the same year, the Vietminh (North
Australia, New Zealand, and America in Vietnamese communists) besieged the
September 1957, formerly known as ANZUS. citadel of Dien Bien Phu, where a huge
America, too, signed a treaty with Japan French army was sheltering. The US
on 8 September 1951. By taking arms from government was hesitant to join the French
Russia and an army from China, North Korea because it would imply a battle with the
declared war against South Korea. two communist superpowers, the USSR and
y The Korean war began in 1950. North Korea China. It was finally captured by Vietminh
had become a communist country while forces headed by their renowned leader, Ho
the South was under the influence of Chi Minh.
the capitalist USA. To prevent aggression y After Stalin’s death in 1953, Khrushchev was
by North Korea on South Korea, with the elected President of Russia. Because they
assistance of the UNO, America gave believed in the harmonious coexistence of
military aid to South Korea. the capitalist and communist worlds, his
⚪ In 1953, however, both Korean appearance helped to ease the Cold War.
governments signed a peace deal, The Russians signed the agreement that
bringing the war to an end. Without a put an end to the occupation of Austria by
doubt, the Korean War exacerbated the the great four powers.
Cold War between the communist world y Geneva Summit in July 1955, attended by
and the Western Allies. President Eisenhower and other statesmen
of the Soviet Union, Britain and France.
Third Phase (1953–1957) ⚪ In 1956, the United States and Russia
y Now in 1954, SEATO was established by the reached an agreement about the Suez
United States of America in order to counter Crisis. America decided to refrain from
Soviet Russia’s growing power. In the Middle assisting its friends, like England and
East, MEDO was established by America in France. West Asia was, in fact, saved
1955. In a brief period, the United States from a major threat.
provided military aid to 43 countries and
had some 3300 military bases established Fourth Phase (1957–1962)
surrounding Soviet Russia. The Vietnam y In 1958, Khruschev became premier. He
War had just begun in 1955 at the time. created the “Berlin crisis”. He was determined
y With an intent to limit the American might, to cancel the Potsdam Agreement of 1945,
Russia signed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. which divided Berlin into four sectors. He
Russia also signed a defence treaty with 12 regarded this arrangement as obsolete, and
countries. Germany was divided into two he proposed transferring the Russian sector
parts: the Federal Republic of Germany, to East Berlin. He expected the Western
which was ruled by the United States, and Allies should do the same.
the German Democratic Republic, which y In 1959 Russia launched a rocket to the
was ruled by the Soviet Union. Sputnik moon. Russia continued to maintain their
was included in the Soviet Union’s defence superiority in exploring outer space, but the
programme in 1957. Americans also made matching progress in
y In 1953–54, China planned to invade this field.
Formosa, which was at the bottom of the y A summit of world leaders was held in
Nationalist Chinese (Taiwan government). Geneva in 1959, but it was unproductive.
The US administration had no choice but to Vice President Nixon visited the Soviet
support the Nationalist Chinese in dealing Union in 1959, and Soviet leader Nikita
with the Chinese communists’ bombing of Khruschev visited the United States. The
their island. U-2 incident occurred in May 1960, just

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Fig. 11.1 Phases of the Cold War

before the summit conference in Paris. ⚪ Cuba let the Soviet Union construct
After an American U-2 reconnaissance bases in its country for the stationing
plane was shot down while on an espionage of its nuclear ballistic missiles. The
mission over Soviet territory, Khrushchev nuclear bases under construction in
denounced the United States for breaking Cuba were discovered by a US spy plane
international law. on a reconnaissance mission.
y The USSR built a 25-kilometre Berlin Wall ⚪ If the ballistic nuclear missiles from Cuba
on August 13, 1961, to prevent immigration were not removed, the US President
from East Berlin to West Berlin. promptly threatened the Soviet Union
y The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 was a crucial with a nuclear attack. By ordering US
factor in the escalation of the Cold War. warships to surround the island of Cuba,
⚪ During the Cold War, Cuba acquired a the US grew more dangerous.
hostile stance toward the United States ⚪ The Soviet Union, led by Nikita
under its communist leader, Fidel Castro. Khrushchev, realised that a nuclear war
He nationalised American businesses, was a distinct possibility as a result of
provoking the US government. the precarious scenario and agreed to
⚪ To avoid a possible confrontation evacuate its ballistic missiles from Cuba.
with the United States, Fidel Castro, ⚪ However, the Soviet Union imposed
sought defence assistance from the certain conditions for the US to fulfil.
Soviet Union, which made the United  Firstly, the US should not deploy
States uncomfortable. President John ballistic missiles in Turkey to
F. Kennedy launched a covert invasion threaten the Soviet Union.
of Cuba (the Bay of Pigs War), which  Secondly, the US should give a
failed miserably. guarantee that it would not invade

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Cuba. The US agreed, and the world Last Phase (1979–1987)

heaved a great sigh of relief a y The Cold War underwent some developments
terrible nuclear war thus averted. throughout this period. As a result, historians
The nuclear arms race continued, refer to this period as the “New Cold War.”
and the Cold War intensified. y SALT II was signed by US President Jimmy
Carter and Russian President Leonid
Fifth Phase (1962–1969)
Brezhnev in 1979. However, developments
y The start of the Fifth Phase, in 1962, in Afghanistan impeded the prospects of
coincided with a mutual suspicion between reducing the Cold War in 1979.
the US and the Soviet Union. Nuclear y The Cold War heated up once again because
weapons were a source of anxiety around of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in
the world, prompting calls for a moratorium. 1979. It forced the United States to back the
y In this period, the hotline formally came Afghan Mujahideens in their fight against
between the US and USSR. This was the the Soviet occupation.
reason behind both parties refraining from y The Soviet Union’s triumph in Vietnam
nuclear war. (1975), Angola (1976), Ethiopia (1972), and
⚪ Despite that, the Vietnam problem and Afghanistan (1979) was uncomfortable
the Problem in Germany kept the Cold for the United States. American President
War between the USA and USSR intact. Jimmy Carter’s approach to Human Rights
y The invasion of Czechoslovakia by the and open diplomacy was despised by
Soviet Union in 1968 astonished the world Russia. The SALT 2 accord was not ratified
since the country’s president, Alexander by the US Senate. The United States
Dubcek was a staunch Marxist-Leninist. boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics.
y Russia withdrew from a missile treaty with
Sixth Phase (1969–1978)
the United States in 1983. In 1984, Russia
y This period starting from 1969, was marked boycotted the Los Angeles Olympic Games.
by Détente (a period of the easing of Cold Russia was angered by American President
War tensions) between the US and Soviet Ronald Reagan’s Star War (Strategic
Union- the President of America Nixon and Defense Initiative). As a result, the ‘New
Russian President Brezhnev played a vital Cold War’ between the United States and
role in bringing the cold war to an end. Russia lasted until 1987.
The SALT Treaty of 1972, the 1975 summit y With the evacuation of Soviet soldiers from
‘Conference on Security’ in Helsinki and Afghanistan in 1989, the protracted Afghan
the 1978 Belgrade Conference brought the war came to a conclusion. In the same year,
US and Soviet Union closer. the Berlin Wall was demolished, signalling
y Foreign Secretary of America Henry Kissinger the end of the Cold War. The Warsaw Pact
paid a secret visit to China in 1971, to look out came to an end. The dissolution of the
for the possibilities of making connections Soviet Union in 1991 brought about the end
again with China. of communism.
y The main intent behind the US move to
reorient Diego Garcia into a military base Impact of Cold War
was to check the Soviet presence in the y Both the US and the USSR piled up a large
Indian Ocean. The support was extended to number of arsenals of atomic weapons as
the opposite sides by the two superpowers well as ballistic missiles.
during the 1971 Bangladesh liberation war y The formation of military blocs, NATO and
and the Egypt-Israel War of 1973. the Warsaw Pact took place.

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y It led to conflicts of destructive nature y As a result, it is appropriate to conclude

like the War in Vietnam and the Korean that the Cold War was a significant global
War. The Soviet Union fell due to economic war owing to differing ideological beliefs
weaknesses. The Berlin Wall was and experiences based on one’s location
demolished, and the two German countries and societal status. The importance of
became unified. the Cold War in Modern World History is
y The Warsaw Pact was disintegrated. evident.
y The Baltic States and some former Soviet ⚪ Both the US and the USSR were founded
Republics gained independence. on the ideology that mainly aimed to
y The world became unipolar. America improve human life. However, different
became the supreme power in the world. approaches to the economy and social
y Communism collapsed worldwide. development led to the conflict between
y The Cold War led to the diminishing of the two countries.
communism and the rise of globalisation ⚪ The Cold War assisted in shaping modern
worldwide. world History, providing enormous
y The impact of the Cold War on the develop­ opportunities for political, economic,
ment of many countries was enormous. The and social development of the countries.
consequences of the Cold War were derived ⚪ Modern World History would be
from numerous internal problems of the different if the Cold War would not be
countries which were connected with the taken place. The collapse of the USSR
USSR, especially developing countries like and its communist system provided
India, Africa, etc. This fact means that considerable changes in the foreign
the foreign policies of many states were policies of many countries, including the
transformed. United States.

Unipolar World
After the fall of the USSR, i.e., the fall of communism in the hands of capitalism, the United
States enjoyed unprecedented power and glory from 1991. Even the former communist
states of central and eastern Europe, like Poland, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Romania,
Hungary, Bulgaria, etc., became free from communist rule and joined the European Union.
Some of them joined the NATO alliance, which was dominated by the USA, despite the
protests by the Russian Federation. The US has become the sole superpower exercising its
worldwide influence through financial institutions like the IMF, The World Bank, and the
World Trade Organisation.
y In due course of time, as a supreme power of democracy, the US even marginalised the
United Nations.
⚪ This was seen especially during the second Gulf war in 2003.
⚪ President Bush desired regime change in Iraq and also the execution of its leader,
Saddam Hussain.
⚪ The US government refused to sign the KYOTO protocol intended to protect many
countries from environmental hazards.

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⚪ On some other issues, the US disregarded world opinion. The US launched a war on
global terror after the 9/11 (2001) tragedy at the World Trade Centre, New York. The
NATO troops fight the Taliban militants and Al Qaeda terrorists in Afghanistan to
protect the democratically elected Afghan government under Hamid Karzai.
y The US dominance started declining due to the economic recession of 2007–09 and the
emergence of rising powers like China, India, Brazil, and the European Union. Thus, the
unipolar world became multipolar. China is at present challenging the US’s global supremacy.

Important Treaties and Initiatives

Disarmament
y During the height of the Cold War, the two superpowers were engaged in a nuclear arms
race. It created great anxiety among the people of the world. There was the danger of
nuclear war hanging over the heads of the people of the world. In order to avoid such
nuclear confrontation, a number of powerful countries were trying to reach a proper
understanding.
⚪ Negotiations between the two superpowers started after the Cuban missile crisis of
1962. This crisis would have caused a nuclear war between them.
⚪ Hence, the US, the Soviet Union, Britain, and many countries signed a treaty known
as ‘The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, (also known as the treaty banning nuclear tests in
the atmosphere, outer space and underwater).
 China and France did not sign this treaty.
 This treaty subsequently came to be known as the Comprehensive Test Ban
Treaty (CTBT), which was signed by 44 countries.
 India and Pakistan did not sign this treaty.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968)

y As per the UN General Assembly resolution recommendations, the US, The Soviet
Union and Britain, along with fifty-nine other countries, signed a treaty called the Non-
Proliferation Treaty in 1968.
y This treaty was binding in nature upon the signatories. The terms of the treaty mainly
included ‘not to promote the spread, or proliferation, of nuclear weapons to countries
that did not already possess them’.

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (SALT 1, 1972)

y President Nixon and President Brezhnev signed this treaty in 1972, also known as the
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT 1).
y Both the superpowers, along with a few countries, realised that they should limit the
production of anti-ballistic missiles. This treaty included that the superpowers should
keep one system each, and the rest were to be dismantled.
y The SALT-2 (1972–79) treaty also came to be discussed by the superpowers related to
the earlier missiles’ treaty. The two superpowers signed the treaty, but unfortunately,
the US Senate did not approve it.

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The Helsinki Accord (1975)

y In Helsinki (Finland), the Soviet Union and the US agreed not to confront each other with
nuclear weapons.
y The Soviet Union assured the US that it would not export communism to other countries.
This was supposed to bring about an end to the Cold War.
y The Soviet Union violated this accord by invading Afghanistan in the late 1970s. The Soviet
forces occupied Afghanistan and established their puppet regime.

Strategic defence initiative (1983), also known as star wars

y When Reagan was elected President of the US, he was totally opposed to the expansionist
ideology of the Soviet Union. He called the Soviet Union the ‘Focus of Evil’ and wanted
to teach it a lesson.
y He initiated a programme known as the Star Wars Program.
y He wanted the US to develop a kind of nuclear defence shield to defend itself from a
possible full-fledged Soviet nuclear attack.
y It was to be developed over twenty years. The US Congress also funded this program.
y However, with the fall of the Soviet Union, the supposed program was given up.
y In its place, the US engaged the Russian Federation in another treaty known as Strategic
Arms Reduction Talks (START I) 1982–1991.
y President Bush (senior) and President Gorbachev started talks on reducing the stockpile
of nuclear weapons.
y The agreement concluded in 1991 and committed both the powers to reduce the number
of nuclear weapons.
y For example, Russia had to reduce its nuclear weapons numbering 11000 to 8000, and the
US reduced its weapons from 12000 to 10000.
y After the total collapse of the Soviet Union, a supplementary treaty was also signed.
y However, in 2002, the US revoked the anti-ballistic missiles treaty and began building
a new defence system to protect itself from rogue states (North Korea, Iran and Libya).
y In the meantime, President Putin of Russia was not happy because the NATO alliance
continued to exist and permitted erstwhile communist countries of central and eastern
Europe to join it.

New START (2010):

y The US Senate approved the New Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty (START) in December
2010. President Obama and the Russian President Dmitri Medvedev agreed upon the following:
⚪ To limit the amount of strategic nuclear warheads (deployed) to 1,550.
⚪ To limit the number of Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM), Submarine-
Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) launchers and heavy bombers equipped for nuclear
armaments (all deployed and non-deployed) to 800.
⚪ To limit the number of deployed ICBMs, SLBMs, and heavy bombers equipped for
nuclear armaments to 700.
As mentioned above, the steps taken toward disarmament have reduced the threat of nuclear
war between the two superpowers. However, there is still the danger of nuclear weapons
falling into the hands of terrorists or some rogue states which may launch a surprise attack
against the US.

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The Emergence of the US As (START II) in Moscow in 1993, agreeing to

the Lone Superpower ban multiple-warhead (MIRV) missiles,
y Soviet communism failed to keep the ICBMs, and a two-thirds reduction in
promise it made to the people when the nuclear warheads. START II, unfortunately,
Soviet Union was formed in 1917, namely, to did not take effect.
construct a Soviet Society after the state y Following the fall of Soviet communism and
had withered away. Despite the so-called the Soviet Union, the United States became
reforms of Glasnost and Perestroika, the the world’s lone superpower. The US
Soviet economy was in horrible shape by economy remained strong, and the country
1985. Food and other consumer products became not only a champion of democracy
were in low supply in the country. but also a bastion of capitalism.
⚪ People became increasingly enraged y Its military strength was bolstered by being
as unemployment rose. All of the the leader of NATO.
communist satellite governments’ y The success of capitalism over communism
independence movements gained signalled a new era of US dominance.
traction, and Gorbachev had no response y Even Third World countries, which had
to the looming catastrophe. The USSR previously relied on the Soviet Union for
dissolved as a result of its decision to financial and moral backing, now had to
let these states go their separate way. rely on the US for economic help.
⚪ Boris Yeltsin took over when he quit. y International banking institutions such as
Boris Yeltsin accused the communist the IMF and the World Bank were heavily
party of orchestrating the overthrow of influenced by the United States and other
Gorbachev. European powers. As a result, non-aligned
⚪ The official communist party newspaper, countries began to seek US government
Pravda, was shut down, and its assets assistance in obtaining financial aid from
were seized. Activities of the Communist these banking institutions. As a third force,
Party were outlawed. On August 31, 1991, the Non-Aligned Movement has lost its
Ukraine and Belarus declared their relevance. Previously, non-aligned countries
independence. pitted one superpower against the other
⚪ In December 1991, Boris Yeltsin esta­ in order to acquire political and economic
b­lished the Commonwealth of Inde­ leverage.
pendent States (CIS) to replace the y Following the demise of the Soviet Union,
collapsing Soviet Union. He overthrew the Warsaw Pact was disbanded, and the
the communist regime and ended the former communist governments of Eastern
command economy. Europe joined the European Union to
y To avoid further economic stagnation, he enhance their economic prospects.
implemented a market-oriented economy, ⚪ Even Communist China, under Deng
which resulted in the privatisation of Xiao Ping’s leadership, implemented
thousands of big and medium sized market reforms (Market Socialism) and
state owned firms in 1993. Yeltsin faced applied for membership in the World
impeachment but was acquitted. His reign, Trade Organisation (WTO). Under Prime
which lasted from 1991 to 1999, was marred Minister Narasimha Rao’s leadership,
by excessive corruption and unemployment. India likewise accepted market reforms
y In the United Nations, the new Russian in 1991.
Federation took the place of the Soviet ⚪ Manmohan Singh, the then Finance
Union. Minister, had a key influence. The United
y President Bush (Senior) and President Yeltsin States is a key player in influencing
signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty WTO policies. It has also been at the

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forefront of the Global War on terror the Warsaw Pact with its communist
since September 11, 2001. neighbours (1955).
y Although the European Economic
Unification of Europe Community was established in 1957, more
y Napoleon and Hitler struggled to unite integration could not take place until the
Europe with all its linguistic, cultural, and conclusion of the Cold War.
economic diversities in modern times. It y With the signing of the Maastricht Treaty,
was only after the two world wars that this the European Union (EU) was formed in
vision of a united Europe was revived out of 1992.
sheer economic compulsions. y The Euro was introduced by the EU in 1995,
⚪ The Marshall Plan provided significant and most single-nation currencies were
financial aid to western Europe until phased out in 2002. The EU currently has
1951 when European leaders realised 27 member nations, which include some
that they needed to develop their that were once part of the Soviet Union.
economies through increasing economic y The European Union is a global leader
cooperation. today when it comes to supranational
⚪ Following World War II, certain Western governance and integration with its single
European countries were concerned market and multilateral currency, as well
about the growing threat of communism as an increasing perception that the entire
to all free nations. On March 17, 1948, group’s prospects are intertwined. It serves
Britain, Belgium, France, Netherlands, as a blueprint for other East and South
and Luxembourg signed the Treaty of American intergovernmental organisations
Brussels, forming a military defensive (ASEAN, USAN etc.).
alliance. y Jean Monnet proposed the European Coal
⚪ Meanwhile, communists seized power and Steel Community (ECSC) regulate
in Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union industrial production under a centralised
imposed the so-called ‘Berlin Blockade’ authority.
(June 1948 to May 1949). ⚪ Six nations (France, Germany, Italy,
y The Treaty of Brussels’ signatories wanted and the Benelux countries) agreed to
the US to safeguard them from the threat join this group and from that seed, has
of Soviet expansionism. They negotiated grown a half-century of ever-expanding
a military alliance with the United States, European central governance.
which culminated in the signing of the y World War II’s massive destruction and loss
North Atlantic Treaty in Washington, DC on were critical factors in changing influential
April 4, 1949. actors’ perceptions after the war. In sum,
y In 1951, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, 60-million people died around the world,
the Netherlands, and West Germany signed including 37-million civilians and 6-million
the Treaty of Paris, which combined their Jews. This defeat was unprecedented, even
coal and steel sectors. in comparison to the First World War.
y This was the beginning step toward forming y It prompted critical European players to
a “United States of Europe,” which would challenge the tactics of peacemakers at
combine France’s and Germany’s interests Versailles and the traditional strength of
to prevent potential conflicts. the ‘nation state’ itself.
y The US Government spent large sums y The Treaty of Versailles, particularly the
of money to equip the NATO forces with reparations and the ‘War Guilt Clause,’ very
the most modern armaments. To counter definitely aided Hitler’s ascent to power
NATO›s danger, the Soviet Union formed and stoked German resentment.

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y Nationalism, as well as the “Fascist foundation of the European Economic

glorification of the nation-state”, served Community or the ECM.
as a stark reminder of the issues caused ⚪ The main purpose of forming the
by a lack of coordination among European Economic Community was to have
governments, with many debating the a smooth flow of trade, labour, and
feasibility of a Federalist structure and services among the member states.
close cooperation. y The United Kingdom, Switzerland,
y The French had concerns about restoring Austria, Portugal, and the Scandinavian
Germany, and integration was seen by countries refused to join the Coal and
some as a way to gain leverage over German Steel Community, instead of forming the
policy. European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
y Jean Monnet identified coal and steel as y Through Berlin, Europe was divided in
the first field for collaboration, allowing two, and countries to the west of the wall
the French to dismantle the German war were primarily concerned with preventing
machine and leverage its finances. a domino effect and the spread of
y Following World War II, it was released by communism.
the previous major world powers, especially y The Treaty of Rome (1957) formed the
Britain and France that there wasn’t European Economic Community, which
sufficient influence if they acted alone. was made up of the same six nations as
y Speaking up became the only way for the ECSC but with deeper ties and more
European governments to exert influence cooperation.
over the conduct of these main players on y In an effort to defend Germany and Europe
European soil. under the banner of unity and integration
y It hence became apparent that only a while also avoiding the risk of a renewed
united Europe could bear any global weight. German attack (Taylor 2007), The North
⚪ This was the first official Union of Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO) was formed
the major nations of Europe and the in 1949. NATO had 12 members at the time
initiation of an ‘economic community with Europe having just six.
that has further evolved into the modern y After half a century of tension and conflict,
European Union. there was a real set up for closer ties and
⚪ It was followed by three other co-operation within European nations after
organisations, namely, the European 1945.
Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the y On 9 May 1950, ECSC was suggested
European Atomic Energy Community as a way to avoid another war between
(EURATOM), and the European Economic France and Germany by Robert Schuman,
Community (EEC). the French Foreign Minister. The treaty
y De Gaulle, Helmut Kohl, Francois Mitterrand, would create a common market for coal
Jacques Delors, and others are names and steel among its signatories, lessening
connected with Europe’s economic rivalry for natural resources required in
unification through trade and customs wartime mobilisation, particularly in the
treaties. Ruhr. The Schuman Declaration by ECSC
y The Economic Common Market was was created aimed to mark the birth of a
another name for the European Economic united European nation.
Community. y The European Economic Community (EEC)
⚪ Six states that signed the Treaty of was a regional organisation that aspired
Rome on 25 March 1957 were Belgium, to economically integrate its member
France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and countries. The Treaty of Rome, signed in
the Netherlands. All these have laid the 1957, established the EEC.

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y In 1962, the EEC established standard price which became fully operational in 2002,
levels for agricultural items, and in 1968, it consisting of 19 EU member states that use
abolished internal tariffs between member the euro currency.
nations on some products. On July 1, 1967, y The Lisbon Treaty, which took effect on 1
the Unification Treaty, which merged the December 2009, reformed several elements
ECSC and EURATOM institutions into the of the EU. The legal framework was changed
EEC, went into effect. Their combined name by integrating the three pillars system into
was European Communities. a single legal body with a legal personality.
y The European Union (EU) is a political and y Significance of the Lisbon Treaty
economic union consisting of 27 member ⚪ A more democratic and transparent
states mainly located in Europe. With a Europe was formed.
population of over $510-million people, it ⚪ The Lisbon Treaty has simplified working
covers 4,324,782 km2 (1,669,808 sq. mi.). methods and voting rules. It has
The EU has established an internal single streamlined its institutions’ work to
market based on a uniform set of laws for all make the EU more efficient, particularly
member states. EU policies aim to ensure in areas of major concern. Thus, a more
the free movement of citizens, products, efficient Europe was formed.
services, and resources within the internal ⚪ “Four Freedoms” already granted by the
market, enforce justice and home affairs Maastricht Treaty (free movement of
regulations, and preserve common trade, goods, services, money and citizens); the
agriculture, fishing, and regional growth Lisbon Treaty gives its citizens a charter
policies. Within the ‘Schengen area’, the of fundamental rights that could be
Passport controls have been eliminated. legally enforced. These rights include civil,
A monetary union was created in 1999 political, economic, and social rights.

European Union
As the Second World War ended, many of Europe’s leaders grappled with the ‘Question
of Europe’. The collapse of the Soviet bloc put Europe on a fast track and resulted in the
establishment of the European Union in 1992. The European Union has evolved from an
economic union to an increasingly political one. The EU has started to act more like a
nation-state.

The Constitution
y The Constitution contained around 350 articles that included new powers for the
European Parliament. It ended national vetoes on forty-five new policy areas, covering
judicial and police co-operation and education and economic matters.
y The European Union consisted of four main institutions, the Council of Ministers
(principal decision-making body of the Union), the European Commission (administrative
and executive body of the European Union), the European Parliament, and the European
Court of Justice. Subsequently, the European Central Bank [ECB] (Federal Reserve Bank
for the member states joining the EMU) was also added along with these institutions.

The EU in the age of globalisation

y The Maastricht Treaty enables the Union to promote European interests and values all over
the world. The need was felt that a Foreign Policy Minister should represent the Union.

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⚪ Foreign Policy Chief position was given to Lady Cathy Ashton to look after the foreign
relations of the Union.
⚪ She has been provided with a new office called ‘The European External Action
Service’.
⚪ Lady Ashton’s task is not very easy as she has to persuade the 28 member states to
agree on specific policy matters concerning the EU’s relations with other countries.
⚪ She gained diplomatic success in the UN over the issue of Kosovo.
⚪ Due to her efforts, a majority of EU members agreed to grant independence to
Kosovo with the help of the UN.
⚪ She has appointed 28 EU Ambassadors to make her work easy to give EU diplomacy
a sharp edge.
y The EU exercises its soft power, which includes financial assistance, humanitarian aid,
peacekeeping missions, trade, and an offer of admission to the lucrative EU.

Achievements of EU
y The EU has unleashed its soft power on many events. Such as-
y The EU sent peacekeeping missions to the Balkans, mainly to Macedonia, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, in 2003.
y The EU also sent its forces to replace the NATO forces for police duties.
y In 2007 and 2008, the EU sent police missions to Afghanistan and border areas in Africa
to protect refugees.
⚪ The EU also intervened and sent a police mission to monitor the election of the
President in Afghanistan.
⚪ The EU interfered in the conflict between Russia and Georgia in August 2008 and
brought about the ceasefire. It encouraged both of them to start negotiations.
⚪ To maintain law and order in Kosovo, the EU also sent its forces in 2008.
⚪ The EU has so far signed several agreements and facts for maintaining cordial relations
with countries like Russia, China, India, etc. For example, it signed a breakthrough
agreement with Russia in May 2005 for enhanced co-operation in economy, freedom,
security, justice, education, science, and research.
⚪ The EU provided aid relief to the extent of $400-million Euros to the quake-hit
people of Haiti in January 2010.
⚪ During the same year, the EU provided seventy-million Euros to the flood affected
people in Pakistan.
⚪ The EU launched maritime operations against Somali pirates to protect its ships that
were delivering food aid to Somalia in December 2008.

and adopted a range of democratic political

Post War Europe
structures with a capitalist economy.
y The division of Europe was the first significant y The three most backward countries in
characteristic of post-war Europe until the Europe, Portugal, and Greece, were the key
1980s, with communist parties aligned exceptions to the above.
with the Soviet Union controlling Eastern y Portugal: Salazar’s dictatorial rule in
Europe. At the same time, the Western Portugal lasted from 1932 until 1968 after his
part of Europe was influenced by the US ill health forced him to step down. In 1974,

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a coalition of junior army officers overthrew y In 1957, the European Economic Community
the authoritarian government with the aid was established, marking the first major
of Portuguese leftists, communists, and step in this direction (EEC). The EEC’s
other democrats, and a new democratic member countries France, Belgium, West
constitution was adopted. Germany, Holland, Luxembourg, and Italy
y Spain: After Franco’s win in the civil war, created the “Common Market”.
he created a fascist regime in Spain that y This was supposed to provide for a warm-up
lasted until he died in 1975. After his death, towards the formation of a West European
there was a period of liberalisation and the union. Britain first declined to join the EEC,
release of political prisoners. For more than but when she attempted to do so in 1961, it
four decades, the first free election was was turned down.
held in 1977. In Spain, the socialist party y Britain, along with two other countries,
advanced into a significant political power. Denmark, and Ireland, was accepted to the
y Greece: The end of the civil war in Greece EEC in 1973. The EEC’s nine members later
did not develop a stable democratic political created the European Parliament. Further
structure. In 1967, an authoritarian regime later, Greece, Spain, and Portugal were
was formed after a group of army officers accepted to the EEC.
seized power. y In the coming years, the seriousness of
y For several years, the restoration of the prospect of the emergence of a united
democracy in Greece had been a significant Western Europe as a political power cannot
concern among European citizens. Many be emphasised enough. Already, initiatives
well-known Greek political and cultural are being developed to create a common
figures had fled the country, while others currency among EEC members to do away
withered in Greek prisons. with the need for Europeans to travel from
y A resistance movement developed within one EEC country to another without a
the nation, which was reinforced by a passport.
strong protest movement on the outside. y Meanwhile, Germany had established itself
The Colonels’ rule, as the Greek military as the EEC’s most important economic
dictatorship was known, came to an end force. With its union, Germany’s power was
in 1974, and hence, Greece reverted to set to grow much more. Despite the loss of
democracy. their empires, Western Europe had banded
y The Second World War resulted in the together to form a new world power. Their
radicalisation of European people’s political economic reliance on the US was lessened,
thinking. Soon after the war, left-wing and they were more likely to take a more
governments came to power in several independent stance in international affairs.
European countries. Until 1947, communists y The European Economic Community (EEC)
were also part of the government in France was renamed the European Union on
and Italy. November 1, 1993. By 2007, it had grown
from a group of predominantly Western
European Unity European countries to a union of 27
y The advent of a movement for Western European nations. Its top aims included
Europe’s unification played a major role in strengthening political, economic, and
aiding Western Europe’s rise as a great world social co-operation, as well as ensuring the
power. The first big country to take the lead free movement of individuals, products,
in this direction was France, considering services, and resources across European
itself to be the natural leader of a unified borders. In 2004, seven Eastern European
Western Europe. countries; Estonia, Latvia, Czech Republic,

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Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia (former France has been a vocal opponent of the US
Czechoslovakia had broken up into two invasion, and Spain, which had sent troops
independent countries by then), Poland to Iraq when the war broke out, withdrew
and Hungary- joined the European Union, them after the country elected a socialist
which had been previously controlled by government.
communist parties and aligned with the y Communist parties and their backers had
Soviet Union. gained exclusive power in the European
y Former communist countries Bulgaria and countries liberated by Soviet troops. As
Romania, and Slovenia soon joined them Warsaw Pact members, these countries
(which had broken away from Yugoslavia). It allied with the Soviet Union.
is commendable that all of these countries y They were sometimes referred to as the
have successfully transitioned to free- Soviet Union’s “satellites.” By the use of
market economies. Also, all these new armed forces, the latter frequently imposed
member nations of the European Union are its will on the communist parties and
now member countries of NATO. Amongst governments of these countries. Because
two of them Poland and the Czech Republic these countries were not qualified for the
missiles have been deployed, which the European recovery program, they were
Russian Federation leaders believe to be obliged to rely on their own resources.
directed against their country. The Soviet Union was unable to provide
y In Europe, this current trend is the cause the same kind of huge support to Western
of the latest tension. Turkey and the former Europe that the United States had provided.
Yugoslav republics are among the countries y These countries aimed to construct a
that have applied to join the European version of socialism based on the Soviet
Union. Turkey has already been approved as model. The economies of these countries
a member of NATO. were inextricably linked to that of the
y The integration of Europe into a unified Soviet Union, and they also shared many of
body has made significant progress. The the latter’s faults. Agriculture accounted for
Euro happens to be the common currency most of these countries’ economies. Even
of the fifteen countries that make up the though their economic growth lagged behind
European Union. The majority of member that of advanced West European countries,
countries enable citizens to travel without industrialisation in these countries was a
a passport. In addition, there is a formation significant step forward.
of uniform institutional architecture. y The problems related to the concentration
For example, a European parliament is of economic power in private hands were
made up of lawmakers elected from all avoided in these countries, and the grip of
of the European Union’s nations, yet the the old ruling classes and huge landlords
Parliament’s grouping transcends national was broken. The communist parties’
lines. control in Eastern Europe is said to be
y A European Court of Justice can hear coming to an end. After 1985, there was
complaints from individual citizens of a significant impact on these countries’
European Union member countries on political evolution because of the Soviet
some topics. The European Union has Union’s operations. In all of these countries,
established a popular stance on various communist rule practically ended between
foreign relations issues. 1989 and 1991.
y However, on several other topics, each
country has taken its own stance. For Romania & Albania
example, during the Iraq war, Britain was a y These countries (Romania and Albania)
close ally of the United States. In contrast, had the chance to break free from Soviet

Cold War and Unificationof Europe 191

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influence after the dissolution of the Soviet y It has been in the Federal Republic since
Union and China in the 1960s. Albania had 1968, consisting of the Czech Republic
entered the Warsaw Pact as well, but that and the Slovak Republic. After the end of
did not change the exclusive dominance of communist rule, the two republicans voted
the communist parties over these countries. to form two separate independent states.
In fact, the communist regimes in these In 1993, the Czech Republic and the Slovak
countries were more authoritarian than in Republic were created.
most other Eastern European countries.
y There was a widespread uprising in Romania East Germany
in December 1989 against the government y In 1989, the leadership of the Socialist Unity
of Nikolai Ceausescu. Many army units Party, the German Democratic Republic’s
joined the opposition to the government. (GDR) governing party, and the government
Ceausescu and his wife were apprehended, all shifted. Hence, this can be considered
convicted, and put to death. Following the culmination of a sequence of events
the elections, a coalition government was that started in 1989.
formed, following which, in 1992, Albania’s y The new leaders of East Germany (GDR)
communist rule came to an end. officially opened the Berlin Wall in November
1989. Soon after, political parties and
Poland, Hungary & Czechoslovakia organisations which were not dominated by
y A Polish organisation, solidarity, was at East Germany’s ruling party were allowed
the forefront of the anti-communist Party to operate openly.
movement. In 1989, there was an agreement The East German government’s support for
reached between unity and the communist Germany’s reunification was declared in
government. Following the free elections, early 1990. On 3 October 1990, talks between
Poland’s Prime Minister was chosen by a the governments of East and West Germany
non-communist. resulted in Germany becoming the United
y There was an uprising in Hungary in 1956 States. A new coalition government was
that was put down by Soviet troops. elected in united Germany after country-wide
Free elections were held in 1990, and a elections in December 1990.
non-communist government was then
established. After the military intervention Conclusion
of Warsaw Pact countries in Czechoslovakia At the end of the Second World War, a world body
in 1968, Alexander Dubcek, who had begun named the United Nations Organisation (UNO)
to implement political and economic was founded to make the world safe for peace.
reforms, was deposed by the Communist A non-military hostility developed between the
Party. United States of America (USA) and the former
y The mass protests and strikes led to the Soviet Union. A conflict between two ideologies
Communist Party losing its dominant capitalism and socialism turned into the Cold
position in December 1989. Vaclav Havel, a war. On the other hand, the Unification of
well-known Czech journalist, was elected Europe was a culmination of a chain of events
President of Czechoslovakia. The country and devoted efforts that changed Europe in
became an independent nation in 1918. political and economic spheres.

192 Cold War and Unificationof Europe

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12 Disintegration of the USSR

had far-reaching consequences for US foreign

Introduction policy. The Cold War between the Soviet Union
From 1989 to 1991, a series of events culminated and the United States had generated a kind of
in the demise of the Union of Soviet Socialist bipolar stability, with the two hegemon powers
Republics (USSR), clearing the way for the balancing each other. The disintegration of the
formation of new, independent republics in USSR ended this bi-polar global order and set
the Baltics and Central Asia, as well as the up a new unipolar world where the USA became
Russian Federation. The fall of the Soviet Union the superpower.

Fig. 12.1 Leaders of the Soviet Union

Disintegration of the USSR 193

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Background Mikhail Gorbachev and

y The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Disintegration of the USSR
(USSR) was established following the 1917 y Mikhail Gorbachev (a former tractor factory
Russian socialist revolution, which brought mechanic) assumed Soviet leadership
the Russian empire to an end. The Soviet in 1985, marking the start of a dramatic
Union was formed in 1922 when 12 republics rupture with the past in the Soviet Union.
joined forces. These republics were part of At that time, the USSR was going through a
the former Russian empire. serious economic crisis.
y In 1940, three Baltic states were captured by y During his six-year presidency, the Soviet
Stalin, and the USSR became a 15-member Union saw a second revolution, arguably
entity. Fifteen republics were together as more significant than the first, which took
per the Union Treaty of 1922. place in 1917.
y All of these were the Communist States. y Mikhail Gorbachev was a visionary
They had different presidents. But the leader as well as a devout Communist.
Soviet President was over and above 15 He was concerned about the safety of
States. Moscow was the headquarters. communism.
y Initially, the USSR was remarkably
successful. In 1922, the USSR was one of Gorbachev’s Vision
the most backward regions of Europe. By y Gorbachev saw that the Soviet Union could
the end of World War II USSR had been only maintain its global superpower status
transformed into a Superpower. at a tremendous cost, one that would result
y But by the 1970s, elements of stress and in huge misery for the people.
strain were visible in the Politico-Economic y The economic stagnation that had engulfed
system of the USSR. the country had wreaked havoc, and what
y In the 1980s, a serious economic crisis the country needed was a new ideological
happened due to the failure of leadership. framework, a change in tune with the times,
This resulted in the disintegration of the to carve out a better future. Gorbachev
USSR. attempted to explain his vision through
y After Leonid Brezhnev died in 1982, the concepts such as Glasnost (openness),
Soviet Union was governed by Andropov Perestroika (restructuring, reforming,
and Chernenko for the next three years. and reviving a stagnant economy), and
The economic stagnation that began during democracy.
the Brezhnev era worsened significantly. y Wherever he met his people, he
y As a result of the Soviet agriculture sector’s encouraged them to make a difference.
failure to produce goods, the country He claimed that glasnost, perestroika,
experienced food shortages. Its import and democratisation programmes were
became necessary, and the cost of vital required to reform a stagnant Soviet
commodities increased. society. He realised that the only way
y The Soviet Union, which had a command for things to change was for them to
economy run by party bureaucrats, was come from above. As a result, during his
unable to address the issue of widespread presidency, the Soviet Union underwent a
shortages. Yuri Andropov argued that transition in international, political, and
modernisation could not be achieved economic sectors that many in the Soviet
without the removal of corrupt communist Union would have thought inconceivable
bureaucrats. just a few years previously.

194 Disintegration of the USSR

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Glasnost y Perestroika would fail unless Glasnost and

y Glasnost (Russian for “openness”) refers democratisation were adopted, Gorbachev
to Gorbachev’s more open government said on numerous occasions. Gorbachev
and cultural policy. Andrei Sakharov and overcame his opponents in a hotly contested
other dissidents were allowed to return to election in March 1989, and Congress chose
Moscow without fear of retaliation. Political him as President. Gorbachev pushed out
dissidents like Bukharin were declared changes to move the country out of economic
innocent. Similar approaches were taken stagnation, armed with broad powers not
for satellite states. just as General Secretary of the Communist
y Glasnost quickly manifested itself in sectors Party but also as Executive President.
such as human rights and culture. Several y Unfortunately, his broad changes had little
well-known dissidents were freed, and the chance of succeeding because people
Sakharovs were allowed to return to Moscow could not wait for lengthy periods of time.
after being interned in Gorky (December Despite the fact that people had enough
1986). Leaders like Bukharin, who were money to buy food and products, there was
discredited and killed during Stalin’s purges a scarcity of them.
in the 1930s, were pronounced guiltless. A y Glasnost: Russian word for openness
new rule was passed to prevent dissidents y Perestroika: Russian word for restructuring
from being transferred to mental facilities,
and Pravda was allowed to publish an Soviet Foreign Policy
article criticising Brezhnev for overreacting y Gorbachev attracted the attention of the
toward dissidents (January 1988). people of the whole world by introducing
sweeping changes in Soviet foreign policy.
Perestroika y He lost no time telling the world that
y Many economic ailments began to overwhelm the Soviet Union had no desire to spread
his government, including shortages of many Communism to other countries.
items (despite liberal imports), food scarcity y He rejected the Brezhnev doctrine and was
in several regions, high inflation, big federal ready to hold talks on reducing armaments
deficits, rising unemployment, and foreign and destroying nuclear weapons.
debt (100 billion roubles). y In 1985, he met President Reagan of the
y Gorbachev realised that it was better to US at the Geneva Summit (also called
put an end to the old economic system Superpower Summit), where both pledged
inherited from the past (the Stalinist not to wage nuclear or conventional wars.
centrally planned economy) and replace it y Gorbachev’s new thinking on foreign policy
with a market-oriented economy. issues took the world by surprise.
y He wanted to minimise the role of planners y After announcing his contempt for the US
in decision-making and in state-owned Star Wars programme, Gorbachev offered
firms, and instead allow private and wide concessions, putting the US in a
cooperative decision-making to take their quandary. His bold initiatives to save the
place. world from another nuclear holocaust took
y In basic terms, this process is known as the US and her allies totally surprised.
‘privatising and selling socialism.’ Because y In December 1989, President Bush responding
his changes were resisted by his party’s to the initiatives of Gorbachev, said, “Ours
hardcore conservatives, Gorbachev needed can be a future free of both tyranny and fear.”
the people’s support first and constitutional y Four summit meetings were held between
authority second. President Reagan and Gorbachev (Geneva,

Disintegration of the USSR 195

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Reykjavik, Washington, and Moscow) till y Gorbachev’s policy of losing eastern Europe
1989; all brought about the end of the Cold was very severely criticised, and his foreign
War and the elimination of intermediate minister, Shevardnadze, had to resign.
range ballistic and cruise missiles. y Gorbachev allowed the east European
y The most historic agreement was the one countries, all under communist rule, to
that was concluded in 1987 between the go their own way. The Soviet troops were
two superpowers, known as the INF Treaty withdrawn from these countries.
(Intermediate-range Nuclear Force), which
included the abolition of the use of specific Gorbachev’s Failure
nuclear weapons. The Soviet troops were y Unfortunately, Gorbachev was unable to
pulled out of Afghanistan by 1989. create the necessary conditions for Pere­
y Gorbachev appealed for building “a common stroika to succeed.
European home” that would be free from y He attempted for nearly five years to
fear and enjoy the benefits of economic persuade people to accept it with some
integration. This effort undermined the patience, claiming that there was no easy
importance of the developing world like way to turn a Stalin-style communist
India. economy into a market-oriented economy.
y The confrontation between the NATO and y Even the way it was introduced was
Warsaw Pact countries too ended. abrupt and not in stages. To ensure that
y During the UN session, which met to they could not be implemented due to
consider the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, some difficulties, decrees, statutes, and
the Soviet Union made frantic efforts to ordinances had to be passed (November
dissuade the Iraqi leader, Saddam Hussein, 1989 to July 1990). Confusion reigned
from taking a position of confrontation. supreme, and he hesitated until finally
y Gorbachev sent his personal envoy, Primakov, agreeing to a compromise. The pace of
to persuade Saddam Hussein to vacate his reform has slowed, and some key reforms
aggression, i.e., withdrew Iraqi troops from have yet to be implemented.
Kuwait, but Primakov’s mission failed. y Meanwhile, there was a food crisis, as well
y The Soviet Union had to join other powers as an increase in the costs of a variety of
to vote for military action against Iraq. For consumer products, as a result of poor
the first time, the two superpowers joined manufacturing and inadequate transportation,
in an action to prevent a Third World War which resulted in severe shortages in shops
from breaking out. The Soviet Union lost its and stores.
close friendship with Iraq. y Even when folks had money, they were
y The loss of eastern Europe, which was unable to purchase it. They had lost interest
earlier in the Soviet orbit, was undoubtedly and passion for Perestroika.
due to the demise of communism during y The workers’ strike brought the economy to
the last years of Gorbachev’s era. At the a standstill, and even imports from other
same time, there was the demise of the countries were unable to reach people
Warsaw Pact. across multiple regions.
y Gorbachev was ready to end the Soviet y The situation was chaotic, and conservative
hegemony over Eastern Europe, for this ideologies took advantage of it by staging a
would not only create better East-West coup on August 19, 1991.
relations but also remove the burden y It failed due to Boris Yeltsin’s opposition,
(military and economic) from the shoulders who organised public support in Moscow
of the Soviet Union. in front of the parliament, asking that the
y The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance coup leaders free Gorbachev, who had been
(CMEA) also came to an end in June 1991. imprisoned.

196 Disintegration of the USSR

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y Gorbachev’s incapacity to maintain control y The Russian Republic was affected by the
of the situation in the latter days of his Soviet Union’s independence movements,
presidency was partly attributable to the and Boris Yeltsin became a symbol of their
country’s fissiparous inclinations. Gorbachev hopes for liberty.
had no solution to the ethnic riots caused by y After his party secured a majority of seats
nationality issues. in the Russian Republic’s parliamentary
y His support for Glasnost allowed separatist elections, he declared the Russian Republic
sentiments to emerge. When the people of independent and sovereign.
Kazakhstan opposed the dismissal of their y As a result, the Soviet Union (USSR) was
president, his government was unable to rapidly crumbling, and Gorbachev was
take effective action. unable to stop it.
y During Stalin’s reign, the Balts and Crimean- y Other republics wanted independence.
tartars, who were subjected to brutal y Boris Yeltsin of the Russian Republic was
tyranny, staged protests in Moscow and hogging all the limelight, and he was losing
other towns. his charisma.
y Between the two World Wars, the Balts (the y Gorbachev ultimately presented a proposal
peoples of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia) for a new contract between the centre
claimed sovereign independent status for and the republics that would grant the
their countries, as well as the replacement republics more authority. As previously
of the official Russian language with their stated, the communist party’s hardliners
own. were frightened of losing power and struck
y The deadliest ethnic conflict in Soviet history on August 19, 1991.
occurred in 1988, when Azerbaijanis and y The attempt failed, and Gorbachev took
Armenians clashed over Nagorno-Karabakh, office after being held captive for a few
an Armenian enclave on Azerbaijani soil. days. The world leaders kept their fingers
y To put an end to the ethnic disturbances, crossed while the crisis in the Soviet Union
Soviet troops had to hurry in. The unfolded and breathed a sigh of relief when
communists suffered a crushing defeat in he was released from his incarceration.
the Baltic Republics elections, sparking a y On September 6, 1991, Gorbachev and Boris
pro-independence movement. Yeltsin agreed to political changes, and the
y In 1989, fighting broke out in the Ferghana state council, which replaced the cabinet,
Valley between Uzbeks and Meskhetian- recognised the independence of Lithuania,
Turks, forcing 50,000 people to flee to safer Estonia, and Latvia.
areas. Other ethnic confrontations occurred y The communist party’s downfall was
as well. foreshadowed by the coup leaders’ failed
y The majority of the Republics (fifteen) were attempts. Gorbachev spoke about a 500-
in political crisis by the end of 1989. day economic reform period.
y The nationwide miners’ strike contributed to y He had previously consented to Germany’s
the central government›s woes. Lithuania›s reunification and NATO membership in July
communist party chose to break links with 1990.
the centre and declare independence from y Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary
the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. of the Communist Party, and the Central
y Because he was frightened of negative Committee was abolished in August 1991.
world reactions, Gorbachev was unable to y Boris Yeltsin, the Russian president, blamed
take decisive action. He imposed economic the Communist Party for orchestrating the
sanctions, but they were ineffective because coup, and all communist party operations
other republics stepped in to save her. were suspended as a result.

Disintegration of the USSR 197

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y The official communist party newspaper 1980s, Lech Walesa’s charisma garnered
in Russia, Pravda, was shut down and worldwide attention and every fourth Pole
its assets seized, and communist party grew a moustache like him.
activities were outlawed in all republics. y The military junta in Poland, commanded
In August 1991, Estonia and Latvia were by General Jaruzelski, declared martial
recognised as independent states. Ukraine, law in December 1981, ostensibly to crush
Belarus, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan were solidarity. The Poles suffered greatly as a
all recognised as independent republics by result of the conflict between solidarity and
the end of 1991. the military regime, but Lech Walesa stood
y Gorbachev had previously asked the republics steady as a rock. The battle drew worldwide
to accept a new union contract that attention, eliciting widespread support for
would give them more autonomy and had Lech Walesa and condemnation of Poland’s
threatened to quit if they did not (Russia, authoritarian military government.
Kazakhstan and Kirghizia had already y Meanwhile, Gorbachev’s Perestroika and
agreed to a new treaty). Glasnost had a positive impact on Poland,
y Gorbachev resigned as President of the and General Jaruzelski was forced to begin
Soviet Union on December 25, 1991. (The talks with Solidarity’s leader after waves
following day, the Soviet Union ceased to of strikes in 1988. Prime Minister Rakowski
exist). acknowledged the government’s mistake by
y On December 21, 1991, the Commonwealth of claiming that the Roman Catholic Church
Independent States (Russia and eleven other had been unfairly targeted for backing the
former Soviet republics) was established. Solidarity movement. In Poland, the church
was given legal recognition.
Political Changes in Eastern y In the June elections of 1989, Solidarity
Europe (1989–2001) won a landslide victory, and the communist
government resigned. Lech Wałęsa of
Poland Solidarity nominated Tadeusz Mazowiecki
y Two factors that remained unique in to be the prime minister.
Poland’s history are the Catholic Church’s y The Polish army, too, agreed to support the
role and the politically conscious worker’s Solidarity-led government.
union. y The Polish economy was terrible, with
y Poland faced an economic crisis during the foreign debts amounting to the US $ 39-
1970s. There was a severe housing crisis, billion in the early nineties.
as well as a high percentage of worker y International institutions came forward
absenteeism and a food deficit. to help the Polish economy recover, and
y After thirty-five states signed the Helsinki President Walesa did his best to bring about
Accords, human rights activists and economic recovery.
intellectuals sought revisions to the 1952 y The market reforms in Poland brought
Polish Constitution, and the government about some improvements.
was forced to yield to pressure from human y However, Lech Walesa’s newly founded
rights activists and the Catholic Church. BBWR party (Bezpartyjny Blok Wspierania
y In July 1980, an increase in food prices Reform [Polish for “Nonpartisan Bloc
caused strikes, and the government settled for Support of Reforms”]) lost the 1993
them with a “promise of wage-increase”. parliamentary elections, and the former
y Solidarity, an autonomous trade union communists and leftists took over the reins
movement led by Lech Walesa, had a of the government.
membership of over 10-million workers, y Two years later, he lost the presidential
including 800,000 communists. In the election. A referendum was held in May

198 Disintegration of the USSR

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1997, wherein the people voted for a new y In the late 1980s, opposition to the
constitution to replace the Communist communist regime became more vehement,
Charter. particularly from the human rights activist
y Heavy rains caused floods in July 1997, groups and other intellectuals. Two other
regarded as one of the worst natural organisations, the ‘Civic Forum’ and ‘Public
disasters of the century. Poland was one of Against Violence’, joined a mass movement
the ten new countries inducted into the EU to oust the communist regime.
in 2004. y After the demise of the Soviet Union,
Czechoslovakia changed its name to the
Czechoslovakia Czech and Slovak Federative Republic. But
y Gustav Husak’s loyalty to the Soviet these two regions got separated and became
leadership was cent per cent. Therefore, he independent on 1 January 1993. A bitter
was asked to take over the leadership and dispute on the shape of post-communist
bring about ‘normalisation’ in the country reforms brought about the split. The Czech
following the 1968 revolt and subsequent Republic and Slovakia joined the EU in 2004.
Soviet invasion. The Brezhnev doctrine of
‘socialistic fraternal assistance’ was to be Hungary
implemented. y Janos Kadar, the man, nominated by the
y Husak followed “realistic socialism”, and Soviet Union (after the harsh suppression
the First Five Year Plan had a modest aim of the Hungarian revolution of 1956), was
to improve the people’s standard of living widely seen as a traitor who “betrayed the
during the period 1971–75. revolution and his country” by the majority
y The targets were no doubt achieved, but of Hungarians. He was Hungary›s ruler for
the country began to depend on other 32 years.
countries for oil and food grains from the y He succeeded in creating the ‘New Economic
Soviet Union (when harvests were poor). Mechanism,’ an economic miracle. Despite
y Gustav Husak was re-elected in May 1980 various political and economic constraints
by the Czech Parliament as President for imposed by the Soviet Union, he accomplished
the second term. this feat. In 1968, he began his “Limited
y After the oil crisis of 1973 and the Yom Liberalisation” with some decentralisation of
Kippur War, Czechoslovakia’s economy decision-making, “a more reasonable pricing
turned worse. The surplus budget turned system,” and a provision for the market to
into a deficit. play a role.
y Husak imposed heavy censorship, and the y The New Economic Mechanism aimed to
dissidents and intellectuals were thrown produce a socialist society “with a bourgeoisie
out of jobs or forced into exile. Human face”.
rights activists were persecuted. y The economic changes resulted in the birth
y The noted playwright Vaclav Havel and other of the middle class, which reaped numerous
Czechs started a ‘Charter 77’ movement benefits. Kadar’s Hungary attempted to
after being encouraged by the Helsinki depoliticise its citizenry in order to reduce
Accords. He appealed to the government to resistance to economic changes. The basic
obey its own laws first. goal of Kadar’s approach was to establish an
y From the late 1970s to the mid-80s, the environment in which the communist party
Czech economy deteriorated, and popular could maintain its grip on power. Second, to
dissatisfaction rose. Living standards dec­ stick to the Soviet Union’s previous strategy
lined, and economic inefficiency increased. of keeping faithful.
There was a popular outcry for economic y Gorbachev’s changes in the Soviet Union
reforms. had implications in Hungary. They were

Disintegration of the USSR 199

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indirectly responsible for the fall of Kadar’s y With Gorbachev coming to power in the
dictatorship. Miklos Nemeth was chosen Soviet Union, his policy of Perestroika and
as Prime Minister, and Kadar was named Glasnost encouraged East Germans to go
President of the Communist Party, a strictly to the West. In the meantime, Hungary
ceremonial position. Kadar›s demise can also opened its borders to the East Germans to
be related to the collapse of the economic go to Austria and then to West Germany.
system, which in the 1980s, particularly in y Popular movements in East Germany
an era of technological transformation, was demanded an open border with West
unable to deliver the goods. As a result, Germany and also reunification with her.
reforms are being demanded. y Gorbachev’s visit to East Germany in
y Kadar lost most of his support as a result October 1989 and the leadership change
of imprisoning communists who advocated (Honecker fell ill and Egon Krenz replaced
reforms. The imprisoned communist refor­ him) brought about sweeping changes.
mers then set out to depose him from his y For the first time, the leadership consulted
powerful position. When the Gorbachev the church and agreed to the demolition of
period in the Soviet Union began, they were the Berlin Wall a symbol of the Cold War.
successful. y East Germans were permitted to go to West
y Elections were held in 1990, and fifty-two Germany to visit their relatives and friends
parties voted for a democratic parliament, with, a choice of coming back.
the country’s second after a forty-two- y There was talk of reunifying Germany or the
year hiatus. Jozsef Antall, the leader of the idea of a German confederation. Gorbachev
Hungarian Democratic Forum, was sworn allowed east European socialist countries
in as Hungary›s prime minister. Since the to choose their own way, and East Germany
early 1990s, successive governments have demanded unification with West Germany.
worked to integrate the country›s economy y West German leader Kohl agreed.
with the global economy. y The reunification took place on 3rd October
1990, after forty-five-years of separation.
The German Democratic
Republic (East Germany) Romania
y East Germany was founded in 1949 after the y Romania is located in Europe’s centre region.
establishment of West Germany (known as It was established in 1859. Following WWII,
the Federal Republic of Germany). Known she became one of the Soviet Union’s satellite
as GDR (German Democratic Republic), states. The Romanian Communist Party (RCP)
East Germany declared itself socialist and followed the Stalinist model of economic
entered into the orbit of socialist countries reforms for economic development under
led by the Soviet Union. the leadership of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej.
y Although she remained a satellite of the y Even after the denunciation of Stalin in
Soviet Union, her economic progress was the 1950s (Khrushchev’s era in the Soviet
remarkable. She became one of the top- Union), Romania continued the Stalinist
ranking industrial states in the world. model under Nicolae Ceaușescu, who
Although the western countries of Europe succeeded Gheorghe in 1965.
influenced her ideologically, she was close y His highly authoritarian and centralised
to the Soviet Union and followed her diktat. regime continued for the next quarter of a
The Berlin Wall was erected in 1961, i.e., century.
when the Cold War was in full swing. The y There arose the cult of personality, and
GDR became dependent on the Soviet Romania made rapid progress under his
Union. regime, particularly from 1965-to 1975.

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y Romania was transformed from an agrarian ruled by a non-communist government

state to an industrial one with an 8.6 per the next year. In April 1997, the Union of
cent increase in the national income. Democratic Forces, which was recognised
y Ceausescu described Romania as a for its reformist zeal, scored a landslide
“Socialist developing state” and adopted victory in legislative elections. Bulgaria
economic reforms known as the ‘New joined the European Union in 2007.
Economic Mechanism’. However, after early
decades of progress, Romania could not Yugoslavia
make enough progress despite carrying out y Tito’s Yugoslavia was composed of six
structural adjustments under this scheme. republics and two autonomous provinces.
y Under Ceausescu’s dictatorship, people in After his quarrel with Stalin, Tito introduced
general and the ethnic minority, particularly decentralised Communism in his country
Hungarians, suffered great hardships. and accepted aid from Western countries.
y Ceausescu persecuted the ethnic minority. He followed liberal economic policies and
y He never allowed democracy to grow and dealt with a firm hand, the rise of Croatian
therefore became unpopular. nationalism.
y His ruthless persecution provoked the people y Tito maintained strict neutrality during the
to revolt, and this began with a few hundred Cold War and superpower rivalry. He joined
courageous Hungarians demonstrating in the Non-Aligned Movement of the Third
Timisoara city in 1989. World countries and kept in close touch
y In 1990, the National Salvation Front formed with great leaders like India’s then prime
the government. minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Nasser of
Egypt. Although he was close to the West
Bulgaria and Third World countries, Tito tried to
y Bulgaria, located in south-eastern Europe, maintain friendly relations with the Soviet
is a little-known country. In 681 AD, the Union. Tito desired East-West detente.
state was established, and in 1944, it was y The death and end of Tito’s dictatorship
renamed the Socialist Republic. brought Yugoslavia a host of problems. The
y Todor Zhivkov’s communist regime (1954– political arrangement began to fall apart, and
89) performed a superb job of developing the economic system developed many cracks
Bulgaria into an industrial state, but the since Yugoslavia desired to be accepted
benefits of industrialisation did not reach as a member of the European Community.
the common people. He was uninterested Centrifugal tendencies started to operate.
in liberalising policies and the economy in The eight parties and governments in the
order to keep up with the times. As a result country had not been appropriately welded,
of his regime›s suppression of all criticism, and each party enjoyed the power of veto.
protest movements arose, resulting in Regional needs became more important
fights with the police. than the common good.
y In Bulgaria, the pro-democracy movement
grew commonplace, and the reforming Timeline of Disintegration of the
communist government implemented Soviet Union
structural economic reforms in the spirit of y 1985 March, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected
Perestroika, Glasnost, and democratisation. as the General Secretary of the Communist
y After four decades of communist Party of the Soviet Union; appoints Boris
domination, the country held its first free Yeltsin as the head of the Communist Party
elections in 1990, with an eleven-member in Moscow; initiates a series of reforms in
president taking power. The country was the Soviet Union

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y 1988: Independence movement begins in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and

Lithuania; later spreads to Estonia and Uzbekistan joined the CIS (Georgia joined
Latvia later in 1993); Russia took over the USSR
y 1989 October: the Soviet Union declares seat in the United Nations
that the Warsaw Pact members are free to y 1991 25 December: Gorbachev resigns as
decide their own futures; Berlin Wall falls in the President of the Soviet Union; the end
November of the Soviet Union.
y 1990 February: Gorbachev strips the Soviet
Communist Party of its 72-year-long monopoly Conclusion
on power by calling on the Soviet parliament The dissolution of the Soviet Union led to
(Duma) to permit multiparty politics a period of global dominance by the United
y 1990 March: Lithuania becomes the first States. Following the fall of the Soviet Union,
of the 15 Soviet republics to declare its countries like India maintained cordial relations
independence with Russia and supported the vision of a
y 1990 June: Russian parliament declares its multipolar international order. Following the
independence from the Soviet Union breakup of the Soviet Union in December 1991,
y 1991 June: Yeltsin, no longer in the Russian President Boris Yeltsin continued to
Communist Party, becomes the President pursue a strategy of close co-operation with
of Russia the United States and the West, prompting calls
y 1991 August: The Communist Party for a “pragmatic revival” of ties with India. The
hardliners stage an abortive coup against Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation between
Gorbachev India and Russia was signed during Yeltsin›s
y 1991 September: Three Baltic republics of visit to India in 1993. It took the place of the
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania become UN Treaty of Peace, friendship, and cooperation,
members (later join NATO in March 2004) signed in 1971. Another notable achievement
y 1991 December: Russia, Belarus and was the agreement on loans and exchange
Ukraine decide to annul the 1922 Treaty on rates between the ruble and the Indian rupee.
the Creation of the USSR and establish the A treaty on military co-operation was also inked,
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); and over US opposition, Yeltsin confirmed that
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kazakhstan, India would get cryogenic rocket engines.

202 Disintegration of the USSR

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Chinese Revolution (1946–49)

13 and Korean War
Introduction Background

The end of World War II shifted the international y The last Manchu emperor of China was
balance of power and created a bipolar world overthrown in 1911, and a republic was
led by two competing superpowers, i.e., the established. The period between 1916 to
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and 1928 is well-known as the Warlord Era. This
The United States (US). After the Second World was one of great chaos, as several generals
War, some of the other significant events were seized control of different provinces.
the Chinese Revolution, the Korean war, the
Unification of Europe, and Arab nationalism.

Chinese Revolution of 1911:

y In 1911, China’s dynastic rule came to an end. This event has been dubbed a revolution
by historians. The collapse of the monarchy was a huge political event, but the Chinese
people did not notice much of a difference as a result of the 1911 Revolution. Nonetheless,
many events and changes occurred between 1911 and 1919 that had a long-term impact.
Political turmoil, instability, and fragmentation characterised this time, resulting in the
development of warlords who threatened the Chinese nation’s unity.
y The Chinese Revolution of 1911 has often been considered ‘superficial’ as it produced no
social transformation, leave aside from a social revolution. Still, it brought about some
changes like the end of the universal kingship, the fragmentation and militarisation of
power and authority, the loss of moral authority on many levels of that society, and
the conclusive insecurity of local holders of power and wealth - both old and new, and
the failure of the new republic to establish its own bases of legitimacy. A new culture
emerged in China immediately after the Revolution of 1911, where the crucial role was
played by intellectuals, students, the university etc.

y The Kuomintang (KMT), or Nationalists, create a new power base in northern China
attempted to govern China and control the after escaping from surrounding KMT forces.
generals, who were engaged in a civil war. y The civil war lingered on, worsened by
Dr Sun Yat-sen and, after his death in 1925, Japanese meddling, until 1937, when it
General Chiang Kai-Shek led the KMT. culminated in a full-scale invasion.
y In 1921, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) “The Chinese Civil War from 1946–49 was one of
was established. It first aided the KMT in the big struggles of modern times.” 
their fight against the warlords. As the KMT  —John K. Fairbank.
gained control of more and more of China,
it began to disregard the communists’ Causes of the Chinese Revolution
assistance and attempted to destroy them.
y The communists, led by Mao Zedong (Mao Social Cause
Tse-tung) retaliated vehemently. They y Chinese society was based on a hierarchical
began on the 6000-mile Long March to structure where the upper classes enjoyed

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higher living standards. Peasants lived in the Manchu emperor. He sought to build
poverty, and their empathetic conditions a modern, unified, and prosperous China
increased as a series of droughts and bad and forged a cooperative alliance with
harvests occurred in the 1930s resulting in the Communist party for this purpose.
famines. However, after Sun-Yat-Sen died in 1924,
y Aid from America was provided to the the empire broke up into small states
officials due to the corruption of the KMT under warlords, usually previous army
administration. generals. They controlled a more significant
y The process of modernisation began in 1911 part of the nationalist government that was
when followers of Sun-Yat-Sen overthrew established previously.

Fig. 13.1 Timeline

Economic Cause war, the communists maintained a series of

y The administration also funded the wars treaties with the Japanese.
by printing extra money, which resulted in y The origins of the revolution were embedded
inflation. in Marxist beliefs. Mao and the communist
y Under the rule of the warlords, taxes were Party wanted to establish equal status among
being demanded in advance and led families the people, eliminating the bourgeoisie. They
to poverty. sought to increase industry and make that
the focus of the economy.
Political Cause y The process of revolution began after they
y As Chiang attempted to reorganise China, defeated the KMT and nationalists. Russia
the Japanese annexed Manchuria and, gave its support to the communists, while
in 1932, attacked Shanghai and captured the nationalists were supported by the
Jehol. By 1937, Chiang was able to keep a United States.
truce with the Japanese until Japan gave y The Cultural Revolution persuaded Maoists
full-scale efforts to conquer China. to believe in inequality between the
y Although half of China had fallen to the classes. The red guards favoured Mao, and
Japanese by this time, they were able to a personality cult grew around Mao as well.
alleviate the lines from 1938 to 1945. The y The goals of the revolution were not met
Chinese were treated badly, and during the as the Great Leap failed to create an

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industrialised economy. Classes remained capable and self-assured enough to face

and were unable to establish communes. numerous problems in the future.
y With overwhelming support from rural areas,
Causes of Communist Victory Mao could depose Chiang’s government in
y A full assessment of the factors that China by sheer faith, philosophy, and drive. The
contributed to the communists’ Civil War Kuomintang army, led by Chiang, was forced
victory will uncover several failings of the to depart the country due to circumstances.
US-backed Chiang government. While his
government was able to survive in China The Course of the Revolution
thanks to the support of the urban middle y When the Japanese were defeated in WWII
class, he was unable to garner significant and forced to retreat from China, the KMT
support from the rural districts. and the CCP continued to fight for control
⚪ Chiang’s Nationalist government was of the country.
more concerned with appeasing the y The Soviet Union invaded and occupied
urban middle class than with enacting Manchuria in August 1945, capturing all
a specific plan to alleviate the misery factories, products, and rolling stock. They
of the rural masses. There were few also sent the majority of Mao’s Communists
measures enacted to help them improve to Manchuria and conscripted a large
their situation. portion of the people in order to boost their
y Millions of peasants had suffered immense numbers. They left behind massive amounts
agony as a result of drought and misrule, and of military equipment for him.
they had no love for Chiang’s government. y Although the United States aided General
⚪ The 1929 economic depression exacer­ Chiang Kai-Shek, Mao and the communists
bated their predicament. When the rank eventually triumphed in 1949. Chiang and
and file of the rural districts joined the his allies escaped to Taiwan, a small island
communists, the government lost its off the coast of China (Formosa). Mao
main source of support. Furthermore, Zedong took control of China quickly and
the Kuomintang administration was remained in power until his death in 1976.
riddled with corruption. y The KMT (also known as the Chinese
y Third, the Japanese invasion of Manchuria Nationalist Party) had rapidly lost support,
exposed the government’s complete incom­ and the communists gained popularity.
petence and inefficiency. To add insult to They organised effective guerrilla campaigns
injury, Chiang refused to seek communist against the Japanese, but they also
assistance in dealing with the Japanese restrained land policy which varied
threat. according to the needs of particular areas.
⚪ Because of their offer of assistance in They freed several regions from the control
the most severe conditions, it became of the warlords, and as they did all of this,
clear that the communists were more they enforced communist ideals and won
patriotic than the Nationalist Party. For people over to their side. Chiang’s forces
several of his blunders, Chiang Kai Shek moved into Manchuria.
had to pay a high price.
y Mao proved to be a great and charismatic The Aftermath of the Revolution
leader of the masses on the communist side. y After the revolution of 1945, China was
His outstanding leadership and popularity left with a strong centralised government
prevailed even after the “Long March”. He under the communist party of China set up
represented the emergence of a New China by Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai.

Chinese Revolution (1946–49) and Korean War 205

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y At first, he received Russian advice and aid, y Encouraged by Gorbachev’s glasnost policy
but in the late 1950s, relations cooled, and in the USSR, student protests began in
Russian economic assistance was reduced. Tiananmen Square in Beijing in April 1989.
In 1958 Mao introduced the ‘Great Leap They demanded democracy and an end to
Forward.’ corruption in the communist party.
y The emphasis on decentralisation, agri­ y The army was instated on the 3rd and 4th
culture, communes and contact with the June, killing hundreds and restoring the
masses. communists in power. Until then, China was
y With the Cultural Revolution (1966–9), under a communist regime.
Mao tried successfully to crush opposition
within the Party and keep China developing
Effects
along Marxist-Leninist lines.
y Along with a new government, China also y The Chinese Revolution of 1949 was
held extreme poverty and starvation along triggered by an effort by the Soviets to
with incredible population growth. expand communism. Before the Revolution,
y The territories under the landlords were China had been under Manchu rule, and
freed and incorporated into the Chinese due to the resistance to adopting foreign
republic. innovations, the Chinese lost many of
y The communists declared themselves the the qualities that made them Chinese. To
ruling Party of China and ignored Taiwan. an extent, the Manchu rulers were more
For this reason, Taiwan is not a separate Chinese than the Chinese.
country, but they have two separate govern­ y Because of this rule, China was unable to
ments. modernise itself. The Chinese economy was
y As a result, the Communist party’s rule was overshadowed by agriculture, and crafts
a disaster and led to the death of millions were practised with primitive and outdated
while they were isolated from the rest of techniques. Heavy revenue burdens were
the world. imposed on the peasants who worked.
y It was not until the 1970s that new leaders y When someone asked Mao what the effects
gained control and started making more of the French Revolution were on history,
rational and economically sound policies. he answered correctly by saying, “we don’t
The People’s Republic of China took know yet” (the origin/authenticity of this
Taiwan’s seat in the United Nations and quote is dubious). This is true, but these
eventually opened up to foreign countries are the effects we know.
and allowed more free-market trade. y The Chinese Communist Revolution, led by
y The Chinese government opposes the Chairman Mao Zedong and the Communist
independence of Taiwan and China remains Party of China, resulted in the formation of
communist as the Communist Party does the People’s Republic of China on October 1,
not want to lose control. 1949. After the Second Sino-Japanese War
y Among the warlords was Chiang-Kai-Shek, (1937–1945), the Revolution began in 1946
who began reuniting the empire, but the and was the second phase of the Chinese
Communists under Mao-Tse-Tung resisted Civil War (1945–49). The War of Liberation is
the unification of China under Chiang-Kai- the name given to the revolutionary period
Shek. in China.
y After Mao’s death in 1976, there emerged a y The four-years (1945–49) marked a period of
power struggle from which Deng Xiaoping civil war between the forces of the Kuomintang
emerged as an undisputed leader (1981). and the communists. The civil war ended

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with the victory of the Communists. A new historian Jack Gray claimed in 1970, when
regime based on peoples’ democracy was Mao was still alive, that “the redistribution
thus established in China. of China’s land was carried out with a
remarkable degree of attention to legality
HOW SUCCESSFUL WAS MAO IN and the minimum of physical violence
DEALING WITH CHINA’S PROBLEMS? against landlords,” he claimed that “the
redistribution of China’s land was carried
Problems Faced by Mao out with a remarkable degree of attention
The complex problems faced by Mao are- to legality and the minimum of physical
y The country was shattered after the long violence against landlords.”
civil war and the war with Japan: railways, y By 1956, whatever the methods were
roads, canals and dykes had been destroyed. utilised, around 95% of all peasants who
y There were chronic food shortages. The survived were on collective farms with joint
backwardness of the industry and ineffi­ ownership of the farm and its equipment.
ciency in agriculture was creating economic
hindrances. Industrial Changes
y Uncontrolled inflation was another major y The government began by nationalising most
problem. firms, and in 1953, it launched a Five-Year
y To hold his position, it was essential for him Plan aimed at expanding heavy industries
to improve the scenario. including iron, steel, chemicals, and coal.
y Mao looked at Stalin’s methods and y Russia aided the scheme with funds,
experimented in his own way; the Chinese equipment, and experts, and it was partially
approach. China today is very much of his successful. On the other hand, it could be
creation. Some changes were made, such as stated that under Mao’s leadership, the
country had recovered from the horrors of
Political Changes
the wars: entire communications had been
y The National People’s Congress was restored, inflation had been controlled, and
made the final authority for legislation. Its the economy was looking much stronger.
members were elected for four years by
people above the age of 18. The Cultural Revolution
y The State Council has to choose the
y In 1966, Mao Zedong launched the Cultural
Political Bureau (PolitBuro).
Revolution in China in order to reclaim
y Party members could contest the election.
control of the Chinese government.
y The whole system was no doubt dominated
y Considering that existing communist leaders
Communist Party, but it also had peoples’
were captivating the Party and China itself
participation.
in the wrong direction, Mao Zedong called
on the nation’s youth to purge the “impure”
Agricultural Changes
elements of Chinese society and revive the
y China was transformed from a country of revolutionary spirit that had led to victory
tiny, inefficient private farms to a country of in the civil war 20 years earlier and the
huge cooperative farms, similar to those in formation of the People’s Republic of China.
Russia (1950–6), as a result of agricultural y The Cultural Revolution continued in
improvements. The land was removed various phases until Mao died in 1976, and
from rich landowners and redistributed its tormented and violent legacy would
among peasants in the first stage, likely resonate in Chinese politics and society for
with violence in some locations. Although decades to come.

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The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1957) They ran their own communal farms
y It seems to some extent to have developed and enterprises, performed the majority
out of industrialisation, which produced a of the commune’s local governance
vast new class of technicians and engineers. tasks, and worked on specific regional
y The party cadres (groups who organised the initiatives.
masses politically and economically - the ⚪ In 1965, for example, a typical commune
collectivisation of the farms, for example, had 30000 individuals, of which one-
was carried out by the cadres) believed that third were children in school, one-
this new class of experts would threaten third were women or the elderly, and
their authority. the remainder were workers. It had 32
y Feeling pleased with its progress so far, graduates and 43 technicians on its
the government decided that an open science team.
discussion of the troubles might improve ⚪ Each household earned a portion of the
relationships between cadres and experts. revenues as well as a little private patch
Mao said, ‘Let a hundred flowers bloom, of land. Instead of aspiring for large-
and a hundred schools of thought contend. scale enterprises in the USSR and the
Sadly, he got more than he had anticipated West, considerably smaller industries
as critics attacked: in the countryside were established
⚪ The cadres for incompetence and over- to provide agricultural machinery.
enthusiasm; Mao spoke of 600,000 “backyard steel
⚪ The government for over-centralisation; furnaces” rising up, which would be
⚪ The Communist Party for being organised and directed by communes,
undemocratic; and would be used to create roads,
⚪ Some have recommended that oppo­ canals, dams, reservoirs, and irrigation
sition parties be allowed. channels.
y Mao quickly called off the campaign and shut ⚪ The Great Leap could collapse due to
down his critiques, claiming that his ideas hostility to communes, a succession
were correct. The campaign demonstrated of poor harvests (1959–61), and the
how strong the hostility to communism and disappearance of all Russian aid
its illiterate cadres remained. It persuaded following the rift between Russia and
Mao that a drive was required to consolidate China. All of this, along with the cadres’
socialism’s growth, thus he launched the lack of expertise, resulted in misery in
‘Great Leap Forward’ in 1958. the years 1959–63; it was later revealed
estimated that approximately 20-million
The Great Leap Forward people perished prematurely as a result
of hardships, particularly the devastating
y Mao argued that in order to solve China’s
famine of 1959–60 precipitated by
problems, something fresh and unique, not
the Great Leap. After the death of
based on Russian precedent, was required.
Mao, China has seen a power struggle,
y The Great Leap Forward necessitated further
dramatic policy changes, radical reforms,
crucial breakthroughs in both industry and
modernisation etc.
agriculture to boost output and adapt
industry to Chinese circumstances.
y Its most crucial features were: Korean War (1950–1953)
⚪ The establishment of communes, which Korea is an East Asian peninsula with a strategic
were entities bigger than collective location. Its neighbours include Russia, China,
farms, with populations of up to 75000 and Japan. Following WWII (1945), the US, a
people split into brigades and teams distant country, became engaged in Korean
and governed by an elected council. affairs for strategic purposes.

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Background y On September 8, 1945, the United States

y WWII ended, and the outcomes of both began its military invasion of southern
wars indicated that the old order had died. Korea.
The French, British, and smaller powers y Due to the worsening of Soviet-American
were on their way to demise (although their ties in Europe, neither side was eager to
influence is so far indelible). The Japanese reach an agreement in Korea.
Empire (which had included Korea in a y It became clear following the Moscow
relationship almost as close as the British Conference in December 1945, when
had been to Ireland) was completely gone. the United States and the Soviet Union
y On the other hand, the Soviet Union and her tried to enact a renewed trusteeship
client states had reached their high-water arrangement.
mark, without which the splits would develop y The US took the Korean conflict to the
later in what Churchill (correctly) called the UN, which passed a resolution late in
“Bolshevik Conspiracy”. The United States 1947 calling for internationally monitored
had not yet developed the cold war policy elections to choose a government to lead
and had almost taken forces in Japan. a united Korea.
y Prior to 1941, the US had no important y In May 1948, the UN-monitored and
interests in Korea, but after the attack approved valid democratic elections in the
on Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt and South alone, resulting in the establishment
his advisors understood the peninsula’s of the Republic of Korea (ROK), generally
strategic significance. known as South Korea, in August.
y Late in 1943, Roosevelt signed the Cairo y In September, the USSR retaliated by
Declaration with British Prime Minister endorsing the establishment of the
Winston Churchill and Chinese Generalissimo Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
(commander of a combined military force (DPRK), also known as North Korea.
that includes army, navy, and air force units) y There were now two Koreas, with President
Chiang Kaishek, stating that the Allies “are Syngman Rhee in the South establishing
determined that in due course Korea shall a brutal, autocratic, and anti-communist
become free and independent.” state. Simultaneously, wartime guerrilla
y At the Yalta Conference in early 1945, Stalin leader Kim Il Sung upheld in the North the
proposed a four-power trusteeship in Korea. dictatorial Stalinist paradigm of political,
y With the election of Harry S. Truman, as economic, and social growth.
President, the USSR’s advance in Eastern y In response to the DPRK’s request, the USSR
Europe became concerning. withdrew its military from North Korea in
y Truman anticipated that an atomic strike December 1948.
on Japan would prevent the Soviet Union y South Korea’s new administration was met
from entering the Pacific War and allow the with immediate and violent resistance,
United States to occupy Korea unilaterally. culminating in the You-Suncheon Rebellion
However, his thought couldn’t come true. in October 1948.
y Stalin announced war on Japan and y Despite intentions to retreat from the
dispatched the Red Army into Korea on South by 1948, Truman postponed troops’
August 8, 1945. removal until June 29, 1949.
y Stalin’s support of Truman’s eleventh-hour y In the spring of 1949, US military advisors
suggestion to split the peninsula into Soviet oversaw the upgrading of the ROK army’s
and American zones of military control fighting capabilities. Militant South Korean
spared Korea from communist tyranny at officers began launching attacks northward
the 38th parallel. across the 38th parallel that summer. These

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attacks sparked significant border battles y The cold war was now seriously on, with
with the North Korean military. the Soviet Union and the Western allies (led
y The US formally joined the Korean War on by the United States) jockeying worldwide.
June 25, 1950. y A former radical student turned revolutionary
y The United States aided the Republic named Ho Chi Minh started looking to the
of Korea (also known as South Korea) Soviet Union and China rather than the
in resisting an attack by the Democratic United States in his war against the French
People’s Republic of Korea (commonly and then against the South Vietnamese.
called North Korea). y North Korea is now poorer than the greater
y On a more local front, the United Nations Korea was under Japanese over-lordship.
had essentially ceded the most valuable y Douglas MacArthur would never be
parts of the country to the communists. President. (This has a profound influence
The Soviet Union and the new Red China on American history.)
sensed weakness and a lack of readiness
among the Western Allies.
⚪ The United States was the dominant Kanghwa Treaty and Tanghak Rebellion
partner in this war. Still, it really was y Japan forced Korea. To sign a treaty
a coalition, with heroic and notable of friendship and trade in 1876, which
support from the Canadians, British, is known as the Kanghwa Treaty.
French, Turks and even tiny Luxembourg y The foreign intervention and
providing forces (actually, the French exploitation after the Kanghwa
and Commonwealth components were Treaty added to the woes of the
some of the best units of the war). Korean masses.
y Therefore, it was not long before the North y The government remained silent.
Koreans, then a satellite of the Soviet Consequently, deep-seated resentment
Union, decided to invade. The fact that this against the corrupt and oppressive
would test the resolve of the western allies order arose and exploded in the form
in the far more crucial region of the Eastern of a peasant revolt in 1894, known as
frontier was a good bonus. the Tanghak Rebellion.
y Unaccounted, millions died due to the war,
with the communists getting the bulk of the
deaths. Some of which could have been, for What Was the Korean War?
instance, potential future geniuses (Salk), y It began on June 25, 1950, with 90,000
criminals (Bundy), dictators (Hitler), madmen North Korean troops invading South Korea.
(Albert Fish) or playwrights (Moliere). y This happened during a conversation about
y The Soviet influence in Asia was dramatically the next stage of US foreign policy.
weakened, with a corresponding weakness y Many in Washington were in favour of a
in Europe. rearmament programme to hold communism
y The Red Chinese were correspondingly worldwide, as shown in NSC-68.
strengthened, and the much-weakened y Truman realised that if he fails to take
North became a Chinese satellite state any action, then the credibility of the
(instead of a Soviet one.) containment policy of US policy would be
y American influence in the region expanded severely undermined.
dramatically, with the then desperately y As a result, the United States rushed aid
impoverished South Korea and still to South Korea and petitioned the United
recovering Japan into an economic Nations to authorise military action against
powerhouse in only a few short years. North Korea.

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y The United Nations passed a resolution y Pyongyang and the remainder of North
imposing military sanctions on North Korea Korea were reclaimed in December 1950,
on June 27, 1950. with huge losses for UN troops.
y The Soviet Union was boycotting the
Security Council after the United States Stage Four
refused to recognise Communist China, y War came down to a stalemate along the
and it had little said in the matter. 38th parallel.
y Forces from the United States and 15 other y Truman reverted to the ‘containment’
nations arrived on July 1, 1950, commanded approach, but MacArthur objected and
by UN Commander Douglas MacArthur. threatened China with nuclear weapons.
y Got the US to accept the recommendations y Truman relieved McArthur.
in document NSC68 Raise the budget of the y 1951 Peace talks started.
military. y 1953 Peace efforts resumed, and an
y The Cold War escalated into a worldwide agreement was signed in July at Panmunjom.
conflict, and the United States sought to
oppose communism in both European and Causes of the Korean War
Asian countries. y Failure to reunite Korea after WWII.
y The superpowers agreed to partition Korea
Events in Korean War
temporarily and share responsibilities for
The war began as a movement war, with repatriating Japanese troops.
dramatic changes in the first year, followed by y The 38th parallel served as a dividing line
a stalemate that lasted until 1953. between the USSR to the north and the
United States to the south.
Stage First - North Korean Invasion
y In December 1945, the Council of Foreign
y Apart from Pusan, North Korea has taken Ministers met in Moscow, and the US
control of nearly the whole Korean peninsula and the USSR publicly decided to form
(a small pocket of land in the South-East). an interim authority in Korea that would
ultimately lead to independence.
Stage Two - UN Counter-Attack y Independence was never attained, and the
y MacArthur commanded UN forces to invade Cold War made superpowers less likely to
Inchon, hoping to split the North Korean cooperate, resulting in separate types of
forces in half. Within a month, MacArthur government on both sides. In the South,
regained Seoul and drove the North Koreans Syngman Rhee was chosen as an anti-
back to the 38th parallel. communist, while the USSR supported a
y The US followed a ‘rollback’ policy, with the communist faction led by Kim Il Sung in the
intention of entering North Korean territory North. Both opposed the Japanese and tried
and reuniting Korea. Pyongyang was seized to end Korea’s divide. The US urged the UN
in October. to establish a committee to supervise the
Korean elections.
Stage Three - Chinese Counter-Attack y Denied admission to the North but saw a
y Despite the Chinese warnings, MacArthur parallel election in the South in May 1948.
opted to push on to the Chinese border at y The Republic of Korea (ROK), led by
the Yalu River. Syngman Rhee, was created in the south.
y On November 27, 1950, more than 200,000 The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
Chinese troops and 150,000 North Korean (DPRK), created by Kim Il Sung and recognised
troops forced UN forces to the back of the as a Communist Bloc by the United Nations
bus. General Assembly in September 1948, was

Chinese Revolution (1946–49) and Korean War 211

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undemocratic and anti-Communist. Korea’s y Kim convinced Mao that Stalin was more
persistent separation stemmed from the enthusiastic. Mao was eager to win Stalin’s
failure to form a single Korean government. support and prepared for his assault on
Each side claimed to speak for Korea, and Taiwan.
each leader professed a desire to bring the y Mao finally agreed to authorise the attack
country together. on the South.

The United States’ Part Effects of the Korean War

y Both superpowers started to withdraw y The Korean War not only resulted in
troops. tremendous numbers of casualties and
y Soviet forces retreated from the north in property but also slowed free-market
1948. economic progress and democratisation.
y By mid-1949, all US troops had left the y Inflation generated by increasing national
country. expenditures and currency issued during
y Dean Acheson’s ‘perimeter’ speech in the conflict led to a dramatic rise in prices.
January 1950 said that the US would not y Moreover, industrial infrastructure built
commit troops to mainland Asia and that during the colonial era had been completely
the withdrawal of troops had left a power demolished.
vacuum in Korea, which could lead to y As a result, South Korea was obliged to
hostile relations between the two Koreas. depend on economic support from the
United States.
The Role of Kim Il Sung
y Kim Sung and Syngman Rhee both wanted Effects on the USA
to reunify Korea on their own terms, but y The Korean War heightened US fears of
neither was successful. more Soviet aggression.
y Kim Il Sung attempted to convince Stalin to y NSC-68 budget-cutting measures were
support a South Korean invasion. adopted.
y Both Kim Il Sung and Syngman Rhee y NATO, with additional members Greece,
decided to reunify Korea on their own terms Turkey, and, finally, West Germany, bolstered
- neither side was able to do so. Kim Il Sung US strength.
attempted to convince Stalin to support an y The war served as a catalyst for new
assault on the South. policies to be developed and accepted. In
1952 US and Japan signed the Treaty of San
The Role of Stalin Francisco; Allowed the US to build military
y Stalin gradually started to support war plans bases in Japan and the USA to rebuild the
in 1950, when he became more confident Japanese economy.
about winning a Communist victory in y While aiming to isolate China, the US
China and the construction of the USSR’s increased its assistance for Chiang Kai-
first atomic bomb. Shek in Taiwan.
y Stalin’s regional control was threatened by y Thailand, Pakistan, Philippines, the
the rise of an anti-communist Japan. Stalin US, the UK, Australia, France, and New
was able to increase his control after his Zealand founded the anti-communist
successful invasion of South Korea. confinement bloc South-East Asia Treaty
Organisation (SEATO) in 1954. Korea’s
The Mao Zedong’s Role Impact Approximately 300,000 people died,
y Despite Mao’s early reservations about and property damage was a significant
the invasion’s achievement, Kim Il Sung difficulty. The peninsula was forever split,
received China’s support. with little prospect of reconciliation.

212 Chinese Revolution (1946–49) and Korean War

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y The 38th parallel became the new defeated y South-East Asia’s Impact: The Korean
frontier of the Cold War; North Korea was War was poised by the US to contain
under a Communist regime; South Korea communism in Asia; Asia was now a Cold
formed itself into a successful democratic War theatre.
as well as a capitalist-oriented nation. y Nationalist countries such as Vietnam,
Malaysia, Cambodia, and the Philippines
Effects on China desired liberation from imperial powers.
y After the war, China’s reputation was Some of the groups were communists in
enhanced by its successful pushback nature and depended on the USSR or China
against US troops, which aided in the for backing.
cementing of the Communist Revolution in y America’s policies perplexed national
their own nation. Communist groups linked with Moscow,
y Stalin’s reluctance to assist Mao resulted prompting the US to enter the Vietnam
in the split of two powers, with China War.
becoming even more independent. y Effects on the Cold War: The Korean War
y Mao’s determination to merge with Taiwan elevated the Cold War to a global scale.
became more difficult as the US boosted y Military capabilities have improved as both
its support for Chiang-Kai-Shek. The USSR sides have increased their defence budgets.
was not actively engaged in the Korean War y The USSR increased the amount of the
and provided tacit assent to North Korea. Red Army from 2.8-million to 5.8-million
y The war harmed Russia’s interests. soldiers.
y The USSR was being drawn into a worldwide
battle as a result of America’s willingness Course
to triple defence expenditure and send y Korea, which had earlier been occupied by
weapons to Western Germany, retain troops Japan, was split at the 38th parallel at the
in Europe, and refrain from spreading end of WWII. A circle of latitude demarcated
Communist doctrine in Asia. the borders of North and South Korea.
y Extend the Soviet Union’s economic y The Soviet Union soon seized North Korea,
responsibilities across the globe. while South Korea relied on American

Fig. 13.2 Events of Korean History

Chinese Revolution (1946–49) and Korean War 213

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support. The Korean People’s Army (KPA) y Finally, on July 27, 1953, an armistice treaty
was established in North Korea in February was signed, establishing that Korea would
1948 by Korean communist guerrillas who stay undivided.
had in the past worked with China’s People’s
Liberation Army but had been ‘directed’
by Soviet officials. By mid-1950, the KPA Conclusion
had expanded to 223,000 personnel, with The Chinese Revolution of 1949 laid the
10 infantry divisions and different forces. foundations of precisely such a society and
y On June 25, 1950, the KPA attacked South polity in China. In doing so, it inspired those
Korea and the KPA quickly moved south, who are fighting for social justice and equality
cornering South Korean and US soldiers in a not only in the underdeveloped countries
small area around Pusan port. The UN moved but even in advanced countries of the West.
promptly, asking its delegates to back the After the Chinese Revolution, it can no longer
South. The US, the UK, Australia, Canada, be said that progressive ideas and practices
India, New Zealand, and South Africa were emanated only from the West. Thus, the
among the nations that sent forces. Chinese Revolution had a worldwide impact.
y General Douglas MacArthur, the UN The Korean War, on the other hand, served as
commander, planned an offensive operation a proxy war for the Cold War. The UK and the
at Inchon, a port in the middle of the Korean US-backed South Korea, which was backed
peninsula. Their armies managed to shove by the UN, whereas communist China and
the KPA all the way to the Yalu River, which the USSR backed North Korea. Three years
serves as the collective border of China- later, the Korean War ended with millions of
North Korea. casualties. The battle came to a conclusion
y At this stage, China joined the conflict, with almost little change in the border.
compelling UN forces to retreat to the Military personnel from both North and
South. The fighting ended during the first South Korea occupy the Korean Peninsula’s
half of 1951, and armistice talks began in demilitarised zone (DMZ), which is still
July. Nevertheless, the initial talks failed, separated. Recently in June 2020, North
and for the next two years, opposing armies and South Korea separately marked the 70th
fought in trenches just over a mile apart. anniversary of the Korean War.

214 Chinese Revolution (1946–49) and Korean War

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14 Arab Nationalism

Introduction of Hejaz (which included two holy cities of

Arab nationalism is a nationalist philosophy that Islam, Makkah and Medina), Sharif Hussain.
says the Arabs are a nation and advocates Arab y As soon as World War I and the following
unity by glorifying Arab civilisation’s glories, peace conference (Versailles, Lausanne,
their language and literature, and asking for the and Sevres) ended, Allied powers of the
Arab world’s regeneration and political union. United Kingdom and France entered the
Middle East region, and took control of the
Background Sykes-Picot mandate zone.
y During the heydays of the Byzantine empire y In comparison to the Ottoman era, Arab
in the early 7th century, another major force nationalists flourished throughout the
was emerging in the neighbouring Arab interwar period, and their movement
world. This new force had its origin in Saudi became more visible than ever.
Arabia and drew inspiration from a new y As indicated by the ‘Asaba al-Qawmi al-
religion Islam. Araby and al-Istiqlal (Freedom) movements,
⚪ During that time, the Islamic State which include activists from Iraq, Syria, and
expanded its territory both inside and Palestine, several new, flexible, and region-
outside of Arabia. Iraq, Syria, Palestine, wide political parties were formed. Al-
Egypt, Iran (including Khurasan), and Istiqlal, who has been influenced by Marxist
China were all captured by them. Syria, theory on socialist politics, has a number
Palestine, and Egypt were lost to the of key worries for the future of the Arab
Byzantine empire, while the Sassanid nation’s liberation from Western capitalist
empire was completely overrun. domination.
However, the most critical phase of ⚪ The parties and movements in the Arab
the conceptualisation of nationalism world were not the only parties focusing
took place during the Aufklarüng or on Greater Arab nationalism, but several
Enlightenment Era in Europe. parties proposed a more border-defined
y The earliest movement that could be nationalism within Arab geography.
considered the pioneer of the nationalist y In Syria, a big uprising was led by a Druze
movement in the Middle East region is the leader called Sultan Pasha al-Atrak from
Urabi Revolution, which was led by Ahmad the early 1920s until the 1930s. The other
‘Urabi’ or also known as Arab Pasha. This rebellion was also started by Adil Arslan,
movement emphasises Egyptian nationalism, and former Syrian French officer Fauzi al-
and independence from all foreign powers. Qawaqiji during the Great Syrian Rebellion
Although the Urabi movement failed, it against French forces in 1925- 1927.
marked a significant history in developing y In Palestine, a significant military revolt
national consciousness in the Middle East, around the 1930s was led by Izzuddin al-
especially among Arab people. Qassam against UK military occupation. The
y One of the crucial points in the Arab Zionist terror group had left a notable mark
nationalist movement was the Arab for later Palestinian-Islamist liberation
Revolution that occurred during World War movements, such as HAMAS.
I, around 1916 to 1918. This revolution was y Because of intense pressure from elites,
initiated by a quasi-independent governor intellectuals, and people in the Mandate

Arab Nationalism 215

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area, the Mandate administration eventually their activities for launching “military,
granted independence to the government economic and diplomatic offensives against
of Iraq in 1932, and the government of Syria Israel”.
in 1941 (after a long negotiation process and y Tahrir Square in Cairo was home to the
delay by the French government), and the expanded Arab League’s offices. The Majlis
government of Lebanon in 1943, though or a council made up of delegates from all
reluctantly and on a periodic basis. Many of the Arab League’s member countries, was
other states, such as Jordan and Saudi the Arab League’s principal organ. During its
Arabia, proclaimed their independence in formative years, the Majlis met twice a year
the 1930s. in Cairo, and then in Tunis.
y In 1949, the Arab-Israel war was concluded, y Over time, the Arab nation-states agreed to
and between Israel and Arab leaders, work along with the following principles:
an Armistice Agreement was struck ⚪ Each Arab state should respect the
(particularly among Jordan and Egyptian sovereignty of the other member states.
leaders). Jordan took control of the West ⚪ All member states should work in unison
Bank, Egypt took authority of the Gaza Strip to strengthen their relations.
and its environs, and Israel safeguarded its ⚪ Each member state shall cooperate
division zone, as well as numerous other with other member states in trade and
Arab regions it had captured during the commerce, cultural promotion, and
1948 Israeli-Arab war. emotional integration.
y The Arab League and Arab Liberation Army’s
failure to destroy Israel in the 1948 Israeli- Arab Nationalism and Conflict
Arab War did not deter the emergence of in the Middle East
Pan-Arabism. y Arab nationalism is a nationalist philosophy
y Many experts relate the rise of the Pan- that insists the Arabs are a nation, and
Arabism movement during the 1950s-1960s promotes Arab unity by honouring the
to one leader, the President of Egypt (and accomplishments of Arab culture, their
successively, President of the United Arab language and literature, and calling for the
Republic), Gamal Abdul Nasser. Arab world’s rejuvenation and political union.
⚪ Solving the Suez Canal Crisis in 1955– y Some historians believe the first stirrings
1957, rejecting the USA’s plan of building of Arab nationalism occurred in the 1860s.
security cooperation in the Middle Still, it is more widely agreed that it started
East through the Baghdad Pact, and in the early 20th century as a continuous
his nationalisation efforts made him a political movement. This came after the
popular hero in Egypt and the Arab world. Ottoman constitution was reintroduced in
⚪ He was regarded as a hero of the Arab 1908, resulting in increased journalistic, and
people for defending the independence political freedom throughout the Ottoman
and sovereignty of Arab nations against Empire’s Arab provinces.
colonial and imperialist forces. y A movement that has since been called
y On March 22, 1945, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, “Arabism” emerged quickly, stressing the
Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen Arabs’ ethnic origin as well as their shared
signed an agreement relating to Arab unity cultural roots.
and nationalism in Cairo, Egypt’s capital. ⚪ It also demanded that Arabs be treated
The major goal of this league was to equally to the empire’s other national
promote Arab unity, peaceful resolution of groups. The development of nationalism
any internal conflicts, and the formation of among Arabs, Armenians, and European
a united front during times of war. However, models and reinterpretations of Arab,
the immediate purpose was to coordinate and Islamic history all affected Arabism.

216 Arab Nationalism

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Fig. 14.1 Important Personalities and Groups associated with Arab Nationalism

y Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, in terms of politics, and was frequently
Kuwait, Iran, Sudan, Jordan, Turkey, impeded by internal strife.
the Yemen republics, the United Arab ⚪ With the aggressive leadership of
Emirates (UAE), and Oman make up the Egypt’s Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser,
Middle East. Except for Turkey and Iran, who gained immense respect in the
most of these nations are populated by Arab world during the 1956 Suez Crisis,
Arabs, while Iran, despite not being an Arab Unity (also known as pan-Arabism,
Arab state, has a large Arab population ‘pan’ meaning ‘all’) gained a boost in the
in the area near the northern end of the mid-1950s.
Persian Gulf. ⚪ Syria and Egypt formed the United
⚪ The Middle East also consists of the Arab Republic in 1958, with Nasser as
small Jewish state of Israel, which was its president. However, this only lasted
established by the United Nations in until 1961, when Syria quit in protest
1948 in Palestine. of Nasser’s attempts to dominate the
y Several initiatives have been made to union.
improve the Arab states’ unity. Egypt, Iraq, ⚪ President Sadat (After Nasser’s death in
Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Jordan, and 1970) organised a loose union between
Yemen were members of the Arab League Egypt, Syria, and Libya, called the
when it was founded in 1945. In 1980, the Federation of Arab Republics’. However,
membership was enlarged to include a it never amounted to much. Some
total of 20 states. However, it achieved little examples of disagreement.

Arab Nationalism 217

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Fig. 14.2 Modern Middle East

y Saudi Arabia and Jordan were (and still are)

and have what they labelled ‘a national
ruled by conservative royal dynasties, who
homeland’.
were regularly chastised by the pro-Arab
y The British government became involved
nationalist and socialist governments of
in 1917 when foreign minister Arthur
Syria, and Egypt for being excessive pro-
British.
y Some other Arab states lost out with Egypt
in 1979 after the Egyptian leadership struck
a separate peace pact with Israel. Egypt was
ejected from the Arab League as a result
of this. The Establishment of Israel and the
Arab-Israeli War, 1948- 49 Brief history of
the establishment of Israel state
y The beginning of the problem went back
roughly around 2,000 years to the year AD
71, when the greatest number of the Jews
people were driven out of Palestine, which
was then their homeland, by the Romans.
y In 1897, some Jews residing in Europe
created the World Zionist Organisation in
Basle (Switzerland). They believed that Jews
ought to be able to go back to Palestine Fig. 14.3 Timeline

218 Arab Nationalism

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Balfour stated that the British government y The most heart-breaking aspect of the
supported the idea of a Jewish national conflict was that the Palestinian Arabs
home in Palestine. In 1933, Nazi persecution were the unwitting victims, having lost
of Jews in Germany resulted in a flood three-quarters of their nation. The majority
of refugees, and by 1940, nearly half of their people now lacked a state of their
of Palestine’s population was Jewish. own. Some were in the newly founded
From 1936 onwards, there were violent Jewish state of Israel, while others were in
demonstrations by Arabs and an uprising, Jordan’s occupied West Bank.
which the British oppressed with some y The city of Jerusalem was divided between
brutality by killing over 3000 Arabs. Jordan and Israel. The United Kingdom,
y The Second World War made the condition France, and the United Powers all agreed to
much harsher, and in 1945 the USA pressed protect Israel’s borders; nevertheless, the
the British government permitted 100,000 Arab states did not believe the ceasefire
Jews into Palestine; this request was to be durable. They refused to recognise
echoed by David Ben Gurion, one of the Israel’s validity, and they saw this battle as
Jewish leaders, but the British, not wanting simply the beginning of the fight to smash
to offend the Arabs, refused. Israel and free Palestine.
y The British, who had been devastated
by World War II, were unable to cope. It The Suez War of 1956
requested that the United Nations (UN) y During the 19th Century, Egypt went bankrupt
handle the situation. In November 1947, the while trying to industrialisation. Because of
United Nations divided Palestine, reserving this, the Governor of Egypt had to sell his
nearly half of the land for the establishment shareholding in the company that controlled
of an autonomous Jewish state. the Suez Canal to the British. Therefore,
y Fighting had already erupted between Arabs since 1875, control of the canal was with the
(who despised the loss of half of Palestine) governments of Britain and France.
and Jews, and the British withdrew all of y Consequently, Egypt was colonised by
their forces from the region after a period Britishers. It gained independence in 1922.
of time. However, British troops remained there to
y Ben Gurion declared the fledgling state maintain control over the canal. The British
of Israel independent in May 1948. After government continued to interfere in the
the independence, Israel was immediately internal affair of Egypt. The nationalist
attacked by Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Egyptian army resented external foreign
Lebanon. control of the Suez Canal.
y Colonel Nasser continued with the demand
The Outcome of the War that the British should evacuate the Suez
y Most people anticipated the Arabs to win Canal region. In 1956, Britain, Israel and
very quickly however, against seemingly France attacked Egypt.
tremendous odds, the Israelis defeated y Various reasons were:
them, and even seized more of Palestine ⚪ Anti-West policies of Colonel Nasser, and
than the United Nations partition had his pro-Palestine attitude against Israel.
provided them. They ended up with nearly ⚪ Colonel Nasser had organised Fidayeens
three-quarters of Palestine along with the to carry out various activities related to
port of Eilat (Egypt) on the Red Sea. murders and bombings in Israel.
y Many of the troops of Israel had earned ⚪ Further, Nasser also refused the renewal
military experience fighting in the British army of the 1936 British-Egypt treaty that
during World War two (some 30 000 Jewish permitted British troops in the Suez
men volunteered to fight for the British). Canal region.

Arab Nationalism 219

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⚪ Nasser also assisted the Algerian Arabs y Increase of Russian influence: There was
in their fight for independence against an escalation in the Russian influence in
the French. the region as the US aid was replaced by
⚪ In addition to this, in 1955, Colonel Russian assistance. Also, the British lost an
Nasser further upset the British by ally in the form of Iraq.
signing a defence agreement with y Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt
Czechoslovakia. This agreement and utilised it as leverage in the peace
provided for the training of the army of negotiations, and there was a brief cessation
Egypt and arms supply. of the Fidayeen attacks on its territory.
y Circumstances of economic stress, and y Ceasefire: The Soviet Union and the USA
given the significance of the Aswan dam to mediated a truce by working along with
Egypt, the termination of the grant by the the UN. Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula
USA triggered Colonel Nasser to nationalise region to Egypt.
the Suez Canal. Colonel Nasser intended y Iraqi Revolution in 1958: Inspired by the
to use the income from the Suez Canal to defeat of the British and French, in 1958,
finance the construction of the Aswan dam. the nationalists in Iraq assassinated the
y There was apprehension amongst the pro-British King Faisal and PM Said.
Western powers that Egypt desired to y Freedom struggle in Algeria: The defeat
establish a United Arabia under Egyptian of France in the Suez War gave a morale
control, which might be pro-USSR. Such boost to the nationalists fighting for
a kind of Arab Unity was against the independence which was achieved in 1962.
economic interests of the West since, the Nasser helped Algerians in their struggle for
Middle East and North Africa were the independence.
major sources of oil. y Arab Unity under Colonel Nasser: 1956 was
marked by the emergence of a new face of
Outcome Of Suez Canal War Of 1956 Arab Unity in Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser.
y End of British control: Britain was weakened He now appeared as the tall leader of the
after World War II. It anticipated a quick Arab world who had stood against Western
victory; however, the army of Egypt fought domination. Nasser helped the Algerians
with courage. The Suez War marked the end further in their independence struggle,
of British control in Egypt, and from now which was finally won in 1962.
onwards, Britain was greatly dependent on ⚪ India also backed the anti-neo-
the USA in the domain of its foreign policy. colonialism struggle of Egypt, and the
y Decrease in oil supply: The French and Prime Minister of India (Jawaharlal
British failed to attain their war aims, Nehru) shared a good relationship with
Egypt blocked the Suez Canal till 1957, and Colonel Nasser. Along with leaders
the Arab states reduced oil supply to the such as Nkrumah of Ghana, Sukarno of
European nations. Indonesia, and Tito of Yugoslavia, they

Fig. 14.4 Importance of Suez Canal

220 Arab Nationalism

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were the founding members of the Non- free world. Britain’s public finances had
Aligned Movement (NAM) in 1961. been crushed by a pile of war debt, and
it was only now beginning to emerge
Impact Of the Suez Crisis on Britain’s from postwar austerity.
Self-Image As A World Power y In July 1956, the last British soldiers pulled
y Ferdinand de Lesseps, a French diplomat, out of the canal zone. On 26 July, Egyptian
oversaw the construction of the Suez president Gamal Abdel Nasser abruptly
Canal in Egypt. The man-made river, which announced the nationalisation of the Suez
divided most of Egypt from the Sinai Canal Company.
Peninsula, opened in 1869 after ten years of ⚪ Prime minister Anthony Eden was
construction. scandalised and, riding a wave of
y It connects the Mediterranean Sea to the widespread anger, prepared a grot­
Indian Ocean via the Red Sea, allowing esquely disproportionate response: full-
goods to be moved more directly from scale invasion. Thus, the Suez crisis was
Europe to Asia and back. the final blow to Britain’s self-image as
y Because of its importance to world trade, a world power.
it became a lightning rod for confrontation
between Egypt’s neighbours, and Cold War
nations striving for domination.
y The Suez Crisis began on October 29, 1956, Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)
when Israeli armed troops advanced into (2014, Mains)
Egypt toward the Suez Canal after Egyptian
president Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–70)  hat were the events that led to the
W
nationalised the canal, a vital waterway Suez Crisis in 1956? How did it deal a
that controlled two-thirds of Europe’s oil. final blow to Britain’s self-image as a
The Israelis were quickly joined by French world power? (12.5 marks, 200 words)
and British forces, almost bringing the Decoding the question
Soviet Union into the battle, and damaging y Introduction- Start with mentioning
their relations with the US. Egypt won in the location and creation of the
the end, and the British, French, and Israeli Suez Canal.
governments all withdrew their troops in y In body,
late 1956 and early 1957. ⚪ Discuss the major events that
y The Suez crisis is often described as led to the Suez Crisis in 1956.
Britain’s last fling of the imperial dice. ⚪ Show how it dealt a final blow to
⚪ From the Caribbean in the west to Britain’s self-image as a world
Singapore, Malaya, and Hong Kong power.
in the east, British territories and y Conclude the answer by mentioning
dependencies still encircled the globe the aftermath of the Suez Crisis.
in 1956. Much of Africa’s map was still
Answer:
painted in imperial pink. The Indian
subcontinent, the British empire’s The Suez Canal was built in Egypt under
most valuable possession, gained the supervision of French diplomat
independence in the 1940s and 1950s. Ferdinand de Lesseps. The man-made
⚪ In the rest, nationalist movements waterway opened in 1869 after ten years
thrived, aided by Soviet Russia and of construction, and separates most of
bolstered by the United States in its Egypt from the Sinai Peninsula. At 120
self-proclaimed role as leader of the

Arab Nationalism 221

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miles long, it connects the Mediterranean y Britain itself was only beginning to
Sea to the Indian Ocean by way of the Red emerge from post-war austerity,
Sea, allowing goods to be shipped from its public finances crushed by an
Europe to Asia and back more directly. accumulation of war debt.
Its value to international trade made In July 1956, the last British soldiers
it a nearly instant source of conflict pulled out of the canal zone. On July 26,
among Egypt’s neighbours and Cold War Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser
superpowers vying for dominance. abruptly announced the nationalisation of
Suez Crisis is the culmination of the the Suez Canal Company. Prime minister
following events: Anthony Eden was scandalised and, riding
y The Suez Crisis began on October a wave of popular indignation, prepared
29, 1956, when Israeli armed forces a grotesquely disproportionate response:
pushed into Egypt toward the Suez full-scale invasion. Thus, the Suez crisis
Canal after Egyptian president Gamal was the final blow to Britain’s self-image
Abdel Nasser (1918–70) nationalised as a world power.
the canal, a valuable waterway that
controlled two-thirds of the oil used
by Europe.
y The Israelis were soon joined by the
Six-Day War (1967)
French and British forces, which
nearly brought the Soviet Union y The Arab states had not signed any peace
into the conflict, and damaged their agreement after the 1948–49 war and
relationships with the United States. refused official recognition to Israel. In 1967,
y In the end, Egypt emerged victoriously, Arab states banded together once more in a
and the British, French and Israeli deliberate endeavour to destroy Israel. The
governments withdrew their troops in lead was taken by Egypt, Iraq, and Syria.
late 1956 and early 1957. y Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and
The Suez crisis is often portrayed as Algeria (independent since 1962) instructed
Britain’s last fling of the imperial dice. troop mobilisation; however, this was slow
y In 1956, the globe was indeed still and provided early warning and time to
circled by British possessions and Israel, which initiated pre-emptive strikes
dependencies, from the Caribbean and demolished the Egyptian air crafts.
in the west to Singapore, Malaya and
Hong Kong in the east. Much of the The Outcome of the War
African map was still imperial pink. y Spectacular success for Israel: This time,
y Around the 1940 and 50s the greatest they had ignored a UN order to return the
possession of the British empire, the captured territory; this acted as a series of
Indian subcontinent, had taken its buffer zones between Israel and the Arab
freedom. states, and meant that it would be much
y Nationalist movements were easier to defend Israel. Israel captured the
flourishing in most of the rest, Golan Heights of Syria, the Sinai Peninsula
patronised by Soviet Russia and of Egypt and the entire Jerusalem and
encouraged by the United States in West Bank from Jordan, and the Gaza Strip,
its self-appointed role as leader of previously with Palestinians.
the free world. ⚪ It was an embarrassment for the Arab
states, and particularly for Nasser, who

222 Arab Nationalism

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Fig. 14.5 Conditions after the War of 1967

now understood that the Arabs required religious festival), expecting to catch the
outside assistance if they were ever to Israelis off guard. After a few early Arab
free Palestine. successes, the Israelis were able to turn
⚪ To try and improve their relationship with the tables by utilising mostly American
Egypt and Syria, the Russians started weapons.
to provide them with modern weapons.
Sooner or later, the Arab states would The Outcome of the War
attempt again to destroy Israel and liberate y Opening of the Suez Canal: The end of the
Palestine. The following important effort battle brought some hope for permanent
came in 1973 with the Yom Kippur War. peace. Leaders of Egypt and Israel came
together (although not in the same room)
The Yom Kippur War (1973) in Geneva.
y Supported by the military arsenal from ⚪ The Israelis decided to pull their troops
Russia, Forces of Egypt and Syria attacked back from the Suez Canal region (which
early on the feast of Yom Kippur (a Jewish had been blocked since the 1967 war),

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which allowed the Egyptian authorities ⚪ The Arab League took the painful
to clear and open the Suez Canal in decision of suspending Egypt from the
1975 (but not to the ships of Israel). league in 1979. Egypt was re-inducted
into the league after a gap of ten years.
The Unity of the Arab League was again
Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty or Camp tested at the time of the Gulf War
David Accords (1979) (1990–91).
In March 1979, under the mediator role y The Iran-Iraq War (1980–88): In September
of USA President Carter, leaders of 1980, the Middle East and the Arab world
Israel and Egypt signed a historic peace were thrown into renewed chaos when Iraqi
agreement, popularly known as the troops of Iraq invaded Iran. Motives behind
Camp David Accords. the launching of the attack President
Important points agreed under the Saddam Hussein of Iraq feared militant
treaty: Islam extending across the border into
y The state of war that had existed Iraq from Iran. In 1979, Iran had become
between Israel and Egypt since 1948 an Islamic republic under the leadership of
has now ended. Ayatollah Khomeini.
y Israel agreed to withdraw its troops y Iraq argued that the border province of
from the Sinai Peninsula. Khuzestan (which continues to be the part
y Egypt agreed not to attack Israel of Iran today) in Iran should rightfully belong
again and guaranteed to supply her to them. This region was populated by
with oil from the recently discovered Arab people rather than the Persians, and
oil wells in the southern Sinai Saddam expected that they would rally to
Peninsula region. support Iraq (because most of the Iranians
y Egypt allowed Israeli ships to use were Persians, not Arabs).
the Suez Canal. y The dispute related to the Shatt-al-Arab
waterway: This was a very important outlet
for the oil exports of both nations, and it
y The oil crisis of 1973: By reducing oil formed part of the frontier between Iran
supplies, oil-producing Arab states of Arab and Iraq.
attempted to bring pressure to bear on ⚪ This waterway had once been entirely
the USA and on western European nations, under the control of Iran; however, five
which had friendly relationships with Israel. years earlier, the government of Iran
This factor resulted in inflation in the had compelled Iraq to share control of
importing countries, and there were a lot of it with Iran.
oil shortages. ⚪ President Saddam Hussein assumed
y 6 October is celebrated annually by Egypt, that the forces of Iran would be weak
as the October War led to the Camp David and demoralised after the 1979 Islamic
Accord of 1979. This led to the removal Revolution, so he anticipated a quick
of Israeli troops from the Sinai Peninsula victory.
region. ⚪ So, it became clear that he had poorly
y Cracks began to appear in the Unity of the misjudged, and the war went on for
Arab League when Egypt signed a peace the next eight years. After some time,
treaty with Israel (March 1979) without the border dispute was overshadowed,
consulting the other members of the Arab and the battle became a Shia-Sunni
League. conflict.

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The Outcome of the Iran-Iraq War y Once Again, as in the case related to Iran,
y Though neither side had achieved its Saddam had miscalculated the entire
objectives, the overall cost of the war was scenario and did not expect any action
enormous, both economically and in human from the outside world, and also believed
lives. that he possessed the strongest army in
y The international oil supply was reduced the region.
because Iraq attacked and blocked Iran’s oil
exports. Oil shortage increased the tensions World Unite Against Iraq
and brought the USSR, USA, Britain, and y The United Nations placed trade restrictions
France warships. on Iraq, reducing her oil exports, which was
the major source of income for Iraq. At the
Impact on Arab Unity same time, Saddam was also ordered to
y The more conservative nations such as remove his troops by 15 January 1991, after
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Jordan were which the United Nations would utilise all
Pro-Iraq in their approach. Saudi Arabia essential means to clear them out.
had some other strategic interests, and it y Over 30 countries participated in military
wanted to reduce the control of Iran in the intervention, which is also known as
Persian Gulf region. Operation Desert Storm against Iraq.
y Libya, Algeria, Syria, Palestinian Liberation y Britain, the USA, and France were against
Organisation (PLO) and the Iraqi invasion because they thought
y In their approach, South Yemen was Pro- that by capturing the state of Kuwait,
Iran because, according to them, Iraq was Saddam now managed and controlled too
the aggressor and thought that the Arab much oil in the zone, which damaged the
world should concentrate on Israel. balance of power in the Middle East region
y The United Nations was involved and and provided too much leverage to Iraq.
succeeded in arranging a ceasefire (August y Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Syria were against
1988). However, before even accepting the the Iraqi attack because they were worried
peace terms at the end of the Iran-Iraq War, about Iraq’s next act of aggression, which
Saddam Hussein attacked neighbouring may endanger their national integrity. The
Kuwait, and this latter conflict became outcomes of the war were very revealing
well-known as the Gulf War (1990–91). The about the motives and intentions of the
Gulf War (1990- 91) - in August 1990, forces West and the big powers.
of Iraq invaded and quickly captured the ⚪ Their main interest was not associated
small bordering state of Kuwait. with international justice and moral
questions of wrong and right. Their
Motives of Saddam Hussein involvement is linked with their self-
y Saddam Hussein wanted control over the oil interest. They only acted against Saddam
reserves of Kuwait (though a small nation in the first place because they believed
had valuable oil wells) because, after the he was threatening their oil supplies and
long Iraq-Iran war, it was short of cash. disturbing the balance of power.
Saddam Hussein argued that Kuwait was ⚪ Often, when some other small countries
historically part of Iraq. In fact, many had been attacked, no global action had
critics argued that since 1899, Kuwait had been taken. For instance, in 1975, when
existed as a separate territory-a British Indonesia captured East Timor, the rest
protectorate, while Iraq had not been of the world overlooked it because their
formed until after World War I. self-interest was not endangered.

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Arab Nationalism in 21st Century the political and historical situations of the
Rising from the Fall twenty-first century.
y Despite the fact that Arab nationalism
has been dormant since the late 1960s, Conclusion
the Arab Spring has demonstrated a rare Can we say that Arab nationalism and Arab Unity
phenomenon of Arab people’s unity in would revive once more in the 21st century?
striving for the same goal under the same As Tariq Ramadan pointed out, the political
slogan anywhere. The buzzword is no developments in the Arab Spring should be
longer nationalism; instead, it has evolved viewed with caution, as the Arab nation and
into other terms such as “democracy,” people must develop a new concept in this new
“freedom,” and “social justice.” era, particularly in terms of how their local values
y The demonstrations across the Middle of Islam, and Arab culture can be synthesised
East, according to Robert Owen, have to create a new understanding of politics and
demonstrated that Arab unity still exists. democracy in the twenty-first century.
People went together hand-in-hand to The picture of Arab Nationalism has both light
oust their leader peacefully, without any and shadow painted on it. After many years of
big rhetoric or bloody fights, as they faced colonial oppression, Pan-Arabism resurrected
real-life concerns and despotic leadership Arab pride and dignity. On the other hand, by
as the democratic spark blazed across the the end of the century, the objective of Arab
boundaries of Arab countries. Arab unity unity had been reduced to a jumble of broken
had manifested itself in a variety of ways in pledges and shattered expectations.

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15 New Political Philosophies

Introduction legitimacy of public agents and institutions and

A political philosophy or political theory is the their relationships. German writer, Jellenick,
philosophical study of government, addressing grouped political systems into the four types
questions about the nature, scope, and listed below.

Fig. 15.1 Modern Government

Leacock, a Canadian teacher and political scientist, presented the simplified government forms as
noted in the following figure.

Fig. 15.2 Types of Governments

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Monarchy ⚪ Thus, another name for totalitarianism

y Monarchy is the earliest political system and absolutism is Monarchy.
in the world. It is a type of administration ⚪ Both Absolutism and totalitarianism go
in which the ultimate authority is either hand in hand.
actually or nominally held by a monarch. y An absolute monarchy is an undemocratic
y It is an absolute or despotic monarchy when form of government.
laws do not limit the monarch’s authority ⚪ The people do not elect the monarch,
or a constitutional monarchy when the and he is not accountable to them. A
monarch’s authority is limited. monarch, according to history, would
y Monarchy refers to the absolute authority rule a state in an authoritarian way and
of a king or queen throughout history. wield tremendous powers, including the
y It is a type of government in which the state power over life and death.
is ruled by a hereditary sovereign who is the
sole ruler. Authoritarianism
⚪ It is distinguished by the fact that it is a y Aristotle classified the Constitutions into
hereditary rule. good and bad, or true and distorted, in his
⚪ Unless he is dead or unseated, the book Politics. In both these two groups, he
monarch reigns for the rest of his life. discovered 3 kinds based on whether the
⚪ Monarch rules with rigid powers, and administration was in the hands of one, a
there is no one who will question his few, or a few.
authority or hold him accountable. So, y Aristocracy was defined as a rule of few,
the absolute rule is the idea of monarchy. symbolising a combination of virtue and
⚪ The ruler being aided by hereditary riches, and its corrupted form as an
rule does not necessarily ensure his oligarchy, indicating hunger for wealth.
efficiency. Many rulers across history
have been eccentric and tyrannical.
Aristotle's Classification
Thomas Paine had once aptly said: “A
hereditary governor is as inconsistent as
Number of Normal Perverted
a hereditary author.”
Ruler(s) Form Form
y It is the idea that the monarch’s powers
are said to be derived from God and made One Monarchy Tyranny
accountable only to him.
⚪ Monarchy is vividly expressed in the Few Aristocracy Oligarchy
theory of the Divine Rights of Kings as
the reign of the despotic king. Many Polity Democracy
y In a monarchy, the bond between the king
and his subjects is the connection between Fig. 15.3 Aristotle’s Classification of Government
the ruling and the ruled.
y People enjoy no rights, only responsibilities; Dictatorship and Totalitarianism
their existence is mere as subjects rather y A dictatorship is a form of administration in
than citizens. which the leader wields power without the
y Monarchy means absolute and totalitarian permission of the people.
powers of the monarch. y Many dictatorships are also totalitarian.
⚪ Absolute in the sense that there are no y Totalitarian regimes, typically led by a
limitations whatsoever and totalitarian strong leader, impose complete political,
in the sense that the monarch can issue social, and cultural authority on the
any law as per his wish. ruled.

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Republicanism y The republican government is one type

y A republic is a type of administration in of democracy, but not every democratic
which the head of state is not a monarch government must be republican. The
but is chosen from among the public. United Kingdom provides democracy, yet its
y The republican form of government administration is not republican. Because
is democratically chosen, which is the monarch (now Queen Elizabeth II) is
representative, responsible, and responsive. not elected in the United Kingdom, the
It is based on and expressed through the country is not a republic. The head of state
will of the people. (President) is elected in India. As a result,
y Government republicanism is resistance India is a republic.
to dictatorial monarchical authority. The y Democracy and republicanism share
concept of constitutional monarchy, on several characteristics. Both create popular
the other hand, is in essence, not in form, sovereignty; both are representative in
similar to that of republican government. character; both consider man’s character
y A republican government is one that is as the aspect of human development; both
founded on the ideals of popular rule, see human rights and liberties as necessary
majoritarianism, popular sovereignty, for human growth; both see elective
inalienable rights, limited government, and governance as responsive to public opinion,
constitutionalism. and both emphasise rulers’ accountability
y It is more than the opposite of the to the ruled.
monarchical system. y There is a fundamental distinction between
y Machiavelli (1469–1527) sought to revive a republic and a democracy. A republic is
republicanism based on his admiration of a representative government ruled by law,
the ancient Roman Republic. whereas a democracy is a government (direct
y Montesquieu (1689- 1755) condemned the or representative) ruled by the majority.
monarchy for establishing an authoritarian y A republican government is one in which
rule, and denying people their rights and power is delegated to the people through
liberties. He argued for the separation of the election of public representatives best
powers to ensure a form of parliamentary suited to represent them. Democracy is
and liberal government. the government of the masses. It is one
y Thomas Paine (1737–1809), a British-born in which authority is generated from large
revolutionary, opposed the monarchical gatherings.
system fiercely and frequently supported
the republican cause. He sought to fuse
the idea of individual rights with popular y Dictatorship: It is a structure of
sovereignty. government in which absolute
y James Madison (1751–1836), an exponent power is exercised by a dictator not
of constitutional republicanism, advocated accountable to the people.
political liberty guaranteeing a limited form y Humanism: A system or mode of
of government. He thought of “power as a thought or action in which human
check on power”. interests, values, dignity and the like
are of primary importance.
Democracy and Republicanism y Tyranny: A form of government
y Democracy comprises all that republicanism where the ruler is autocratic without
possesses, yet republicanism is not regard for rules/ regulations.
synonymous with democracy.

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Liberalism administration, and a free and impartial

y Liberalism is a somewhat old political judiciary.
concept, whose roots date back to the
sixteenth century. Marxism
y The term liberalism is based on the Latin y It is the working political ideology, just as
word liber, which means liberty. Liberalism liberalism is of the capitalist class.
emphasises that individuals shall enjoy y In the 17th-18th centuries, the conditions
complete freedom from their state, society of the workers in Western countries
and church. deteriorated. Long hours of work, life
y John Locke is recognised as the “Father in slums, ill health, and other forms of
of Liberalism”. His political thought was exploitation were all prevalent among
grounded on the notion of a social contract factory workers. Employees have been
between citizens and the importance of exploited; as a result, the rich-poor gap
toleration, especially in matters of religion. has deepened, economic disparities have
He claimed that everyone has a natural increased, and people have felt humiliated
right to life, liberty and property, and the and alienated.
government must not disrupt these rights. y Karl Marx and Frederich Engels saw the
y The fundamental ideals of ‘Liberty, Equality, harmful effects of capitalism and established
and Fraternity’ were offered by the French scientific socialism, sometimes known as
Revolution, and the American War of Marxism (after the name of Karl Marx).
Independence, which occurred a little y Marxism existed before Marx. Karl Marx
earlier (1775–76), highlighted the assertion viewed them as Utopian Socialists. They were
of human rights. utopian as their diagnosis of the social ills
y Harold Laski, a British scholar of Political was accurate, but their remedy was incorrect.
Science, once said: “It (liberalism) is not y After Marx and Engels, V.I. Lenin (Russia),
easy to describe, much less to define, for it and Mao Zedong (China) were among those
is hardly less a habit of mind than a body of who contributed to Marxian thought.
doctrine”. y Marxism is based on the following
y According to Koerner, “Liberalism begins theoretical propositions:
and ends with the ideals of individual ⚪ Dialectical materialism (A triple
freedom, individual human rights and method): It is the collection of general
individual human happiness”. ideas that explain why and how social
y Liberalism is a democratic paradigm that changes occur. According to Marx, social
favours constitutional government based changes occurred as a result of material
on popular consent, decentralisation, the factors and the dialectical materialistic
rule of law, and free and fair elections. approach.
y The three facets of liberalism aid in ⚪ Relations of Production, according to
comprehending its significance. Marx, are the foundation of society at
⚪ Liberalism represents secularism and every given time. For Marxists, what is
a society that condemns all types of referred to as “social relations among
social prejudice. people is actually “production relations.”
⚪ It advocates for a capitalist economy, ⚪ Productive Forces are components that
individual ownership of the means of emerge from production relations but,
production, and maximising profit in the unlike the latter, promise increased
economic arena, output through newer methods/devices.
⚪ In the political domain, it advocates for ⚪ In other words, the Marxian theory
a democratic polity, individual rights and says, that all development is the
liberties, a responsive and accountable result of a struggle between opposites

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and economic factors. At a mature obtains profit. As a result of this surplus-

stage of development, the fight value, the rich become richer and the
between production and productive poor get poorer. Capitalists thrive as a
forces culminated in the new mode result of surplus-value.
of production. The new production y The Theory of Class Struggle is another
technique uses a combination of both cornerstone of Marxism. All of history,
production relations and productive according to Marx, has been a history of class
forces, leading to a higher stage of conflict between opposing classes. Class
economic development. struggle is a defining feature of class society.
⚪ Historical materialism refers to an ⚪ There is no class conflict in classless
economic/materialistic/deterministic societies since there are no opposing/
explanation of history. hostile classes in such societies. There
⚪ Marxism views history as a chronicle are three types of class conflict in
of the self-development of productive class societies (slave-owning societies,
forces: feudal societies, and capitalist
 that society continues on its course societies): economic, ideological, and
of economic/material progress; political.
 that each developmental stage y Marxism supports the revolution. History’s
denotes the level of development locomotives are revolutions. It happened
obtained; when the productive forces clashed with
 that history is the history of different the production relations, resulting in a
socioeconomic configurations, new mode of production. It causes a total
including primitive communistic, social shift, usually without violence, but if
slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, needed, with it.
transitional socialist, and communist y It indicates changes: healthy changes,
societies; changes in a society’s extraordinary nature
 that each new society improves on ⚪ It denotes the progression of social
the previous one; development to a higher level. As a
 that the socialist society, following result, Marxists consider revolution to
the collapse of the capitalist society, be a positive phenomenon.
might be a classless society with a y The dictatorship of the proletariat includes
state in the form of a proletarian the authority of the working class. It is
dictatorship; the communist society, a workers’ administration in a socialist
which would replace the socialist society that reflects a capitalist society. In
society, would be both classless and a socialist society, it is also the dictatorship
stateless. of the workers; in a capitalist society, it is
y The Theory of Surplus Value is another also the dictatorship of the capitalists. Their
aspect of Marxism. According to Marx, when capitalist’s rule as they choose; now, in the
a worker makes a commodity, he contributes communist society, the workers rule as they
to economic growth in it. However, he does please. Nonetheless, Marx adds that the
not get what he produces; he only earns proletariat’s rule, i.e., the workers’ state, is a
wages; everything else belongs to the boss, temporary or transitional arrangement that
it is the surplus value. exists between capitalist and communist
⚪ The surplus value of a labourer is societies.
the difference between the value he y The worker’s state will become obsolete
generates and the value he receives in once the socialist society is fully established,
the form of wages. To put it simply, the i.e., it will wither away (disappear slowly).
labourer gets a salary, while the employer In both quantitative and qualitative

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terms, Lenin claims that the proletarian some basic principles that could bring
dictatorship is superior to the bourgeois humanity to a higher level of consciousness
state. and therefore rise above the mundane.
In his monumental work, Das Kapital (Capital, y According to Gandhi, neither morality nor
1861–1879), Marx provided an analysis in which religion is important to western culture.
he was not concerned with arguments for a It tries to raise bodily comforts but fails
class war. He considered the necessity for such terribly. “Civilisation is like a mouse gnawing
arguments as an unnecessary task. He had no while it soothes us,” he added.
love for emotionalism and humanitarianism y His criticism of western materialism is that
and appealed to idealism etc. He conceived of it annihilates the essence of spiritualism.
the class conflict on every front, and proposed He saw the western man as an atomistic
the formation of a political party that would individual who was made up entirely of
eventually gain victory and be the conquering flesh and lacked a soul.
class. The second and third volumes of this y Civilisation, according to Gandhi, is not
treatise were edited after Marx’s death by Engels. about technology and material comforts.
Das Kapital was created in stir, and it was soon On the contrary, he insisted that true
translated into French, English, Russian and civilisation shows us the path of duty and
Italian. Now we have its translations available anchors our life to a higher purpose.
in many of the regional languages of India. y In contrast to the state in the West, Gandhiji
pushed for what he called the Ramrajya,
Gandhism or decentralised polity, as opposed to the
y Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) had led the western manner of administering things
Indian nationalist movement for about through centralising forces.
thirty years, between 1917 and 1947. He was y He made a strong case for Swadeshi, cottage
the supreme leader of the Indian nationalist industries, and the Trusteeship Theory in
movement. opposition to materialism, industrialisation,
y He was a thinker in the sense that he and capitalism.
questioned most of the assumptions and
ideologies of his time, proposing plausible Capitalism
and logical alternatives in their place. y The capitalist system of government and
y It’s difficult to put Gandhiji in a specific society is built on the idea that a country’s
context. He was more than a Plato; Socrates, wealth should be owned by private
Aristotle, one can call him a Buddha or Guru individuals. The economy operates on the
Nanak. laissez-faire principle, which means that
y Gandhiji was a democrat among market forces determine economic decisions
individualists and a socialist among and that there is no command economy.
socialists; he was a liberal among Marxists y The state does not tell the industry what
and a Marxist among liberals. to make, when to make it, or how to make
y He was a realist and idealist. In himself, it. Furthermore, the working class receives
he had blended the virtues of all known no special protection under the capitalist
ideologies, both past and present. system.
⚪ The worker is just an additional
Gandhi as a critic of western civilisation factor of production like capital and
y Gandhiji was an outspoken critic of land. The capitalist system’s driving
Western Civilisation. Hind Swaraj was his elements include a private enterprise
first booklet, written in 1909 to express his (entrepreneurship), private wealth
feelings about the state of affairs in India security, and profit motive output.
and the globe at the time, and to put out

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y The ownership of the means of production from people with inadequate means of
lies in the hands of private individuals and production that cannot utilise their own
institutions. It is wholly market-based, labour.
and profit is the leading principle of all ⚪ No government interference: The
economic activities, regulated by the forces responsibility of the government is
of demand and supply – that whatever is in to protect its citizens from foreign
demand will be produced since it generates invasion, acts of terrorism and ensuring
high profits. law and order in the state. It does not
⚪ The consumer is the dominant factor interfere with economic activities.
around whose choices the goods and y However, Consumer sovereignty becomes a
services are cantered. It is also known myth as most of the consumption choices
as a ‘Free Market Economy’ since, all are directed by advertisement and sales
citizens have the legal freedom to opt propaganda.
for any occupation or agreement
y R.T. Byte pointed out that “Capitalistic Capitalist Economy
economy may be defined as that system y Capitalism is a form of economics in
of economic organisation in which free which private individuals or corporations’
enterprise, competition and private property own capital assets such as factories, raw
ownership generally prevail”. materials, and industrial machinery.
y Main features of capitalism price y Free market or laissez-faire capitalism is the
mechanism: In the deficiency of external purest form of capitalism. Private persons
interference, the prices in a capitalist are uncontrollable in this environment. They
economy are determined following the have the power to select where to invest,
movement patterns of demand and supply. what to create or sell, and how much to
The manufacturing decisions of quality, trade goods and services for. The free market
quantity and place of produce are decided operates without any checks or controls.
according to the price mechanism.
⚪ Freedom of enterprise: The citizens can Crony Capitalism
choose the occupation or profession Crony capitalism stands for a capitalist society
based on their capability and choice. based on the close relationships between
They can utilise their means of businessmen and the state. Instead of being
production as per their inclinations. defined by a free market and the rule of law,
⚪ Competition: The number of competitors a company’s performance is determined by
is high because of the presence of a market government favouritism in the form of tax cuts,
economy and the price mechanism. government subsidies, and other incentives.
Moreover, individuals can choose ways of
using their means of production with no Capitalism and Inclusive Growth
restrictions on the profit motive. y Inclusive growth is economic growth
⚪ Profit orientation: All economic distributed fairly across society and creates
activities are profit-driven. opportunities for all.
⚪ Sovereignty of the consumer: ‘Customer ⚪ Private property, capital accumulation,
is king’ principle exists in a capitalist wage labour, voluntary trade, a price
economy. Since the consumer, through system, and competitive marketplaces
his choices, determines the demand and are all essential features of the capitalist
supply in the market, his satisfaction is system. The four main factors of
accorded the utmost care. production, that is, land, capital, natural
⚪ Labour as a commodity: Labour is resources, and entrepreneurship, are
accessible in the market for wages owned by private companies.

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y Capitalism is invariably concerned with shows that the model of capitalism can be
profit maximisation. On the other hand, made to deliver inclusive growth provided
inclusive growth implies a welfare-oriented the governments and civil societies across
economy. the world.
y On the contrary, capitalism boosts economic y Between 2004 and 2012, India reduced
production, employment opportunities, its poverty levels by approximately 15
wealth generation and GDP growth rates percentage points,
leading to better living standards and pulling y Since economic liberalisation, the Indian
millions out of poverty. Thus, capitalism economy has been opened up to the private
can create inclusive growth. sector, and the role of the public sector
y Economically developed societies can has been limited to only certain areas. It
benefit indirectly via the ‘trickle down’ somehow showed some inclination towards
effect or numerous social welfare programs. capitalist theory. The Indian economy has
y Capitalism has its flaws, regulated by a grown at a rapid pace during the past few
government that works on a social welfare decades, and it is the fastest-growing
model. Capitalism can lead to improved economy in the world.
efficiency in the enterprise, enhance private y The government encourages entrepreneurship
investments and can boost economic among marginalised sections of society and
production while at the same time raising enhances socio-economic equality through
the capital necessary for a government to several welfare schemes like ‘Start-Up India’.
run its social schemes for the betterment
of the poor and the marginalised. Great Depression of 1929
y According to Adam Smith, economic growth y The Great Depression refers to the severe
depends on the amount of capital invested economic crisis faced by the USA in
in businesses and the productivity of the particular and other capitalist economies
citizens. Therefore, capitalism is vital for in general during 1929–39. (Refer to the
a country’s economic growth ambition, chapter 7 for detailed discussion)
especially its inclusive growth ambition.
Smith in his book, Wealth of Nations, Global Crisis of 2007
proposes the idea that humans’ natural
tendency toward self-interest (or in modern y The first significant worldwide economic
terms, looking out for yourself) results in downturn of the twenty-first century, also
prosperity. known as the “Great Recession,” began in
y However, it is tough to say whether ‘capitalism’ December 2007, and would prove to be one
can achieve ‘inclusive development’. If the of the most devastating economic crises in
growth-oriented approach of capitalism can postmodern history.
be channelised into the welfare-oriented y India did not suffer much on account of
approach of inclusive development, it would the financial crisis. The absence of full
be possible. Any political philosophy with capital account convertibility, a strict check
this approach may achieve inclusive growth. on short-term foreign borrowings, and its
y The Scandinavian countries have followed relative disconnect with the foreign banks
the capitalist model with a robust insulated it from the devastation faced by
regulatory regime and a large social the global financial system.
welfare system, yielding commendable
outcomes. Scandinavian countries such as Communism
Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland are y Communism is an economic system in which
consistently ranked in the top ten countries the community owns all of its property
in terms of inequality-adjusted HDI. This

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collectively (collective ownership), with the Fabian Socialism

ultimate goal of total social fairness. y Fabian socialism is a form of socialism.
y The Communist system of state and society For the propagation of socialist ideals and
organisation is founded on Karl Marx’s ideas, the Fabian Society was formed in
views, which emphasise three things: 1883 (some say it was established in 1884).
wealth ownership, economic planning, and y The purpose of the Fabian Society was to
working-class protection. The country’s reach the goals of socialism through the
wealth should be owned collectively. evolutionary or parliamentary process and
y The economy should be centrally controlled to avoid revolution or armed struggle.
(command economy), and the government y George Bernard Shaw, Beatrice Webb,
should take affirmative measures to Sidney Webb, Annie Besant etc., were in
preserve working-class interests. favour of Fabian Socialism.
y The communist system’s driving principles y The Britain Labor Party was believed to be
are equality, collective ownership, and ultimately Fabian in ideology.
production for the common good. y Indian ex-PM Jawaharlal Nehru was inspired
y Different countries have implemented by Fabian socialism. The Mahalanobis
Communism and Capitalism in different model, rationing and control of public
ways, depending on their specific needs. choices were his ways of implementing
Fabian’s thoughts.
Socialism
y State ownership of common property or Democratic Socialism
state ownership of the means of production y Democratic socialism is a political philosophy
is referred to as socialism. supporting political democracy within a
y Alternatively, any of the different systems socially owned economy, emphasising
of social organisation in which the means economic democracy, workplace democracy
of creating and distributing products are and workers’ self-management within a
individually or jointly owned, or dictated by market socialist economy, or an alternative
a centralised government that frequently form of a decentralised planned socialist
plans and regulates the economy, is referred economy.
to as socialism. y This political movement advocates a gradual,
y As a result of the socialist-proletarian and peaceful transition from capitalism to
revolution, socialism emerged as a social socialism by democratic means.
system. It is a social structure that emerged y Democratic Socialists are perhaps the
when the capitalist system was overthrown. most pragmatic socialists. It advocates
No society can be socialist without first for incremental reforms in the industrial
passing through the capitalist stage. market system as well as parliamentary
y Socialism is divided into evolutionary and democracy by-election.
revolutionary socialism. ⚪ On the other hand, revolutionary
⚪ Evolutionary socialism opposes socialism believes in the class struggle,
revolution and seeks to achieve socialism revolution, and proletarian dictatorship.
by nonviolent method (peaceful They believe that social transformation
method). They believe in parliamentary can never be peaceful.
democracy and aim to use the voting  Karl Marx’s scientific socialism
box to effect social change. is commonly associated with
⚪ Following are the examples of evolutionary revolutionary Marxism. For example,
socialism - Fabian Socialism, Guild Syndicalism
Socialism, Democratic Socialism. y Although socialism does not always coexist
with communist or fascist administrations,

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in many nations, the application of this administration of the state and public
theory necessitates the presence of a affairs.
powerful central government. y Religion: Religion and politics will be
completely separated in a socialist society.
Following are the Characteristics This isn’t to say that people can’t have
of the Democratic Socialism personal beliefs. It simply implies that they
y An Egalitarian society: A society without are unable to turn religion into a public
class, caste or colour discrimination. “There affair, use it politically, disseminate it in
can be no genuine liberty without equality.” schools, etc.
y Satisfaction of basic needs: The profit y Women: Women have perfect equality in a
motivation should be replaced by the socialist society. It establishes the material
service motive. The state should focus its foundations for this equality by allowing
resource distribution not on where it will women with small children to work shorter
fetch the most money, but on where it is hours, providing creches at work so that
most needed. mothers can feed their children during the
y Common ownership: Private ownership of day, and providing canteens and public
means of production is destroyed under a kitchens at work, etc.
socialist society, and public ownership of y Movement: A socialist state also supports
means of production is created in its place. all national liberation movements, and
This means that any resources that can movements of the working people against
be used to create wealth, such as land, oppression.
factories, mines, and banks are no longer y A totally socialist state is one in which
the property of a single individual or group the government owns and controls all
of people. They become the collective of the means of production. In contrast,
property of the people. nowadays, most modern capitalist nations
y Centralised plan: In socialist societies, blend socialism with capitalism.
there is a centralised plan that considers all Socialist revolution: The social goals that a
the needs of society, deciding what needs revolution accomplishes, as well as the social
a priority in terms of everyone’s interests. forces that participate in it, shape its character.
This is often called the Five years Plan. The socialist revolution differs from other
y The Ideal of service: The idea of universal revolutions in terms of quality. It abolishes
welfare, or the common good, is promoted exploitation by abolishing private ownership of
by socialism. It safeguards against classical production and establishing a classless society,
liberals’ severe materialism and individualism. free of exploitation. Because the means of
y Ensuring state: In addition, a socialist production were in private (few) hands, all prior
society establishes a working-class state societies were exploitative.
that serves the interests of working-class
people. It ensures that everyone works to
the best of their abilities and receives pay Conclusion
commensurate with their efforts. According to Auguste Comte, those notions are
y Ensuring rights: All citizens have certain the logical filters through which we may sort
social rights under socialist democracy, out the profusion of facts that we face on a
including the right to work, rest and daily basis. Several different political theories
recreation, health care, retirement security, have been introduced as the modern world
housing, and free and equitable education, proceeds. It impacted the society, economy,
as well as the right to participate in the and polity of the whole world deeply.

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16 Imperialism, Colonialism
and Decolonisation
Introduction y Dollar Diplomacy was used by the US
administration in the late 1800s to overcome
Colonialism is as modern a historical
the resistance of the poor countries of Central
phenomenon as industrial capitalism. While the
and South America. These countries were
metropolis encounters growth under capitalism,
always in need of money. These countries
the colony goes through underdevelopment. It
borrowed large amounts from American
is more than foreign political domination; it is
businesspeople and bankers. When they did
a distinct social formation in which control is
not repay these loans, they were blackmailed
in the hands of the metropolitan ruling class.
into offering trade concessions.
Colonialism is controlled by “one power over
y Colonialism is what happened in the colony,
a dependent area or people”. As a result,
and imperialism is what happened in the
colonialism is defined as a nation’s policy of
metropolis. (Metropolis: term referring to a
attempting to extend or maintain its power
capitalist country possessing colonies.)
over other people or regions in order to gain
economic domination. The exploitation of a
History of Colonialism
weaker country’s resources to strengthen
and enrich the ‘mother country’ is known as y The Phoenicians, an innovative maritime
colonialism. It could occur both through direct trading culture that swept throughout the
and indirect rules. Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC, are
y Direct rule, as in India, meant a colonial the first known colonisers, with the Greeks
state, whereas indirect rule, as in China, and Persians following in their footsteps.
meant control over politics, economy, and y During the 17th and 18th centuries, various
society without taking on the burden of European countries, including France,
running the country. England, and Portugal, created colonies in
⚪ In this view, colonialism might exercise Asia and Africa. Colonialism was the term
both complete and partial political for this drive for imperial expansion.
power. As a result, colonialism and
semi-colonialism were fundamentally Causes of the Colonisation
different. Control of the economy rather Several factors made way for the spread of
than the government was exercised in a colonialism, which changed the fate of many
semi-colony like China. countries. The primary reasons are as follows:
y Neo-colonialism is the perpetuation y Innovation of the New Sea Route, new
of colonialism by non-formal means. places and countries were discovered like
Economic policies were dictated, and the America by Columbus, India by Vasco da
imperial power might harness the military. Gama Colonialism was aided by economic
The US was the leading neo-colonial power considerations. Countries such as England,
in the later phase. France, Spain, and Portugal founded
⚪ In other words, the practice of using colonies to become wealthy by bringing
economic means to exert control over money from those colonies.
former colonies after independence y The use of economic-political conditions of
became known as neo-colonialism, some of the countries of Asia and Africa,
and it extended throughout most of the enable them to rise in these countries and
Third World’s new republics. make them their colony.

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y The Industrial Revolution encouraged y European countries used the enlightenment

the countries of Europe to procure raw of the east of the backward countries of
materials from outside for their factories. Asia and Europe.
y Imperialism propagated surplus
procurement from outside. Types of Colonialism
y The capitalist system of production Historians often differentiate between various
resulted in more production and excess overlapping forms of colonialism, which are
demand outside the market. classified into four types:

Fig. 16.1 Types of Colonialism

y Settler colonialism: Large-scale immi­ both trade posts and larger colonies,
gration, frequently motivated by religious, with colonists providing the majority of
political, or economic objectives, is referred political and economic leadership. Before
to as settler colonialism. Its goal is to evict the end of the slave trade and widespread
the original occupants. A large number of abolition, when indigenous labour was
people emigrate to the colony in order to limited, slaves were frequently imported
stay and work on the land. Settler-colonial to the Americas, first by the Portuguese
societies include Australia, Canada, and the Empire, then by the Spanish, Dutch,
United States. French, and British.
y Exploitation colonialism: Exploitation is a y Surrogate colonialism: It refers to a colonial
term used to describe the act of taking settlement project in which the majority of
advantage of others. Colonisation, which the settlers are not from the same ethnic
focuses on exploiting natural resources or group as the ruling authorities.
utilising people as slave labour, usually for y Internal colonialism: It is a concept of
the advantage of the metropole, attracts unbalanced structural power inside a state.
fewer colonists. This category comprises The source of exploitation is from within

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the government. This is demonstrated by Imperialism

the transfer of control and exploitation y The term imperialism refers to the
from white colonisers to white immigrant relationship between a metropolis and the
populations in newly independent countries. country it subjugates or dominates in terms
of political and economic dominance.
Basic Features of Colonialism y Imperialism refers to the capitalist
y Colonialism is characterised by unequal development process that leads to capitalist
exchange. The colony produced raw resour­ countries conquering and dominating pre-
ces, whereas the metropolis manufactured capitalist countries around the world.
finished items. The exploitative means y It is defined as a “state’s policy, practice or
made the colonies underdeveloped and advocacy of extending power and dominion”.
metropolitan well developed. y In yet another definition, it is mentioned
⚪ The model of railway development in India as “imperialism is a policy of a nation to
in the latter part of the 19th century was extend its control outside its boundaries, by
in the interests of British industry. The the acquisition of colonies or dependencies
Indian nationalist leader Bal Gangadhar or by jurisdiction over other races”.
Tilak described it as decorating another’s y Thus ‘might is right’ becomes a key
wife. component of imperialism.
y The colony was designed with the world y Imperial powers like Spain and Portugal
market in mind, yet it was disarticulated on established colonies from the early 16th
the inside. Its agricultural sector did not serve century in the new world after discovering
its own industry, but rather the metropolitan the American Continent.
economy and the global market. y Another kind of imperialism was
y Unrecognised exports and state spending extraterritorial agreements. Western powers,
on the military forces and civil service for example, pressured mainland China to
contributed to the wealth drain. join extraterritorial agreements in order to
y Foreign political domination is another enjoy certain rights and benefits (such as
feature of colonialism. exemptions from local taxes and freedom
from the persecution of its citizens).
Colonialism and Capitalism Following World War I, the League of Nations
y Colonialism is a social formation in which enabled a few western powers to reign over
distinct modes of production coexist, from defeated countries’ territories. The mandate
feudalism to petty commodity production to system was in place at the time.
agrarian, industrial and finance capitalism. y The other European powers joined the race
y Unlike capitalism, where the surplus is and colonised North America, Asia, Africa
appropriated based on the ownership of the and Australia. Therefore, historian C.D.M.
means of production, under colonialism, Ketelbey called it the “Europeanisation of
the surplus is claimed by control over state the world”.
power. y With the beginning of the Industrial
y As colonialism is a social formation rather Revolution, European colonial powers
than a mode of production, the primary began to acquire more and more colonies
contradiction is societal rather than class in Asia and Africa to secure raw materials
terms. Thus, a national liberation struggle for their industries and find markets for
rather than a class struggle (as we see in their industrial products. This category of
capitalism) against colonial power can be imperialism is termed “Neo-imperialism”.
noticed. The main contradiction in society y Military interventions became a part of
is the national one, not the class one as the the imperial policy of the US government
struggle against colonial power is political. to justify its security concerns. During the

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Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the United government, intervened in the Kosovo Crisis
States militarily intervened to isolate Cuba. and Afghanistan on the grounds of promising
NATO, supported by the United States “the blessings of a superior way of life”.

Causes of Imperialism

Fig. 16.2 Causes of Imperialism

y Political: ⚪ White man’s burden on Europeans

⚪ The power and prestige of a country made them feel superior and civilised
were measured by the number of the savage heathens.
colonies that it controlled. y Economic:
⚪ Furthermore, some of these countries, ⚪ New markets were sought for industrial
such as the United Kingdom, aimed to products.
dominate vital points for commerce ⚪ The expanding industrial sector
routes. necessitated raw materials.
⚪ Rise of mercantilism and extreme ⚪ Capitalism stimulated investment in
nationalism. other territories.
y Demographic: y Geographic and technical:
⚪ During the nineteenth century, Europe’s ⚪ Many explorers created societies in
population exploded (from 300 million order to explore new unknown areas,
in 1870 to 400 million in 1914). As a such as Africa.
result, the colonies were envisioned as ⚪ New modes of transportation, such
extensions of the metropolises, allowing as the steamboat, made it possible to
the inhabitants to relocate. explore the planet more thoroughly.
⚪ In the countries of origin, migration ⚪ New economic routes, such as the Suez
reduced unemployment and social Canal, which opened in 1869, were critical
unrest. in satisfying the urge for exploration.

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y Cultural and ideological: own imperialism theory, most notably in

⚪ The white man had the obligation of Lenin’s Imperialism, the Highest Stage of
controlling the world and evangelising it Capitalism (1916).
based on pseudo-Darwinist ideas. y Imperialism, according to Lenin, is the
⚪ Hence, the western world had to civilise closing of the world market and the end of
the rest of the planet. capitalist free competition, which resulted
from the need for capitalist economies to
Theories of Imperialism continually increase investment, material
y Opponents of British Prime Minister resources, and workforce in such a way
Benjamin Disraeli’s supposedly violent and that colonial expansion became inevitable.
ostentatious colonial policies first coined y Later Marxist theoreticians echoed this view
the word “imperialism” in its current context of imperialism as a systemic characteristic
in the late 1870s. of capitalism, explaining the World War as a
y Historians and political theorists have struggle for domination of foreign markets
been debating for a long time regarding between imperialists.
the correlation between capitalism, class, y Lenin’s treatise became a popular textbook,
and imperialism. Much of the debate was surviving until communism fell apart in
pioneered by such theorists as J. A. Hobson 1989–91. Some non-Communist left thinkers
(1858–1940), Joseph Schumpeter (1883– have stressed the institutional or systemic
1950), Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), and existence of “imperialism.” Such writers
Norman Angell (1872–1967). have extended the period associated with
⚪ The term was soon appropriated by the term.
supporters of “imperialism,” such as ⚪ It now refers to a global structure that
Joseph Chamberlain. Some described spans millennia, sometimes dating back
imperialism as a policy of idealism to Christopher Columbus and, in some
and philanthropy, others as a policy of accounts, the Crusades.
political self-interest, and a growing y As the term’s use has grown, its context
number as a policy of capitalist greed. has moved along five distinct but often
y In Imperialism: A Study (1902), John A. parallel axes: moral, economic, structural,
Hobson (a leading English Liberal) created cultural, and temporal. Those shifts
a highly influential interpretation built on reflect, among other things, an increasing
his view that free-market capitalism had unease, if not outright dislike, for the
a detrimental effect on the majority of the pervasiveness of such power, especially
population. Western power.
⚪ He argued that funding overseas empires y Hobson theorised that taxation’s state
diverted funds from domestic needs. It intervention could boost consumption,
was spent abroad because, compared create wealth, and encourage a peaceful,
to domestic salaries, lower wages paid tolerant, multipolar world order.
to workers overseas resulted in higher y Walter Rodney, in his 1972 classic How
income and higher rates of return. Europe Underdeveloped Africa, proposes
⚪ As a result, although domestic wages the idea that imperialism is a phase of
remained higher, they did not rise as capitalism “in which Western European
quickly as they should have. capitalist countries, the US, and Japan
y Exporting money, he concluded, slowed the established political, economic, military
growth of domestic incomes and thus the and cultural hegemony over other parts
standard of living in the United States. of the world, which were initially at a
y By the 1970s, European Socialists had lower level and therefore could not resist
incorporated Hobson’s theories into their domination.”

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Impact of Imperialism y Missionaries who established schools

y A new money economy evolved during the and hospitals facilitated the spread of
imperial era. Mines and plantations that western ethnicity. They were responsible
relied on local labour were urbanised by for teaching people how to read and write,
Western businessmen. Colonial authorities as well as training young men for labour.
replaced the old monetary system with a They were medical trailblazers who helped
contemporary money market. To support save countless lives. Missionaries have
government expenses, many taxes were disseminated their religion all across the
imposed on their subjects. world, resulting in Christianity’s broad
y Several men went to work as migrant embrace.
workers, leaving the women to care for the y In Non-Western nations, there were a lot of
children and the farm. cultural diffusions. There was a confusing
y Less influential countries became blending between traditional and modern
increasingly reliant on their industrial ways of doing stuff.
superiors. y The colonial governments introduced
y Scale production through traditional improved medical care and better methods
economies into disarray. Goods were of sanitation. New crops, tools, and farming
produced at a lower cost and in a broader methods were developed to help enhance
variety, displacing Indian neighbours food production. Imperialism indeed
who spun fabric by hand. Because of was a major force in shaping the modern
their incapacity to deal with the prices of world. It shattered the old patterns but
mass manufacturing, artisans and crafts came up with a mix of both development
businesses have been devastated. and submergence between the powerful
y Modernisation was one of the advantages and the new powered. It triggered a race
of colonial rule. for being supreme between the nations,
y Westerners laid the foundations for modern which ultimately led to chaos in the first
banking and railroad development. World War.
y New technology, such as communication
and transportation networks, was also Imperialism and Colonialism
developed. Capitalists contributed to y The word colony comes from the Latin
the economy’s growth by spending huge word colonus, which means “farmer.” This
amounts of money. root reminds us that colonialism typically
y To support growth, they used the export entailed the transfer of population to a new
income to build industry and purchase territory, where the newcomers lived as
innovative agricultural equipment. permanent settlers while being politically
y Non-Westerners gradually came to believe loyal to their home country.
in the supremacy of the West. Because of y Imperialism, on the other hand, is derived
the colonial nations’ prosperity, their trust from the Latin phrase imperium, which
in their own cultures waned. means “to rule.” As a result, imperialism
y Conquered countries learned to follow refers to how one country exercises power
certain Western ways in order to gain an over another, whether through settlement,
advantage over the ruling countries. Some sovereignty, or indirect control techniques.
non-westerners, on the other hand, were y Colonialism is a strategy or policy through
sceptical of western modernisation. which one person or force exerts authority
y They were angry at being forced to abandon over other people or territory, usually
their long-held traditions, and they fought through the establishment of colonies
back vehemently against the western and with the goal of gaining economic
powers. domination.

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⚪ Imperialism is a plan for increasing world wars resulting in the world

a country’s power and influence by economy crashing. Despite these
colonisation, military force, or other criticisms, there were a few theorists
means. who tried to justify imperialist policies.
y Examples of colonialism are - the takeover ⚪ Machiavelli, the renowned Italian author
of India, Australia, Southern, and Central of The Prince, argued that imperialism
Africa by the British and Western and North constitutes a national struggle for the
Africa by the French. survival of people. The imperialist policy
⚪ Examples of Imperialism are- The is justified as a national impulse. It
19th-century African Scramble and the provides a stimulus for patriotic pride.
Chinese dominance of Vietnam from 111
BC to 983 AD. The Colonial State
y Both involve using the resources of a weaker y The colonial state serves the long-term
country to enhance and enrich the ‘mother benefits of the capitalist class of the
country.’ Colonialism usually consists of mother country as a whole.
transferring a population to a colony in new y It played a bigger role than capitalism. It
lands, whereas imperialism can be enforced was a huge source of surplus appropriation
by exercising military power to enforce the in and of itself. It was utilised by the
‘mother country’ dominance. metropolitan governing class to maintain
y If imperialism is concerned with events in the control over colonial society.
city, colonialism is concerned with events in y It guaranteed law and order and protected
the colonies. Colonialism and imperialism itself from both internal and external
are thus two sides of the same coin. threats.
y It curbed anti-colonial economic forces
Colonial Economy
among indigenous peoples.
y The colonial economy was neither pre- y It deliberately promoted caste and
capitalist nor capitalist; rather, it was colonial, community identities in order to undermine
like a hybrid. The colony was not constructed national unity. The state had been actively
in the mother country’s split image. involved in replicating conditions conducive
y Colonialism is the internal dislodgement and to capital appropriation, including the
exterior integration of the rural economy, as production of products and services.
well as the realisation of capital’s extended
reproduction in the imperialist metropolis Spread of Colonialism
rather than the colony. y White settlers established colonies in South
y Political theorists and economists have Africa, Australia, and Canada, but India and
always doubted the accrual benefits derived Indonesia were exploited economically and
by imperial powers by subjecting colonies politically for centuries. There was inland
to economic exploitation. colonisation (as in Russia) and foreign
⚪ It must be noted that imperial rivalries colonisation (as in China).
among European powers caused two

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Fig. 16.3 Spread of Colonialism

Various Reasons Due to Which investing in various agricultural and raw

Indentured Labour Being Taken by the commodities.
British from India to Their Colonies y Availability of labour: Most Indian indentured
y Abolition of slavery: This offered the labour came from the present-day regions
immediate background for the Indentured of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Central India,
labour method all over the globe. The British Bihar and the dry districts of Tamil Nadu.
required labour to work in the plantation ⚪ In the mid-nineteenth century, these
fields of different African colonies. Many areas underwent many changes,
Indian and Chinese workers went to work such as land rents increased; cottage
on plantations, in mines, and on the industries declined, and lands were
construction projects of railways and roads cleared for plantations and mines. All
around the globe. this influenced the lives of the poor.
y Industrial demand: The industrialisation y Escape from poverty: Most migrants
of Britain followed by the other European decided to take up work expecting to
nations accelerated the flow of trade, escape poverty or oppression in their home
labour and capital across the globe. villages and towns. Often migrants were not
⚪ The growing urbanism in Europe, even informed that they were to embark on
particularly in Britain, intensified the a long sea journey.
demand for food and agricultural ⚪ Sometimes agents, even by force,
goods since the greatest labour force abducted less willing migrant labour.
was consumed by the firms and Therefore, 19th century indenture has
factories. Colonies situated in Asia and been labelled as a ‘new system of
Africa became good destinations for slavery’.

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y The reluctance showed by African workers: which labourers of all races and religions
The residents of African nations were self- joined.
sufficient and entirely dependent on cattle y The protest religion of Rastafarianism
farming. They were hesitant to work in the (made famous by the Jamaican star Bob
factories and farms of the British. Marley) is also said to reflect cultural and
⚪ Therefore, Indians turned out to be the social connections with Indian migrants to
obvious choice. The essential significant the Caribbean. ‘Chutney music’, widespread
destinations of Indian indentured in Guyana and Trinidad, is another innovative
migrants were the Caribbean islands contemporary expression of the post-
(mostly Guyana, Trinidad, and Surinam), indenture experience.
Fiji and Mauritius.
⚪ Closer to home, migrants of Tamil Colonialism in Africa
moved to Malaya and Ceylon. Indentured y Africa was conquered in the latter decades
workers were also employed for Assam of the nineteenth century. Only 20% of Africa
tea plantations. had been conquered by Europeans as late
y Indian labour suitability: Indian labours were as 1880. As the Industrial Revolution spread
seen as being quiet, obedient and diligent across Europe, rivalries grew as colonists
by colonists and appropriate for working in sought new territories. The burgeoning
various construction and plantation works industrial countries were looking for a sunny
in multiple colonies of Britain. spot. Treaties and conquest were used to
⚪ Initially, the recruitment and arrival divide and occupy an African continent with
were done by private parties or agents, a surface area of about 28 million square
and after some time, later the British kilometres by European powers.
government controlled the recruitment y Africa was bifurcated into various states
of indentured labour. by the Europeans in a process that had no
African involvement. The current states of
Have They Been Able to Preserve and Africa are primarily a result of colonisation
Maintain Their Cultural Identity? in which competition and ‘accidents’
y Many indentured labourers did not return performed a very important role in West
to their native states /countries and settled Africa.
back in the colonies. They shifted to these
colonies with lots of expectations and Three Eras of Conquest
hope. On arrival at the plantations or mines y The first phase (1880–1919) was conquest
of these colonies, workers found situations and occupation. The colonial system was
to be different from what they had thought. only consolidated after 1910.
Living and working circumstances were y The second phase (1919–35) belonged to
very harsh, and there were few legal rights the independence movements.
available to them. However, these labourers y The third stage started from 1935 onwards,
found their own ways of surviving. and within forty-five years, the colonial
y Many of the workers escaped into the system was evacuated from over 94 per
wilds, though if caught, they faced severe cent of Africa.
punishment. Others evolved and developed y Colonial rule in Africa persisted for
new forms of individual and collective self- a hundred years on average. British
expression, intermingling various cultural territories in Africa consisted of Nigeria,
forms, old and new. Gold Coast, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Kenya,
y In Trinidad, the yearly Muharram procession Tanganyika, Nyasaland, Uganda, North and
was transformed into a riotous carnival South Rhodesia and South Africa. Algeria,
known as ‘Hosay’ (for Imam Hussain), in Morocco, Cameroon, French-Congo,

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M. K. Gandhi (a western-educated lawyer),

Tunisia, and Madagascar were the leading freedom struggles in different West African
French colonies. nations were also led by several western-
educated Africans such as:
Impact
⚪ Dr Kwame Nkrumah: educated and
Colonialism in Africa has the following effect trained in London and the US, led the
such as; Gold Coast to independence in 1957,
y Colonial dominance destroyed, changed, and Ghana was the 1st nation in the
and subjugated Africa’s self-sufficient sub-Saharan African region to attain its
economies. independence from the colonial rule of
y The impact of colonial dominance on African Europe.
society resulted in class stratification. ⚪ Nnamdi Azikiwe: educated and taught
y The artificial superimposition of territorial in the USA, led Nigeria to a popular,
lines on fundamentally tribal civilisation is successful anti-colonial struggle, leading
the basis of the ethnic conflicts that are to its freedom and autonomy in 1960.
paralysing many parts of Africa today. ⚪ Amilcar Cabral: educated in Portugal, led
y The links of African countries with each Guinea-Bissau towards independence
other and other parts of the world were from Portugal. He was murdered before
interrupted. the official independence declaration
y Through the strength of financial capital, of the nation. However, he served as
colonial powers reduced African economies an inspiration and motivation for other
to European dependence. Egypt became revolutionary leaders elsewhere, like
entangled in debt as a result of the Suez Fidel Castro.
Canal financing. ⚪ Tuvalu Houenou: opposed the idea of
y According to the imperialist school of Eurocentrism, defended and supported
thought, Africans welcomed colonial the equality of race, and initiated the
domination. Colonialism was justified by Negritude movement, the writings of
Social Darwinism, which claimed that the which provided a boost to anti-colonial
European race’s innate superiority meant struggles in West Africa.
that dominance over the weaker races was ⚪ Leopold Sedar Senghor and Felix
unavoidable. Houphouet: Boigny were western
⚪ Colonial rulers and modern apologists educated individuals who led Senegal
have both portrayed colonial authority as and Ivory Coast towards freedom and
a miracle. It is suggested that without the autonomy. Some of these freedom
colonial system, modern infrastructure, struggles were constitutional and
health, and education would not have peaceful, while some were associated
reached the colony; other scholars, such with non-cooperation and civil
as DK. Fieldhouse has classified the disobedience. Some of the struggles
impacts as “some good, some bad.” were absolute violent revolutions.
y The main motive behind colonialism was, of Countries of West Africa, however, have
course, satisfying imperial interests. rarely observed stability and peace after
y Role of western-educated Africans in freedom. Some countries have been
freedom struggle in West Africa during ruined by brutal dictatorships, civil wars
the 20th century, like the role played by and military coups.

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Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)

(2013, Mains) becoming a dominant factor in
British life as well. The effect of
“Africa was chopped into States the Industrial Revolution was felt
artificially created by accidents of worldwide.
European competition.” Analyse. (10 y Many European countries had by
marks, 200 words) now started following the Policy
Decoding the question of Mercantilism. Under this policy,
y In the introduction, try to briefly governmental control was exercised
discuss how Africa was colonised over industries and trade. It was
and scrambled. based on the theory that more
y In body, show how different European exports and fewer imports indicated
countries played their part in creating national strength.
situations where Africa was chopped y Africa was rich in mineral resources,
into States artificially. had an abundance of cheap/free
y In conclusion, write about the labour, and was easy to conquer;
aftermath of this divide and the hence, the race to acquire the
European competition. territories began.
y This race to occupy territory would
Answer: often result in wars, and the territory
Africa was chopped into states by the would be divided between the
Europeans in a mechanism that had victors. War was time-consuming and
no participation of the African States costly, and thus, to avoid wars, the
or the African tribes and communities. Europeans came up with a strategy
The current African states are broadly to sign agreements and divide the
a consequence of colonisation in which territories between themselves.
competition and accidents played a y By the end of the nineteenth
significant role. Europeans traded on century, the chopping off of the
the coast, except in South Africa, and African States was complete.
only in the late nineteenth century did Division of the African Territories:
they venture into the interior. After y After Belgium captured Congo in
this, some European countries reached 1878, other Europeans met in Berlin
an agreement to divide up Africa as to divide the territories within their
colonies for themselves. influence. By the end of the 1870s,
Factors leading to the chopping France and Britain were already
of African states: on the march in Western Africa.
y France after 1830, Germany after Britain colonised Nigeria, France got
1850 and the U.S. after the Civil War Morocco, Portugal got Angola, and
soon started industrialisation. By the U.S. founded Liberia.
1850, the Industrial Revolution had y In Eastern Africa, Britain captured
been accomplished, with industries Kenya, Germany captured Cameroons,

Imperialism, Colonialism and Decolonisation 247

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the French got Madagascar, and y In the introduction, you can start
Italy received Somalia, Eritrea, and with how West Africa was colonised
Ethiopia. After World War I, Germany by France and Britain and then
was defeated, and the areas under briefly write about the leaders of
its control were divided between the West Africa.
victor powers. y In body, mention the role of leaders
y In Southern Africa, the Dutch settled like Kwame Nkrumah, Léopold Sédar
in South Africa for its strategic Senghor (Senegal), Nnamdi Azikiwe
location, proximity to ports, and (Nigeria), and Félix Houphouet-
availability of gold. Soon, the Dutch Boigny (Côte d’Ivoire) in the struggle
lost to Napoleon, and eventually, against imperialist power.
it came under British control. An y Conclude by mentioning how
English explorer, Cecil Rhodes, the Western part of the African
founded Rhodesia (present-day continent developed a general
Zimbabwe and Zambia) by exploring feeling among the intelligentsia that
and establishing his influence in the the colonies were being deliberately
region. exploited.
y In Northern Africa, the French and
Answer:
the English forces were fighting
for territories. Eventually, Algeria West Africa was colonised by France
and sub-Saharan Africa were and Britain. A small percentage of
under France’s control, the English people (belonging mainly to the elite
controlled Egypt and Sudan, and class of Africa) were able to assimilate
Italy was given Libya and Tunisia. the ideas such as self-determination
The clear evidence that the division of through their education in Western
the African States was through accidents universities in the early 1930s. It was
can be seen in their boundaries, which an undesired by-product of the colonial
are primarily in straight lines, as they rule in this region. As a result, great
have been marked in a paper in Berlin. leaders like Kwame Nkrumah, Léopold
The European scramble to partition and Sédar Senghor, Nnamdi Azikiwe and
occupy African territory is often treated Félix Houphouet-Boigny came into
as a peripheral aspect of the political prominence to lead the struggles for
and economic rivalries developed African nationalism.
between the new industrial nations in Role of Great Leaders Who Led Anti-
Europe itself. Colonial Struggles in West Africa:
y Kwame Nkrumah: He was the
prominent Ghanaian nationalist.
He successfully led his nation to
Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) independence from Britain and
(2016, Mains) became the president of the newly
independent Ghana.
 he anti-colonial struggles in West
T y He was inspired by Karl Marx and
Africa were led by the new elite of Vladimir Lenin, Marcus Garvey, the
Western-educated Africans. Examine. Black American leader of the 1920s.
(12.5 marks, 200 words) Eventually, he immersed himself
Decoding the question

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in political work and organised served as the first President of

diasporic pan-Africanists. Nigeria.
y He formed the new Convention y He is considered a driving force
Peoples’ Party (CPP) in 1949. It was a behind the nation’s independence.
mass-based party which committed y Azikiwe was the founder of
itself to a program of immediate the National Council of Nigeria and
self-government. the Cameroons (NCNC) and led
y He launched a campaign of the NCNC into the important 1959
“positive action,” in 1950. It involved federal elections, which preceded
nonviolent protests, strikes, and Nigerian independence.
noncooperation with the British y Félix Houphouët-Boigny: He was
colonial authorities. His efforts a physician turned politician who
bore fruits and Ghana became an remained president of Côte d’Ivoire
independent nation in 1957. (Ivory Coast) from 1960 (year of its
y Some social, democratic policies independence) until his death in
and practices were adopted in Ghana 1993.
under the leadership of Nkrumah. He y He led Cote d’Ivoire to independence
created a welfare system, started from France.
various community programs, and y He followed policies of liberal free-
established schools. enterprise and attempted to develop
y Léopold Sédar Senghor: He was the cash-crop agriculture in Côte d’Ivoire.
first African agrégé, (the highest He did it at a time when many other
rank of a qualified teacher in the African countries were pursuing
French school system). He is deemed costly and abortive attempts at
as father of African art on modern state-run industrialisation.
painting, sculpture, and music. It y The country went on to become a
affirms his belief in Africa’s potential major exporter of cocoa, coffee,
contribution to modern culture. pineapples, and palm oil under his
y He was the key supporter of the leadership.
concept of Negritude. The western part of the African continent,
y Senegalese Democratic Bloc was thus, developed a general feeling among
founded by him in 1948. the intelligentsia that the colonies
y He preferred territorial government were being deliberately exploited by
upon federal government and more firmly entrenched European
consequently proliferation of small, political and economic systems and
unviable states happened. that they had developed a new, wider,
y Senghor appealed to the President and mobilisable public to appeal to for
of France for independence in support. Their efforts and fight against
December 1959. In result, Senegal the imperialist regimes were based on
was granted independence and demands for self-determination and
Senghor was elected president to played an important role in forcing the
the country unopposed. process of decolonisation of Africa and
y Nnamdi Azikiwe: He was a Nigerian the independence of many great African
statesman and political leader who nations.

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Colonialism in Pacific y The eastern half of New Guinea was

partitioned between Britain and Germany in
Pacific Islands 1885, while the western half was governed
y The British had colonised all of the Pacific by the Dutch. Germany also purchased
Islands by 1900. some Pacific islands from Spain.
y The Monroe Doctrine was announced by y The main contest for colonies in Central
the United States in 1823. It emphasised and West Asia was between Russia and
two things: Britain. Until 1907, the two rivals maintained
⚪ The United States’ policy of isolation strained relations.
and hegemony in North and South ⚪ After losing the Crimean War (1853–
America. It stated that the United States 1856), in which Russia was pitted against
would not engage in European affairs or an alliance of France, Britain, the
colonies and that any involvement in Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia (Italy),
its backyard (all of America) would be Russia began expanding into Asia (Italy).
considered an act of aggression. ⚪ Russia forced China to hand over vast
 However, by the 1890s, the United swaths of land north of the Amur
States had emerged as a new River in 1858, establishing the existing
Imperialist force that had begun to put border between the Russian Far East
countries outside of America under and Manchuria (China). China is now
its control, i.e., it had expanded the attempting to reclaim it from Russia.
concept of its “backyard” to include ⚪ After being defeated in the 1904–5
the Pacific and far East (China). Russo-Japanese war, Russia struck
y By 1881, the United States had begun to an agreement with Britain in 1907,
claim the Hawaiian Islands as part of its recognising Tibet and Afghanistan as
territory. areas under British influence. The British
y The Philippines was attacked by the United were able to establish a buffer zone
States and subsequently annexed. between India and Russia as a result.
y Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the y Northern Iran was designated as Russia’s
United States. sphere of influence, Southern Iran as
y Despite its legal independence, Cuba’s Britain’s, and Central Iran as a buffer zone
foreign policy was dominated by the United with equal independence for both, according
States. to the 1907 agreement in Persia (Iran).
y Hawaii (Pacific) was annexed by the United y Britain controlled India, Ceylon, Afghanistan,
States in 1898. and Burma in Asia. Except for China, most
y The Samoan Islands (Pacific) became the of the Far East had been overrun by 1871.
target of a power struggle between the y China and Japan were independent in
United States, Germany, and the United East Asia. After the Meiji Restoration
Kingdom. in 1868, Japan was able to break free
y The islands of Samoa were partitioned from the empire and begin the process
between the United States and Germany of industrialisation. In the 1890s, it had
(Britain was compensated elsewhere) in 1899. turned imperialist, and China became the
y It was primarily the settlers of New Zealand target of imperialism in the 19th and 20th
and Australia that wanted Britain to colonise centuries.
more countries around them in the case of
Britain. The inhabitants of Fiji opposed the Egypt
dictatorial rule, which Britain took over in y Egypt was under the colonies of both
1885. France and Britain.

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y Egypt was developed as a source of in the world was constantly challenged

cotton for the British textile industry. at this time by the rivalry of emerging
Cotton colonialism accounted for 43% of imperialist powers. The result was further
agricultural output by 1914. It registered for strengthening of its control over India.
85 per cent of exports in 1913. y In India’s case, foreign trade and the inflow of
y Egypt was also a good place to put bank foreign capital were reduced or significantly
capital to work. Industry and construction interrupted during the 20th century, i.e.,
received 5% of capital, 12.36 percent went during the First World War, the Great
to trade and transportation, and 79 per cent Depression (1929–34) and World War II.
went to public debt, mortgages, and banks.
Egypt was enslaved by debt as a result of Sri Lanka
colonial powers’ abuse. y The Portuguese entered Ceylon (now Sri
y The exploitation of Egypt was clearly Lanka) in 1505 to establish their trade.
demonstrated during the First World War. They stayed for over 150 years before being
Her natural resources, people, and economy driven out by the Dutch.
were all put to use in support of the war y During the last decade of the fifteenth
effort. Crops were confiscated by the army. century, the loss of Portuguese authority
The gold holdings of Egypt’s National Bank in Southeast Asia created the opportunity
were taken over by the British Treasury. for other European nations to enter the
In 1914, Egypt was designated as a British arena. The most notable was the Dutch,
protectorate. who captured the monopoly over the spice
and pepper trade. The Dutch rule in Ceylon
India could not continue for a long time.
y India has usually been deemed a classic y In 1796, Ceylon was established as part
colony. of the Madras Presidency. As a result, the
y It began with the goal of monopolising trade British East India Company governed many
and appropriating government funds, which of the districts taken over from the Dutch.
was quickly realised with the conquest of ⚪ A native uprising against the British in
Bengal and parts of South India, followed late 1796 led to the establishment of a
by the rest of India. dual government in 1798. Because this
y After that, the East India Company utilised method did not function, the British
its political clout to gain monopoly control Crown gained direct authority over the
over Indian trade and handicrafts. Indian marine provinces in January 1802.
traders were destroyed, and weavers were
forced to sell their wares for a low price. Impact of Colonial Rule in South Asia
y In the next stage, the cheap were y British rule in India and the neighbouring
manufactured goods finished. The drain of countries witnessed the worst features of
wealth took the Indian resources to Britain. colonialism.
y In the next stage of free trade, India emerged y It never offered opportunities to the
as a market for manufactured goods and a colonised to improve themselves politically
supplier of raw materials and food grains. and economically.
y The next stage is rightly known as the era y Racial characteristics developed by British
of finance capital. Railways, loans to the colonial rule Lord Macaulay gave importance
Government of India, trade, and to a lesser to the British education system in
extent, plantations, jute mills, coal mining, preference to the native system by arguing
shipping, and banking were all major “that English is better worth knowing than
investments in India. The British position Sanskrit or Arabic”.

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⚪ His racist comments consist of: “a y The lack of industrialisation in India, tied
single shelf of a good European library with the destruction of the village handicraft,
was worth the whole native literature of triggered widespread poverty. Dadabhai
India and Arabia”. Naoroji was the first to highlight the causes
y The British hated Indian traditions and of widespread poverty in his book Poverty
practices and demonstrated racial and Un-British Rule in India (1901).
superiority in dealing with native soldiers ⚪ Following the onset of World War I, the
during the Revolt of 1857, also known as British leadership realised their grievous
the First War of Indian Independence. They error. India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) were
didn’t give the Indian intellectuals any two of the most important markets for
credit. They believed in the “white man’s British goods.
burden” notion. Lord Curzon, the Governor- ⚪ Ceylon contributed coconuts, tea,
General of India, lauded the merits of British coffee, and rubber, while India sent
governance, proclaiming it a divine blessing tea, cotton, and jute. For more than 170
to the Indians. years, Britain prospered as a result of
y Indian students were exposed to the its economic exploitation of India.
values and features of western civilisation,
including their advances in science and Burma (Myanmar)
technology, through a Western education y The British Conquest of Burma: First
system. India saw the growth of a middle Burmese War (1824–26).
class that was well-versed in western ⚪ The Burmese put forward their demand
literature over time. that the British East India Company cede
y The British administration established a Chittagong, Murshidabad, Kasim Bazaar,
new class of large landlords known as etc., but could not pursue the matter
zamindars, who benefited from special due to preoccupation with the war with
privileges in rural India and collected rent Siam (Thailand).
from poor farmers. The zamindars grew ⚪ Following Siam’s defeat, the Burmese
greedy throughout time and made life resumed their demands on the British,
difficult for peasants. which were met with an attack on
y Several famines devastated rural India Shahpuri, a small island near Chittagong.
throughout the nineteenth century. It took ⚪ Lord Amherst, the Governor-General of
a devastating toll on life, and the British the British East India Company, declared
were ill-equipped to deal with the situation. war on Burma. Unfortunately, the military
The deadliest famine in Indian history expeditions were unable to achieve their
struck Bengal in 1943, killing an estimated goals due to the British company’s failure
7 million people as a result of malnutrition. to take adequate measures.
The famine, according to Nobel Laureate ⚪ As a result, the war stretched on for over
Amartya Sen, was caused by inflation driven two years before the Burmese soldiers
by a lack of food. This situation exposed the finally surrendered.
colonial government’s incompetence and
inefficiency in India. Second Burmese War (1852)
y Village life was peaceful in the pre-colonial y The Burmese government made severe
era, and communities coexisted peacefully. measures to control the flow of goods from
The settlements were self-contained and India to British enterprises in Rangoon,
self-sufficient. This peaceful village life was especially bullion.
upset and ruined with the advent of British y Teak merchants in the United Kingdom
rule. complained to the Indian Governor-General

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about a new Burmese government ordinance under extremely favourable conditions.

that made the teak trade a royal monopoly. The British were jealous and felt
⚪ The commissioner received several cheated, which ignited the third war.
complaints from British traders y Upper Burma was annexed to the British-
in Burma, which were sometimes Indian Dominions in 1885 after the Burmese
misinterpreted as a repressive stance were defeated. The King and his family
by the Burmese government. When were captured and sent to western India
Lord Dalhousie learned about the two as prisoners. The British government’s
British commanders who had been treatment of the Burmese monarch sparked
penalised by the Burmese government an insurrection, which lasted nearly five years
for their transgressions, he dispatched before the British were able to be put down.
Commodore Lambert to Rangoon to
investigate. Thailand
⚪ Lambert’s battleships arrived on the y As a preamble to a treaty with the British,
Burmese shore and seized a patrolling the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1855, changes
Burmese royal ship. The Burmese were implemented in the banking, currency,
administration was, of course, provoked. communication, and transportation sectors.
Dalhousie and Lambert wanted a reason y Extra-territoriality and tariff control were
to persuade the Burmese to declare war provided by the Anglo-Siamese Treaty.
on the British. Thus, Britain enjoyed the status of the most
y The second Burmese war was fought, with favoured nation. Other western nations
the British taking Rangoon and Lower Burma also demanded similar treatment from the
after the Burmese armies were defeated Government of Thailand.
for the second time (up to Toungoo). Burma y During the 1880s, Britain and France
demanded peace and made all possible extended their control over Southeast
concessions. Lower Burma (Pegu) was Asia in general. France was determined to
annexed to the Company’s possessions as consolidate its influence over Indochina,
a result of the conflict. especially Laos. The French felt that
Vietnam had a better claim over Laos than
Third Burmese War (1885) Thailand.
y In the years 1866–1867, King Mindon was y Thailand declared war on Germany during
confronted with rebellions in Upper Burma, the First World War in order to appease the
as well as personal tragedies, such as the Allies. During the war, her administration
deaths of many of his family and friends by was keen to purchase German maritime
his rebellious sons. He was in desperate and railway interests. The Western
need of British assistance. countries, led by the US, voluntarily gave up
⚪ The British took advantage of the their extraterritorial rights over Thailand at
situation and requested a number of this time. The League of Nations accepted
concessions that would have had an Thailand as a member. Slavery was
impact on Burma’s sovereignty. When abolished in Thailand thanks to legislation
he saw the British were causing him enacted by the Thai government. Many
trouble, he developed a friendship with Thai students have begun to pursue higher
France by establishing a trading pact education abroad.

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The Bloodless Revolution of 1932

y The global economic downturn impacted Thailand particularly hard. The Thai government
was obliged to make major budget cuts in 1932, which resulted in lower civil servant
wages and limited opportunities for development.
⚪ Despite the fact that many other countries have abandoned the gold standard,
Thailand’s economic troubles worsened. Thailand’s exports, particularly those of rice
and teak, began to suffer as a result.
⚪ As a result of lower government revenues, budget cuts were implemented. As a result,
educated unemployed and angry army officials conspired to topple the government
on June 24, 1932. (When the King was away in New York).
⚪ Because the coup organisers did not want outside interference in their country’s
internal issues, this movement was called the Bloodless Revolution.
y The army played a significant influence in Thai politics after the revolution. Thailand
saw a power battle between two parties for a few years: the middle class, led by Pridi
Phanomyong (a socialist and university professor), and Phibun Songkhram, an ultra-
nationalist army colonel with military support. The right-wingers aided the latter.
y In 1935, King Prajadhipok abdicated in favour of his ten-year-old son, Ananda, as a result
of the conflict. A constitutional monarchy was modelled after the United Kingdom was
founded.

Laos y It was not until 1565 that the Spaniards set

y In the Far East and Southeast Asia, French up their first settlement in Cebu, followed
Premier Jules Ferry backed forceful by the conquest of Luzon in 1566.
imperialism. He advocated for this proactive y In 1567, the Spaniards occupied a small
approach since it would help France’s trading town called Manila.
relations with Southeast Asian countries. y However, in the first half of the nineteenth
y In the Tongking delta, France continued century, the Spanish government overcame
to expand her colonial rule. Following the their resistance to Spanish rule.
signing of a treaty with France in 1873, y The revolts against Spanish rule became
Annam accepted the French protectorate. frequent in the eighteenth century since the
⚪ Cochinchina and Kampuchea were part Filipinos no longer tolerated the Spanish
of the French empire by 1885. Thailand atrocities.
was subjected to French imperialism ⚪ The third in a series of revolts in the
on the one hand and British pressure eighteenth century, however, coincided
on the other. Her future as a sovereign with the twenty-month British-Indian
nation was in jeopardy. occupation of Manila. After the signing
y France put pressure on Thailand by a show of of the Paris Treaty (1763) between
force, and the latter had to cede Laos, which Britain and Spain, the occupation came
became a French protectorate in 1893. to an end.

The Philippines Malaysia (Suvarnadvipa)

y After the Treaty of Saragossa in 1529, the y For approximately 130 years, the Portuguese
Portuguese government permitted Spain to ruled Malacca (1511–1641). Due to the
conquer the Philippines. antagonism of the Muslim kingdoms of

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Johor, Achin, and Java, the Dutch eventually to Pahang, a nearby island, and established
took control of Malacca. the kingdom of Johor as a result.
y Due to revolutionary and Napoleonic wars y However, the Portuguese monopoly over
in Europe, Dutch authority over the East the spice trade continued until 1641, when
Indies came to an end after a century and the Dutch captured Malacca.
a half. y For the purpose of trade, the British and
y The British took over the Dutch interests in Dutch established trading posts in nearly
the Indian Archipelago at the specific request every part of Southeast Asia.
of King William V. Even after the defeat of y The Dutch governor-general of the United
Napoleon; the Dutch interests continued due East India Company negotiated treaties
to the loss of Ceylon (1815) and subsequently, with the native rulers before a good
the Malay peninsula (1824). understanding could be achieved, causing
y A European agreement of 1824 carved out the British to become alienated.
spheres of influence, leaving the Malay ⚪ To destroy their trading rival, the Dutch
peninsula to the British and Indonesian staged a horrific murder of British
islands to the Dutch. soldiers at Amboyna (1619). The British
y The British applied Forward Policy in grew more interested in expanding their
Malaysia. The British government was not trade with India after that.
ready to accept full responsibility for the y The Dutch Captured Malacca in 1641
administration of the states acquired in and started direct Rule of the Dutch
the Malay peninsula till 1871. The situation Government.
changed after 1871 when the British got y During the years 1800–1820, the East Indies
wind of the rumour that France or Germany went through a series of reforms, probably
might occupy Malaya. reflecting the liberal philosophy prevailing
y By 1920, the Chinese settlers in Malaya in Europe. The reform of the Dutch Indies
became politically conscious, more so with began during the Napoleonic rule in the
the visit of Sun-Yat-Sen on exile in Penang Netherlands. It was introduced by a Dutch
and the establishment of the Kuomintang lawyer, Herman Daendals (1808–1810), in
party. The Communist wing of this party, led Java.
by Michael Borodin, wielded considerable y When the British took over the island of Java
influence over their comrades in Malaya. from the Dutch during the period 1811–1860,
⚪ Malaya, in the 1930s, witnessed Thomas Stamford Raffles was appointed Lt.
strikes and boycotts in plantations, Governor by Lord Minto, the then Governor-
mines, transport systems, and naval General of India. Raffles sincerely believed
construction works by members of the in improving the conditions of the people
Communist Party. of Java. His radical reforms brought about
y Japan conquered Malaya after the surrender overall development.
of British Governor-General Percival in ⚪ It included reorganising administration,
February 1942 at Singapore. abolishing the old forced delivery
y The communist guerilla groups began to system, tax restructuring, and revenue
destroy Japanese establishments till they reassessment of agricultural lands.
surrendered in 1945. ⚪ One of his most important reforms
was the introduction of the Ryotwari
Indonesia system. The actual cultivator became
y Admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque’s the landowner, subject to the payment
Portuguese troops took advantage of the of land tax directly to the government.
resulting chaos in Malacca and conquered y The British transferred their power to the
the city in 1511. Sultan Mahmud Shah fled Dutch in 1816. In 1824, the British and the

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Dutch signed a treaty that provided for the y North Vietnam becomes a French
Malay Archipelago division into two regions. Protectorate. After signing the Treaty of
The British gained control over the Malay Tientsin in 1885, China recognised French rule
States, whereas the Dutch exercised their over North Vietnam. In comparison to other
sovereignty over the East Indies (Indonesia). Western nations, China granted extensive
commercial and railway concessions to the
Indo-China French in the south Chinese provinces of
y Britain and France were at odds about Yunnan and Vietnam under this treaty.
Thailand’s status as a buffer zone
between them during the last decade of China
the nineteenth century. Finally, in 1907, a y Europeans first set foot on Chinese soil after
solution was reached in which Thailand extensive geographical investigation. The
agreed to hand over the two Cambodian Portuguese were among the first to arrive in
provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap to 1517, and they eventually founded a town in
France. Macau in 1557, but under Chinese supervision.
y Emperor Minh Mang began persecuting y Other European nations, such as Spain (1575),
French missionaries and converts in Holland (1604), the United Kingdom (1637),
Vietnam in the early nineteenth century. It and the United States (1784) attempted
became the primary reason for the French to develop economic relations with China,
government’s participation in Vietnam’s anticipating benefits. Russia was the only
domestic affairs. European state to successfully build a
y In the French-Vietnamese Treaty of 1862, Tu relationship with the Chinese government.
Duc (Emperor of Vietnam) ceded the three ⚪ Border clashes, territorial disputes, and
provinces in Cochinchina, including Saigon, illegal immigration have all affected
to France. The treaty promised French Russia’s relations with China.
merchants and missionaries commercial ⚪ To reach an agreeable agreement,
and religious freedoms, respectively, and by China and Russia signed the Treaty of
another clause in the treaty, they promised Nerchinsk, which gave Russia control
a future French protectorate over Annam. of the Amur Valley. It paved the way for
y It took another eleven years for France to closer relations between the two.
extend her control over the whole of North ⚪ In1727, the Chinese ports were opened
Vietnam. for Russian trade.
y Following the demise of the second French ⚪ China gained control over the Mongols
empire, there was a lot of talk in France while Russia secured commercial
about how she should try to build an empire concessions at Kiakhta and Nerchinsk.
in Indochina. This ambition compelled the ⚪ In Peking, Russia was granted permission
French Government to explore the Mekong to construct educational institutions
delta region under the leadership of Jean and religious missions.
Dupuis. ⚪ Foreign merchants were considered
y The Vietnamese Emperor finally signed a ‘barbarians’ who had abandoned
treaty in 1873 with the French Government, their homeland for the sake of profit.
which provided three ports of Tongking for They were regarded as if they were
French commerce and the stationing of petitioners pleading for commercial
French troops and consul. advantages from China.

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Canton system
From the 17th through the 19th centuries, the Canton system was a trading pattern that
emerged between Chinese and Western merchants, primarily British, in Guangzhou’s South
China commercial metropolis (Canton). The system’s most notable features emerged
between 1760 and 1842 when all foreign trade entering China was confined to Canton, and
foreign traders entering the city were subject to a set of Chinese government laws.

The Opium Wars in China

China’s attempts to stop the opium trade led to the Opium Wars. Since the 18th century,
foreign traffickers (mostly British) have been illegally trafficking opium from India to China,
but the trade exploded around 1820. The widespread addiction that resulted was wreaking
havoc on China’s social and economic systems. This aggravated the Chinese government,
and the war was ignited.

y The north-western province of China republics such as Vietnam (known as

provides a classic example of Russian Annam to the Chinese).
interference. Unfortunately, the Chinese ⚪ Since the population was divided over
army had no control over the local Muslims social and religious commitment due to
called Khojas due to rugged terrain. a distinctive geographical contradiction
⚪ When Yakub, a Khokandian general, took (for example, the Hanoi and Mekong
control of the territory and declared deltas divided it.), hundreds of French
independence, it was in jeopardy. The Catholic missionaries began arriving to
British assistance for Yakub irritated the continue their work.
Russians, who feared British meddling y The French established a protectorate over
in the Russia-China border region. nearby Cambodia (1863–64). King Norodom
⚪ The Russians deployed military troops here (1860–1904) of Cambodia sought French
and promised the Chinese government assistance to put down an uprising in his
(the Sino-Russian agreement of 1851) to realm, resulting in the establishment of a
vacate when the situation became normal. French colony in Cambodia.
y The Chinese government reclaimed the whole y Nearby, Siam became another target for the
region of Turkestan, with the exception of the French to extend its control and a treaty
Ili region, where the Russians were camped. achieved this with that country’s monarch
y The Russians signed the Treaty of St. in 1867. Cambodia’s dependence on Siam
Petersburg in 1881, resulting in the ended.
evacuation of their troops. y The French ambition of establishing its
y The Chinese government renamed the colony, known as Indochina, had almost
province of Xinjiang (which means “New succeeded, but the goal of opening up trade
Dominion”) after the north-western area of links with China from the south, through
Turkestan. Up to the Great Wall of China, the the Mekong and Red Rivers, had not yet
Russians were allowed to open consulates, been achieved.
buy property, build factories, and trade with ⚪ The French continued to explore the
the locals. Mekong River region further, and one
y France, unable to reap the same benefits of their expeditions resulted in the
from China as the British, planned spiritual discovery of Angkor Wat. Subsequently,
and political conquests in China’s satellite they shifted attention to the Red River

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region, hoping to discover a new route name, restoring his authority, at least on
to southwest China through Tongking. paper. The emperor was given the title of
y Because China’s sovereignty over her Meiji, and the period of change is known as
vassal states was threatened, the French the Meiji Restoration.
acquisition of Indochina was bound to drive
China into a full-scale conflict with France.
It’s worth noting that China has claimed From 1868 to 1908
control over these countries since 1664. y Japan became an industrialised country.
y The Sino-French war broke out, with the Initially, the government was in charge, and
French taking Hanoi. it made significant investments in heavy
y In 1884, the French forces got resounding industries. Later, the enterprises were
victories against the Chinese, which led to sold to capitalists, who quickly became
the dismissal of Prince Kung. self-sufficient and no longer required
y In 1893, France took over Laos, which Siam government assistance.
had given up. Due to the Anglo-French y A well-designed education programme
competition at the time, only Siam remained ensured that the Japanese became literate
independent. quickly. It offered the skilled labour force
y China has had to learn some hard lessons. that was required for rapid industrialisation.
It was most likely the first contemporary y Extreme nationalism and Emperor worship
war that she lost against a foreign power. were emphasised in education. This
y The most significant outcome of this war pushed citizens to put in long hours for
was the rise of nationalism, at least in the national economic development while
southern parts of China. simultaneously aiding imperialism.
y A new constitution was ratified in 1889.
Imperialist Japan The emperor, not the Diet, was declared
responsible for the ministers (Parliament).
Japan Before 1868 The emperor was considered to be divine,
y Political system: The Emperor was only a and the Diet and ministers had no role in
symbolic character. Military generals, often Army and Navy officer appointments. They
known as shoguns, wielded real power. had minimal financial resources as well.
y Social System: In Japan, a Europe-like Only 3% of the population had the right to
feudal society existed at that time. vote at the time. As a result, the military
y International contact: for over 200 years, forces progressively came to dominate
Japan was cut off from the rest of the world. Japan’s political affairs.
y Japanese independence was threatened in y Japan was a small island nation where
the 1850s. the majority of the people were poor. As
y In 1853, the United States dispatched a a result, it had no home market and had
naval fleet to coerce Japan into opening two to colonise in order to find export markets
ports to US ships, allowing trade to resume. and raw materials to fuel its industry.
In the following years, similar accords were y Because of its large coal and mineral
signed with European powers. reserves, Manchuria was extremely valuable.
y Meiji Restoration (1868): The shogunate’s It was also a gateway to the Pacific Ocean.
control came to an end in 1868, and a new After 1858, Japan resented Russian rule in
set of advisers began ruling in the emperor’s Manchuria.

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Sino-Japan War (1894–1895):

y It was mainly over China-controlled Korea. After the loss;
y Korea was recognised as an independent state by China.
y Formosa (Taiwan) occupied by Japan
y Japan seized the Senkaku Islands in the South China Sea, which is currently a source of
controversy between China and Japan.
y Manchuria came under Japanese economic influence, but the Russian dominance of
Manchuria, which had been in place since 1858, was still envied.

Russo-Japan War (1904–05):

y It was fought over Manchuria. Japan defeated Russia and acquired more Chinese territory;
y Japan annexed Southern Manchuria, as well as Port Arthur, to its sphere of influence.
y In 1905, it also made independent Korea a protectorate and took control of the Liaotung
Peninsula.
y Japan received half of Russia’s Sakhalin islands.

After 1908 engagement with any other country at all

y Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910. Japan costs. As a result, Japan took advantage of
attempted, but failed, to convert China into the situation.
a protectorate during World War I. y It had made a profit by exporting shipping and
y In 1931, it invaded Manchuria and founded other commodities to the Allies during WW I
Manchukuo, a puppet state. From 1931 onward, by 1918. It displaced European firms in export
minor localised “incidents” of Japanese markets, particularly in Asia, and received
aggression against China continued. supply orders that European firms couldn’t
y Japan launched a full-fledged invasion fill. Japan’s cotton exports increased, and
of China during the Sino-Japanese war merchant ships doubled during World War I.
(1937–45). Japan’s Imperialist tendencies were partly a
y It became part of World War II. result of its social situation.
y In the early 1930s, Japan became a military y By 1921, the economic boom had come to
dictatorship, which aided imperialistic an end because European countries had
activities in China. Japan had fallen under recovered economically and had reclaimed
the rule of the army due to economic and lost export markets.
political concerns. y In Japan, unemployment rose, and peasants
y Until the middle of 1921, Japan’s economy were struck hard by a sharp drop in rice
was booming. It had benefited from World prices as a result of record harvests.
War I (1914–19), while European powers Workers’ and peasant protests were
were economically weak after the war and ruthlessly suppressed, and as a result, they
engaged in disputes over the Treaty of turned against the administration. The World
Versailles. Economic Crisis was a watershed moment,
y The United States was the only country as Japanese exports suffered and importing
strong enough to stop Japan’s imperialist countries were unable to pay for imports.
march. Despite this, it was appalled by World y The army ruled the country on Fascist lines
War I. It pursued an isolationist strategy, until 1945. As a result, in Japan throughout
which included refraining from interfering the 1930s, it was the army, not the elected
in world affairs and avoiding military government, that was accountable for

Imperialism, Colonialism and Decolonisation 259

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imperialism. In addition, its imperialism in Venezuela and British Guiana (present

grew as a result of economic concerns and Guyana) as a result of it.
the tiny area of its territory. y The United States was opposed to Russian
dominance in China.
Imperialist US y In the Russo-Japan war of 1904–5, US
y Between 1865 and 1895, the United States President Roosevelt mediated and persuaded
became a major industrial power. Russia to recognise Japan’s territorial gains.
y Because it had such a large home market, y The US and Japan signed a secret deal
much of its production was consumed allowing unfettered trade in certain areas.
domestically for a long time, the United As a result, the United States began an
States’ influence on the world economy was appeasement policy toward Japan, which
not felt. encouraged Japan’s imperialism and helped
y The expanded population in the United it grow into great power and a rival of the
States as a result of the massive migration United States in the Pacific.
of Europeans and other groups in the y Corollary to Monroe Doctrine: Monroe
nineteenth century and the first decade of Doctrine (1823) was expanded in 1904.
the twentieth century provided a significant Roosevelt maintained that the US had the
domestic market. right to intervene in the internal affairs of
y The Policy of Isolation, which reflected a South American countries in addition to
general lack of interest in foreign affairs, was opposing European involvement in Latin
another cause. American politics.
y By the 1890s, the United States had y From 1906 until 1909, US forces were
established itself as a new imperial power. stationed in Cuba to restore order.
y The main reason was that the Industrial y The Panama Canal was finished in 1914 in
Revolution created a demand for raw Columbia. It had a significant impact on US
materials and export markets. trade. The canal established a link between
y The concept of the White Man’s Burden the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.
was also used by the US, and the export of y Panama was recognised as an independent
modern civilisation was claimed as a cause country, and it signed a far more favourable
for US intervention. pact than Columbia had received from the
y When Europeans planned to split China in United States.
the 1890s, the United States felt left out.
It so implemented the ‘Open Door Policy,’
which stated that all Imperial states in China Neo-Colonialism in South America
would have equal rights and that no Imperial Following Roosevelt, Presidents Taft and
power would discriminate against another by Wilson pursued a policy of encouraging
claiming a sphere of influence in any territory. US corporations to invest in Latin
As a result, China was designated as an America and using these investments
International Colony. Expansion in the Pacific to bring the Latin American economy
had begun even earlier. under their control. The United States
y The United States contributed troops to put intervened in Mexico by assisting in
down the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1900). The the overthrow of popularly elected
United States reaffirmed their dominion over President Madero (elected in 1910,
North and South America in 1893. It declared removed & murdered in 1913). Following
itself effectively sovereign over the entire this incident, Mexicans were hostile
continent of America and declared that its to the United States (Mexico became
instructions should be considered law. The independent from Spain in 1821).
British were forced to agree to arbitration

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Impact of Colonialism mixed population with diverse cultural and

ethnic values and practices.
Economical y Slavery, exploitation, a surge of diseases,
y Economic exploitation of the colony or and settlement issues were all extremely
the annexation of the colony’s economic common. Despite the fact that the
surplus by the metropolis damages the colonists forced the people to follow them
colony’s economy. all, they might all be considered essential
y The surplus generated from traditional factors. It culminated in the creation of
agriculture to plantations to modern mining new empires.
and factory production is allocated to the y The term neo-colonialism has been used to
metropolis. refer to numerous terms in these situations
y The economic structures of several places since the decolonisation that occurred
were influenced by European colonisation. following World War II. It typically refers to
colonisation by other means rather than
Political overt colonisation.
y Colonialism is more than political control or
colonial policies. End of Colonialism
y Their policies for colonies reflect their y Western colonialism was doomed from
colonial interests. the outset. It received a serious jolt during
y Colonial state and administrative institutions World War I. People became aware of their
are run with the interest of a metropolis. rights due to the press, education, and
y Colonial culture imprints its impact on political consciousness that developed in
society. these colonies.
y The colonial system is built on the foundation y The social and political requirements of
of colonial concepts and ideology. residents in diverse colonies, on the other
hand, were unmet by colonial nations.
Social Nationalism grew in these countries, and
y There was a spread of languages, literature, after WWII, the colonies declared their
and cultural institutions extended far, and independence one by one.
technological advancement ushered in a

The Decolonisation of Malaya Peninsula

y The Malay Peninsula was under British influence since they first came here in the late
18th century to explore Southeast Asia for new resources. After that, the British East
India Company traded and partially controlled and regulated the region. The expansion
of their China trade further enhanced the company’s desire for bases in the area near it.
y The entire decolonisation of the Malaya Peninsula was an extension of the sequence of
decolonisation movements going through Asia and Africa, and this process was speeded
up after World War II.
y Malay Peninsular region was a multicultural society, multi-racial, with Malay Chinese
and Indians making major ethnic and interest communities which was an appropriate
condition for colonial powers to consolidate their regime.

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y The collapse of Singapore and Japanese advances in the Malay Peninsula during the
World War–II period compelled the British to reassess its non-interventionist policies
in favour of ethnic cooperation and multi-racial government in this zone. However, with
the diverse interests of different groups and communities, reaching a consensus was a
challenging task.
y Cold War philosophical and ideological rivalry was common in Malayan Peninsula. With
the growth of Comintern aligned communist parties such as the Chinese Communist
Organisation and Malayan Communist Party, the concern of the Malayan Peninsula falling
to the Communists appeared. It was a nightmare for the liberal democratic states/
colonial powers (i.e., British), which ensured the handover of power to ideologically
friendly regimes.
y The entire process of decolonisation of the Malayan Peninsula was primarily a result
of a long reconciliation procedure between the European colonial powers and Malayan
nationalists. Their mutual compromise provided the British with the confidence to speed
up decolonisation with the help of a smooth decolonisation process.

Previous Years’ Question (PYQ)

(2017, Mains) Problems in the decolonisation process
of the malay peninsula:
 hat problems are germane to the
W y It was a complex area that would be
decolonisation process in the Malay difficult to organise. It consisted of
Peninsula? (150 words, 10 marks) nine states, each ruled by a sultan,
Decoding the question two British settlements, Malacca
y In the introduction, try to write and Penang. and Singapore, a small
about the British occupation of the island less than a mile from the
Malay Peninsula briefly. mainland.
y In body, y The population was multiracial:
⚪ Write various problems in the mostly Malays and Chinese, but with
Decolonisation process of the some Indians and Europeans as well.
Malay Peninsula. In preparation for independence, it
y In conclusion, try to write about the was decided to group the states and
Federation of Malaysia. the settlements into the Federation
of Malaya (1948), while Singapore
Answer: remained a separate colony.
The British came to the Malay Peninsula y The influence of the Japanese in
in the late 18th century and tried to the Malay Peninsula during World
control its natural resources by spreading War II pressured the British to make
the British East India company’s trade. a reassessment of policies favouring
After the second world war, the phase the regional government to gain
of decolonisation was noticed when their support.
most of the imperial nations started y Each state had its legislature for local
transferring the power to the native affairs; the sultans retained some
people. power, but the central government

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had firm overall control. All adults when Malaya was admitted to the
had the vote, which meant that the Commonwealth.
Malays, the largest group, usually y The Federation of Malaysia was set
dominated affairs. up in 1963. Malaya was running well
y Chinese communist guerrillas led under Tunku’s leadership, and its
by Chin Peng organised strikes economy, based on exports of rubber
and violence against the British to and tin, was the most prosperous in
support an independent communist south-east Asia.
state. y In 1961, when the Tunku proposed
y It was made clear that independence that Singapore and three other
would follow as soon as the country British colonies, North Borneo
was ready for it; this ensured that (Sabah), Brunei and Sarawak, join
the Malays remained firmly pro- Malaya to form the Federation of
British and gave very little help to Malaysia, Britain agreed.
the communists, who were Chinese. After a United Nations investigation
y The move towards independence team reported that a large majority of
was accelerated when the Malay the populations concerned favoured
Party, under their able leader Tunku the union, the Federation of Malaysia
Abdul Rahman, joined forces with was officially proclaimed (September
the leading Chinese and Indian 1963). Brunei decided not to join and
groups to form the Alliance Party, eventually became an independent
which won 51 out of the 52 seats state within the Commonwealth (1984).
in the 1955 elections. This seemed Although Singapore decided to leave the
to suggest stability, and the Federation to become an independent
British were persuaded to grant republic in 1965, the rest of the
complete independence in 1957 Federation continued successfully.

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Relation Between Colonialism step in to ensure that basic human rights are
and Mercantile Capitalism respected.
y Mercantile Capitalism was British policy in
the 18th century. Decolonisation
y Mercantilist theory, a political and economic y Former empires gave way to the development
concept in which the nation-principal of new nation-states or led to the
state’s goal was to maximise exports, independence of former colonies throughout
minimise imports, and acquire as much the twentieth century. Decolonisation is a
bullion (gold and silver) as possible, is the term used to describe this period.
foundation of mercantile capitalism. y The term “decolonisation” is thought to
y To expand national authority, the have been coined by an expatriate German
government was supposed to regulate the scholar, Moritz Julius Bonn, for his section
economy at home and in foreign colonies. on imperialism in the Encyclopedia of the
y This amounted to placing trade barriers and Social Sciences in 1932. Decolonisation
trade monopolies with colonies to British is defined as the surrender of external
companies, intending to have a positive political sovereignty over colonised non-
balance of payment. These countries were European peoples, as well as the emergence
colonised in opposition to the native chiefs of independent territories where the West
and rulers. once ruled, or the process of power transfer
y There was a fresh development in the from empire to nation-state, according to a
nineteenth century. The policy of laissez- recent study (Springhall, 2001).
faire was started because of thinkers like y Over fifty decolonisation had undertaken
Adam Smith. It meant less state control in Asia and Africa between 1945 and 1965,
over the economy (as in Mercantile with a few more ten years later. Another
Capitalism) and, as a result, a more free- group of countries was liberated in the
market economy. Only the home economy 1970s, including Portuguese Guinea-Bissau,
was a free-market economy. The entire Mozambique, and Angola. Zimbabwe was
world was not being transformed into a only emancipated in the 1980s.
free market economy (as today, in an era of y The French executed over 700 nationalist
MNCs & globalisation). and communist leaders after armed
y Over the majority of their colonies, the revolts in 1930 and peasant revolts led by
Imperial powers possessed exceptional communists in 1930–31.
trade and investment rights. Companies y The French were convincingly defeated in
from other countries were not treated the battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
equally in these territories, and contracts y The British were hesitant to grant
for economic development were reserved independence to Africa’s major white settlers,
for Imperial government companies. such as those in South Africa and Kenya.
y Laissez-faire was in decline by the end of the y Nine years later, Malaya gained
nineteenth century. In 1926, British economist independence.
John Maynard Keynes released The End of y Except for important white settlers in Africa,
Laissez-faire. It was realised that Laissez- such as in South Africa and Kenya, the
faire could not be followed blindly because British were inclined to grant independence.
of its flaws, such as labour exploitation and y Kwame Nkrumah led Ghana to independence
government non-intervention even when in 1957. In 1960, Togo, Cameroons, Somalia,
there was a famine (1880 famine in India- and Nigeria gained independence.
government did not act). The state must y Somaliland, Tanganyika, Uganda, Zanzibar,
Nyasaland, and Northern Rhodesia, all
British East and Central African possessions

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gained independence in 1964. In 1966, century was once hailed as one of history’s
Botswana and Swaziland followed. Britain great liberation revolutions.
was unwilling to hand over power in Kenya
because of white settlers there and hence
got embroiled in suppressing a protracted Conclusion Residual Colonialism
and violent revolt, such as the Mau. Former colonial powers strive to preserve
y Morocco and Tunisia gained independence political and economic domination over former
in 1956, which were the French colonies. colonies that have gained official political
In contrast, independence was ultimately independence through residual colonialism.
ruled out for Algeria as it was seen as an Some countries are still colonised, and the
integral part of France. This short-sighted United Nations classifies them as “non-self-
policy led to a bloody war, as in Vietnam. governing territories (NSGTs)” — areas where
y In Africa, local autonomy was granted in the population has not yet achieved complete
1956, but the colonies were placed in a self-government. They persisted under the
union, the French Community, strictly tutelage of former colonial powers such as
controlled by France. the UK, the USA and France. As openly put by
y In 1960, eight French West African colonies, the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (2007–
four French Equatorial African colonies, and 2016), decolonisation remains an unfinished
Madagascar attained independence. business, an unfinished process that has
y The wave of decolonisation that swept the been with the international community for
globe in the second half of the twentieth too long.

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References

y Story of Civilisation Part-I & Part-II (Arjun Dev) old NCERT

y New NCERT- India and The Contemporary World 1 & 2 (Class 9th and 10th)
y Mastering Modern World History by Norman Lowe
y World history book by Krishna Reddy
y History of the modern world – BV RAO
y History of the modern world – Jain and Mathur
y MODERN WORLD I & II – NIOS

References 267
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