teaching

information literacy
50 Standards-Based Exercises for College Students

Second Edition

Joanna M. Burkhardt
Mary C. MacDonald
with Andrée J. Rathemacher

American Library Association

Chicago 2010
Joanna M. Burkhardt is professor and head librarian at the University of Rhode Island (URI) branch libraries
in Providence and Narragansett. She coordinates the information literacy program at the branches and teaches
sections of URI’s course in information literacy. She also serves as the chair of technical ser­vices for the university
libraries. She is an active member of the American Library Association (ALA), the Association of College and
Research Libraries (ACRL), and the Rhode Island Library Association.
Mary C. MacDonald is an associate professor and head of instructional ser­vices in the library at the University of
Rhode Island, Kingston. She teaches sections of URI’s course in information literacy. She is an active member of
ALA, ACRL, and the Rhode Island Library Association, and she is a member of the ACRL Institute for Informa-
tion Literacy’s Immersion Program faculty.
Andrée J. Rathemacher is an associate professor and head of acquisitions in the library at the University of Rhode
Island, Kingston. She has taught in the library’s information literacy program and has designed information literacy
modules that have been integrated into the university curriculum. She is an active member of the ALA, ACRL,
and NASIG (North American Serials Interest Group).

The authors were winners of the Outstanding Paper of the Year in Reference Ser­vices Review for the year 2000:
“Challenges in Building an Incremental, Multiyear Information Literacy Plan,” RSR: Reference Ser­vices Review
28, no. 3 (2000): 240–247.

© 2010 by the American Library Association. Any claim of copyright is subject to applicable
limitations and exceptions, such as rights of fair use and library copying pursuant to Sec-
tions 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Act. No copyright is claimed in content that is in
the public domain, such as works of the U.S. government.

ISBN-13: 978-0-8389-1053-5

Printed in the United States of America

14 13 12 11 10 5 4 3 2 1

While extensive effort has gone into ensuring the reliability of information appearing in
this book, the publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Burkhardt, Joanna M.
Teaching information literacy : 50 standards-based exercises for college students /
Joanna M. Burkhardt and Mary C. MacDonald with Andrée J. Rathemacher. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8389-1053-5 (alk. paper)
1. Information literacy—Study and teaching (Higher) 2. Information resources—
Evaluation—Study and teaching (Higher) 3. Research—Methodology—Study and
teaching (Higher) 4. Electronic information resource literacy—Study and teaching
(Higher) 5. Computer network resources—Evaluation—Study and teaching (Higher)
6. Internet research—Study and teaching (Higher) 7. Library orientation for college
students. I. MacDonald, Mary C. II. Rathemacher, Andrée J. III. Title.
ZA3075.B87 2010
028.7071'1—dc22
2009045780

Book design in Caecilia and Electra by Casey Bayer.

This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper).

ALA Editions also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats.

For more information, visit the ALA Store at www.alastore.ala.org and select eEditions.
Contents

List of Exercises | v
Preface | vii
Introduction | ix

one | Information Explosion | 1

two | What Is Information? | 9

three | Getting Ready for Research | 19

four | The Chain of Information | 33

five | Issues of the Information Age | 37

six | Books and Catalogs | 53

seven | Periodicals and Databases | 63

eight | The Web and Scholarly Research | 79

nine | Other Tools for Research | 93

ten | The Paper Trail Project | 101

eleven | Assessment | 123

Appendix | Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education | 127

List of Contributors | 133
Index | 135

iii
Exercises

Exercise 1: The Many Ages of Information 3

Exercise 2: Finding the Best Information: Your Job May Depend on It 4
Exercise 3: Do You Know What Information Is? 10
Exercise 4: Homelessness in Urban New England: Causes and Effects 12
Exercise 5: Let’s Buy a Car! 13
Exercise 6: What Kind of Information Is It? 14
Exercise 7: Determine the Quality of Information 17
Exercise 8: Research Analogies 20
Exercise 9: Developing Essential Questions for Information Seeking 23
Exercise 10: Finding Encyclopedias for Background Information 24
Exercise 11: The Wikipedia Challenge 26
Exercise 12: Create a Concept Map 29
Exercise 13: Disciplines and Subject Areas 30
Exercise 14: Creating a Research Question 31
Exercise 15: Search Term Worksheet 32
Exercise 16: Information and Time 34
Exercise 17: Links in the Chain of Information 36
Exercise 18: Authorship, Rights of Authors, and Responsible Use of Others’ Work 39
Exercise 19: Expert Input on Information Issues 40
Exercise 20: Marketing, Security, Inventory, or Invasion of Privacy? 43
Exercise 21: Plagiarism 46
Exercise 22: How Plagiarism Changed a Life 47
Exercise 23: Privacy and the Internet 49
Exercise 24: Your Right to Privacy 50
Exercise 25: Group Discussion: What Is a Catalog? What’s In a Catalog? 54
Exercise 26: Free-Range Searching 55
Exercise 27: Build It Yourself: Your Own Bibliographic Record 56

v
vi | Exercises

Exercise 28: Book Truck Rodeo! 56

Exercise 29: Using Keywords to Identify Subject Headings 57
Exercise 30: Evaluating Books for Value 58
Exercise 31: Writing an Annotated Bibliography of Books 59
Exercise 32: Subject-Specific Library Skills 61
Exercise 33: Types of Periodicals—Can You Tell Them Apart? 64
Exercise 34: “Did You Hear about That Study?” Team Exercise
for Understanding Periodical Types 65
Exercise 35: Access Tools for Fun and Profit 70
Exercise 36: Using Print Indexes 71
Exercise 37: Professor C. Needs a Car 73
Exercise 38: Creating Effective Search Statements 75
Exercise 39: Database Discovery Project 77
Exercise 40: Should I Use a Library Database, or Should I Just Search the Web? 82
Exercise 41: Search Engine Extravaganza 84
Exercise 42: Finding and Following Blogs on a Topic 85
Exercise 43: Following Blogs Using Feed Readers 86
Exercise 44: Evaluation of Information on the Web 88
Exercise 45: Website Worthiness 90
Exercise 46: Finding Experts and Organizations 94
Exercise 47: Statistics, Statistics, Statistics 96
Exercise 48: Finding U.S. Government–Supplied Statistics 97
Exercise 49: Some Basic Statistics 99
Exercise 50: The Paper Trail Project 107
Preface

Since the first edition of this book was published, in 2003, the world has
continued on its path toward digitization and electronic communication. More
types of all electronic sources are available every day. Wikis, blogs, RSS feeds, twit-
tering, Google Books, collaborative writing tools, and many other new devices have
added to the means by which information is available. Unfortunately, problems
surrounding the identification, selection, evaluation, and use of information have
not changed substantially. We still find that although many traditional students
know how to use technology, they do not know how to make the best use of the
information they find. They do not know how to separate the good from the bad,
the weak from the strong, the real from the imaginary. These students need training
in information literacy, that is, training that allows them to

• determine the extent of information needed;

• access the needed information effectively and efficiently;
• evaluate information and its sources critically;
• incorporate selected information into one’s knowledge base;
• use information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose; and
• understand the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use
of information, and access and use information ethically and legally
(for more information, see the ACRL standards website, at www.ala
.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/standards/informationliteracycompetency
.cfm#ildef).

In addition, many more nontraditional students are appearing in classrooms, some

with not-so-up-to-date technological skills. These students require information
literacy training as well.
During the years since the first edition of this book was published, our experi-
ence has broadened and our knowledge has deepened. We have incorporated
the knowledge and expertise of the colleagues who have joined our instruction
program. We have benefited from the best practices noted in the literature and
shared by our colleagues all over the world. Our methods have developed to make

vii
viii | Preface

our teaching more student-centered and the learn- Although the ACRL “Information Literacy Com-
ing process more problem-based and active. We have petency Standards for Higher Education, Standards,
attempted to make learning about information literacy Performance Indicators, and Outcomes,” published
more about student discovery and less about instructor in 2000, remain unchanged, several ALA subject-­
delivery. specialty groups have used the standards to craft stan-
In this edition we have added several chapters to dards that are specific to their disciplines: “Political Sci-
generally explain how new technology can be incorpo- ence Research Competency Guidelines” (July 2008);
rated into teaching information literacy. Most chapters “Information Literacy Standards for Anthropology
have new or updated exercises or both. We invited and Sociology Students” (January 2008); “Research
several colleagues who teach the Library 120 course, Competency Guidelines for Literatures in English”
Introduction to Information Literacy, at the University (June 2007); and “Information Literacy Standards
of Rhode Island (URI) to share their expertise through for Science and Engineering/Technology” (June
chapters and exercises. These contributors include 2006). These standards have been vetted by ACRL
Kate Cheromcha, Amanda K. Izenstark, Jim Kinnie, and appear under “Standards and Guidelines” at the
and Peter J. Larsen. We have also included exercises ACRL website (www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/stan
based on original work by Barbara F. Kenney, of Roger dards/index.cfm).
Williams University in Bristol, Rhode Island; by Libby
Miles, of the University of Rhode Island; and by a for-
mer University of Rhode Island GSLIS student, Carrie Acknowledgments
A. Kelly, who is currently the librarian at St. George’s
School in Newport, Rhode Island. All of these indi- We would like to acknowledge the assistance of our
viduals have made our teaching experience richer by families, colleagues, students, employers, and editors
sharing their creative ideas about how to approach and in the preparation of this manuscript. We are espe-
deliver content in their fields of expertise. By sharing cially grateful for the patience and forbearance of all of
some of these ideas in the second edition of this book, those who helped us through the process, critiqued our
we hope to pass on some of this creativity and to make exercises, listened to our discussions, read our drafts,
their tested practices and exercises available to a larger and “stood in” for us at events and occasions while we
audience. were writing.
Introduction

Research on how people learn has been going on for decades. It has
been found that each person brings different strengths, skills, and experiences to
a learning opportunity. Whether they learn anything depends largely upon the
individual. The instructor can present material in any number of ways, but it is
possible that none of these methods will be useful to everyone in a group of learn-
ers. Some students prefer verbal presentations, others respond better to visuals,
and still others excel only when they can try something themselves (hands-on).
No one method can reach every student. An instructor who wants students to
succeed must try to incorporate as many learning methods as possible into his or
her teaching sessions or must vary his or her presentation so that all students will
have success in some part of the learning experience. There is some evidence that
the combination of hearing a verbal explanation and doing a hands-on example
relating to the explanation creates a learning situation in which the majority of
students learn and retain the lesson.
Students today take a very different approach to research than did their coun-
terparts of twenty or even ten years ago. Gone are the days of the library research
marathon during which the student spent hours tracking down the available docu-
ments, filling out interlibrary loan requests, and reading in the rare books room.
The concept of an assignment that could take an entire semester to complete is
outside the realm of most students’ understanding. The treasure-hunt approach to
research and the satisfaction of finding the research treasure are long gone.
Students of today’s universities, colleges, community colleges, and technical
schools are rushed. Many have full- or part-time jobs; others have family obliga-
tions. Many of today’s traditional students have been trained to expect instant
results, if not instant gratification, when they want something. Today’s students tend
to be impatient. They have grown up in a world where fast is good and instant is
better. The leisurely dinner is replaced by fast food. The delicious afternoon spent
reading a novel is replaced by a ninety-minute made-for-television version of the
book or the ever-present Cliff’s Notes. The long, lazy drive to nowhere on a fall
afternoon is replaced by a high-speed tour of the highways leading to the latest

ix
x | Introduction

hot spot or cold spot for a quick look at the scenery. are, even when the resulting products—and grades—
Students today want to get the information they need are less than stellar.
immediately by pushing a button. Many students don’t know how the library materi-
Many of the resources students need to complete als available electronically are different from those
their higher-education assignments are now available they find surfing the Web. Some students have never
in electronic format. They can be accessed via com- learned to use a periodical database or an online cata-
puter, and many times they can be accessed from out- log. Unless they are taught the hows and whys of elec-
side the library building. This creates certain efficien- tronic resources, they are likely to use random websites
cies for the students. They can save time by working for their information needs, thinking that one source
from their dorm rooms, homes, or workplaces. They is as good as another.
no longer have to visit the library to find information In the face of this situation, it becomes imperative
useful to their needs. They can work at their own pace for academicians to step in and teach students (1) how
and at times that suit their preferences and schedules. to find quality information using electronic sources
Unfortunately for the future of research, not every- and (2) that tools and resources exist in nonelectronic
thing is available electronically. Some information is format. Using those resources may save them time and
available only in paper, some information is available effort in the long run. Students need to see that the
only on microform, and some information is avail- tool that seems to be saving them time may do so at
able only in the library building. This creates a choice the cost of achieving a good grade, because they have
for the student. Most students understand that non- inexpertly selected the wrong tool for the job.
electronic resources exist. But to use them, one must Evaluation of resources is critical to students’ suc-
overcome the inertia involved in leaving home. This cess or failure. Until this is understood, a student
could be as simple as a one-minute walk to the library. can succeed only accidentally. The benefit of using
However, many students today do not live in dorms library-selected and -provided sources lies in the fact
or even in the same city as the university. In today’s that those materials have been written by expert and
commuter and distance-education environment, travel reliable sources and chosen by expert and reliable
to library resources can be a significant investment of professionals. The major evaluation considerations
time and energy. It may involve the complexities of for library materials have already been accomplished
getting a babysitter, catching a bus, finding a park- by the time the student uses them. This evaluation
ing place, or taking time out of a normal schedule to process is invisible to students for the most part. This,
get to the library during hours when it is open. The coupled with the fact that so much information is
alternative is to stay home and limit oneself to what is available via the Web, makes students forget—if they
available electronically. ever knew—that not all sources are equally reliable
By limiting themselves to the information that is or accurate. For that reason, librarians, instructors,
available electronically, students limit the thorough- and teaching assistants must be ready to explain this
ness of their research. It is not yet possible to exhaus- critical difference while training students in the more
tively survey the literature of any discipline or topic manual skills of pushing buttons and opening new
by using electronic tools alone. Most students under- screens.
stand this, but many do not or cannot overcome the It is for these reasons that this workbook has been
obstacles involved in traveling to the resources they written. We hope to assist others who are instructing
could use in the library. students in the use of the new library tools as well as
In an effort to obtain what is needed from home, those who are teaching research methods and con-
many students will simply surf the Internet for infor- cepts. We offer exercises and explanations throughout
mation and accept anything they find, regardless of its the book to provide instructors with food for thought as
quality. Of course, they will usually find information well as ready-to-use or -modify exercises and examples.
in abundance, but the quality of what they find will The exercises can be presented to an individual, a
inevitably be mixed. Even though time seems to be of class, or a group of faculty members. They can be used
the essence for students, they would rather use copious as one-shot teaching opportunities or tied together in
amounts of time sifting through websites for something the context of a semester-long course. Those using
usable than make a trip to the library. The faster they the book for a semester-long course can shape some
can accomplish their assignments, the happier they of the earlier exercises to be background for exercise
 Introduction | xi

50, the Paper Trail Project, a culmination of the stu- Standards, Performance Indicators, and Outcomes.”
dent’s information literacy training. Each exercise has Each exercise is based upon these standards, and the
been used in the context of our own bibliographic-­ particular standards referenced are noted prior to each
instruction sessions and, more frequently, in our three- exercise.
credit semester-long course in information literacy. We hope the content of this book will prove useful
This book’s appendix contains the Association of Col- and beneficial and provide food for thought as we help
lege and Research Libraries (ACRL) “Information mold students of all kinds into information-literate
Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education, learners for life.
Chapter One

Information Explosion

Out in the vast world and beyond, there is an endless amount of informa-
tion. We have the means to access more information than we will ever be able to
process. Today, anyone can provide information to others anywhere in the world,
on any subject, via the Internet. As the mountain of information gets larger and
larger, people begin to suffer from what Richard Saul Wurman calls “information
anxiety.”1 As with many other types of anxiety, having some knowledge and train-
ing—in this case, about information and its uses—can help reduce anxiety.
Transmission of information is not strictly a human trait. Many animals, birds,
and even insects convey information to one another. Much of this information is
very basic: “Go two clicks north to find good nectar.” “You are in my territory—get
out.” “Look out, here comes a tiger!” These are basic survival messages.
In the earliest human groups, conveying these basic survival messages was all
that was needed. People lived in small family groups widely scattered over the land-
scape. Contact with “outsiders” was probably infrequent for these mobile groups
of hunters and gatherers. The number of messages necessary to share was small.
The speed at which messages traveled was slow. Survival was the main concern.
When plants and animals were domesticated, people were required to stay in one
place to care for them. They also had to stay in areas where water and food for the
animals was available, so the number of places where people could settle was more
limited. This resulted in larger gatherings of people in specific places. Locating
in one geographic spot required more permanent structures to be built. Domes-
tication of plants and animals also meant that it was possible to have a surplus of
food to support the population. A sedentary lifestyle was less stressful for human
reproductive systems. The human population grew as a result of all these changes.
As individuals or groups began to “own” things, the need for conveyance of
information grew, as did the need for recording it. People needed new messages
about geographic boundaries, water rights, whose animals were whose, and how
to find the house of a relative or the next settlement. It became easier to “spread”
information, and information spread faster because people were closer together.
As populations grew, some people began to produce goods as well as food and
clothing. Specialists produced tools or other items that helped workers of all

1
2 | Information Explosion

kinds do their jobs better, faster, more economically, will encounter during our lifetimes is almost incom-
or just made life easier in general. As more tools were prehensible.2 This explosion of information has led to
invented, more people were needed to make the tools. a huge increase in the number of workers who man-
Eventually, the demand for specialty goods became so age, analyze, and interpret it. Many have referred to
large that the specialists devoted all of their time to pro- the time in which we now live as the information age.
ducing them. They no longer had the time to produce Globalization of information and communication
everything necessary for their own survival. Specialists networks has had a major impact on society. It is now
became dependent on other people for production of possible to create an international working group in
things in which they did not specialize. Tools and other real time. Collaborations of people in countries around
specialty items were exchanged for subsistence items the world are a regular occurrence. Information, ideas,
such as food and clothing. In some cases, specialty plans, and projects benefit from this ability to share
items were sold for money, and the money was used and to offer views from many different perspectives.
to purchase needed subsistence goods. Sharing in real time allows new ideas and achieve-
During this time of economic and social change, ments to become reality in shorter and shorter periods
known as the Industrial Revolution, great numbers of of time. Major global problems can be addressed and
people made the switch from farming to manufactur- solved and decisions can be made without any lag
ing. A large part of the population began to produce time. Students need training in collaborative projects
nonsubsistence items. Those products had to be traded as part of their information literacy training. They will
or sold for food, shelter, and clothing. To sell the non- almost certainly be called upon to work in groups in
subsistence products required advertising—billboards, their jobs. Giving them some practice in group dynam-
catalogs, handbills, and traveling salesmen. ics, cooperation, leadership, and problem solving and
These fundamental changes in the world’s economy brainstorming will be of benefit to them in their lives
meant that more record keeping and knowledge of after graduation. Information literacy will be a desir-
how to use the records were needed. More people able quality for employers now and in the future.
learned how to read because it was both possible and
necessary, at least for the wealthiest segments of the
population. Innovations such as the telegraph and the Discussion of the Many
train sped up communication and made it possible Ages of Information
over long distances. It became possible for manufactur-
ers to locate offices in more than one place. Today, humans have gone far beyond the basic survival
People began to specialize in dealing with the vari- messages of earlier days. Humans have become infor-
ous kinds of documents, books, and other information mation rich, at least in terms of volume. It is useful to
that were being produced. They also specialized in the set the stage for students by discussing these different
analysis and application of the information contained “ages of information.”
in the documents. The storage of information grew in Goal: Students will learn the history of information
importance as well. Some information was centrally and come to understand why it is important to them.
located. Other information was stored at distributed Students will learn to ask questions such as, What can
locations. Information needed in multiple locations be done with this mountain of information?
required reproduction of that information, either man- Description: The questions listed in exercise 1 will
ual or mechanical. focus students on the continuum of information. It will
Recently, another fundamental economic and social give them a sense of how humans arrived at the current
shift has taken place, moving significant segments of stage of information overload and why it makes people
the world’s working population into ser­vice occupa- anxious. Asking the same questions for each “age” will
tions. Storing, managing, manipulating, and under- allow students to compare and contrast the different
standing information are now the primary activities ages and stages of information.
of many of the jobs performed by educated workers, Tips for conducting the exercise: This discussion
while food production has moved into the economic should take place in class, using what the students
background. Information flows quickly via radio, tele- already know about human groups and the kinds of
vision, phone, and the Internet. With the amount information available during each time period. Cre-
of available information reportedly doubling every ating a picture on a chalkboard or a flip chart may
seven or eight years, the amount of information we be useful. Draw small circles far apart to represent
 Information Explosion | 3

human groups and their information needs during and adheres to those limits, this type of exercise can
the Stone Age, for example. Add in water, food, and be very useful.
shelter symbols as students suggest them. The pictures Goal: For exercise 2 students begin with a problem
for each successive age should become more and more that must be solved in a limited period of time. They
crowded. must gather information, evaluate it for accuracy and
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor- reliability, and select the most appropriate sources to
mance Indicator 2. address the problem.
Description: Students will be given a situation that
they might encounter in a work environment. They
Teaching Methods will be asked to gather information about a specific
and Applications problem, using the Internet and other electronic
resources available to them in the classroom. They will
Along with the changes in how information is pro-
duced and how people access it and put it to use,
teaching practice has also changed. College-level Exercise 1
instruction of the past was almost exclusively deliv-
ered by lecture. Students attended those lectures, took
notes, did outside reading, and applied what they had
The Many Ages of
learned in a term paper or final exam. This type of Information
teaching has its usefulness, but recent studies have
Stone Age Agricultural Age
shown that students of all ages benefit from other
Industrial Age Information Age
types of instruction as well. Human beings learn using
all five senses. When more than one sense can be Compare the following considerations for each age:
engaged, it appears that learning, especially long-term
retention of learning, improves. When translating this 1. What were the means of communication during this
time?
idea to the classroom, instructors have added new
2. What was the speed of the communication? What
teaching methods to their portfolios. Rather than using were the means for “spreading the word”?
lectures as an exclusive method of teaching, ideas like 3. What was the size of the audience?
problem-based learning and active learning generate 4. How much information was transmitted in any one
more student involvement in the learning process and communication? (How big was the file?)
result in better retention of material and better applica- 5. What was the purpose of transmitting the
tion of the concepts learned. information?
6. How important was the need for an accurate and
reliable answer?
Problem-Based Learning
Problem-based learning involves giving students an
assignment that allows them to explore a problem and
solve it. The problem to be solved should require the have a limited time to gather information and evaluate
use of information found in class lecture/­discussion, it for appropriateness, accuracy, currency, reliability,
reading, and experimentation. Assignments of this kind and so on. They will select the “best” information.
must be carefully crafted to ensure that the desired Their choice of information will be presented to the
outcomes are achieved. Time is also a factor. This class along with their reasons for its choice. The class
teaching method can be “scaled” to fit an entire semes- will discuss the sources and their quality and how this
ter, a few weeks, or a single class period. With a long- applies to information literacy. Each student or group
term assignment, the problem to be addressed can be will create a bibliography of the sources they chose,
larger. The methods used to solve the problem can be presented in a standard bibliographic format.
more complex. However, if the time available for the Tips for conducting the exercise: Divide the class
exercise is short, as it is with a single fifty-minute class into groups of three or four students. Set time limits
period, the instructor must be very narrowly focused. for each section of the exercise (research, evaluation,
Nevertheless, if the instructor sets specific time limits bibliography creation, class presentation) based on the
for each part of the problem-based learning process amount of time available. This exercise can be accom-
4 | Information Explosion

plished in a fifty-minute class session, but the instructor something oneself—finding answers, practicing skills,
must be active in enforcing time limits. This exercise applying knowledge to complete a project—is another
works best if the instructor specifies sources students way to remember information. If instructors use a com-
may use: selected journal databases and specific web- bination of these methods of presenting information,
sites, for example. students retain and remember what they have learned
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2, Standard better. After students hear about how a database works,
3, and Standard 4. for example, it is useful for them to have a relevant
assignment that requires them to use the database.
Active Learning Active learning refers to having students actively par-
ticipate in the learning process. It does not necessarily
Students retain information longer if they have more require physical movement outside of the classroom.
than one way of remembering it. Hearing something It does require engaging the students’ interest, getting
in a class lecture is one way of receiving information. their involvement in the process, and allowing them to
Reading something in a textbook is another. Doing express their questions, ideas, and opinions. Remem-
ber your grade-school field trips? They provided a
new venue, a physical departure from the classroom,
learning by observing, touching, smelling, tasting,
Exercise 2 and hearing in various combinations. This was active
learning. It has translated to many college classrooms,
Finding the Best to the benefit of students and instructors alike.
Information: Your Job In active learning exercises, it can be useful to occa-
May Depend on It sionally set students to an impossible task—a task that
cannot easily be accomplished within the parameters
Imagine you are working in the office of the president set for the assignment. When they fail to accomplish
of the university. You and several other workers act as the task, it causes them to wonder why they were asked
the research team for the president. The president has to do it. This makes classroom discussion of the task
been asked to take a stand on the issue of drinking on much more relevant and interesting to them.
campus—to allow drinking on campus or not—and Free-range searching (see exercise 26, chapter
to present her decision to the board of governors at 6—“Books and Catalogs”) is an example of active
the monthly meeting at 5 p.m. tomorrow. She wants
learning that includes a combination of physical move-
to know the relevant issues that surround the issue
(health and safety, student rights, statistics, what other
ment and problem solving. It awakens the competitive
schools do, effect on student enrollment, and so on). spirit in some students and usually causes an emo-
This is a critical issue, and your job may depend tional response back in the classroom.
on how well you do with this assignment. You and In general, making information literacy instruc-
your team must find three high-quality (accurate, reli- tion student-centered, rather than instructor-centered,
able, timely) articles and/or websites that will help her improves learning and retention for the students and
make her decision and present them to her before she makes the class more interesting and less predictable
leaves the office today. You must be able to defend the for the instructor.
information sources you select and say why they offer
the best information on the topic. You must be able to
speak to the quality of the information based on the
author, the publisher, the sources cited, the timeliness,
and the accuracy and reliability of the content.
You will also create a bibliography of the three
sources you chose and cite them in MLA format, to be
handed to the president with your presentation.

Adapted from an exercise created by Barbara F. Kenney,

information literacy librarian, Roger Williams University,
Bristol, Rhode Island.
Technology in the Classroom
Contributed by Amanda K. Izenstark

Librarians charged with teaching information literacy Managing Courses

may find themselves in one of several positions: meet-
ing a particular class one time only, meeting a class Some librarians may find themselves in a position
several times, teaching a multisession course in person, to contribute to a class in an ongoing way, through
teaching a course entirely online, teaching a “hybrid” repeated in-person or virtual visits. This may lead to
course (a course that uses a mix of face-to-face and becoming “embedded” in some fashion in a learning
online teaching), or becoming “embedded” in (con- management system.
tributing to) a course that is online. Integrating tech- Learning management systems (LMS) have become
nology appropriate to the course and students’ needs a way to provide entire courses but also supplemental
can facilitate learning. materials in classes, and many of the mainstream sys-
Technological change is inevitable, however, as the tems—such as Blackboard, Sakai, ANGEL, Desire-
tools needed to support computing become smaller, 2Learn, and Moodle—offer tools that can be used to
more portable, and more available. Power that existed support information literacy instruction. Librarians
only in a desktop format a few years ago is now avail- may find themselves logged in to these systems with
able in formats smaller (and lighter) than a textbook. In “permission” settings that allow complete access to
the not-so-distant past, students writing papers needed information in these systems, or they may find them-
to purchase word-processing software, but now docu- selves in more limited roles, such as that of a teaching
ments, presentations, and more can be created, edited, assistant or a student. No matter what the role, the
cited, and submitted using free web-based technology. librarian should be aware of some basic commonali-
Web 2.0 has been both hailed and decried as user- ties.
centered and user-cluttered, but those same features Common tools include assignments and quizzes,
that make Web 2.0 features so easy to use and interact while others offer portfolio tools that allow students
with make them simple to adopt as learning tools. As to view and comment on other students’ portfolios.
with any program, activity, or technology, consider the Depending on the permissions allowed, a librarian
goals and outcomes of the learning situation, and assess may be able to create or collaborate on assignment
the use of the tools. creation or may be asked to develop a series of quiz-
It is often assumed that students have used all of zes or surveys. If the role is the very limited student
the technologies available and are already familiar role, options still open to the librarian include creat-
with them by the time we see them in class. In real- ing and posting content and participating in chat
ity, students of any age have varying levels of comfort sessions.
with new technologies. Many are baffled when an A librarian developing his or her own course will
interface changes and familiar functions have moved have much more flexibility, but if access to a class is
to unfamiliar places. When considering tools to use in granted, don’t automatically assume that being given
the classroom—be it real or virtual—consider students’ “student” status is an insult; privacy policies may have
comfort levels and experience. Begin by selecting tools a role in the access a librarian may have to a class.
that have their own understandable help features, but Regardless of the system, almost all offer some way
also investigate video and tutorial sharing sites where of transferring exercises, assessments, and other con-
experienced users may post tutorials that can help ori- tent from one course or section to another, making
ent new users to unfamiliar tools. it easier to reuse materials. Once an assignment or
The future holds even more tools and opportunities quiz has been designed, for example, the question
that can be harnessed and used to teach information sets can be downloaded and subsequently uploaded
literacy. It’s worth remembering that what’s current into other courses on the same server. This makes
today may not be what’s current tomorrow, so experi- it simple to create one tool that can be used across
ment and find what works for you. multiple classes.

5
6 | Information Explosion

Interactive Technology Interactive Whiteboards

in the Classroom
Classroom Management Software In many classrooms, the use of the interactive white-
board is the domain of the instructor, but with some
Classroom management software (CMS), such as guidance, these boards can help engage students and
SynchronEyes, NetSupport School, LanSchool, and assist in the development of presentation and public-
others, offer features that enhance classroom learning, speaking skills. As of this writing, the novelty of these
including the ability to create groups of students for tools is still enough to get the attention of students,
collaborative work and quick polls. Depending on the especially when used in conjunction with classroom
features of the software, students may be able to share control software that allows the broadcast of the pro-
files with others in their groups and deliver demon- jected image to students’ computers.
strations to the class from their seats. These tools may Beyond the novelty factor is the ability for the pre-
also allow instructors to direct students to a particular senter to get out from behind the lectern. Students
resource simultaneously or administer a quiz and col- (and some instructors) are inclined to use the lectern
lect assignment submissions. as a crutch, but the touch-screen functionality of inter-
Features vary across programs. Many of these pack- active whiteboards encourages students to emerge from
ages are tied to a specific installation in a specific the corner to highlight and click on links, creating a
classroom, but others allow connections outside of more dynamic presentation. With the addition of elec-
the classroom. tronic markers, students can “write” on the boards to
emphasize points. To simplify the use of these boards
Collaboration Hardware and Software while inside a web browser, type about:blank into the
address bar of the browser to display a blank page. This
Tools such as ClassSpot and TeamSpot allow users to page can be bookmarked for later access.
collaborate on projects and view each others’ screens,
but they are not intended to have all of the classroom PDAs and Other Handheld Devices
control functionality of CMS. Instead, they are cre-
ated to encourage sharing and back-and-forth dialogue Because handheld devices such as PDAs can store texts
(albeit electronic). For collaboration tools that can be as well as perform planning functions, some medical
used in class and continue to be used outside of class, and nursing programs have begun requiring students to
see below, “Encouraging Collaboration Digitally: In own them. Some of these devices may be configured to
Class or Out.” work as classroom-response systems, allowing on-the-
fly assessment. Because of the variability in systems,
Classroom-Response Systems, or “Clickers” however, designing instruction that would include
the use of PDAs or handheld devices may be limited
Clickers are devices used to gather instant responses to to those campuses where each student is required to
questions in a classroom. Used in a timely and appro- have a specific device and configuration.
priate manner, clickers can be useful to glean informa-
tion from large classes, where not all students may have Encouraging Collaboration
the chance—or be willing—to contribute. In smaller Digitally: In Class or Out
classrooms, where students may feel less intimidated
about speaking up and discussion may occur freely, Tools that allow users to collaborate electronically are
clickers may seem to be an unnatural interruption in a boon to teaching and learning, both in face-to-face
the flow of the class. classes and in distance education. Rather than requir-
If clickers are used, good question design and appro- ing students to e-mail various versions of projects to
priate follow-up are essential. Clickers are generally other group members, these tools support simultane-
best for yes/no, true/false, or multiple-choice questions, ous or asynchronous creation and editing, so each
although some include calculation capabilities. Once group member has access to the most recent version
answers have been displayed, further elaboration may at any time. If the collaboration tools of a formal LMS
be needed, especially if results are unexpected. aren’t available, or you want to use an option that will
 Information Explosion | 7

allow students to access their information regardless of look familiar to users of desktop software. Documents
their institutional affiliation, free collaboration tools can be exported in a wide variety of formats, including
are available for a variety of tasks. LaTeX, which is used extensively in the scientific, tech-
The key to selecting the right tool is to envision nical, and medical (STM) fields. With functionality
the eventual use. Is the focus on sharing the results of comes a steeper learning curve, however. Consider the
group survey research? Look to a collaborative spread- skill level and needs of the audience when determining
sheet tool. Is the goal a document that can be shared which tool to use.
and updated as information changes, during the course
and after? A wiki may be appropriate. Showing Data: Chart Tools
Keep in mind that privacy may be a concern when
using these tools. If students register to use some of Basic spreadsheet software allows users to create and
these tools under their real names, these may provide manipulate charts, but collaborative spreadsheet pro-
an opportunity for students to create a positive digital grams give students the opportunity to update and
identity along with writing samples, but they may also manipulate data at a time that’s convenient for them.
invite unwelcome attention. Consider and discuss Google Docs includes collaborative spreadsheet and
these issues before requiring students to use these tech- chart creation functionality, as does Zoho.
nologies, or select tools that do not require registration. For broader chart creation options without spread-
Another consideration is the operating system stu- sheet functionality (which might be too advanced for
dents may be using. Generally, web-based tools that some users), the website Chartle.net (www.chartle.net)
work in a browser have the fewest compatibility issues. allows individual users to create and share a variety of
Tools that need to be downloaded and installed are charts and diagrams, including Venn diagrams, which
more likely to be subject to a user’s computer con- are helpful for visualizing search strategies. (The site
figuration. is in beta as of this writing.)
Please note that specific tools may change, so selec-
tion and examination of current tools may be needed to Getting Students to Brainstorm and Illustrating
determine the best fit for a particular learning environ- Relationships: Mind- and Concept-Mapping Tools
ment.
Mind-mapping and concept-mapping tools can help
Collaborating on Documents, students of all levels visualize relationships between
Presentations, and Spreadsheets ideas and concepts, or, at the very basic level, allow
them to record ideas about a topic that they might
Collaborative document tools can be used for group have as they progress during their research. Some
papers, fact sheets, and other group projects. Students tools allow users to easily download their creations,
can create presentations with and for classmates in the or provide links to embed images in websites, blogs,
same room or across the world. Once a final version or documents. Many institutions have licenses for
has been created, the results can be printed, exported, the popular software Inspiration, but there are free
“published” as a web page, or—in the case of pre- alternatives.
sentations—embedded in other sites, using the links Functionality varies between tools, with some
provided. offering collaborative features, such as the web-based
At the time of this writing, two products domi- bubbl.us (http://bubbl.us) and XMind (www.xmind
nate this market: the Google Docs suite (http://docs​ .net). Others are meant for individual use, such as
.google​.com) and the Zoho suite (www.zoho.com). FreeMind (http://freemind.sourceforge.net).
With a Google account, users can create basic word-­
processing documents and presentations and invite Sharing Web Resources and Creating
other users to edit or collaborate with them. Zoho is Webliographies: Social Bookmarking Tools
less well known, but it offers much more functionality
than the Google suite. Zoho Writer, for example, looks An easy way to create a course or group webliography
more like a full-featured word processor than Google is to use a social bookmarking site. Delicious (http://
Docs does, including various viewing settings that will delicious.com) and other tools allow users to store their
8 | Information Explosion

bookmarks remotely and create custom tags (or labels) Documenting Reactions and
for their bookmarks. Instructors can use tags to create Facilitating Discussion: Blogs
a list of resources for a class, or they can suggest that
students use a specific predetermined tag to categorize Although many students have read blogs, others may
links in a way that will be accessible to other users of not be aware that they’ve read them. Blogs can be
that tag. used as a way for students to create individual or group
Users of Diigo (www.diigo.com) can bookmark research logs they can share with their instructor or
pages, but they can also annotate pages on other web- with fellow students. If the instructor or librarian work-
sites and then share those notes with others. Faviki ing with the class wants to monitor the blogs with mini-
(www.faviki.com) is a relative newcomer to the social mal effort, a feed reader can be used to aggregate the
bookmarking arena, but it has added semantic tagging RSS feeds from students’ blogs, alerting the instructor
functionality, allowing greater search and suggestion when there’s a new post.
functionality to its users and enhancing serendipitous Tools such as Blogger (www.blogger.com) and
discovery. WordPress.com (http://wordpress.com) are freely avail-
able, but some institutions have installed blogging
Developing a Dynamic Document: Wikis software on local servers. WordPress also offers local
installation and configuration (http://wordpress.org),
The most famous wiki is Wikipedia (http://en.​wiki which allows more customization.
pedia.org), beloved and notorious for its contents,
which sometimes seem to shift on a daily basis. Wiki- Creating and Delivering Small-Scale Surveys
pedia’s underlying foundation is an open-source pro-
gram, MediaWiki, which many individuals and institu- A final way to engage students is to incorporate surveys
tions have installed on their own servers for their own and polls. Before covering a topic, polls and surveys
purposes. In some cases, MediaWiki has been used can be used to determine class members’ preclass
to create competitors to Wikipedia, such as Scholar- knowledge, their experience with a topic, or their
pedia (www.scholarpedia.org), Citizendium (http:// opinions toward an issue; or for student groups to
en.citizendium.org), and Conservapedia (http://con survey other students in the class. This is particularly
servapedia.com). MediaWiki is one of several options useful in distance learning, where using a classroom-
available at the time of this writing. response system would not be feasible. Although
If installing wiki software on a server isn’t an option, instructors can develop and push their own questions
there are other routes. Some learning management to the class, students could use surveys to determine
systems incorporate wiki functionality into their sys- how to target group presentations that would be deliv-
tems, making it easy for individuals or groups to cre- ered at a later date.
ate easily revised content that can be shared with the Tools available include SurveyMonkey (http://survey
class but not shared with those outside the system. For monkey.com), which has a free basic subscription
example, groups investigating a topic can share and suitable for class use and annual subscription pricing
revise information as students uncover more research for larger projects. Responses can be exported or dis-
and resources. played as charts. Google Forms (available through the
For individual or small-group work outside of an Google Docs page, at http://docs.google.com) allows
LMS, PBworks (http://pbworks.com; formerly PBWiki) users to create forms for other students to fill out. The
offers basic wiki functionality for free, with competi- responses are deposited into a spreadsheet, which can
tively priced educational plans. then be used to create charts and display data.

Notes
1. Richard Saul Wurman, Information Anxiety: What to
Do When Information Doesn’t Tell You What You Need
to Know (New York: Bantam, 1990).
2. Wurman, Information Anxiety, 32.
Chapter Two

What Is Information?

Information is everywhere. It is all around us. There are many mechanisms

for conveying information and many reasons for wanting and needing it. But what
is it?
This seems like a pretty simple question, but defining the term is not an easy
matter. In discussions with students we have found that many have a rough idea
of what they think information is, but very few are able to put their definition into
words. Several approaches can be used to get students to think about the concept.
Goal: Exercise 3 requires students to consider the word information and its
meanings. It will supply students with the “big picture” and make them under-
stand that everything is information. The exercise should also get students to ask
some questions about how to pluck specific straws of information out of the huge
haystack of information that exists.
Description: Through group discussion, this exercise gets students talking and
thinking about the nature of information.
Tips for conducting the exercise: The six parts of exercise 3 offer different
approaches to the same concept. It is not necessary to have students complete
more than one or two at most. For number 1, distribute index cards and give the
instructions verbally. For number 2, distribute a list of nouns. Ask each student to
select a word and decide whether it is or is not information. Have the class argue
for or against the designation given. For number 3, break the class into small
groups. Present each group with a set of objects and have them list the information
each object might supply. We have included items on our lists that give students
pause—dust, a diamond ring, a baby’s footprint. Many students indicate at first
glance that these are not information. When pressed to think about it, however,
students can usually make a list of information that something as simple as dust
might convey. Dust might inform you of long absence from a house, sloppy
housekeeping, lack of allergies, environmental fallout, neglect, not a priority,
lack of time, lack of money to hire a housecleaner, and more. The conclusion
to be reached in this discussion is that everything is information. In number 4,
divide the class into small groups. Ask students to list twenty things they think are

9
10 | What Is Information?

information. Have group 1 list their “Top Ten” on Information Anxiety

the chalkboard. Have group 2 add anything new on
their list to the list on the board. Continue through Information anxiety is that helpless feeling that comes
the groups until the list is exhaustive. In number 5, with the realization that there is more information
ask students, in groups or individually, to come up than one person can ever hope to process. “So much
with a one-sentence definition of information. Have information, so little time.”
them read their definitions to the class. Then ask the Consider these estimates:
class to merge all aspects of each definition into one
comprehensive definition. In number 6, have students • More new information has been pro-
find a partner. Each pair of students will select an item duced in the last thirty years than in the
from whatever collection of things the instructor cares previous five thousand.1
to assemble. Ask students to use the worksheet to make • Close to a million books are published
lists of information that can be gleaned from the item, internationally each year.2
both actual and inferred. • In 2008 Google’s link counter found one
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor- trillion unique URLs on the Web at one
mance Indicator 2. time.3

Exercise 3

Do You Know What Information Is?

1. Name anything that is not information and write collection provided by the instructor. With a partner,
down your ideas on this index card. Each student list as many different pieces of information as you
will pass his or her card to the student on the right. can get from the item. The information may be
The student receiving the card will tell the class physically present, inferred, or implied. For example,
whether he or she agrees with the assessment. use a piece of antique jewelry. List the following:
2. Select one item from this list of words. Explain why
Physical characteristics—style
the item is or is not information.
Creator or designer—known? unknown?
parking ticket baby’s footprint calendar
skeleton college catalog transcripts Age of the piece—vintage? antique? modern?
ring greeting card floppy disk Gemstones—what kind? how many?
dust term paper motorcycle
What other information is physically present,
3. You have been given an object or a group of inferred, or implied? (For example, from a
objects. Please make a list of information that the broken piece of antique jewelry, you can see
object(s) you have been given might supply. that it is of a certain size, shape, and style. You
4. Make a list of twenty things you consider to be should be able to name the kind of jewelry it
information. Group 1 will record its “Top Ten” on the is—a ring or a brooch. You might infer what
chalkboard. Each of the other groups will fill in or kind of gem is in the piece, the age of the
add to the list until it is exhaustive. piece, and its value.)
5. Please write a one-sentence definition of Precious metals—platinum? gold? sterling?
information. We will merge all statements into one
that the class can agree on as a universal statement. Broken—what part of the piece is damaged?
6. Take the role of a forensic scientist or archaeologist. ripped or torn? smashed? broken with age?
(The job of a forensic scientist or archaeologist Where was it found—trash? antique store or pawn
involves collecting physical evidence and applying a broker? attic chest? vintage jewelry box or
variety of known and sometimes unknown variables armoire?
to the evidence to determine the importance of the
evidence to an event.) Choose one item from the
 What Is Information? | 11

• According to a recent article in the New Goal: The goal of exercise 4 is to allow students to
York Times, “From the days of Sumerian express their information anxiety and to collectively
clay tablets till now, humans have ‘pub- acknowledge that this feeling is normal—they are not
lished’ at least 32 million books, 750 mil- alone. The exercise also shows students that thinking
lion articles and essays, 25 million songs, about and identifying key elements of an information-
500 million images, 500,000 movies, 3 gathering task make it less daunting.
million videos, TV shows and short films Description: Part 1 of this exercise confronts students
and 100 billion public Web pages.”4 with a huge research and writing assignment, which
• The amount of new information stored they are meant to think they have to complete. This
on paper, film, and magnetic and opti- will cause the onset of information anxiety. Part 2 of
cal media almost doubled from 1999 to the exercise asks students to analyze how they felt
2002.5 when they received this assignment and to write those
• A weekday edition of the New York Times feelings down. Part 3 asks students to consider how
contains more information than the aver- to break this large assignment into small, prioritized
age person was likely to come across in a elements that can be accomplished without anxiety.
lifetime in England in the 1600s.6 Tips for conducting the exercise: Give your students
• In one year, the average American will part 1, ask them to read it over, and request questions
read or complete 3,000 notices and after everyone has read it. Take questions for two min-
forms, read 100 newspapers and 36 mag- utes or less. Distribute the index cards for part 2. Allow
azines, watch 1,572 hours of television, students five minutes or so to read and accomplish the
listen to 1,100 hours of radio, buy 20 task. Then collect the index cards and read several of
CDs, talk on the telephone almost 192 the responses aloud to the class. This usually lightens
hours, read 3 books, and spend count- the students’ mood, as some of the responses tend to be
less hours exchanging information in humorous, and students recognize that others felt the
conversations.7 same sense of panic they did. The greatest relief comes,
of course, when they learn that they are not required
The growth of written information is a historical to do the assignment! Get the students to talk about
phenomenon, not peculiar to modern times. What has why they felt as they did. Then distribute part 3 of the
changed is that we now have computerized informa- exercise. Ask students to write their answers individu-
tion systems that can collect, manipulate, and generate ally for ten minutes at most. Discussion should follow,
information quickly and efficiently. We have broadcast with students contributing ideas they have written. The
media, computers, the Internet, satellite systems, and instructor should emphasize the concept of breaking a
other technologies that provide extremely rapid access large task into smaller pieces to make it less daunting.
to information. These media literally surround us with This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
information. The measure of the amount of informa- mance Indicators 1, 2, and 4.
tion is so complex and changes so quickly that any
calculation is almost instantly out of date. More of us
are required to find, evaluate, and apply information The Characteristics
than ever before. of Information
Some information is factual. Factual information is a
Overcoming Information statement that can be proved. For example, the atomic
Anxiety weight of carbon is 12, and 2 + 2 = 4. Factual infor-
mation will always be the same. It doesn’t matter how
Information anxiety is a feeling of being overwhelmed many times you look it up or in how many different
that comes when confronting a large information task. places. You will always find the same answer.
This exercise is designed to show students the first Some information is analytical. This information is
steps they need to take to overcome the information- an interpretation of factual information. For example,
anxiety barrier that goes up when they receive a com- “Four out of five dentists surveyed recommended sug-
plex assignment. arless gum for their patients who chew gum.” The
12 | What Is Information?

facts are gathered and used together to arrive at some tion represents only one person’s opinion or viewpoint.
conclusion. Using analytical information takes some Your personal opinion that the best ice cream flavor is
care and thought. If the U.S. Census Report says that mint chocolate chip is subjective.
families in the United States have an average of 2.7 Objective information synthesizes information
children per family, what does that mean? Can there from a number of different sources and presents find-
actually be .7 of a child? How many families were ings that can be replicated. For example, a researcher
counted? How was the average found? Who did the reports that she used five sources and that the authors
calculation? It is important to consider what is actually in all five sources agreed on X. Another researcher
being reported and how the analysts arrived at their could go back to those five sources and read about X
conclusions. See figure 2.1. in order to replicate the results presented by the first
Some information is subjective, meaning that it is researcher. See figure 2.2.
presented from only one point of view. The informa-

Where Does Information

Come From?
Exercise 4
Information often comes from direct observation or
Homelessness in Urban New experience. This kind of information is known as pri-
mary. The person having this information, or the diary,
England: Causes and Effects manuscript, or e-mail where it is first written down, is
known as a primary source.
Part 1: Write a Research Paper Information does not always come from a primary
In ten word-processed pages due in two weeks, explain source. Many information sources collect, analyze,
the causes and effects of homelessness in urban areas of synthesize, and reproduce the information in a new
New England. Your paper must have a research question, form. The U.S. Census is a good example. Individu-
thesis statement, introduction, body, and conclusion. als submit primary information about themselves and
Sources for your paper must be cited using MLA citation their families to the Census Bureau, which compiles
style and must include the following: five major books on the information in various categories. The Census
the topic, five articles from appropriate scholarly journals, Bureau does not report on each individual but rather
five high-quality websites, statistics, and five expert opin-
reports the total numbers in each category. The infor-
ions on the topic. You must use the [name of institution]
mation the Census Report provides is therefore sec-
library to do this research.
ondary.
Secondary information that is again collected, ana-
Part 2: Write a Reaction
This task is daunting. You just got to campus! How can you lyzed, and repackaged is tertiary information. See fig-
possibly get this done in two weeks? ure 2.3.
Please do the following: on an index card, write your
reaction (your feelings) when you received this assign-
ment. Do not write your name; your reactions will be Primary or Secondary
anonymous.
It is important to know the number of times informa-
Part 3: Break the Big Job tion has been synthesized or repackaged. Remember
into Smaller Tasks the children’s game called “Telephone”? Children sit
1. List or circle in the text of the assignment any and in a circle. The first child whispers a message into the
all words or terms that a student would need to ear of a second child. The second child whispers the
understand in order to accomplish this project. message to the third child, and so on around the circle.
2. List any and all things/tasks a student would need to
The last child to receive the message says it out loud.
know how to do in order to complete this assignment.
The fun in this game is that the final message and the
3. List any and all questions a student would need to
have answered, expanded on, clarified, or otherwise original message frequently have very little in com-
restated in order to accomplish this task. mon. The more people the message passes through,
the more garbled it is likely to become.
 What Is Information? | 13

Unfortunately, this can also happen with more Description: Give students a worksheet with the
important information. When acquiring information, exercise on it. Ask them to write each item in the
the researcher should be aware of the nature of the appropriate box, identifying each information item as
information, and if the information is not primary, the primary, secondary, or tertiary and stating whether it
researcher should have some idea of how far it is from is objective or subjective.
the primary source. Tips for conducting the exercise: Note that the results
from exercise 4 can also be used for this exercise.
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
How Information Is mance Indicator 2.
Presented: Let’s Buy a Car!
Information can come in many different shapes and Information Quality
sizes. The same information can be packaged and
shaped to suit the needs of the audience as well as the How do students know when they have found infor-
needs of the information provider. Just as a mother mation that answers their information need? How can
will tell her toddler “hot” instead of trying to discuss
the thermodynamics of fire with him, so information
providers package information to be appropriate to
Exercise 5
their goals and their audience.
Goal: Exercise 5 will illustrate to students the differ-
ent ways information can be presented and how each
Let’s Buy a Car!
one can be useful in appropriate circumstances. You’ve decided to purchase a used vehicle so you can
Description: This exercise requires students to get off campus. You know you don’t have too much to
address a specific information need and to identify a spend—maybe a couple of thousand if you’re lucky.
source that will address that need. What information do you need to make a purchasing
Tips for conducting the exercise: Divide the class into decision?
small groups. Present students with the task of buying
a car. Ask student groups to identify and write possible 1. In the first column, list all the information you would
sources of information and where that information want or need to know about the car—things you
might be found, using the following chart. When stu- won’t be able to find out until you see it as well as
things you might be able to research in advance.
dents have completed their charts, ask groups to share
2. In the second column, list different places you might
their information needs and sources. Discuss the results. find the answers to your questions (whom you
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor- might ask, where you might look it up, how you will
mance Indicators 2 and 3, and Standard 3, Perfor- find it out).
mance Indicators 2 and 4.

What You Want/ Where and Who to Get

Where Does the Need to Know the Information From

Information Come From? ______________________ ______________________

______________________ ______________________
To continue the thought process from the previous
______________________ ______________________
exercise, students should be instructed to think about
where the information comes from and who is respon- ______________________ ______________________
sible for it. Knowing how many times the informa- ______________________ ______________________
tion has been manipulated or what biases might be ______________________ ______________________
reflected in the presentation of the information is very
______________________ ______________________
important.
Goal: Exercise 6 will allow students to practice iden- ______________________ ______________________
tifying different types of information from different ______________________ ______________________
sources.
14 | What Is Information?

they select the best information from all the sources know about bypass heart surgery, then information
available? Students must examine the specific informa- about valve replacement heart surgery will not be
tion need in order to answer these questions. relevant, even if the information is of high quality. If
the student wants information about how many bypass
What Is the Information Need? operations were conducted in 2009, then information
about the techniques used for making incisions in the
The sources of information and the specific informa- human body is irrelevant. Making the topic specific
tion selected will be determined by the information and framing the search as a question can help identify
need. Therefore, an information need must be clearly the appropriate information. Using the specific ques-
defined. Most students start with a general topic that tion, the student will search for information that may
gives a general frame of reference or a starting point. answer that question.
This general topic must be narrowed and clearly stated
as a question based on the specific information needed. What Information Is Appropriate?
For example, a student may start with the topic “open-
heart surgery.” However, if the student really wants to Everything is information, but not all information is
equally appropriate to use in every situation. So how
does a student identify the most appropriate informa-
tion? A student may find a book on the shelf, an article
in a journal, or a website page. In thoroughly research-
Exercise 6 ing a question, a student may find an abundance of
sources that will provide information. Sorting through
What Kind of the sources, evaluating those sources, and selecting
Information Is It? the information that best supplies the answer to the
information need are the heart of information literacy.
For each item on the list below, identify what kind of infor-
mation it is and put it in the appropriate place in the grid.
How Is Information Evaluated?
diary billboard
newspaper article college catalog When information on a topic is identified and
brochure about an best-selling novel acquired, it is necessary to evaluate it. The evaluation
appliance book on the history process will tell the searcher whether the information
advertisement in of World War II is appropriate to answer the information need. The
a magazine instructions left for following questions need to be considered:
scientific research article the babysitter
recipe What Kind of Information Is It?

Information can be categorized to some extent. “Con-

Objective Subjective sider the source” is good advice. For example, some
information is original or primary. Other information
Primary has been filtered, analyzed, processed, or selected
by someone other than the original producer. This
information is secondary. Information further removed
Secondary
from the original or information about information is
tertiary. It must be stressed that the further removed the
source is from the original, the more the information
may have been changed.
Tertiary
Who Is the Author of the Information Found?

What credentials does this person have to answer your

information need? Who is the expert on your topic?
 What Is Information? | 15

Whose opinion do you want to rely on? Your mom Why Is the Information Being Provided?
might be the best person to ask how to feed a baby or
how to create a budget, but is she the person to rely on The next item to consider is why someone is provid-
for information about open-heart surgery? If she is a ing information and who is supporting that person’s
cardiac surgeon, she may be just the person. The point ability to do so. For example, a doctor who works for
is, you must think about the author of the information the American Cancer Society and a doctor who works
and how likely it is that that person knows what he or for the tobacco industry may provide very different
she is talking about. information about the effects of smoking on the body.
Both may have equally good credentials. Their reasons
Who Is Supplying the Information for providing the information may be very different.
for the Author?
Who Is the Audience for the Information?
Point of view is another concept to consider. When
receiving information, you must note whether it is Are you looking for something geared toward an audi-
subjective or objective. At first, this may not be clear, ence of four-year-olds? The amount of information, the
and it may be other than it appears. Many times adver- detail involved, and the language used will be different
tisers present a product as “the best,” “the fastest,” “the for an audience of four-year-olds than it will be for an
most reliable,” and so on. The presentation of the audience of adults. Teen magazines may not appeal
advertiser can lead the unwary buyer to believe that the to members of the U.S. Supreme Court, because the
information has been presented objectively. However, Supreme Court is not the target audience for teen
the advertiser’s job is to make the product seem like or magazines. Again, language, subject, detail, and accu-
sound like the best or the fastest or the most reliable. racy may all be influenced by the target audience.
Advertisers get paid by the manufacturer of the prod-
uct to do so. One can infer that their presentation of a Where Did the Information Come From?
product is somewhat biased.
In contrast, an agency whose job it is to compare Is the author the primary source of the information?
a wide range of things, using equal criteria for each Did the author use other sources in gathering infor-
comparison and with no incentive from any manu- mation used in what he is telling you? If so, does the
facturer or seller, will present a more objective view author tell you so and name the sources? If so, are the
of the products. sources of information sources you would trust? Are

Figure 2.1

Factual versus Analytical Information

Factual Analytical

Consists of facts, and a fact is “the statement of a Interpretations and analyses of facts: interrelations
thing done or existing” among, implications of, and reasons for
Short Usually produced by experts
Nonexplanatory Often found in books and periodical articles
Often found in reference materials (e.g.,
encyclopedias) and in statistical information
16 | What Is Information?

they also reliable and accurate? Is there a list of sources time it took to complete her race. In gathering infor-
provided—a bibliography, for example—to which one mation, the greater the need for accuracy, the greater
can refer to check on details or obtain more informa- the number of sources that should be consulted. This
tion? Or do you just have to take the author’s word for is especially important if the researcher knows little
it that the information is correct? about the subject. In most cases, to determine the
accuracy of any information, at least two sources
In What Kind of Publication Is should be consulted.
the Information Provided?

Is your information in a glossy magazine with lots of The Quality of Information

advertising? Is it in a clinical research journal sup-
ported by subscription or membership only? Is it from The definition of quality information changes with
a website supported by a university or a special-interest the information need. Some information needs can be
group? addressed only by an expert in a particular field. Some
can be met by casual conversation at the water cooler
How Current Is the Information? with no expertise required. It is important to find infor-
mation of the quality that suits the information need.
In some cases it doesn’t matter how current the infor- The expert in a specific field may not be able to supply
mation is. If you are looking for the twenty-fifth deci- the appropriate quality of information for the discus-
mal place in pi, it really doesn’t matter when the cal- sion you have at the water cooler, and vice versa.
culation was done. The number should be the same Goal: The goal of exercise 7 is to demonstrate the
in all cases if the calculation was done correctly. If different degrees of quality in information and how
you are looking for the temperature outdoors today, each type of information might be useful in a given
a temperature reading for last summer is not helpful. situation.
If you are performing open-heart surgery, having the Description: Students will find that there are many
most current information can be a matter of life and sources that can provide information about their topic.
death. Knowing the currency of the information can However, some information may be more applicable
help you put it in perspective. It can also help you than others under certain circumstances. This exercise
decide whether it is appropriate to use it. will give students practice in finding sources of infor-
mation appropriate to their information need.
How Accurate Is the Information? Tips for conducting the exercise: Select several infor-
mation topics for students to work on in pairs or small
Again, in some cases, precision is not vital. If you need groups. Define an information need or question for
to know in general what time it is, almost any working each topic. Collect three sources of information on
clock will do. An Olympic speed skater, however, will each topic and distribute them to the student groups.
obviously need an extremely accurate report on the Sample topics might include the following:

Figure 2.2

Subjective versus Objective Information

Subjective Objective

Understood from one point of view Understood from reviewing many different points of
view
 What Is Information? | 17

Is a 2008 Toyota Camry a reliable car? Supply one Is Microsoft really a monopoly? Supply one article
brochure from the Toyota dealer, one article from Microsoft, one article from a government
from Consumer Reports, and one website from a perspective, and one opinion from a web chat
Camry enthusiast. room.

Is using a credit card online dangerous? Supply one Discuss the findings on as many topics as you have
answer from a merchandiser (perhaps from its time for. Collecting the information for a large number
website), one article from a newspaper, and one of topics can be very time consuming. Think about this
article from a scholarly journal. exercise well in advance of its delivery date!

Exercise 7

Determine the Quality of Information

Please identify the information below about each of the sources given to you. If the information is not available and
cannot be inferred, leave the space blank.

Source 1 Source 2 Source 3

Purpose

Audience

Authority

Supplier

Currency

Accuracy

Type of publication

Primary or secondary

Subjective or objective

Quality of information (as relates

to the information need). Does
this source provide you with
high-quality information?

Usefulness of information (as relates to

the information need). Does this source
provide you with information that is
useful in answering your queries?
18 | What Is Information?

This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor- 4. Kevin Kelly, “Scan This Book!” New York Times,
mance Indicator 2, and Standard 3, Performance Indi- May 14, 2006, www.nytimes.com/2006/05/14/
cator 2. magazine/14publishing.html.
5. University of California at Berkeley, “How Much
Notes Information?”
1. Peter Large, The Micro Revolution Revisited (Totowa, 6. Richard Saul Wurman, Information Anxiety: What to
NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1984). Do When Information Doesn’t Tell You What You Need
2. University of California at Berkeley, School of to Know (New York: Bantam, 1990), 32.
Information Management and Systems, “How Much 7. Linda Costigan Lederman, “Communication in the
Information?” (Berkeley: Regents of the University of Workplace: The Impact of the Information Age and
California, 2003), www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/ High Technology on Interpersonal Communication
projects/how-much-info-2003/printable_report.pdf. in Orga­nizations,” in Gary Gumpert and Robert S.
3. Jesse Alpert and Nissan Hajaj, “We Knew the Web Was Cathcart, eds., Interpersonal Communication in a
Big . . . ,” Official Google Blog, July 25, 2008, Media World, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University
http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2008/07/we-knew-web​ Press, 1986).
-was-big.html.

Figure 2.3

Characteristics of Information

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Information in its original form Has been removed from Even further removed from the
when it first appears its original source and original information than a
Has not been published repackaged secondary source
anywhere else or put into Restates, rearranges, examines, Leads you to secondary
a context, interpreted, or interprets information information
filtered, condensed, or from one or more primary Examples are a bibliography
evaluated by anyone else sources of critical works about an
Examples are a professor’s Examples are your classmate’s author, an index to general
lecture, newspaper articles notes on a professor’s periodical articles, or a
written by people at the lecture, a newspaper article library catalog.
scene of an event, the first reporting on a scientific
publication of a scientific study published elsewhere,
study, an original artwork, an article critiquing a new
a handwritten manuscript, CD, an encyclopedia article
letters between two on a topic, or a biography of
people, someone’s diary, or a famous person.
historical documents such Also, secondary information
as the U.S. Constitution. leads you to primary
information.
Examples are an index to
newspaper articles, an index
to articles from scientific
research journals, or a
bibliography of an author’s
original works.
Chapter Three

Getting Ready for Research

Planning is the key element to producing a good research paper, report,

or presentation. However, planning is not a strong suit for many students. It takes
time, it takes practice, and it seems irrelevant when faced with a formidable task
such as writing a twenty-page term paper. The daunting task of producing that
many pages of writing is overwhelming to most people.
The anxiety about taking on a big project is difficult to overcome. Many students
have years of real-life experience. A growing number of students are older individu-
als responsible for a job, family, home, and car. People take on many difficult and
complicated tasks every day. When confronted with a scholarly task, however, stu-
dents frequently assume that the process is something new, something completely
different from anything they have done before, and they become intimidated.
To make matters worse, students often wait too long to begin their research.
Beginners often have no concept of how long the information-collection phase of
their project is going to take. As normal humans, students put off tasks they see as
difficult and unpleasant. So students may have to rush to find sources, take the first
sources that appear, select quotes from those sources without regard to the context
in which they were said, and insert them into their own text—where they may or
may not support the argument the writer is trying to make.

Research Process Analogies

Many students have experience with research, though they don’t know it. They
have done complicated research to achieve an end goal (such as searching for col-
leges to attend), but it may have been for a truly nonacademic purpose. By using
the “Research Analogies” exercise, you can help students make the connections
between the nonacademic and academic research process.
Goal: Exercise 8 illustrates how the academic research process relates to simi-
lar processes in everyday life. It builds confidence and allows students to see the

19
20 | Getting Ready for Research

applicability of the scholarly research process to reality.

It helps to overcome the anxiety and procrastination
Exercise 8 associated with “doing research.”
Description: The following activity is meant to give
Research Analogies students practice in recognizing everyday steps to suc-
cessful research. Have students use an index card to
Goal to Be Completed: (from the
list in detail the steps and actions they would take to
index card you received) fulfill the goal listed on the card.
For example, “Open a new bank account.” Tips for conducting the exercise: The instructor
should introduce the concept by briefly describing
Please list all of the “ingredients” that are necessary to
complete the goal.
the panic with which a student receives the assign-
ment of a major research paper and then following the
For example, (1) cash or checkbook, (2) personal iden- uneducated path an imaginary student might take in
tification, (3) bank’s brochure listing types of accounts getting the job done. This should be done with humor
available, and so on, (4) bank location, (5) bank hours of if possible. Errors should be exaggerated. Common
operation. fallacies should be emphasized. (Oh my, I can never
do this—I’ll wait until next week. Oh no, I only have
1. _________________________________________________ a week to write this paper. What do you mean, the
2. _________________________________________________ library is not open at 3 a.m.?) The exercise should then
3. _________________________________________________ be introduced with special attention to the analogy
aspect—if you can do one of these everyday tasks, you
4. _________________________________________________ can do research. The instructor should do an example
5. _________________________________________________ with the class before the teams try it themselves in
6. _________________________________________________ order to illustrate the detail with which the steps need
to be considered. An outline of the research process
7. _________________________________________________
should follow the exercise so the common factors in
8. _________________________________________________ the processes can be seen clearly. (Figure 3.1, follow-
9. _________________________________________________ ing exercise 8, outlines the research process. Instruc-
10. ________________________________________________ tors can hand it out to students.)
After students have gathered the ingredients and
Now list the steps necessary to complete the goal. listed the steps necessary to complete each task, have
the groups report back to the class with their findings.
For example, (1) find a list of banks in the area, (2) pick the They will soon notice that whether the task was “Put
one that is most convenient or offers the best terms, (3) on Your Socks and Sneakers” or “Plan a Clambake for
read the types of accounts the bank offers, (4) meet with a Twenty,” each one has numerous ingredients and mul-
bank employee to open the account, (5) fill out the neces- tiple steps. In life students accomplish a multitude of
sary forms, (6) write a check, and so on. complex tasks every day. If they have the proper ingre-
dients and know the steps to doing academic research,
1. _________________________________________________
they will be successful in their research goals as well.
2. _________________________________________________ This exercise works best when done by pairs of
3. _________________________________________________ students, but small groups work as well. Discussion
4. _________________________________________________ should be encouraged. Although this assignment could
be done outside of class, it helps to have the instructor
5. _________________________________________________
on hand to guide the small groups, keep the work on
6. _________________________________________________ task, and call time.
7. _________________________________________________ Here is a suggested list of “tasks to be completed”:
8. _________________________________________________
• Change a baby’s diaper.
9. _________________________________________________ • Make a quilt from scratch.
10. ________________________________________________ • Make a pan of lasagna.
 Getting Ready for Research | 21

• Plan a camping trip to Acadia National Group 3: You are the members of the Town Build-
Park. ing Inspection and Zoning Board of Review that
• Put on your socks and sneakers. oversees the zoning of the new development.
• Plan and give a fiftieth-anniversary party The development in question borders a major
for your parents. highway that is being rebuilt.
Group 4: You are administrators at the local state
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
university. The development is important to you
mance Indicator 1, and Standard 4, Performance Indi-
because you need more available housing for
cator 1.
new faculty.
Figure 3.1 is a handout for students when they are
learning the research process. Group 5: You are the state’s Department of Envi-
ronmental Management. Your job is to enforce
regulations that ensure that there is enough water
Essential Questions and enough good water for the town.
for Research
As each group discusses the possible contents of the
Students often have difficulty in framing a research jar, the instructor should circulate among the groups
question. They may have selected a topic, but it is dif- and encourage students to provide the recorder with
ficult for them to narrow their focus from the general their ideas about what they think of the contents of
topic to a more specific question. Getting students to the jar.
ask essential questions about what they need to know Ask each group spokesperson to report to the class
is a skill that will help them, no matter where they go by first introducing his or her group’s assigned point of
or what they do. The following is an exercise to help view and then telling the class what the group mem-
them learn to ask those essential questions. bers think about their jar’s contents. Lead a discussion
Goal: Exercise 9 teaches students to ask three essen- of all the groups’ ideas, and ask them to share what
tial questions when they begin the information-seeking questions came up during their discussions. Ask a stu-
process: What do I know? What do I need to know? dent to help you to record all the main ideas and ques-
How will I find out? tions on an easel pad or whiteboard (or by projecting a
Description: Obtain five glass (or clear) jars with Word document on a screen). You will likely get many
tight-fitting lids, such as Mason jars. Before class, fill questions stemming from the students’ lack of informa-
each jar with water. To begin the exercise, arrange tion and knowledge about the jars’ contents. List these
the class in five groups and give each group a jar. Ask questions on the board. Ask students to review the list
each group to appoint a spokesperson and a recorder. and decide what the major task for all groups should
Give each group a card with instructions not to open be. This should provide you with a perfect opportunity
the jar but to observe the jar and to discuss the ques- to turn these frustrations into the following questions:
tion “What is in the jar?” as best they can given what What do you need to know? How will you find out?
they think or know. After five minutes or so, give each Conclude the exercise by asking students to iden-
group a second card that provides a point of view for tify the most important questions they need to ask
them to think about the jar. Each group will receive to solve their group’s information problem. You will
a different point of view. Here are some examples need to assist them by asking leading questions: What
to use: do you know? What do you need to know? How will
you find out?
Group 1: You are the soon-to-be owners of lots of
Conclude the exercise with a wrap-up question:
land in a new development. You each plan to
How can these three questions be used in future
build your family homes on the land. The con-
research projects?
tents of the jar are taken from the stream that
Tips for conducting the exercise: Groups should have
runs through the development.
no more than three students each in order to facilitate
Group 2: You are the owners of the development. engagement. This exercise takes approximately thirty
You stand to make a considerable sale for each minutes to accomplish: two five-minute periods are
lot of land. allotted for the groups to observe the containers and
 Figure 3.1

The Successful Research Process

Keys to Your Success
Research is always a multistep process.
Research is often interdisciplinary.
Think broadly about your topic; then narrow and refine the focus.
Keep a record of everything you find and where and how you find it.

Steps to Your Success

Identify Your Topic

The topic is the idea that you are researching. Example: Pollution in the ocean.
Brainstorm and create a concept map of the topic.
Think about and visualize your topic from many different angles.
Note related and interrelated topics.
Note terminology and synonyms that can broaden your searching power.
State your topic as a question. Example: How does pollution affect the ocean?
Refine the question. Example: How does oil pollution affect marine life in the ocean?
Identify key concepts and list synonyms for them. Example: ocean, seawater; pollution, oil spills; marine life,
organisms, biology, plants, animals, fish, mammals.
List disciplines or subject areas that relate to part of your research. Example: oceanography, environment and
life sciences, fisheries, natural resources, marine affairs, biology, aquaculture, business.

Gather Background Information

Get a broad overview of the subject or topic.
Use both general and subject-specific encyclopedias and dictionaries.
Get more focused, in-depth, or historical background on the topic.
Use books written in the time period and follow up with more recent information.

Focus Your Research

Gather up-to-date, current information on the topic.
Use appropriate periodical information from popular, trade, and scholarly sources.
Use high-quality, appropriate web sites.
Gather in-depth, focused information on the topic.
Search for research studies, surveys, and experiments about your topic.

Evaluate Your Sources

Does the author have authority on the topic?
What are the author’s credentials?
Is the information accurate for when it was written?
Is there a consensus of opinion on this topic? What are the important ideas?
What is the purpose of the source? How will it impact your research?

22
 Getting Ready for Research | 23

Is the purpose to inform, to entertain, to teach, or to influence?

Who is the author writing for? Is it biased in any way?
Has the author looked at the material objectively?
Does the author offer several points of view?
How does the source help answer your research question?
Does the source provide valuable, relevant information?
Does the source answer a part of the total research question?

make notes and judgments, and twenty minutes are Goal: Exercise 10 will allow students to begin learn-
allotted for groups to share information and to wrap ing basic search skill strategies and to provide them-
up for discussion. selves with both background knowledge and terminol-
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor- ogy in the subject area.
mance Indicators 1 and 4. Description: This exercise is an introduction to sev-
eral basic skills such as keyword searching, using call
numbers, and evaluating information. These skills are
Tools for Background then used to find encyclopedias that will (1) provide
Information background knowledge on the subject and (2) provide
some relevant language and terminology that will help
At the initial stages of research, general information is in further defining students’ topic ideas.
necessary, especially for the beginning researcher, who
may have little or no knowledge of the topic. A typical
example of a general-information tool is an encyclo- Exercise 9
pedia. An encyclopedia article about abortion, for
example, should provide enough description to suggest
narrower categories of inquiry. It might also suggest the
Developing Essential
size and scope of the general topic. A subject-specific Questions for
encyclopedia would give more precise information Information Seeking
relevant to the discipline in which the topic falls. For
example, a medical encyclopedia would emphasize In your group, have one person be the “recorder”—the
the medical aspects of abortion, while a social-sciences person who will write down all your observations and
conclusions. Have one person be the “reporter.” This
encyclopedia would examine social aspects, and a psy-
person will report your findings and conclusions to the
chological encyclopedia would deal with psychological class.
aspects of the topic. Simply learning that discipline-
specific encyclopedias and dictionaries exist is usually 1. You have been given a jar containing a liquid.
a revelation to students new to research. Without opening the jar, observe its contents and
discuss what substance might be in it. Write down
your ideas.
Using Encyclopedias for 2. When you receive your “point-of-view” card, discuss
what your thoughts are about the contents of the
Background Information jar from this point of view. Record all ideas and
suggestions.
The encyclopedia’s main use is to provide an over-
3. When time is called, be prepared to report the
view of a subject or topic. In addition, encyclopedias findings from your group to the class.
can introduce language specific to the research sub-
ject area. Knowing the language and terminology of Adapted from an exercise by Libby Miles, chair of the Writing
their research area can aid students in designing their and Rhetoric Program, University of Rhode Island, Kingston,
research question. Rhode Island.
 Exercise 10

Finding Encyclopedias for Background Information

Research Topic:

Purpose
• To gain background information, additional terminology, greater understanding, and context for your
research topic using general and subject-specific encyclopedias
• To evaluate information sources for both relevance to your topic and quality of information
• To improve information-searching skills

Part I: Finding Relevant Encyclopedia Articles for Background Information

1. In the reference section of the library, find your research topic in the New Encyclopaedia Britannica or other
general encyclopedia.
2. Using the keyword search method demonstrated in class, identify and locate a topic-relevant/subject-specific
encyclopedia.
3. In each encyclopedia, find an article that meets your information need.
4. Read the articles and evaluate them within the context of your information need and according to the
evaluation criteria discussed in class.
5. Photocopy the title page of both encyclopedia volumes.
6. Photocopy the first page of both articles.
7. Complete the table below.

General Subject-Specific
Encyclopedia Encyclopedia

Encyclopedia title
Article title
Author (if any)
Volume in which article appears
Year of publication
Call number (on spine)
List five words or phrases from the article that
you believe are specific to your topic.
Does the article offer any major ideas
about your topic? List them here.
Check for any additional authors and their credentials
for further research. Photocopy if available.
Note if the article includes any additional
readings, bibliographies, suggested books,
or websites. Photocopy if available.
Which article is more useful? Less useful?

24
 Getting Ready for Research | 25

Part II: Reporting the Results of the Encyclopedia Search

Using MLA citation format, cite the more useful article.
1. Summarize the encyclopedia article in a paragraph or two.
2. Write a one-page research-log entry that discusses both of the following:
a. How you searched for and located both the encyclopedia and the actual article—discuss both your
thinking and your actual searching. Was it straightforward? Any difficulties? Any questions?
b. Your reasons/rationale behind your choice of the “more useful article.” Evaluation criteria? Relevance to
your topic? Extent of information?

Tips for conducting the exercise: Show students a From the bibliographic record in the online catalog,
variety of encyclopedias, beginning with general and demonstrate how to identify what the library call num-
moving on to subject-specific sets, covering two or ber is for the encyclopedia and where the reference
three different subjects. Examples could include orga­ collection is in your library.
nized crime, civil rights, and nutrition. The subjects The creation of a clear and concise statement or
should illustrate the range of possibilities available. question that will focus the research or project is
Use examples that you know are covered well in your another task that requires practice. Beginners may
collection of encyclopedias. Using a specific article, have difficulty in selecting the crucial ideas and key
show students how to identify the author (if the article concepts in a general discussion or reading. Getting
is signed), the coverage and scope, and the date of pub- students to think about general topics and how they
lication. Be sure to show students at least one online break down into smaller concepts is something that
encyclopedia. If you show Wikipedia, be sure to discuss also needs to be taught. The ever-present freshman
how it is different from other encyclopedias, where the paper on “Abortion” is meaningless unless it is sub-
information comes from, and the pluses and minuses divided into manageable pieces. It takes several steps
of relying on this kind of information. from “I think I will write my report on abortion” to a
Demonstrate a simple keyword search in the topic that will focus on a particular issue concerning
library catalog for “encyclopedia AND crime” or abortion or a particular question to be answered.
“encyclopedia AND nutrition” to help students This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
locate subject-­specific encyclopedias relevant to their mance Indicator 2; Standard 2, Performance Indicator
research topics. 2; and Standard 3, Performance Indicator 1.
 Evaluating Information Sources
Contributed by Kate Cheromcha

Evaluation of information is essential from the begin- Description: Many students use Wikipedia as their
ning of any project. In research, each of the sources first go-to resource for research. This exercise enlight-
that students select must be evaluated for a variety of ens students that all resources must be evaluated, some
criteria: authorship, credibility, accuracy, reliability, more than others! The Wikipedia exercise allows stu-
currency, timeliness, scope, coverage, and relevance. dents to see both the strengths and weaknesses of this
It is useful to have students begin to think about evalu- type of tool in research.
ating the reliability and accuracy of every source of Tips for conducting the exercise: If students have not
information. been assigned a research topic, suggest current issues
Goal: In exercise 11, students will explore Wiki- that relate to the subject area they are studying. Often,
pedia, how it is created, and what the advantages and current issues and/or controversial topics are useful
disadvantages of this type of “community-built” ency- for this exercise.
clopedia might be. This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 3, Perfor-
mance Indicators 2, 4, and 6.

Exercise 11

The Wikipedia Challenge

There is no dispute that Wikipedia contains a great deal of useful information. But how can you be certain of
the credibility of that information? One way is to evaluate it. However, because of the nature of this information
source, there are unique aspects that you must consider when evaluating it.
1. Search Wikipedia to locate any article that is relevant—even if just barely relevant—to your topic.
2. Read about Wikipedia in its own article, “Researching with Wikipedia,” at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Wikipedia:Researching_with_Wikipedia. In the section “Special research considerations concerning
Wikipedia” read how to “Examine an article’s history.” Determine if anyone has made any changes or edits
to your article.
3. Evaluate your Wikipedia article according to Wikipedia’s recommended criteria (attached and also available
at http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/16/How_to_evaluate_a_Wikipedia_article.pdf ).
4. Read about the policy from the history department of Middlebury College, concerning using Wikipedia
as an information source, from InsideHigherEd.com (Scott Jaschik, “A Stand Against Wikipedia,”
InsideHigherEd.com, January 26, 2007, http://insidehighered.com/news/2007/01/26/wiki). Be sure to skim
through the posted responses!
5. In a short essay (100–150 words), answer the following questions: Does the Wikipedia article have any
value or serve any purpose for your research? Why or why not? In answering these questions, consider the
also following:
Does this article meet Wikipedia’s own evaluation criteria?
Does this article have a history of changes and edits? Recently? Extensively? Can you determine who
made the changes—and why? Check out how Microsoft tried paying a blogger to “correct” its
Wikipedia entry as seen in this report from CBS news: www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/01/24/tech/
main2392719.shtml?source=RSSattr=HOME_2392719.
Can you determine the author? The author’s credentials?
Does the article provide any references, additional readings, or sources?
If there are links to other websites, what type of websites are they? Commercial? Educational? Other?

26
 Getting Ready for Research | 27

Concept Mapping help students prepare to write an effective research

question is to consider the disciplines or subject areas
Students who are at the beginning stage of research are that are likely to include their topic of choice. For
often overwhelmed with ideas that they are consider- example, if the topic is “Child Labor and the Silk
ing for topics. A concept map can help them orga­nize Trade,” all three disciplines of humanities, social sci-
their ideas and see the relationships between ideas. ences, and science are likely to consider some aspect
Goal: Exercise 12 allows students to spend time of this topic.
formally engaged in brainstorming the broad research Goal: In exercise 13 students will identify the aca-
topic. Generating and identifying a variety of specific demic disciplines and subject areas that will help them
topic ideas from the broader subject push students to answer their to-be-developed research questions.
focus on a single idea or to combine several ideas to Description: Give students a handout with a descrip-
create a more interesting topic. tion of the major disciplines and the subjects that fall
Description: Students will select a general topic. In into those disciplines. Using the catalog of your institu-
the center of a large piece of paper, students will write tion, have the class examine the various departments
their topic word or phrase. They will then write any listed and place each department in a discipline. Then
and all words or phrases they can think of that relate have students use a sample research topic to determine
to the central word or phrase. Using boxes, lines, and which departments on campus might produce infor-
arrows, students will connect or group ideas that go mation on that topic.
together, relate to each other, or are subgroups. Stu- Tips for conducting the exercise: Have access to
dents will then select the groups or combinations that print and online formats of your institution’s annual
have the most appeal for further research. catalog of programs and courses. This exercise is best
Tips for conducting the exercise: For this exercise, carried out as a discussion. Provide definitions of the
students may use a variety of marking tools. Pencils disciplines from a dictionary such as Merriam-Webster
with good erasers, colored pencils, felt markers, or cray- Online (www.merriam-webster.com).
ons work well. Some students have used sticky notes to This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
jot down initial ideas and then moved the notes around mance Indicator 2, and Standard 3, Performance Indi-
to develop their maps. Each student will need a large cators 3 and 7.
sheet of newsprint paper. There are also computerized
software packages that allow concept mapping (see
chapter 1, “Getting Students to Brainstorm and Illus- Formulating a Research
trating Relationships: Mind- and Concept-Mapping Question Using Context
Tools”). Students should be instructed to write down
at least four subtopics surrounding their main topic. It is necessary to do some preliminary research simply
Each of the four subtopics should have at least three to select a topic. Most students decide on their topic
to four subdivisions as well. first and then try to find out if there has been anything
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor- written on that subject. They are loath to change or
mance Indicator 1. modify their topics, even when they find it impossible
Figure 3.2 is an example of a concept map on the to locate materials they need. They are unwilling to
topic “Vegetarianism.” use their time to do work that might prove to be of no
use in the end. The instructor must show them how
this initial legwork will improve the final product and
Identifying Disciplines save them time in the long run.
and Subject Areas Students are equally unwilling to iterate a change in
their topic when they find an overwhelming amount of
Students are generally open-minded and willing to information. Students may not understand that abor-
stretch their minds during the concept-mapping pro- tion in and of itself is a meaningless topic. Some work
cess. After the process, students should have a target needs to be done to discover that medical and social
topic, a small number of subtopics, and an interest in issues surrounding abortion are two distinct areas of
pursuing an area of inquiry. inquiry. The social issues further subdivide into many
Beginning researchers often skip steps that will actu- smaller segments. Until the student does this prelimi-
ally save them time in the long run. One step that can nary investigation, it is impossible to determine exactly
28 | Getting Ready for Research

what are the themes of the paper or the project to be Step 1: The instructor describes and illustrates a
completed. Definition of the topic proceeds from gen- general topic that could be used for a research paper
eral to specific, but, again, some practice is necessary or project. Create a handout, PowerPoint presentation,
to make clear how increasing specificity will help in or other tool to demonstrate the question development.
the acquisition of information pertinent to answering It will be most effective if the examples are left out of
the need for information. the handout or PowerPoint, allowing the instructor to
Goal: In exercise 14 students will learn to develop a ask students to help fill in the examples.
research question that is open-ended and gives mean- Example: Discuss with students the topic of ana-
ing to the topic they are researching. bolic steroids in sports. This is a topic of popular
Description: The exercise includes a series of ques- interest to college students and can easily be used
tions that will lead students through the process of as an academic research topic. Students will need to
mentally and visually broadening, narrowing, and transform the casual question “What do you think of
restricting the topic ideas that they began to develop those players who got named for using steroids?” into
during concept mapping. After this exercise, the work- a question that allows them to tackle an issue, attempts
sheet in exercise 15 introduces the concept of Boolean to solve a problem, and provides the information they
searching and the idea that synonyms and closely need to make a knowledgeable statement or response
related terms can help uncover more ideas on the to the question. The question should follow a path:
topic. topic, subtopic, issue or problem, and finally question.

Figure 3.2

Concept Map
 Getting Ready for Research | 29

Refer to the chart in exercise 14 to see how to restrict Check to be sure that the research question meets
and narrow a broad research topic. Once the general these criteria:
question has been established, consider how to clarify
the issue or problem. Different types of questions can • It is open-ended (cannot be answered
help refine and shape the direction of the research: with simple yes or no).
• It addresses an issue or controversy and/
• Comparison questions (How does the or solves a problem.
long-term health of players who used ste- • It is something the student can take a
roids compare with those who did not?) stand on.
• Cause and effect questions (What affect
have the steroid investigations had on Tips for conducting the exercise: Other topic exam-
baseball players’ morale?) ples for illustration: No Child Left Behind and student
• Measuring questions (To what extent achievement, dowry murder and Hindu culture, and
has the steroid-use crisis impacted fans’ city parks and economic benefits.
expectations of the players?) This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
• Process questions (How are players mon- mance Indicator 1; Standard 3, Performance Indicator
itored for steroid use and educated about 3; and Standard 4, Performance Indicator 1.
the dangers of steroid abuse?)

Exercise 12

Create a Concept Map

Most people do not think in a linear style when they are each of your four subtopics, think of three to
working creatively. We think by linking groups of ideas four subdivisions that fall under the subtopics.
together, “webbing” or “linking” a path to the final subject Now draw squares around single ideas and circles
and topic idea. You will be joining all that you already around groups of ideas.
know with what you learn during your research to build a
Use lines to connect these items to the main idea
more complete landscape of the topic you are working on.
and to groups of related ideas.
Concept mapping helps you create a visual design,
picture, or diagram of the thinking you are engaged in so Use arrows to interconnect ideas or to form
you can reflect, sort, and refocus the ideas easily. Use this subgroups of ideas.
concept-mapping exercise to allow your brain to “free- Leave lots of white space so your concept map has
think” along the way to the development of a research room to grow and develop.
question. Don’t worry about being exact or perfect—don’t
analyze the work!
Phase I: Brainstorming Instructions
In the center of the newsprint sheet, write down Phase II: Editing or Refocusing
the most important word, short phrase, or Think about the relationship of “outside-the-circle”
symbol that relates to the subject idea you items to the center item.
want to research. Draw a circle around this
Erase and replace or shorten words to some key
main idea.
ideas.
Take a minute or two and think about what you
Relocate important items closer to each other for
put down on the paper. Thinking freely,
better orga­nization.
without any expectation of the result, write
or mark any and all related words, concepts, Link symbols with words to clarify relationships.
or symbols outside the circle. Write anything What are you thinking about now? How is your
you can think of that is even remotely related topic developing?
to the topic idea. Come up with at least four Now proceed to topic analysis to further develop
subtopics that relate to your main idea. For your research question!
30 | Getting Ready for Research

Discovering Search Terms how to select the keywords that will allow them to
successfully locate information relating to their topic/­
Once a topic and question have been established, question. Once the keywords have been selected, stu-
students frequently attempt to use their research ques- dents should learn how to use a variety of terms with
tion to search for information. As most search engines Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) to create a search
are keyword driven, the results of natural language string that will provide them with the specific informa-
searching are less than optimal. Students must learn tion they are looking for.
Goal: Exercise 15 will help students identify con-
cepts, keywords, terms, and synonyms of the words that
Exercise 13 will become their first round of search terms. They will
also learn about Boolean operators and how they can
Disciplines and make a search more successful.
Description: Students will use the instructor-­
Subject Areas provided “Search Term Worksheet” that follows to
Now that you have started to gather some topic ideas develop a list of concept terms related to the topic idea
for your research question, you need to consider where developed during concept mapping.
the answers are likely to be found. Before you can know As the topic to be researched becomes clearer,
what type of books, periodicals, and websites to use, more specific tools can be used to identify sources of
you must consider a larger question. What disciplines or information about the topic. Both print and online
subject areas will help to answer the different aspects resources should be used. The concept of time sen-
of your research question? Recognizing the three major sitivity of some issues must be stressed. For example,
disciplines (humanities, social sciences, and science) will the bulk of the information about the assassination of
help clarify how these areas of knowledge are defined
President John F. Kennedy was written in the 1960s
and where your research topic fits in. It will help when you
begin to gather information by making it easier to identify
and 1970s. Students may find little or nothing on the
some broad-based sources such as encyclopedias. topic in the current literature. They must be advised
Review your institution’s catalog of academic programs and encouraged to leave the electronic environment if
and courses. All of these fields of knowledge fall into one necessary to find information about their topic.
of the three major disciplines listed above. Into what disci- Students should also be advised that there may be
pline does each of the following departments fall? parts of larger works that apply to their topics. A single
Biology _______________________________ chapter in a book or a single section in a book of pro-
ceedings might be useful, even though the entire book
Anthropology__________________________ of proceedings is not.
Physics _ ______________________________ Once the general information has been acquired, it
Economics _ ___________________________
is time to revise the topic. Is it too broad? Is it too nar-
row? Are there resources that will answer the question?
Philosophy ____________________________ What does the student need to know? Where are the
Agronomy _ ___________________________ answers most likely to be located?
Information literacy strives to give students a process
History _ ______________________________
that they can follow, a step-by-step instruction manual
Sociology _____________________________ of sorts, to lay out the logical progression of steps to
answer any information need. In teaching the research
In what departments might you find information about process, we lay out the steps for students and have
the following topics?
them practice those steps one at a time.
Is bilingual education necessary? ______________ Tip for conducting the exercise: We suggest having
What is the history of blues and jazz music? ______ several dictionaries and thesauri in either online or
print format available for students to consult during
Is cloning ethical? ___________________________ this exercise.
Do all of these departments fall into the same This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
disciplines? ___________________________ mance Indicator 1, and Standard 2, Performance Indi-
cator 2.
Exercise 14

Creating a Research Question

The table below illustrates how a research question develops from a broad topic to a focused question. Follow the four
examples down the columns to see how the questions develop. Then use the blank form provided below to develop
your own research question.

Broad Restricted
Topic Topic Narrowed Topic Research Question
Pollution Acid rain Acid rain in the What can the United States
United States do to prevent acid rain?

Fishing Commercial fishing Fishing regulations What impact do fishing

and New England regulations have on commercial
fishing in New England?

Censorship Internet Internet and China How will China’s effort to censor
the Internet affect its citizens?

Nutrition Diets Vegetarianism What nutritional benefits are

there to vegetarianism?

Now try out your topic idea below. It is useful to work out several variations of the topic idea to see how it could change
slightly and be improved or amended.

Broad Restricted
Topic Topic Narrowed Topic Research Question

What type of question did you design?

 Comparison
 Cause and effect
 Measuring
 Process

Check to be sure that the research question meets these criteria:

 It is open-ended (cannot be answered with simple yes or no).
 It addresses an issue or controversy and/or solves a problem.
 It is something that you can take a stand on.

31
 Exercise 15

Search Term Worksheet

Search Question: Write down the research question you have developed. (Example: What is the connection
between smoking and depression among teenagers?)
Major Concepts: List as many as apply. (Example: smoking, depression, teenagers)

The terms AND, OR, and NOT have a very specific use in online searching. These terms are called Boolean operators.
They are used to direct computer software to perform certain functions. Using AND between two terms asks the com-
puter to look for both terms in the same record. Using OR asks the computer to look for all records having either term.
NOT tells the computer to ignore any record containing a term. Using Boolean operators allows you to give very specific
instructions about what you want the computer to do. This will save you a lot of time you would otherwise spend sorting
through records that are not useful to you.
Use the chart below to help you figure out some search terms.

Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3

smoking depression teenagers
OR OR OR
cigarettes mental health teens
OR OR OR
tobacco mood adolescents
AND AND
OR OR
nicotine youth
OR
high school students
OR
college students

Search Question: Write down the research question you have developed. Use the chart below to help you figure
out some search terms.
Major Concepts: List as many as apply.

Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3

OR OR OR

OR OR OR
AND AND
OR OR OR

OR OR OR

OR OR OR

32
Chapter Four

The Chain of Information

As we have mentioned before, we are bombarded with information from

numerous sources every single day. How is this information created? Whose cre-
ative powers have come into play to produce the information we get?

Where Does Information Come From?

Most information comes to us through a process we call the information cycle.
Here is an example. Jane has an idea. Jane gathers information from others about
the idea. She talks about the idea with others—at home, at work, at the local base-
ball game—and gets feedback and input from others about the idea. For the idea
to become a reality and for information about the idea to reach others, discussions
become increasingly more focused to include experts and other people knowledge-
able about the field into which the idea fits. Jane puts her idea in writing. This
writing may be a conference paper, a proposal to her boss, or a letter to a company
that might produce her idea as a new product. Once the idea is in writing, it gets
passed around and discussed again. Jane might receive feedback from others to
improve or modify her idea or to confirm the idea’s validity. The writing might then
be translated into a project proposal, or a patent, or a manuscript to be published in
a scholarly journal. If it appears that more information is available to be gathered
and compiled, one idea might become a book or a group of products.
The next person, John, might read Jane’s book and get a new idea, which will
start the information cycle over again.

How Do We Receive Information?

Information comes to us from different sources at different times. For example, as
events are taking place, they are usually reported in spoken format during a news
broadcast over the radio, television, or Internet. This can happen literally while

33
34 | The Chain of Information

the event is occurring or only moments after. Most Information and the
of the information in this kind of report is sketchy Effects of Time
and includes only very basic facts (who, what, where,
when). Different kinds of publications are published on differ-
With the advent of widespread Internet access, ent schedules, which impacts the depth and breadth
breaking news is increasingly reported in text or video of information provided by the publication. Daily
over the Internet (or via such short message ser­vices as publications like newspapers are limited by the time
Twitter) at about the same time as the live radio and frame they have to do the reporting. Book authors can
television news broadcasts are taking place. Within a take more time to develop ideas, do research, and write
day of the event, its description will appear in daily in depth on their topic.
publications such as newspapers. Again, the infor- Goal: Exercise 16 will allow students to understand
mation will be general and focus on the bare facts, the kinds of information they might find during, just
although there may have been enough time to col- after, and long after a significant event. It will also
lect some additional information (background about provide practice in the identification and location of
geographic locations, identity of people involved, brief different sources of information about the same event.
history of a problem). Description: Students will work in teams of two
After a few days, the event will appear in weekly or three. The instructor will pass out index cards on
newsmagazines. A magazine article on the event will which are written the name of a significant event and
provide broader coverage, which might include a its date. Students will be asked to find the first citation
number of sidebars discussing related topics. There
may be more details and even some coverage of the
“whys” surrounding an event. These articles are writ- Exercise 16
ten by staff members who work for the newsmaga-
zine. These authors may or may not be experts on Information and Time
their assigned topics. A newsmagazine does not usu-
ally list the sources of its information. Most newsmag- You will work in twos or threes. You will be given an index
azine articles are not allotted enough space to discuss card with a brief description of an event and the date of
the deeper meanings or possible consequences of this event. Working together, find the earliest citation to
a particular event. This type of reporting is usually information about the event in a newspaper, a magazine,
continued in magazines that are published less fre- a scholarly journal, and a book. Write the complete cita-
quently, if the event is relevant to the scope of the tions on the worksheet. Then think about the questions
below and be ready to discuss them.
magazine.
In three to six months, articles will begin to appear Newspaper article: ______________________________
in scholarly literature. These articles tend to be written ______________________________________________
by people who are experts in the field under discus- Magazine: _____________________________________
sion. The articles can be lengthy and attempt to cover ______________________________________________
the topic in depth. Many facts will be included along
Scholarly journal: _______________________________
with the analysis of those facts, history of the topic in
______________________________________________
this particular case and in general, and the possible
consequences of the event. Book: _________________________________________
In one to three years, books will appear about ______________________________________________
the topic. There are many different types of books What kind of publication was the first to supply
published for many different types of audiences. All information about the event?
books are lengthy documents. It takes time to compile What kind of publication took the longest to supply
enough information to create a book. Books can be information about the event?
written by experts or nonexperts. They can be scholarly
What kind of publication would you consider to be
or popular. They may include a bibliography or not.
the most reliable and authoritative in supplying this
Finally, if the topic was of enough interest or had
information? Why?
significant impact, a brief outline of the event will
appear in a reference tool such as an encyclopedia.
 The Chain of Information | 35

for a newspaper article, a magazine article, a scholarly Knowing who wrote something allowed a researcher
journal article, and a book about this event. to contact the author to ask questions, share insights,
Tips for conducting the exercise: We found that or verify the information. Authors wanted others to
events about ten years in the past provided the best know that they, and no other, had written some piece
results. With increasing rates of publication in elec- of information.
tronic format, it may not always be necessary to identify Over a long period of time, it became customary
events that far in the past. Students may need assis- to acknowledge authorship of works cited in one’s
tance in locating indexes that will cover their event. own publications rather than waiting for someone to
For example, they may need to go to a paper index ask, “Who wrote that?” The custom of listing works
rather than using an online index with an inadequate cited became the footnotes, endnotes, and bibliogra-
date range for coverage. Students could answer the phy citations researchers use today. In this way, new
questions during class discussion or as an assignment researchers could show others that they had read all or
outside of class. part of what was already in writing about a particular
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2. topic while introducing new material of their own.
Rather than repeating what others said, a new author
could simply refer a reader to the other materials of
How Research relevance. Needless to say, this saved much time and
Methods Develop effort for everyone involved.
For research purposes today, it is usual to start with
Research has been refined over a long period of time the most current information on a topic and work
so that it can build upon itself rather than requiring backward. But how?
each researcher to start from zero. Before the invention There are several methods for working backward
of the printing press, information was located in spe- through time to collect information about a topic. One
cific places or with specific people. It was possible for method relies on the researcher having a written piece
people to share their ideas with others on a very limited of information in hand. It may be the current issue of a
basis and scale. Many people did not read or write, and scholarly publication, a new book, a current newspaper
those who did were widely scattered. Information that article, or an Internet website.
was written down had to be copied by hand in order In the publication that the researcher has in hand
to share it with someone not able to get to the location resides a list of sources that the author used to support
of the original document. his or her thesis. This list, which most often appears
With the invention of the printing press in 1436, at the end of a book or scholarly paper, is called a
the use of information changed over a relatively short bibliography. It is supplied so that the reader may refer
period of time. Books, pamphlets, and other types of to those other publications. It can tell a knowledge-
publications still took a long time to produce, but this able reader whether the author has carried out a good
mechanical means of producing any number of copies search of the existing literature. It can provide the
of the same information allowed that information to author with credibility by showing that he or she has
be shared widely. This meant that existing informa- considered the range of opinion about the question.
tion could be printed and disseminated, allowing the The bibliography is also a list of publications about
thinkers of the day to build on the work done in the the same topic in which the researcher is interested. By
existing document rather than reinventing the idea looking at the list of publications in the bibliography of
from scratch. Printing also made the cost of owning a a new book or scholarly article, the reader has a num-
printed item much more affordable. ber of other sources about the same topic identified.
Because it was so much easier to get written infor- When looking at a copy of each of the publications in
mation, it became much more necessary to become a new bibliography, a researcher can collect additional
literate. After the invention of the printing press, many sources about the same topic from the bibliographies
more people saw incentive, even necessity, in being of those books and journal articles. Each of the sec-
able to read. ond set of publications will have a bibliography that
As literacy and the availability of written infor- will refer to relevant and older materials. Researchers
mation increased, it became increasingly necessary have access to an expanding pyramid of sources of
to keep track of the authorship of each document. information about a particular topic by identifying one
36 | The Chain of Information

appropriate article, using the items in its bibliography The Chain of Information
to identify other appropriate articles, selecting items in
the bibliographies of those articles to identify still more It is important for a researcher to know who provided
items of interest, and so on. This chain of information information, at what time in the chain of events, and
theoretically extends back to the original writing done with how much background knowledge. It is also
on the topic. important to follow the chain of information to see
how a topic has developed over time as well as to
benefit from the research work already done by others
concerning the same topic.
Goal: For exercise 17 students begin with a scholarly
work and by using its bibliography work backward in
Exercise 17 time to re-create part of the chain of information about
that topic.
Links in the Chain Description: Students will be given a copy of a
of Information scholarly article. They will examine the bibliography
attached to the article and select two citations. Then
For this exercise we will begin by looking at a cur- the student will locate the publications cited and exam-
rent article on a topic. Attached to that article is a ine those bibliographies. Two citations will be selected
bibliography. This is a list of publications about the from each of those bibliographies. The student now
same topic that were used by the author of the cur-
has four new citations. The four new publications will
rent article to create it.
From that bibliographic list, note that two cita- be located, and the bibliographies for those publica-
tions are marked. Imagine that you are a researcher. tions will be examined. Two citations will be selected
You might scan the bibliography of a current article from each of those bibliographies. This procedure
to find other articles on the same topic. The two cita- might be followed one additional step before becoming
tions marked are the citations of interest to you in too cumbersome.
your role as the imaginary researcher. Tips for conducting the exercise: Although it might
What would you do to get a copy of these be possible to do this exercise in small groups, unless
publications? (Online catalog search, one has access to a very large and very comprehensive
interlibrary loan, Union List search, and library (or one that specializes in the selected topic),
so on.) it may be hard to get an actual copy of the articles
Now we have copies of those two publications. selected from the bibliographies. This exercise works
Each of them has a bibliography of its own. Continu- best if the instructor selects the citations from the pub-
ing in your role as researcher, select two more cita- lications before class and already has them on hand for
tions from each of these bibliographies. the class. Information could be put on overheads for
demonstration purposes.
To obtain copies of these four publications,
what would you do? This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2, Perfor-
mance Indicators 3 and 5.
Now that you have received copies of these four
publications, you find that each one has its own bib-
liography. Note that two items from each of these
bibliographies have been marked for selection. If you
get copies of each of these publications, you will have
fifteen articles about your research topic.
What do you notice about the publication
dates as we continue?
How far back in time could we go using this
method?
Chapter Five

Issues of the Information Age

Information has been around for a long time. The issues in using, storing,
retrieving, and sharing information have always been with us. Copyright, privacy,
and fair use have been debated for centuries. Something like consensus about stan-
dard practice has emerged in the United States concerning these topics. However,
in the era of the Internet, with all its new technologies, these issues surface again.
New formats, new ease of access, and new applications all require that the issues
surrounding the use of information be revisited.

Quantity of Information
The sheer amount of information that exists is staggering. The availability of this
information to the general public has created a new set of problems. Should every-
one be able to see all the information that exists? Should everyone be able to use
that information, and, if so, how? What happens when the government needs infor-
mation about an individual? What happens when one individual wants information
about someone else? How do you know where “virtual” information comes from?
How does one sort out the good information from the bad information? How does
one know what is good? How does one find the time to select and evaluate a few
sources from among the huge number of possible sources? The mechanisms for
delivering information are also expanding in number and in scope. We have moved
from the spoken word to the written word and have arrived in a place where we can
have information in just about any format geared for any one or more of our senses.
The speed at which information moves is also increasing. Information that used
to be transmitted in a haphazard manner by word of mouth can now be delivered
specifically, accurately, and in many different formats to any number of people,
anywhere on the globe, and sometimes into outer space.
In all this information-centered chaos in the new information age, there are new
ways of looking at almost every information issue.

37
38 | Issues of the Information Age

Intellectual Property Today, the word author can apply to many people
in situations that might never have existed twenty years
In earlier stages of the information age, it was fairly ago. Is the person who develops a computer program
simple to assign intellectual property rights to the that is stored on the hard drive of a computer an author?
appropriate person. You wrote an original story, you Is someone who makes a videotape an author? Is some-
put your name on the title page, and it was yours. one who takes a digital image and manipulates it to cre-
Today, things are not so simple. Information is offered ate something different an author? If all of these people
anonymously. Information is offered by groups affili- are authors, then they should all be protected under the
ated with some institution or on their own. Information laws that protect traditional authors. Or should they?
is easy to borrow, cut and paste, link to, and modify.
Some information is freely available. Other informa-
tion costs money. How then do we make sense of What Is an Author?
intellectual property?
Many students have never considered what it feels
Authorship like to be an author. They have never looked at the
ownership rights of an author from that point of view.
What is an author? Before the time of computers, an It is common in the current electronic environment
author was usually someone who wrote something to use someone else’s work as a starting point for one’s
on paper. It might be words, it might be music, or it own. For example, many nonprofessional designers
might be mathematical calculations. Today, people of websites are willing to allow others to copy their
still become authors in the traditional way. There are layouts, color schemes, hot links, and so on. Students
also many new technologies people use to create some- will find a website whose looks they like and copy it
thing that makes them authors. For example, in the or copy and modify it to suit their own needs. One of
scientific community an idea might occur to a number the original reasons for the popularity of the Internet
of different people who will “toss it around” with other was the ability to share, to dispense with the need to
colleagues all over the world via the Internet. As the reinvent the wheel, and to be able to build on the gains
idea takes shape through this collaborative process, it that others made previously.
becomes difficult to identify an owner of the intellectual It is important to remind students, however, that
property. There are really many authors. The property credit must be given to the creators of any intellec-
belongs to the scientific community at large. This is a tual property—whether it be ideas or words or pro-
concept that is difficult to codify. When information gramming or images—if it is used in an academic
about this scientific idea is published, who gets the assignment. This is necessary so that others can re-
credit? create the trail the student followed in doing his or
When information comes up on an Internet web- her research. It is necessary so that individual sources
site, it is extremely difficult to know where it came can be accessed for verification or for use by other
from. In a “cut-and-paste” environment, any piece researchers. It is necessary so that the person who did
of information could come from almost anywhere. It the original work gets credit for it.
could be that the author of web page A gathered ideas Goal: Exercise 18 allows students to put themselves
from web pages B, C, and D. Those pages may or may in the author’s shoes and consider from that point
not have identified their authors. The information on of view what it means to be an author and what an
web pages B, C, and D may have been swiped, bor- author’s rights are.
rowed, or paraphrased from other web pages, other Description: Divide the class into small groups.
kinds of documents, or other kinds of communica- Discuss the worksheet questions and jot down ideas.
tions. It is very easy to lose track of authorship on the Reconvene the class for a large group discussion. Role-
Internet, where pages come and go, links come and go, play the plight of an author who discovers that some-
and where anyone can post anything he or she likes. one is using his or her work without permission and
Authors would be hard-pressed to keep track of their earning lots of money for it.
ideas and monitor who is using them for what purpose Tip for conducting the exercise: It is useful to have
in the virtual environment. It follows that it is much other instructors who have rehearsed the role-play do
more difficult to protect the rights of authors in the the skit for the large group discussion.
virtual environment. This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 5.
 Issues of the Information Age | 39

Exercise 18

Authorship, Rights of Authors, and

Responsible Use of Others’ Work
In small groups, discuss the following questions and record your best answers.
What or who is an author? What does it mean to create something?
Are you an author? Name some of the things you have created.
Suppose you wrote a prizewinning essay about information literacy. You win a certificate and a
handshake from the dean of your college. Then you find out that your roommate sent your essay
to a magazine essay contest with his or her name on it instead of yours. Your roommate wins
$5,000 and a spot on a popular TV show. How do you feel about what just happened? What can
you do about what your roommate did?
Suppose your roommate took only one paragraph of your essay and still won the money and the TV
experience. Would you feel any differently?
Suppose your roommate took your ideas, changed the language just a little, and won the money. Now
how do you feel?
What is plagiarism?
Why is it important to cite your sources (tell others whose intellectual property you used) when writing
or doing other kinds of research? List all the possible reasons you can think of.
Does participation in peer-to-peer file-sharing ser­vices count as a form of plagiarism or not? Does it
infringe on the copyrights of authors or creators?
 Information Literacy Forums
Contributed by Jim Kinnie

Too often information literacy exercises narrowly focus of a course or can be open to the campus community
on research for academic papers when in fact lifelong and the public at large.
learning is a goal of a good information literacy pro-
gram. Many students don’t realize that information Goal: In exercise 19, students will gain an under-
literacy skills are just as important in their postgraduate standing of how the evaluative skills and ethical use
lives as they are during their academic careers. One of information as outlined in the ACRL standards can
way to reinforce this idea is to interact with profession- be applied in a nonacademic setting. They will learn
als in various fields who use information literacy skills how evaluating information can make a real difference
in their daily work lives. The following describes how in business, government, health, consumer, and legal
to produce an information-issues forum that will bring decisions and how those decisions affect people’s lives
professionals and students together for a discussion of and careers.
using information literacy skills after graduation.
The forum is ideal for a lesson in a credit-bearing Description: The forum can take many forms, and
information literacy course, but it can be scaled to fit the topic can be one that is a subject of debate in the
many situations. It can be a promotional vehicle for community or anything that might have an impact on
the library’s status on campus or for a collaborative students’ lives. It can tie in with an event that has a
effort with other departments such as journalism, writ- national focus—like Sunshine Week, in the spring, or
ing, biological or medical sciences, and business and Banned Books Week, in the fall—or it can have a more
marketing; just about any discipline will use informa- personal focus, like illegal file sharing or Facebook
tion literacy skills in its profession. The forum can take privacy issues. A contentious political season is a good
place in a classroom, a large meeting room, or an audi- time to evaluate facts presented in political advertise-
torium. The audience can be limited to one section ments. Several examples follow.

Scenario 1: Panel Discussion. Assemble a panel of

Exercise 19 three to four professionals who work in fields relating
to the main topic. For example, a forum on censor-
Expert Input on ship could include an art museum director, a civil
liberties lawyer, and a religious leader; a forum on fact-
Information Issues checking in the news media provides an opportunity
for producers, editors, or reporters from media outlets
Before the forum, you will prepare questions for panelists
based on your knowledge of the topic. Research the topic such as newspapers, television, and blogs to share their
using the online catalog, periodical databases, and web- experiences; a discussion of privileged information
sites to find information that will outline the controversy, could include a federal prosecutor, a scientist, and
explain the issues, and explore the panelists’ backgrounds. a journalist, who could discuss the implications of
Be prepared to fully engage them in the discussion. A secret information, national security letters, business
question-­and-answer period after the presentations will research, and Freedom of Information Act requests.
give you the opportunity to ask your questions. Any of these panels could also include a faculty mem-
After the forum is over, you will have one week to write a ber from an appropriate department to give an aca-
reaction paper. Summarize the topic of the forum and give
demic perspective on the topic.
your impressions of the panelists and their messages in a
Each panelist is given fifteen to twenty minutes to
two-page essay. Include your reactions, positive and nega-
tive, to the ideas presented and how you will personally present his or her perspective on the topic. Presenters
apply any lessons learned. air their opinions, which, depending on their posi-
tions, could be set up as opposing viewpoints or as
unconventional perspectives on the topic. The forum

40
 Issues of the Information Age | 41

is then opened up to the audience for a question-and- publicizing the event, and addressing a myriad of other
answer period. A moderator (an outgoing librarian, a considerations will take the most time. The forum can
local news personality or radio talk-show host, a subject be fit into an hour and a half to two hours, and any
faculty member) selects the questioners and keeps the follow-up sessions with students will vary depending
discussion on topic. on the context.
The topic and panelists should be chosen with audi-
Scenario 2: Game Show. There are many models ence interest in mind. A local event or something in
of game shows that can be adapted—Jeopardy! Who the news that has captured national attention and has
Wants to Be a Millionaire? What’s My Line?—or one local implications, a campus controversy, and theme
can be created to fit a theme. For instance, a forum on celebrations like those mentioned above will foster
intellectual property involves using a PowerPoint slide lively discussions. It’s important to choose the right
show identifying examples of plagiarism, fabrication, speakers. Many local orga­nizations would be happy
and fair use in real life. Contestants are recruited or to oblige and help their own cause along with enlight-
chosen at random from the audience to form com- ening students. News reporters, scientists, consumer
peting teams. Excerpts from recent books, popular advocates, artists—all are generally great information
music-sampling clips, or legal decisions are displayed, evaluators and are often dynamic presenters. Panelists
and contestants decide if they violate intellectual prop- can be recruited from within your institution, in the
erty principles or not. A “celebrity” panel of faculty, wider world, and referrals from family and friends.
lawyers, artists, editors, or those in related disciplines Using your (and your colleagues’) personal contacts is
discusses the example and concurs or disagrees with a good way to assemble a panel without the high price
the contestants. Points are awarded, and the highest- of contracting a nationally recognized speaker.
scoring team wins prizes, which could be as inexpen- Your institution’s culture and policies will deter-
sive as candy bars. mine the best time and place for the forum. Beware
of conflicts with other events or time slots that restrict
Scenario 3: Media Presentation/Panel. This format audience participation. The venue you choose should
works well with any controversial use of media, but it fit the audience—not too big or too small—and should
can be particularly engaging during an election year. have the required technology. The budget is scalable
The forum uses political advertisements that are orga­ also depending on expenses like providing dinner or
nized around themes of negative advertising, positive an honoraria for speakers, advertising in local media,
biographical expositions, factual inaccuracies, and so and printing costs for programs and flyers. Communi-
forth, and shown to the audience for their reaction. cation is a key consideration for success; press releases,
Ads are shown individually or in groups, with frequent interviews with campus media outlets, or invitations
pauses for audience reaction and discussion. A faculty to local media will spread the word about the event.
member in political science and/or a local political See the checklist of forum-preparation activities in
reporter guides the discussion to give a real-world per- figure 5.1.
spective on the effects of the ads. Following the forum event, and to further explore
Those in the audience who usually do not pay much a topic, students may work in groups and use library
attention to politics will be drawn into this unique art resources to investigate different aspects of the subject
of persuasion and may begin to realize the conse- to verify or refute the information they discovered in
quences of not critically evaluating political messages. the forum. Group presentations should follow to give
a wide perspective on the theme of the forum.
Tips for conducting the exercise: The setup for the If the forum is a library event on campus, librarians
forum will take the most energy and effort. Choosing can work with subject faculty to design related activi-
and contacting potential guests, arranging the location, ties for their classes that attended.
42 | Issues of the Information Age

The important thing is to tie the forum topic to An in-class means of discussing issues of the infor-
students’ lives outside of school. It should raise the mation age is helpful when time does not permit an
consciousness of students so they will see that taking issues-forum presentation. Exercise 20 fits into the
a critical look at the information they see, read, and context of one or two classroom sessions.
hear throughout their lives is just as important, if not This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 3, Perfor-
more so, than deciding on the information they use in mance Indicator 4; and Standard 5, Performance Indi-
a research paper. cator 2.

Figure 5.1

Information Issues Forum Checklist

Three Months in Advance  Request bios for program
 Brainstorm with staff and/or faculty  Keep them happy
 Pick a topic
One to Two Weeks in Advance
 Pick a title
 Personally contact on- and off-campus
 Identify and invite speakers
participants
 Identify and invite a moderator
 Double-check:
 Pick a date
 Space
 Invite speakers
 Equipment
 Create a budget
 Press releases
 Advertising
 Dinner reservations
 Printing
 Create programs
 Food
 Buy advertisements (campus newspaper
or radio)
Two to Three Months in Advance
 Place announcement on campus and
 Schedule space
library websites
 Reserve equipment
 Distribute flyers on campus (printing
 Reserve dinner services) and off campus (academic and
 Secure funding public libraries)

Two to Four Weeks in Advance Forum Day

 Notify appropriate faculty  Put up signage
 Create flyers  Set the stage
 Write press releases  Test equipment
 Schedule printing  Provide water for speakers
 Secure parking passes
One Week Following
 Update speakers
 Send thank-you notes
 Clarify topic
 Evaluate the forum
 Answer questions
 Issues of the Information Age | 43

Issues of the Tips for conducting the exercise: You may want to
Information Age give groups class time to work on this assignment so
that they have time to identify quality articles and read
The proliferation of information has created a new them. You may also make this a multiclass assignment.
set of concerns for everyone. Privacy, accuracy, intel- This exercise addresses ACRL Standards 1, 2, 3, 4,
lectual property rights, ownership, and censorship are and 5.
examples of areas of great concern. Students should
be aware of these issues and what is at stake for them Publisher
as global citizens.
Goal: Students often don’t realize that there may What is a publisher? Back in the day of paper-only
be problems associated with access to information. publishing, a publisher was a company with employees
Exercise 20 helps to inform them about the problems
and how students might be impacted by those issues.
Description: Students are divided into small groups. Exercise 20
Each group is given an “issue” to investigate. The
group members will find three or four articles about Marketing, Security,
their issue that help explain what the issue is and why
we should care about it. The group should discuss
Inventory, or Invasion
the issue and create a five-minute presentation, skit, of Privacy?
or other creative activity about the issue. Each group
For this assignment, you and your group will present an
will create a bibliography of the articles reviewed and important issue of the information age to the class. Once
submit it to the instructor. you have your assigned “issue,” find three or four articles
Issues we have identified are courtesy cards or loy- on the topic. Articles must be two pages or longer and
alty cards at supermarkets, drugstores, and so forth; must be of good quality. Use your searching and evalu-
radio frequency identification (RFID) tags in pur- ation skills to help you find good articles.
chased items; spyware/adware/cookies; copyright; Read the articles, and discuss them with your
video surveillance or social-networking sites; viola- group.
tions of Internet policies; and plagiarism. We created
a scenario for each issue to put the issue into context Work together to create a five-minute
presentation, skit, or other creative activity
for the students. For example:
about the issue.
Loyalty cards: When you go to many stores, cashiers The basic questions you should address in your
frequently ask you if you have your courtesy or presentation follow:
loyalty card. Companies use these cards to keep
track of you, your purchases, and more. How What is the issue? Imagine that we
know nothing about the topic.
much do these companies know about you?
What are the pros and cons of the
What are they doing with the information? issue?
RFID: Walmart and other retailers are embedding Should we care? Why or why not?
RFID tags in items they sell to track inventory, What importance does this issue
but the chips still work long after you leave the have on our lives?
store. What is RFID, and what might it mean Finally, designate someone to make a quick
for you? bibliography to show what sources you
used. This should be in correct MLA format,
Video surveillance: A recent Kenneth Cole ad cam-
with the group members’ names on it. Hand
paign states, “You are on a video camera an aver-
it in when you present your issue.
age of 10 times a day. Are you dressed for it?”
Surveillance cameras installed after 9/11 caught For this assignment, use databases that have full-text
the bus that dumped sewage on Chicago tourists, articles available in them. You may also want to go to the
Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) website, at
and recently mounted cameras catch those who
www.epic.org, for information on your issue.
run red lights at many city intersections. Are we
becoming a surveillance society? Who can put a
camera up, and what happens to the tapes?
44 | Issues of the Information Age

who oversaw the transformation of a book from a author holds the copyright. This means that the author
manuscript to a printed volume that could be mass- is the only person who can publish and sell his or her
produced. The publisher had editors, artists, typeset- work. An author may give permission for someone else
ters, printers, and binders to accomplish this task. to publish a work without giving up the copyright.
Publishers produced approximately 550,000 books by Many times the copyright is held jointly by the
these methods in 2008. author and the publisher. Thus, they share the right
Today, anyone can be a publisher. All that is to reproduce, publish, or sell the work. This is ben-
required is access to a computer that has access to the eficial to both parties. It assists the author by placing
Internet. An author can be his or her own publisher. the resources and the name of the publisher before
An author may have his or her writing published in the reader. This can result in increased sales for an
paper or electronic format. A writer may have works unknown author if the publisher has a widely known
published by someone unknown to him or her, with name and a reputation for publishing good books.
or without permission. Should the author need to enforce copyright by suing,
Publishing in electronic format has some distinct the publisher would be likely to have more resources
advantages. Traditional methods of publication are available for that purpose. The publisher benefits from
time-consuming, while electronic publishing can take joint copyright by receiving a portion of the sales rev-
only a matter of minutes. Information published on enues.
paper reaches only those who care to buy the pub- Sometimes the author assigns the copyright to the
lished work or visit a library that has purchased the publisher entirely. The author may receive a negoti-
book. Electronic publication potentially puts the writ- ated royalty for every book or journal sold but will no
ing into the hands of millions of Internet users—at longer own the right to reproduce, publish, or sell the
least in theory. item him- or herself. Any legal considerations regard-
However, the electronic environment is not without ing the copyright in this case are the sole responsibility
its drawbacks. Self-publishing or electronic publish- of the publisher. The publisher usually receives all or
ing through someone else may not include the edito- most of the sales receipts and does not have to get the
rial assistance and expertise of a traditional publisher. author’s permission to change the cover design or the
The layout, the language, and the presentation of layout.
the work may receive little or no expert attention if An institution may also hold a copyright. Just as
self-­published. The millions of potential readers of the patent for an invention created on the job may
electronic books may not be required to pay for access belong to the company, the copyright on intellectual
to the work, or the content might be copied from a products created on work time may belong to the insti-
restricted site and placed on an unrestricted site by tution paying the salary of the author. In this case, the
some savvy hacker. This does not work well for the institution reaps the benefits and bears the burdens of
author and publisher seeking fortune rather than fame. holding the copyright.
In the electronic environment, it is also relatively sim- The Digital Millennium Copyright Act, passed by
ple to cut and paste one author’s writing and attribute it Congress in 1998, was created to extend copyright pro-
to someone else, effectively eliminating any rights the tections into the digital and electronic environments.
author or publisher might have to the content—at least
until the matter is settled through the court system. Fair Use
Again, it is very difficult in the virtual book business for
an author or a publisher to keep track of how a work is Copyright law is written to protect the owners of the
being modified and by whom. It is not economically copyright from loss of potential income. There are
feasible for a publisher to prosecute every misuse of some provisions that apply to special situations to allow
electronically mounted intellectual property, even the copyright holders’ rights to take a backseat. One
though protections of the owners’ rights exist. of these provisions is known as fair use. Fair use spells
out when and how non–copyright holders can use
Copyright copyrighted material. For example, a photocopy of a
journal article may be made for educational purposes
Copyright refers to the legal right to reproduce, pub- as long as the copy is not sold for profit. This allows
lish, and sell intellectual property. In many cases, the researchers to do their work without having to bear an
 Issues of the Information Age | 45

unmanageable cost for doing so. It allows research to examples of plagiarism. Students should be able to
move forward without having to wait for the copyright identify what is missing from the writing or what needs
holder’s permission to copy the material. A teacher to be done to correct the error.
may make a copy of something to use as an example Tips for conducting the exercise: This exercise works
in a classroom, to help students learn a concept, idea, well with individuals, with small groups, or as a whole-
painting style, and so on. Fair use provisions are there group discussion. If the group is divided, be sure to
to allow research, scientific, and scholarly progress to bring students back together to discuss each example
go forward without hampering the copyright holder’s and to compare notes on their conclusions.
right to sell the item. This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 5.

Plagiarism
Real-Life Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the technical term for stealing someone and What It Costs
else’s intellectual property. If students cut and paste
something created by someone else and do not give There is nothing like real life to bring the issue of
credit to the creator, they are plagiarizing. In colleges, plagiarism home to a student. This plagiarism exercise
universities, and research institutions, plagiarism can looks at a real-life example.
cause big problems. Many institutions have very strict Goal: In exercise 22, students will learn how pla-
guidelines and punishments for those who plagiarize. giarism can occur and how it can change a life by
The electronic environment has changed the way following the events as they happened and discussing
people use information and has made it very difficult ethical issues surrounding the events.
to attribute credit to the creator and very easy to borrow Description: The instructor will tell the story of
the information without attribution. Kaavya Viswanathan and her book, How Opal Mehta
Got Kissed, Got Wild, and Got a Life. Have students
take a few minutes to read articles giving the details of
Plagiarism and the story. Divide the class into small groups. Have each
How to Avoid It group select a moderator, recorder, and spokesperson.
Give the groups ten to fifteen minutes to discuss and
Many students, especially those versed in the cut- record responses to the questions they received. After
and-paste world of the computer, do not understand the time for discussion has ended, ask each group
what plagiarism is. Some have vague notions about spokesperson to report to the class on the group’s
not using the exact words of others, but for the most answers to the questions.
part students are unsure about what they must cite. Use these culminating questions with the entire
Students may know that they may use information class after each group reports on the group questions:
that is common knowledge without attribution, but
most have no clear idea of what “common knowledge” 1. What effect can plagiarism have on someone’s
is. Students tend to think about quoting, citing, and life? How do you imagine it could impact your
plagiarizing only with reference to traditional sources own life?
of academic knowledge—books and journals. They
2. What does “internalizing” what was read previ-
need to be encouraged to think about other sources of
ously mean? Have you ever experienced it?
information and how it is protected as well.
Goal: The goal of exercise 21 is to identify instances 3. Why is plagiarism wrong?
of plagiarism and to learn what can be changed in
each selection to make each passage acceptable to use. Wrap up the class discussion by having students
Description: This exercise contains a quotation from discuss ways to prevent plagiarizing thoughts and ideas
a document. The quotation is followed by examples in academic life and in everyday situations.
that use the exact words of the passage, that paraphrase Tips for conducting the exercise: Consider adding
the passage, and that use small parts of the passage with details to the story of Viswanathan’s plagiarism if time
and without quotation marks and with and without and interest warrant. After sharing the story, show an
attribution. This exercise is designed to show specific actual copy of the book or demonstrate a search in
 Exercise 21

Plagiarism
The quotation below is from an article by Joanna M. Burkhardt. Read the original quotation. Selections 1
through 7 are ways in which someone might use this information in a term paper. Which of these constitute
plagiarism, and which are acceptable? Compare the examples that follow, and decide whether they are or are
not examples of plagiarism. Be ready to explain your answer. Original quotation:

Library literature offers wide-spectrum coverage on planning and moving libraries. Authors offer visions of
what might be, practical implementation suggestions, or explicit instructions for specific situations. Every
move is different and offers its own set of challenges. Planning and moving into a new library can be a
nightmare with long-range challenges, or a sweet dream of perfect coordination and timing.*

Selection 1
Library literature offers wide-spectrum coverage on planning and moving libraries. Authors offer visions of what
might be, practical implementation suggestions, or explicit instructions for specific situations. Every move is
different and offers its own set of challenges. Planning and moving into a new library can be a nightmare with
long-range challenges, or a sweet dream of perfect coordination and timing.

Selection 2
Library literature offers wide-spectrum coverage on planning and moving libraries. Authors offer visions of what
might be, practical implementation suggestions, or explicit instructions for specific situations. Every move is
different and offers its own set of challenges. Planning and moving into a new library can be a nightmare with
long-range challenges, or a sweet dream of perfect coordination and timing. (Burkhardt, 1998)

Selection 3
“Library literature offers wide-spectrum coverage on planning and moving libraries. Authors offer visions of
what might be, practical implementation suggestions, or explicit instructions for specific situations. Every move
is different and offers its own set of challenges. Planning and moving into a new library can be a nightmare
with long-range challenges or a sweet dream of perfect coordination and timing.” (Burkhardt, 1998)

Selection 4
Library literature offers much information on planning and moving libraries. Authors offer their thoughts on
what might be, practical implementation suggestions, or explicit instructions for specific situations. Every move
is different and offers its own set of challenges. Planning and moving into a new library can be a nightmare or
a sweet dream of perfect coordination and timing. (Burkhardt, 1998)

Selection 5
“Library literature offers much information on planning and moving libraries. Authors offer their thoughts on
what might be, practical implementation suggestions, or explicit instructions for specific situations. Every move
is different and offers its own set of challenges. Planning and moving into a new library can be a nightmare or
a sweet dream of perfect coordination and timing.” (Burkhardt, 1998)

Selection 6
In the literature about libraries there are plenty of articles on planning and moving libraries. Writers of these
articles offer futuristic, practical, or explicit instructions for moving libraries. Planning and moving a library can
be a nightmare or a good dream. (Burkhardt, 1998)

Selection 7
Moving into a new library takes much planning and forethought. The literature is full of articles of practical
and theoretical advice regarding this topic. Each situation is different and must be handled according to the
specifics of the location. Creating a new library may be very easy or very hard. (Burkhardt, 1998)

*Joanna M. Burkhardt, “Do’s and don’ts for moving a small academic library,” College and Research Libraries News 59, no. 7
(July/August 1998): 499.

46
 Issues of the Information Age | 47

WorldCat or another large catalog to show that there The wrap-up discussion could simply be conversa-
are copies of this book available for reading. (As of this tion in class, but you can add to it by creating a list of
writing, per WorldCat, more than 680 libraries own the “best practices to prevent plagiarism” for the students
book How Opal Mehta Got Kissed, Got Wild, and Got and posting it on a class website or displaying it on a
a Life.) You might also show the students a photograph poster in the classroom.
of Viswanathan to illustrate that she was just a college This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 5.
student (like they are now) when this happened.

Exercise 22

How Plagiarism Changed a Life

Let’s look at a real-life example of plagiarism. Group 2: Why do you think Viswanathan plagiarized
Kaavya Viswanathan was nineteen and a freshman at passages from the other chick lit author in
Harvard when she was offered a two-book deal of $500,000 her novel? Do you think that this case of
to write “chick lit.” Viswanathan wrote a book titled How plagiarism was intentional? What should
Opal Mehta Got Kissed, Got Wild, and Got a Life. The book the consequences be for plagiarizing in the
was published in April 2006, and it quickly became a best publishing world?
seller. DreamWorks bought the rights, planning to produce
Group 3: One student was interviewed about the
a film based on the book. Soon after it was published, how-
Opal Mehta issue and said, “What difference
ever, reports of possible plagiarism surfaced. In the end,
does it make if [Viswanathan] wrote it or not?
there were more than forty plagiarized passages identified
It’s still a good book.” How do you feel about
in Viswanathan’s novel. The book was pulled from store
this statement? What responsibility should
shelves April 27, 2006, and the book deal was canceled.
the editor and publisher have with regard to
Viswanathan apologized, saying that she “must have inter-
verifying that their authors do not plagiarize?
nalized” those details (from the other author’s books) with-
out realizing it. Viswanathan remained at Harvard despite Group 4: How are you going to be more aware
the plagiarism event. of your writing and not plagiarize by citing
Read the two articles below. sources in the future? What are the roles and
responsibilities of a university community
Story about Viswanathan in the Harvard
to ensure that students do not plagiarize for
Crimson: www.thecrimson.com/article.
campus assignments? Is an “Honor Code and
aspx?ref=512948
Pledge” adequate to ensure that students
Update on Viswanathan from—ye gads!— do not plagiarize? What should be the
Wikipedia! http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ consequences of plagiarizing (e.g., failure of
Kaavya_Viswanathan paper, failure of course, expulsion from the
university)?
The class will be divided into small discussion groups.
Each group will discuss one question. Select a moderator, Group 5: If you were Viswanathan, would you have
recorder, and spokesperson for your group. You will have gone back to Harvard after this incident of
ten to fifteen minutes to discuss and record your responses plagiarism? Do you think Harvard should have
to the question you received. The spokesperson for each expelled Viswanathan? Do you believe that
group will report to the class on the group’s answers to the Viswanathan’s professors are going to treat
questions. her in the same respect as other students
after this incident? Where do you think Kaavya
Questions Viswanathan is now, a few years after the
Group 1: If you were the author Meg Cabot, how controversy?
would you feel about your ideas being stolen
by Kaavya Viswanathan and used in Opal Adapted from an exercise created by Carrie A. Kelly, Librarian,
Mehta? If you were Viswanathan, would you St. George’s School, Newport, Rhode Island.
apologize to the author? Why or why not?
48 | Issues of the Information Age

When to Cite What happens if the author cedes the copyright

to a publisher and that publisher sells the content to
How does a writer know when it is appropriate to cite an information aggregator? Most compilers of this
someone else’s work? The answer to this question is kind of information sell the information to others. If a
frequently unclear even for a practiced author. How- company that collects information and gets exclusive
ever, in each case, the writer must make a decision one rights to that information sells it to subscribers, does
way or the other—to cite or not to cite. Under the law, that mean that only those who can afford to pay for
the only time it is acceptable not to cite a source for it can get it? The author has signed away the right to
someone else’s work is when the information under sell or reproduce the information. The publisher has
consideration is common knowledge. An author does decided to allow only the aggregator (information col-
not have to find the source for the information “The lector) to publish the information, and the aggregator
sun rises in the east.” This fact is common knowledge. only allows buyers to see the information. This kind
There are many facts that can be considered common of situation limits information access to those who
knowledge. can afford to pay for it. The increasing number of
The concept of common knowledge becomes a gray pay-per-view information aggregators could slow the
area when we begin to consider the question, Com- speed of research to a snail’s pace by blocking access
mon to whom? It seems fair to assume that every adult to information for those who do not have the money
knows that the sun rises in the east, wherever they are to pay for it.
and whatever their culture. The certainty about what
is common knowledge becomes less certain when Who Has Access to the Information?
issues are common to many, but not to all, people. For
example, it is common knowledge for adults in the Access is a very important consideration. Most research
United States that cars drive on the right side of the that goes on in the world today is based on what other
road in the United States. This may not be common researchers have done in the past. The results of those
knowledge in other places on the globe. It may be com- previous studies and experiments are published in
mon knowledge for those who work in the computer reports, journals, white papers, conference proceed-
industry that Apple computers invented the concept ings, and so on. If new findings are restricted in some
of computer windows.1 That information may not be way so that today’s researchers cannot access them with
common knowledge to those outside the industry. relative ease and in a short period of time, how will
One must be very careful about assuming that what research continue to go forward? What about informa-
is common knowledge in one’s own circle is also com- tion you give out when you buy a product with a credit
mon knowledge outside that circle. When in doubt card or order something from a catalog? Who has the
about citing or not citing a source, always cite it. It is right to the use of that information? Unless you give
never wrong to cite your sources. explicit instructions otherwise, the credit card compa-
nies and catalog companies can use the information
you give them, or they can sell that information to
Information Privacy others who can then contact you or learn about your
and Policy shopping preferences, annual income, credit rating,
and so on.
Who Owns the Information? Goal: Exercise 23 will show students how easy it is
to get personal information electronically. They will
When information is created, the question of who also find out that people’s “private” information may
owns it comes up immediately. If it is posted on the not be as private as they think.
Web by the author, it is possible to simply copy or Description: Using the AnyWho.com website, stu-
download the file. Technically, the author still has the dents will look up their own names, the name of a
legal rights under copyright law and therefore owns friend or family member, or the name of someone
the copyright to the information. The information selected by the instructor. Students will gather all the
can be used for education and research as outlined in free information they can about this person. They will
the fair use provisions of the law. This issue becomes also find what other information is available about this
important when others want to access the information. person if they are willing to pay for it.
 Issues of the Information Age | 49

Tips for conducting the exercise: It is useful for the have little or no concern in this regard. The events of
instructor to have a list of names that have been looked September 11, 2001, and the perceived need for agen-
up ahead of time to ensure that there is a listing rele- cies to be able to access personal information more eas-
vant to the students. For example, look up the name of ily complicate the issue even further. If having specific
the provost of the university, the director of the library, information available to the government for reasons of
the local television news anchor, and so on. If students national security is necessary to keep everyone safe, is
do not find listings for themselves, the instructor can it better to give up some amount of privacy?
provide a name that will provide the desired results.
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 5.

How Does the Electronic Exercise 23

Environment Change an
Individual’s Right to Privacy? Privacy and the Internet
If an individual does most of his or her research, cor-
Go to the AnyWho.com website. Type in your own name.
respondence, banking, or buying and selling online,
If there are no results for your name, use the name of
who has the right to see those transactions and under someone in the business community in your area or a
what circumstances? Hackers have been tracked down name provided by your instructor.
using their Internet ser­vice providers’ records of trans-
actions. This is something akin to a phone tap on the What name did you search?
telephone of a suspect. Used for law enforcement How many listings were there for that name?
purposes when probable cause has been shown, this Select one listing. How many things can you find
situation would not trouble most people. However, out about the person whose name you
what about the “cookies” that websites place on your selected?
computer when you access those sites? What do those
What were you able to find out about that
cookies actually do? What can outsiders do with the
individual with no cost to you?
cookies on your computer? What about the situation
during which your computer is always connected to What would you be able to find out if you were
the Internet via a DSL? Can the information resid- willing to pay for the information?
ing on your computer be tapped without probable How much would it cost to access the public
cause and without a court order? Can companies track records of the person you looked up?
what and from whom you have bought things? Can How do you feel about having this type
“Big Brother” tell what sites you are visiting? Who has and amount of information available
access to information about what you have accessed electronically to anyone in the world?
online? When you agree to make your computer a
Now think about social-networking sites like
server in order to get a ser­vice (like Napster, for exam-
Facebook and MySpace. How many clicks
ple), what information that resides on your computer does it take to get to personal information
is available for outsiders to look at? about someone who is a complete stranger
to you?
Think about your earlier answers. What and how
Privacy Issues much do you want strangers to know about
you?
The issue of privacy is very complex and subject to
opinion and interpretation. Many people are unaware If you apply for a high-level job and your potential
that information about them is gathered from many employer goes to a social-networking site
to gather information about you, what will
different electronic sources. They may not know that
he or she find there? Is there information
using a particular Internet site or tool may authorize someone else posted or tagged that might
the site owners to use the information collected in vari- not encourage this person to hire you?
ous ways. Some people do not want any information
about themselves available in a public forum. Others
50 | Issues of the Information Age

Goal: The goal of exercise 24 is to make students the electronic environment? What procedures are in
aware of the issues surrounding the topic of privacy place to preserve electronic documents for the historic
and the complexity of coming to any conclusions as to record? For example, e-mail has replaced letters sent
where the rights of the individual stop and the needs by U.S. mail in many instances. Only recently has any-
for national security, or commerce, or other group one thought how to preserve those correspondences
needs begin. that might be of value to history or to law. During
Description: Have students log on to the Electronic the Iran Contra investigations, President George H.
Privacy Information Center (EPIC) website, at www​ W. Bush’s administration members sought to destroy
.epic.org. Select one of the listed topics. Have the all their e-mail as part of a cover-up. The issue was
students explore the topic and then discuss the issue taken to court only hours before the administration left
as a whole. For example, have students look at the office. Up to that point, no one had considered e-mail
following file at the EPIC site: www.epic.org/privacy/ as part of the public record. Yet some very important
internet/cookies/. communications took place via e-mail, and they could
Have students examine the issue raised regarding have been lost to history with one delete command to
cookies individually or in small groups. Bring the the computer. Fortunately, the judge who considered
group members back together and discuss the privacy the case found that e-mail was part of the public record
issue and its problems as a class. and acted in time to save those e-mails from destruc-
Tips for conducting the exercise: Assign pairs of stu- tion. But how were they saved? Are the original com-
dents to explore an issue at the EPIC site, and, when puters on which they reside stored in a big warehouse
the large group is brought back together, have each somewhere? Were the messages downloaded onto a
duo present what they learned to the rest of the group. supercomputer somewhere? What will ensure that we
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 5. will be able to read those messages decades from now
when the new technology of that era may look nothing
Preservation of the Human Record like the technology of our own era or that of the Bush
administration?
Preservation is a very serious consideration in the elec- Many U.S. government documents are now avail-
tronic world of today. Many records that used to be able only in electronic format. This may decrease
kept on paper have been moved to the electronic envi- the amount of paper used in the production of these
ronment. What happens to older records or writings in documents. However, this practice does raise a new
difficulty. How will people who don’t have comput-
ers or who don’t have access to computers be able to
Exercise 24 obtain these documents? Will information access be
limited to the rich or to those who have a computer
Your Right to Privacy available to them?

Go to the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) What Needs to Be Saved?

website, at www.epic.org. Examine the issues listed
on this site. Go to the link for Privacy in the EPIC Policy Do all e-mails need to be saved? Are all websites valu-
Archives. Select one topic from the A–Z list of privacy able to history? Who will decide? Where will they be
topics. Examine the issue as presented. Write down the kept? Who will be able to look at them? A website
important points, the pros and cons, and the concerns about what happened in the daily life of an adolescent
regarding this topic. Report back to the class what you
teenager who just moved to a new city might not be of
learned.
vital interest right now, but what about researchers of
What is the issue? the future who want to look back to the beginnings of
Why is it a problem? the electronic age to see how it affected people in their
daily lives? Researchers today are seeking out diaries
How does it infringe on the average person’s right
and journals of people who were among the first set-
to privacy?
tlers of the western United States to get their views of
What is being done about it? what was important and meaningful and eventful in
their lives. Might not researchers be interested in the
same kinds of things on the new electronic frontier?
 Issues of the Information Age | 51

Websites come and go at an amazing rate, many environment be lost when the next new technology
lasting only a few weeks or months. As this is the case, comes along and replaces the floppy disk, the CD, the
how will information be saved? Will there be a reposi- DVD, and so on?
tory of abandoned websites where all inactive sites can
be stored for future use? Is it the job of the government Who Is Responsible for Keeping,
to provide a place where it will be saved? What about Storing, and Providing Access
international correspondence, websites, and other
to Today’s Information?
electronic creations? Will there be a giant computer
somewhere in which all these data can be stored? Will Will it be necessary to create a new government agency
authors have any say over who stores their information? to collect, preserve, and provide access to information
that is only available in electronic format? Will librar-
How Will People Access ies become the repository of these new formats for
What Is Saved? information? What will become of information from
other countries? Will a global mass of information
What equipment will be used to keep access to these be kept on the International Space Station? Will the
electronic files available? Consider the saga concern- government decide what is worth keeping and what is
ing the Lunar Orbiter Image Recovery Project. In to be thrown away? How will those decisions be made?
1965 it was decided to record the images beaming It is clear that many questions about electronic
back from the lunar orbiter using AMPEX FR 900 information cannot yet be answered. It is very possible
two-inch-tape analog recorders. After the end of the that valuable information will be lost now and in the
Apollo program, the tapes were put into storage and future because of a lack of methods for collecting, stor-
the recorders were “surplussed.” When interest in the ing, and accessing it. Some information will be saved
lunar images revived, more than forty years later, there by luck, some by law, and some by stubborn souls who
were no working tape drives readily available. Scien- will not allow information to simply disappear. At this
tists working on the project had to find “surplussed” moment, we have many more questions than we have
tape drives in order to salvage the parts needed to cre- solutions to the issues of the information age.
ate a working machine that would allow the tapes to be
viewed. It was only by luck that they were able to find Note
the parts they needed to view the valuable images of 1. Encyclopedia of Computers and Computer History,
the moon (www.collectspace.com/news-111408a.htm). edited by Raúl Rojas (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn,
Will everything that is happening in today’s electronic 2001), 2:828.
Chapter Six

Books and Catalogs

Today’s students are likely to begin a research project by searching for

information on the Internet. They will use other information sources and formats
only if the Internet fails them. Without a helpful introduction to the value and use
of books in research, students might easily glide right by the bookshelves, assum-
ing that the information in books is old and therefore useless. Students need to
practice finding and evaluating monographic information so that they can develop
a command for when and how to use books in research.
Before students can evaluate the content or begin to appreciate the orga­
nizational structure of the book, they must be able to actually find a book in the
library at your institution. Some students are not familiar with the size or orga­
nizational layout of an academic library. Even though many students are adept at
surfing the Web, most seem to find it difficult to use an online library catalog. This
may be because many students have hidden anxiety about using library research
tools and the catalog!
Catalogs help people to identify and find things. There is a catalog for almost
any product or ser­vice that one can imagine. Paging through a clothing catalog
or surfing a web-based catalog to find a product or ser­vice is a familiar activity for
today’s students, but transferring that skill to the use of the library catalog may
require instruction.

What Is a Catalog? What’s In a Catalog?

Catalogs allow us to know that an item exists by listing and describing attributes that
can give us clues to its value to our research. However, as researchers, we need to
obtain far greater informational detail to truly understand the value of each item
that is listed within the catalog. To accurately evaluate an item from the library
catalog, it is necessary to have access to its contents.
Goal: In exercise 25 students will gain an understanding of what kinds of infor-
mation catalogs provide and how catalogs can differ from one another.

53
54 | Books and Catalogs

Description: Small groups of students will examine Tips for conducting the exercise: Gather a wide vari-
multiple catalogs. They will discuss several questions ety of catalogs: garden, sports equipment, clothing,
that will help them identify the uses and the limita- book club, record club, music store, museum, art gal-
tions of the catalogs. Finally, students will compare lery, and university or college catalogs. Have at least
the catalogs with the library catalog to identify the two different types of catalogs for each small group in
similarities and differences. the class. Also provide students with Internet access
to your library catalog, or print several bibliographic
records from your catalog for students to examine.
Exercise 25 This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
mance Indicator 2; and Standard 2, Performance Indi-
Group Discussion: cator 1.
What Is a Catalog?
What’s In a Catalog? Finding Books in the Library
Look up a dictionary definition of the word catalog.
The first few attempts at using a college or university
Name any catalogs that you are familiar with. library can be a difficult experience for many students.
Make a list of all the catalogs mentioned on a There is a reticence to embarking on the adventure
chalkboard or flip chart. when faced with both the size of the library building
and the size of the collections in higher education
What kinds of information do the catalogs offer?
libraries.
How are the catalogs orga­nized? Goal: Students will gain an appreciation for and rec-
What similarities are there in the way that this ognition of the importance of the Library of Congress
information is offered? Classification System in exercise 26.
Description: The instructor will provide each stu-
What do the catalogs have in common?
dent or pair of students with an index card listing the
What do they all do for the reader? title and author of a book available in the library. Stu-
After five minutes, record your groups’ ideas on dents will search for the book without using the catalog
the board or flip chart, orga­nizing them or the library staff. They may utilize any signage avail-
into categories as you go along: type of able and their common sense! After ten minutes, the
item, product name, classification and class regroups to discuss the results of the search. This
identification code, size, color, availability, discussion is a good lead-in to learning how to use a
cost. library catalog.
Compare the library catalog record printouts handed Tips for conducting the research: Check the library
out to the item records in other catalogs and answer the catalog to identify monographs that are available. On
questions below. the index card for each item to be searched, list only
Do all types of catalogs provide similar the complete title of the book and author’s name. It is
information? best to use books with somewhat ambiguous titles so
that the subject is not overly obvious.
What does that tell us about our library’s catalog?
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
What can we use it for? mance Indicators 1 and 4.
Identify and list what the catalogs do not do.
Would you be able to accurately evaluate an item The Bibliographic Record
from a catalog, based on the catalog record?
Could you try it on for size? Library catalogs include all the necessary information
Could you taste it? to describe an item, tell us if our library owns it, and if
so, how we can find it. Most students are not enamored
Could you be sure that the product actually of the details of the MARC record, nor do they desire
matches the information needed?
to understand the intricacy with which librarians build
bibliographic records to provide individual record
 Books and Catalogs | 55

access to unique titles. However, the more students

know about the details of the bibliographic record, the
Exercise 26
more time they will save in their hunt for appropriate
research materials in the library.
Goal: Students will gain understanding of the ele- Free-Range Searching
ments included in a library catalog bibliographic
The index card you have been given contains basic infor-
record in exercise 27. mation about a book in this library. The card lists the
Description: Explain that library catalogs are made author’s name and the complete title of the book. Your
up of a large number of bibliographic records. Each task is to use this information to find this exact book in
record contains information about a unique item the library and bring it back to the class, without using
in the library’s collection. Identify and explain the the catalog or any library personnel. You have ten min-
elements of the bibliographic record. After a brief utes to search for and retrieve the book you have been
introduction to parts or fields of the bibliographic assigned. At the end of the time period, return to the
record, ask students to use their own unique personal class with or without the book in hand. At that point, we
information to complete a bibliographic record about will discuss the results of everyone’s “free-range” search.
themselves, identifying and relating the elements of How did it feel to be searching with so few clues?
the format to reflect their own information. Did you learn or notice anything helpful about the
Tips for conducting the research: Provide a complete library while you were searching?
bibliographic record that the students can use as a
model for creating their own bibliographic record. Use Did you see anything that could provide clues to
help you to find your book?
a record for a title many students will have read in high
school, such as Catcher in the Rye, by J. D. Salinger, or What other information do you think you need to
The Color Purple, by Alice Walker. It may be helpful to know to have a more successful search?
create a blank bibliographic record form based on your
library’s catalog software system for the students to use.
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
mance Indicator 2, and Standard 2, Performance Indi-
cator 1. the walking tour to cover both basic and advanced
It doesn’t take long for students who are looking for catalog search skills as time allows. Also consider
research materials in any library to agree that knowing using this method to provide opportunities for stu-
the call number of a particular item is very important. dents to explore other features that your library cata-
Assuming their previous experience has been in using log offers, such as limiting, scoping, and restricting
the Dewey decimal system, the Library of Congress searches.
Classification System will seem like another enor- Goal: In exercise 28 students will be introduced to
mous hurdle to jump. To a new library researcher, the Library of Congress Classification System.
the Library of Congress Classification System, with Description: The instructor will use a handout or
its twenty broad areas of knowledge, classes, and sub- website to teach students how to read the LC System
classes, can sound like a college course in itself! There numbers or call numbers. Students will then apply
are several quick methods to help students learn to use this knowledge to two groups of books in a “book truck
the LC System, including library-created guides and rodeo,” where they may earn a small prize for accuracy
handouts, locally made and proprietary online com- and speed.
puter tutorials, and the “book truck rodeo,” which is Tips for conducting the exercise: For each group of
described in exercise 28. three or four students, provide a book truck with one
shelf of books (approximately twenty) from a wide
range of LC classifications. For rodeo prizes, you might
Reading Library of award extra-credit points or hard candies. Be sure to
Congress Call Numbers have a watch with a second hand or a timer available
for this exercise so you can identify the winner of the
It is helpful to do a quick introduction to the catalog rodeo.
using an online “walking tour” to familiarize students This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2, Perfor-
with the look and feel of the catalog system. Design mance Indicators 2 and 3.
56 | Books and Catalogs

Controlled Vocabulary careers, legalization of marijuana in the United States,

and Subject Headings Samuel Clemens, and Italian cooking.
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
Today’s web-savvy students often try searching the mance Indicator 1, and Standard 2, Performance Indi-
library catalog using natural language and keyword cator 2.
searches. The idea of using formalized subject ter-
minology is relatively unknown to them. It takes
time for them to recognize that in research there are Evaluation
formalized language systems such as the Library of
Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) and database In research, each of the sources that students select
descriptors that help ferret out the information they must be evaluated for a variety of criteria: authorship,
need. credibility, accuracy, reliability, currency, timeliness,
Goal: In exercise 29 students will learn the use of a scope, coverage, and relevance. Students must practice
controlled vocabulary system and improve their search the application of evaluation criteria to each source,
results when using the library catalog. rather than simply using those sources that they find
Description: Students will search the library catalog first or that come to hand most easily. An easy first step
for an assigned term or phrase, using the keyword in learning to apply evaluation criteria is to evaluate
search function. They will note the total number of several books on the same subject or topic and com-
items found. They will identify the LC Subject Head- pare the results.
ings in some of the records for the titles they find. They
will select one or two subject headings and do a search
using the subject search function. The results of the Evaluating Books
two searches will then be compared.
Tips for conducting the exercise: This exercise is best Convincing students that they themselves are the
done with pairs of students or in a small-group setting. filters of the information that they choose to use and
Topics we have used for this exercise include binge include in their research is no easy task. If you teach
drinking among college students, ocean dumping, students to recognize when information is valuable
Jim Crow, the Vietnam War, World War II, nursing for their information needs—and when it isn’t—this

Exercise 27 Exercise 28

Build It Yourself: Your Own Book Truck Rodeo!

Bibliographic Record
Using your knowledge of the parts and fields of a biblio- Warm-ups
graphic record, use the printout provided by the instruc- Practice putting the books on your assigned book truck
tor as a model to create a bibliographic record for your- in order as they would be on a library shelf. When you
self. Use all of the fields included in the three major parts feel certain that the books on your truck are in the cor-
of the record: bibliographic, location, and descriptive. rect order, ask the instructor to check and approve your
work. If necessary, practice once or twice more until
Were you able to completely and accurately
you are comfortable with the concepts of the Library
describe yourself using the bibliographic
of Congress Classification System.
record format?
The Rodeo
Do you see any limitations to the format?
Switch book trucks with another group in the class.
Does having a bibliographic record for an item tell
Now you will be timed for accuracy and efficiency!
a researcher enough to judge the value of
Put the “new” book truck in order as accurately and
the work to them as a researcher?
as quickly as you can. Your instructor will act as time-
Does there seem to be a most important part of keeper. The first group to complete the shelving accu-
the record? If so, what would it be? rately wins the prize!
 Books and Catalogs | 57

important skill will stay with them throughout their This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
lives. mance Indicators 1, 3, and 4; Standard 2, Performance
Goal: In exercise 30 students will practice applying Indicators 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; Standard 3, Performance
evaluation criteria to research materials. Indicators 1 and 2; Standard 4, Performance Indica-
Description: In small groups, students will apply tors 2 and 3; and Standard 5, Performance Indicators
evaluation criteria to several different books on the 1 and 3.
same topic and answer questions about the process.
The groups will report back to the class on their find-
ings. Contrasts, similarities, and comparisons will be Exercise 29
observed.
Tips for conducting the exercise: For each group of Using Keywords to Identify
students, gather three books on a topic. Each group Subject Headings
should have a different topic to better illustrate that
evaluation criteria can change based on the material. You will receive an index card with a word or phrase on it.
Some suggestions for topics are nuclear energy, cli- Search the library catalog for the topic on the index card
mate change, and drug abuse. One of the books could by using the keyword or “word search” function.
be “perfect” (based on the criteria) for the group’s How many items did you find listed?
assigned topic, one could be outdated, and one could
Browse through the titles. Are all the titles listed
be from an unidentifiable source. This exercise is best relevant to your topic?
done by pairs of students or small groups.
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 3, Perfor- Go to the full bibliographic record for two or three
mance Indicator 2. titles from the list. Find the “Subject” field in
the bibliographic record for each item and
examine the Library of Congress Subject
Headings (LCSH) listed. Find and record all
Annotated Bibliography of the LCSH for each book. Be thorough.
of Books Which subject heading do you think best
describes the topic on your index card? You
Providing students with a variety of hands-on oppor-
may feel that there is more than one; if so,
tunities to explore the library’s catalog allows them select more than one.
to become effective searchers able to find and locate
books in the library. Understanding that finding the Use the subject search in the library catalog and
right books need not be a “needle in a haystack” situ- type in one of the LCSH you selected above.
How many subjects were found?
ation goes a long way to building research confidence
in college students. Writing a summary of a book and Does the catalog provide any “Related Subjects”?
offering evaluative information to other readers is If so, list one or two.
another way to help students learn how to select qual- In the space below, note one or two subdivisions
ity information. of your LCSH. For example, “The main
Goal: In exercise 31 students will gain practice in LCSH is ‘Electronic Commerce,’ but in
citation style, annotating, and briefly evaluating books searching for that subject heading, I also see
as they relate to a specific information need. ‘Electronic Commerce—Asia’ and ‘Electronic
Description: The instructor provides instructions Commerce—Economic Aspects.’ ”
and a guide for students to follow. Students will use How many items were found under the main
the library catalog to find five books on a preapproved LCSH you typed in? Look at the titles
topic. Students will write citations, annotations, and retrieved. Are the titles listed relevant to
brief evaluative comments about each of the books your topic?
selected. Overall, which search method (“Word Search” or
Tips for conducting the exercise: Show students how “Subject” search) produced more focused,
to identify and review the parts of a book used for effective results?
annotating: table of contents, index, preface or intro- Why do you think this was the case? Be able to
duction, and book arrangement. Supply a sample cita- explain.
tion, an example annotation, and an evaluative criteria
chart.
 Exercise 30

Evaluating Books for Value

You have been given three books to evaluate. They Next—Do a Content Analysis
are all about the same topic, but there is no guarantee
that all three are quality sources of information. Your Purpose: Why was this written? What is the
job is to use the evaluative criteria listed below and to intent of the author? Who is the intended
take notes on how each source answers the evaluation audience? Who is the author trying to
criteria. In fifteen or twenty minutes, your group will inform or influence?
report back to the class with your findings on the three Relevance: Is the material appropriate and
information sources. useful for your research? Does it answer
all or part of your research question? Can
First—Review the Bibliographic it be used for background or to focus on a
Information specific area?

Author(s): What is their authority or credibility? Scope and Coverage of Material: Can you
Do they have the expertise to say or write tell if the author intends to provide
what they did? What is their educational comprehensive coverage of a subject
background? What is their career or topic? What are the limitations of
experience? the information? What time period
is covered? Where was it published?
Date of Publication: When was the source Does geographical area impact the
published? Is the book a recent informational content?
publication or is the information out-of-
date for the topic? Objectivity: Do you see any evidence of bias,
propaganda, or a strong persuasive
Edition or Revision: Is this book a first edition? argument? Is the material viewed from
If it is a second or multiple-edition copy, more than one point of view? Does it
can you tell how it is different from earlier contain substantiated fact?
editions?
Writing Quality: Is it clear to you what the
Publisher: Who is the publisher? Is it a university author intends to share and express? Is
press? Do you recognize the publisher? there evidence of clear orga­nization and
writing? Has it been well researched? Are
there any obvious pieces of information
missing?

58
Exercise 31

Writing an Annotated Bibliography of Books

This exercise contains many research skills that you will need to be an effective researcher in college: finding
books, citing sources, summarizing information, and evaluating materials for your research needs. A bibliog-
raphy is a list of sources that were used as resource material for the paper or project at hand. For this exercise,
Search the library catalog for your topic.
Find five books on your topic and retrieve them.
Examine the books you found and determine whether or not they are appropriate for your topic.
If they are not appropriate, go back to the library catalog until you have identified five appropriate
books.
Print out the full bibliographic record from the catalog for each of the five books.
Next, photocopy the title page of each of the books.
On a separate piece of paper, following the example provided below, type the citation for each book,
providing all relevant information. The citation should follow this format:
Last name of author, First name. The Title of the Book [this is capitalized and put in italics]:
The Subtitle [this is also included, capitalized, and put in italics]. City: Publisher, Year.
Beneath each citation, using your own words, type an annotation. An annotation is a brief descriptive
and evaluative note that provides enough information about the book so a person can decide
whether or not to consult the book.
To write an annotation, you will comment, in paragraph form, on the following elements:
Content—What’s the book about? Is it relevant to your research?
Purpose—What’s it for? Why was this book written?
Methods used to collect data—Where did the information come from?
Usefulness—What does it do for your research?
Reliability—Is the information accurate?
Authority—Is it written by someone who has the expertise to author the information?
Currency—Is it new? Is it up-to-date for the topic?
Scope/Coverage/Limitations—What does it cover? What does the author state that he or
she will cover? What doesn’t the book provide that would be helpful?
Arrangement—How is the book orga­nized? Are there any special “added-value” features?
Ease of use—Can a nonspecialist use this book? What reading level is the book?
Here is a sample citation and annotation to get you started:
List, Carla J. Information Research. 2nd ed. Dubuque, IA.: Kendall/Hunt, 2002. In this book, Carla J. List,
an award-winning teacher and librarian, defines and describes information and provides step-by-
step instruction on doing research. In seven chapters, she covers the orga­nization of information,
information technology, and the presentation, analysis, evaluation, and citation of information. A
bibliography, glossary, and index are included. This book is aimed at the college-level student and
is useful to the inexperienced researcher.

59
 Subject-Specific Information Literacy Instruction
Contributed by Peter J. Larsen

This section describes a general library session deal- • an online catalog demonstration (ten
ing with beginning instruction in basic library skills, minutes)
filtered through the lens of a specific subject—in this • using the catalog to answer questions
case, engineering. The exercises can be adapted to (fifteen minutes)
accommodate any subject. • a short Compendex demonstration (fif-
The Introductory Engineering course at the Uni- teen minutes)
versity of Rhode Island provides a basic introduction • using the index to answer questions
to the university, the engineering programs, basic aca- (twenty minutes)
demic skills necessary for the engineering student • completion of a worksheet
(including information literacy), and first-year contact
with engineering professors. Approximately three hun- The assignment is graded on a scale of one to ten
dred students take the course in the fall semester. (roughly one point off for each three wrong answers)
The library instruction session is delivered in lec- and returned to the faculty teaching the course for
ture format, focusing on general information about inclusion in the final grade.
library ser­vices, engineering library needs, ethical use Tips for conducting the exercise: Work with the
of information in an engineering context, and back- course instructor to make the assessment of the prac-
ground on library tools. The lecture is followed by a tice worksheet part of the course grade. This is essen-
seventy-five-minute lab session, where the students tial, especially in the sciences, where students are often
observe demonstrations of catalog and database search- highly focused on short-term goals to the exclusion of
ing and participate in hands-on, in-class practice. To long-term skill acquisition.
draw the student’s attention to engineering elements, The worksheet must be adapted to be institution-
engineering-specific topics are used in learning to specific, but the basic outline should work in any set-
search both the online catalog and the Compendex ting.
(an engineering database) index. The techniques Focus on finding and using discipline-specific tools
taught are very general—although the examples are (e.g., handbooks for engineers and scientists).
engineering-based, the skills are entirely transferable Similarly, use local-faculty-written articles as exam-
to other search topics. ples, because this increases the students’ interest. The
hints and notes in the questions help students find
Engineering Library Assignment the correct answer. Questions can be easily modified
and removed or added to fit shorter or longer session
This library assignment, though focused on engineer- times.
ing, can be adapted for use with any topic. This exercise addresses ACRL “Information Literacy
Goal: In exercise 32, students will gain basic fluency Standards for Science and Engineering/­Technology”
with the online catalog and a subject-specific index. (www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/standards/infolit​sci​
They will also be exposed to the basic ser­vices of the tech.cfm) Standard 2, Performance Indicators 1, 2,
library. and 3. The complete session, as taught, adds Standard
Description: The seventy-five-minute lab session 1, Performance Indicators 2 and 3, and Standard 5,
includes these elements: Performance Indicator 1.

60
Exercise 32

Subject-Specific Library Skills

A. Finding Books
1. Using the online catalog, find the book [insert title of an engineering book from your library]. Answer the
following questions:
Which of the subject headings will be most useful to you to find more information on this topic?
What is the call number?
Where will you find it in the library?
When was the book published?
Because [insert the book’s topic] technology is rapidly developing, current information is a must. Do you
think this book is recent enough for your research?
The publisher is [insert publisher’s name], a commercial publisher. Based on what the publisher has to
say about itself at its website [insert publisher’s URL], do you believe that this publisher will provide
good information? Why or why not?
2. Using the online catalog again, find a book with some basic information (simple explanations and stress
values) for a project using concrete.
What search did you use? (a) Project using concrete; (b) Project concrete; (c) Concrete handbook; (d)
Basic concrete
How many items did you find?
What is the title of the most recent book on the list?
What is the call number?
Where in the library will you find this book?
Can you check it out, or do you have to use it in the library?

B. Finding Articles
1. Using Compendex, look for an article using the search “traffic and rhode island” (ignore the quotes) and
limit it to journal articles.
An article in the list (it’s about Newport) was written by someone at the University of Rhode Island.
Who?
What is the serial title?
When was the article published?
Is the article available at [insert name of your institution]? (circle all that apply) Yes, in paper / Yes,
electronically / No
Looking at the abstract, list two of the factors associated with renewal causing “negative attitudes” in
the residents.
2. You’ve overheard Professor Swaszek talking about GPS with a colleague. You want to impress him, so
you decide to use your database skills to find something on the topic so you can ask him about his
publications. See if you can find an article written by Professor Swaszek on GPS using Compendex. Note: a
correct search will find more than one article; because you want to be current, pick the most recent one.
What is the article title?
What is the serial title?
(cont.)
 Exercise 32 (cont.)

What are the volume, issue, and year?

Is the article available at [insert name of your institution]? (circle all that apply)
Yes, in paper / Yes, electronically / No
3. You have the following citation: Wilson, Simon, et al. “Optical Guidance Systems for Industrial Robots.”
Journal of Robotic Systems 9.3 (1992): 275–290. (Note: before trying this, ask yourself—what tool tells you
what materials are available in the library?)
Is it available at [insert name of your institution]?
If so, what is the call number?
Where in the library would you find it?
Which years are available?
Given the speed of technological development, would this periodical be useful to you for a project
today?

C. Using the Library

1. Where can you access most electronic resources?
a. Only on campus
b. Only in the dorms
c. From anywhere I can find a web-ready computer
d. Only in the library
2. When you are stuck in your research, who is your pal at the library?
a. Circulation librarians
b. Reference librarians
c. Google
d. I will just ask my professor
3. You are doing a semester-long senior project, and you find an article in an index that is perfect for your
research. Unfortunately, your institution doesn’t have it. What do you do?
a. Forget about it; something else will come along.
b. Make an interlibrary loan request, because I can wait two to three weeks.
c. Ask my professor if he or she has a copy.
d. Look for the article on the Web.

62
Chapter Seven

Periodicals and Databases

Teaching students how to work with periodical information is a major part

of any program for information literacy. Within the context of a formal course in
information literacy, it is often the case that more time will be spent on periodical
information—what a periodical is, what types of periodicals exist, how to identify
periodical articles on a topic, how indexing and abstracting databases work, how to
locate periodicals once a citation is found—than on any other single topic. Using
periodicals as sources of information seems to be most preferred by students and is
often required by their instructors. The exercises in this chapter provide a number
of examples that have proved effective in exploring the multifaceted topic of peri-
odical research, but, of course, there are many other similar exercises available,
and even more yet to be created.

Using Periodicals
After becoming comfortable with using library catalogs to identify and locate books,
students are now ready to face the more complicated task of researching their topic
using periodical articles.
Before searching for articles in indexes and indexing and abstracting databases, it
is helpful to establish clearly what a periodical is. The International Encyclopedia of
Information and Library Science defines a periodical as “a publication appearing at
regular and fixed intervals of time under a distinctive title. . . . Its contents are usu-
ally some mixture of articles, reviews, stories or other writings by several contribu-
tors.”1 Periodicals can be published daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, and so on.
It is helpful to remind students why periodicals are useful sources when doing
research. Periodicals are important sources because they are published more fre-
quently than books, they are more accessible, and they appear in a more finished
form than other sources in the information cycle such as conference papers, pat-
ents, or working papers shared between colleagues. In general, periodicals tend
to be the place where new knowledge is first revealed. Periodicals usually contain

63
64 | Periodicals and Databases

the most current information on a topic. Currency is examine the same periodical at the same time. This
especially important for science and social sciences in-class exercise can easily be adapted as a take-home
research topics. assignment. This exercise also works well when you
To really understand what periodicals are and how give the students the publications and allow them to
they differ from one another requires an even closer create their own chart, identifying attributes that allow
look, or an understanding of the taxonomy of periodi- the identification of specific types of publications.
cals. In our taxonomy, we divide periodicals into three This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
major categories: mance Indicator 2, and Standard 3, Performance Indi-
cators 2 and 6.
• popular magazines and newspapers
• professional, trade, and industry or spe-
cial-interest periodicals Popular versus Scholarly
• scholarly, academic, peer-reviewed, or Publications
refereed journals
Here is another way of allowing students to discover
The quality and characteristics of the information the differences between popular and scholarly publi-
found in each type of periodical vary. The criteria cations.
below will help students understand the characteristics Goal: In exercise 34 students will improve database-­
of each type and how to distinguish between them. searching skills and be able to determine the differ-
The material in figure 7.1 should be considered ences and uses of both popular and scholarly periodical
broad guidelines and should not be taken as absolute articles, with particular focus on authority, audience,
rules. and purpose.
Description: Students will be given an article from
a newspaper or magazine that reports or highlights a
The Taxonomy of recent research study. Topics that work well for this
Periodicals exercise include coffee and health, chocolate and
health, and wine and health. The pair of articles cited
After studying the types of periodicals (as shown in below address resveratrol and the possible positive
figure 7.1), students should explore periodicals them- effects of drinking red wine on a long life!
selves, with an eye toward identification of the critical
differences among different types of publications.
Goal: In exercise 33 students will familiarize them-
selves with different types of periodicals that they will Exercise 33
encounter during their research. This exercise also
reinforces the critical thinking emphasized throughout Types of Periodicals—
this book. Can You Tell Them Apart?
Description: Students will work in teams of two or
three. The instructor will pass out the worksheet to Work in pairs or threes. Each group will be given three
each group along with three periodical titles, all related periodicals. Take a few minutes to look carefully at each
periodical. As a group, discuss the characteristics of each.
to the same general topic. One of the three should be
Using the criteria presented in the “Taxonomy of Peri-
from each category of periodical as defined above. Stu- odicals” in figure 7.1, please decide in which category
dents will closely examine each periodical and decide (popular magazines; professional, trade, and industry or
which of the three categories it falls under and why. special-interest periodicals; or scholarly, academic, peer-
After students have completed the exercise, the groups reviewed, or refereed journals) each of your periodicals
will introduce their periodicals to the rest of the class, best fits. Then, on a sheet of paper with your names at
explaining the characteristics of each. the top, write the titles of each of your periodicals, what
In figure 7.2 are some examples of groups of peri- type of periodical you think each is, and why you came
odicals that have been used in this exercise. to this conclusion, providing specific evidence from the
Tips for conducting the exercise: You may wish to periodicals themselves. Be prepared to introduce each
of your periodicals to the class and to explain why it is a
bring two copies of each of the three publications.
good representative of its category.
This way, more than one student in each group can
Exercise 34

“Did You Hear about That Study?”

Team Exercise for Understanding Periodical Types
Take a few minutes to look carefully at the two articles you have found about the research study. Discuss the
differences between them. Fill in your observations in the grid below.

Periodical A Periodical B
Criteria Name: ___________________ Name: ___________________

Intended audience
(Who would be likely
to read this and why?
What is the purpose
of the periodical?)

Authors (Can you

find the expertise
or credentials of
the authors?)

Purpose (Is it research,

general news, or
entertainment?)

Reliability/accuracy
(What evidence
of either can
you identify?)

Article length
(Estimate words,
columns, pages.)

Reading level (Simple

language or jargon/
lingo? How difficult?)

Graphics (How
many? What type?)

Footnotes (Are
sources cited at the
end of articles?)

Wrap up! Which article is more useful? How? Why?

University of Rhode Island Libraries, Library 120 Instructor Group, 8/09

65
 Figure 7.1

Taxonomy of Periodicals

Professional, Scholarly,
trade, and academic,
Popular industry or peer-reviewed,
magazines and special-interest or refereed
Look at the . . . newspapers periodicals journals

Citation

Title May have magazine Sometimes has news May have bulletin,
or popular words in the title (e.g., Metal journal, or review in
in the title (e.g., Construction News, the title (e.g., Bulletin
BusinessWoman, Mother AAUP News). Titles of Atomic Scientists,
Jones, People Weekly) tend to be short and Journal of Soil and
practical (e.g., Beverage Water Conservation,
World, Hotel Business) International Review
of Hydrobiology)

Frequency of Issued frequently: Issued frequently: Issued less frequently:

publication weekly, biweekly, weekly, biweekly, monthly, quarterly,
or monthly or monthly or semiannually

Authors of articles Often one author. Staff- Often one author. Frequently multiple
written or written by Staff-written or written coauthors. Scholars
freelance authors or by freelance authors, and researchers in
guest contributors guest contributors, or the field, discipline, or
professionals in the field specialty. Authors with
university affiliations
or professional titles

Article length Articles usually short Articles usually short Longer articles (more
than three pages)

Article titles Popular or catchy Straightforward article Titles related to research

article titles titles, sometimes question or results;
popular and catchy often long, not catchy

Whole Periodical

Paper, illustrations, Eye-catching covers, Eye-catching covers, Plain covers, usually

layout glossy paper, glossy paper, plain matte paper;
photos, illustrations, photos, illustrations, mostly text inside, with
cartoons, sidebars cartoons, sidebars tables, figures, charts,
graphs; little or no
color or illustrations

66
 Professional, Scholarly,
trade, and academic,
Popular industry or peer-reviewed,
magazines and special-interest or refereed
Look at the . . . newspapers periodicals journals

Advertising Many ads for general- Many ads for products Few or no ads; if any,
consumer products and services related to tend to be for other
and services a particular profession, journals or specific
trade, or industry services or products

Tone Slick, glossy, attractive Slick, glossy, attractive Serious, unembellished

Audience Educated but nonexpert Practitioners of a Scholars and

readers; uses simple particular profession, researchers in the field,
language in order members of a trade, or discipline, or specialty;
to meet minimum workers in an industry; language contains
education levels language appropriate terminology and jargon
for an educated of the discipline; reader
readership; assumes is assumed to have a
a certain level of scholarly background
specialized knowledge

Purpose Designed to entertain Examines problems or To inform, report,

or persuade readers concerns in a particular or make available
with a variety of profession or industry; original research or
general interest topics provides specialized experimentation
in broad subject fields; information to a wide, in a specific field
also geared to sell interested audience or discipline to the
products and services rest of the scholarly
through advertising world; where “new
knowledge” is reported

Availability Likely to be found Rarely found on a With some exceptions,

on a newsstand or in newsstand or in not found on a
a magazine store a magazine store; newsstand or in
requires subscription a magazine store;
or library access requires subscription
or library access

Articles

Abstracts Articles do not Articles do not Articles usually

have an abstract at have an abstract at have an abstract at
the beginning the beginning the beginning that
summarizes the
findings of the article

(cont.)

67
68 | Periodicals and Databases

Figure 7.1 (cont.)

Professional, Scholarly,
trade, and academic,
Popular industry or peer-reviewed,
magazines and special-interest or refereed
Look at the . . . newspapers periodicals journals

References Sources are not Sources are not Scholarly references

cited; no references cited; no references in the form of
or bibliography at or bibliography at bibliographies,
end of articles end of articles reference lists, and
footnotes appear
with each article

Examples

Glamour, People Beverage World, Science, JAMA: Journal

Weekly, Reader’s Restaurant News, of the American Medical
Digest, Newsweek Advertising Age Association, Academy of
Management Journal,
Psychological Bulletin

• Assign pairs of students to work together. Article A: Tipp, David. “So What’s the Scoop on
• Give each pair of students the citation, That Stuff in Red Wine That’s Supposed to Let
or the actual article, for a newspaper You Live Forever?” Fortune 155.2 (05 Feb. 2007):
or magazine article that highlights the 68–80. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO.
research done for a study on a particular University of Rhode Island Libraries, Kingston,
societal or health issue of contemporary RI. Aug. 31, 2009 http://0-search.ebscohost.com​
interest. .helin.uri.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&
• Instruct students to search the article for AN=23783628&site=ehost-live.
clues about what original research was
Article B: Baur, Joseph A., et al. “Resveratrol
done prior to the newspaper’s or mag-
Improves Health and Survival of Mice on a High-
azine article’s report, and then to use
Calorie Diet.” Nature 444.7117 (16 Nov. 2006):
those clues to construct a search state-
337–342. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO.
ment that will find the article that reports
University of Rhode Island Libraries, Kingston,
the research study. Search statements
RI. Aug. 31, 2009 http://0-search.ebscohost.com
generally include author name and other
.helin.uri.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&
significant keywords.
AN=23097590&site=ehost-live.
• Students will then compare the elements
of the two articles, looking for qualities To wrap up the exercise, ask students, “What’s the
that will distinguish the general from the point?” Lead a discussion where students will decide
scholarly. which of the articles is more useful in a college-level
Tips for conducting the exercise: Below is one pair of project or paper. Ask students, “How is it useful?”
articles that will work for this exercise. “Why is it useful?”
 Periodicals and Databases | 69

This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor- to use it successfully. This should help them to use
mance Indicator 2, and Standard 3, Performance Indi- commercially produced access tools.
cators 2 and 6. Goal: In exercise 35 students will gain a basic foun-
dation of what indexing is. After building their own
access tool, periodical indexes will make more sense
Access Tools to them, both print indexes and online indexing and
abstracting databases.
Once students understand the different types of period- Description: Students will work in teams of two or
icals that exist and the unique characteristics of each, three. The instructor will give each group an index
they are ready to learn how to use an access tool to card with an imaginary collection written on it. Stu-
systematically identify periodical articles about a topic. dents are to assume that their collection has twenty-five
Today’s students are very familiar with the idea of items. They will identify common characteristics of the
typing words into a computer when using an Internet items in the collection and select the three they feel
search engine or directory such as Google or Yahoo! are most important (for example, author, title, subject).
and having search results magically appear before their These will become their access points. They will then
eyes. We feel that students should be taken deeper into list each item and the specific individual character-
how access tools of any kind work. Instead of starting istics of each, which will enable them to perform a
with online periodical indexes, which seem almost as simple search of the collection.
magic as a web search, it helps to begin with the basics. Tips for conducting the exercise: This exercise can
Have students create a simple access tool to search for also be used individually as a take-home assignment,
items in a collection. in which case the instructor may wish to suggest that
students use a computer software program such as
Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, or Microsoft Access
Creating an Access Tool to create the graphical representation of their collec-
tion.
Understanding access tools will help students search Collections that have been used for this exercise
a collection for specific items. By creating their own include a collection of souvenirs; a collection of reci-
access tool, students will think about how it works and pes; a collection of musical sound recordings; con-
what kinds of capabilities are necessary to allow others tact information for members of an orga­nization,

Figure 7.2

Examples of Periodical Groupings for Exercise 33

Professional, trade,
and industry or Scholarly, academic,
special-interest peer-reviewed, or
Popular magazines periodicals refereed journals

Sports Illustrated Coach and Athletic Director Research Quarterly for Exercise
BusinessWeek Adweek and Sport
Rolling Stone Billboard Journal of Marketing Research
Prevention Drug Store News American Music
American Gardener American Nurseryman Journal of the American
Pharmaceutical Association
Journal of the American Society
for Horticultural Science
70 | Periodicals and Databases

association, or team; the clothes in a closet; and the the paper indexes in that they learn to read and
items in a refrigerator. understand the citations in the index and they learn
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor- that not all indexes are available in online format.
mance Indicator 2; Standard 2, Performance Indica- In addition, once they have used a print index, the
tors 2 and 5; and Standard 3, Performance Indicators improvements in usability and the relative ease of
3 and 6. access to full-text articles in online indexes is strik-
ingly clear.
Goal: In exercise 36 students will gain an under-
Print Indexes standing of what an index is. Students will also gain
appreciation of the time it takes to search print indexes
Although many libraries have discarded their print and learn the difference between a general index and
indexes, they still exist. Students benefit from using subject-specific indexes. Finally, they will learn that it

Exercise 35

Access Tools for Fun and Profit

Carla J. List, retired librarian and teacher of information research, writes in the second edition of her book Information
Research, “A tool is something you use to help you accomplish a task. In the case of information research, an access
tool is an information source that helps you by leading you to information. It may provide the actual material that
you’ll read or view, or it may only give you enough information to find that material.”2
To create an access tool, you must investigate the material in a collection and then explain, create, and devise systems
you could use to orga­nize the collection.
For this assignment, your team of two or three people will be given an index card with a type of collection written
on it. You are to assume that there are twenty-five items in your collection, which you must orga­nize (for example,
recipes, music recordings, contact information for twenty-five people, and so on).
Make a list of the twenty-five specific items in your collection. Use your imagination!
Describe your collection by listing a number of important characteristics the items in the collection all have, such
as age, size, shape, color, place of origin, cultural importance, genre or type, location, and so on.
Create a table listing each item in your collection and each item’s three most important characteristics. Below is an
example for a collection of jewelry with six items. On a separate sheet of paper, give an example of a search you could
do in your collection, using two of your access points. For example, using the collection below, you could search for
“expensive and ring.” Which items would appear in your “results list”?

Jewelry Piece
(item) Value Material Type

Gold chain, 22k Expensive Gold Necklace

Lorus watch Cheap Stainless steel Watch

Swatch watch Cheap Plastic Watch

Gold ring from Expensive Gold Ring

India, 22k

Silver bangle Cheap Sterling silver Bracelet

Sapphire ring Expensive Sterling silver Ring

 Periodicals and Databases | 71

is still sometimes necessary to use print indexes to gain

access to older material. Exercise 36
Description: Students work with the Readers’ Guide
to Periodical Literature and two subject-specific indexes Using Print Indexes
from H. W. Wilson. They complete a worksheet in
class or at home that guides them through using these In this exercise, you will be working with three periodical
research tools. indexes in print format: the Readers’ Guide to Periodical
Tips for conducting the exercise: If possible, make Literature, the Humanities Index, and the Social Sciences
each student’s worksheet slightly different (such as Index. These indexes are published by H. W. Wilson, which
requiring an article from a different year) to avoid has been producing them under one title or another
the entire class needing to work with the same print since the early 1900s.
volume. This worksheet will guide you through a few searches
in these indexes. The goal of the exercise is to familiarize
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
you with how print indexes work. This will also help you
mance Indicator 2. understand what goes on “behind the screen” when you
search an online periodical database.

General Periodicals Using the Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature,

find an article published in [year] having to
Databases do with school violence. Write the citation
for the article.
After introducing students to print indexes, an appro-
priate next step is to show them the library’s general Use the library’s catalog to find out if the library
periodicals database, for example ProQuest’s Research has this issue of the periodical. Indicate
whether or not the library has the issue, and,
Library, EBSCO’s Academic Search Premier, or Gale’s
if it does, write the information necessary to
Expanded Academic Index. locate the article.
We often use exercise 16—“Information and Time,”
found in chapter 4 of this book—to give students prac- Is this article from a scholarly journal or a popular
tice in using an online database. This exercise also magazine?
serves to reinforce the taxonomy of periodicals. Find an article published in [year] having to
To supplement any exercise, instructors can assign do with school violence using the Social
students the task of finding several articles in the gen- Sciences Index. Write the citation for the
eral database on their research topic. (This is similar article.
to exercise 39.) Which libraries in [name of your consortium]
could supply this article? Name the libraries.
Is this article from a scholarly journal or a popular
Creating Database magazine?
Search Statements Find an article by N. Turner about the painter Paul
Cézanne, using the Humanities Index. Write
After students have gotten their feet wet with the
the citation for the article.
library’s general-purpose online indexing and abstract-
ing database, they will need practice turning their Is it possible to find this article in [name of your
research question into a search statement that data- library]? Indicate where it would be located.
bases can understand. Many students will be used to Be specific.
tools on the World Wide Web, such as Ask.com, where Which of the indexes above is the best for finding
they can type in a complete question and get accept- articles published about market research?
able search results. Although some library databases What index would you use to find scholarly
are incorporating such “natural language” searches, articles on philosophy?
it is still standard practice when searching indexing
In what index would you look to find a news
and abstracting databases to use Boolean logic. Being
article about Ronald Reagan being elected
able to take a research question, identify its core con- president of the United States in 1980?
cepts, think of alternate search terms, and structure
a Boolean search from these elements is essential to
students’ research success. Without this skill, students
 What Is a Database?
Contributed by Kate Cheromcha

In exercise 5 we had students discuss what they needed Tips for conducting the exercise: Wait for students to
to know and where they would look for reliable infor- ask questions: “What make and model? Is a truck OK?
mation with regard to buying a car. If all that infor- What about a van? How much do I want to spend?
mation was gathered together in one place, as in a What year? How far am I willing to travel to get it?
database, it would be much easier to use. In exercise How many miles? What options?” Have a student
37, students will create just such a database. record criteria (make, model, options) on a white-
To introduce students to the concept of a data- board. Depending upon time available you can modify
base—a collection of information that has been delib- the exercise as follows:
erately designed for orga­nized searching—this lesson
compares the experience of searching for a suitable • Everyone uses the same database.
car in a commercial database to the experience of • Students work in pairs or solo.
searching for a suitable article in a licensed, general • Pairs can use the same database or each
database. pair uses both databases.
Goal: The purpose of exercise 37 is to introduce the • Divide the class in two and direct each
concepts of searching—limiting, restricting, broad- half to search for a car—one half uses
ening, narrowing, choosing search terms, using spe- cars.com; the other uses autotrader.com.
cialized vocabulary—and how to use the database’s
features to improve search results. This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
Description: Using autotrader.com and/or cars.com, mance Indicator 1; Standard 2, Performance Indicators
provide the one piece of information required to get 3, 4, and 5; Standard 3, Performance Indicators 3, 4,
started—your zip code—and ask the students to locate and 7; and Standard 4, Performance Indicators 1, 2,
a car for you to purchase. and 3.

72
Exercise 37

Professor C. Needs a Car

Part 1
Using autotrader.com and/or cars.com, and [insert local zip code], find a car for sale—any car—for Professor C.
How many cars did you find?
How could this search be narrowed down?
Record the criteria (keywords) in one column on the whiteboard while you continue searching. Try the search
again, adding one criterion at a time.
Did you do a search so specific that it did not find any cars?
If so, prioritize the criteria by numbering items on the whiteboard list. What is most important? What is least
important?
Start searching from the beginning, adding criteria in priority order, one at a time. What is the smallest
number of cars you would consider looking at? What is the largest number of cars you would consider
looking at?
What should I do before buying one of these cars and why?

Part 2
Now that we have a car to drive, let’s switch gears to an academic setting. The skill set that allows you to find a car in
a commercial database transfers easily to the search for articles in a periodical database. Consider some academic
questions related to cars or the auto industry.
Should teenagers be allowed to drive?
Do teenagers have the “brains” to handle driving?
To best answer these academic questions, you will need good-quality, relevant information from a credible source.
To find that information,
1. Use a general periodical database.
2. Determine what keywords are appropriate.
3. Write your terms and synonyms on the whiteboard.
For example:

teenager driving brain

teenage driver mind
adolescent driv* (truncation) mental development
+ male brain development
thinking/thought
decision-making skill*

Do you see any parallels between the two databases (yours and the publisher’s) and the searching experiences?
Compare the databases using this handout.
(cont.)

73
 Exercise 37 (cont.)

Academic
Autotrader.com Search Premier

Product/commodity provided Cars, vans, trucks—transportation Articles, book reviews,

editorials—information

Purpose—why was this To allow me to find a vehicle, To allow me to find information

database created? for buying/selling vehicles

Who pays for it? Really? Sellers of cars, advertisers Subscription fees, paid by
university, library, subscribers;
part of tuition/taxes

Who can use this database? Anytime I want to search Limited—24/7 available but only
Anyone? Anytime? Anywhere? for a car—available 24/7. to library users, cardholders,
password protected.

Think about your research need: what different ways can I search for information on it?

How can I narrow my search? Specify: car make/model, More specific search
mileage, cost, year—description terms; identify narrow
aspects of broad topic

How can I broaden my search? Change some/all of above Broader terms

Change boundaries around my searches to improve the results:

How can I limit my search? Specify geographic search Specify document type,
area; new versus used car full-text only, dates

How can I expand my search? Remove/change some of above Remove/change some of above

Share your “best find” with the class.

will get poor results when they search library databases, effectively find results that address their research ques-
and their research will not be effective. tion. The instructor will call on as many groups as pos-
Goal: In exercise 38 students will learn to create sible to have them read their research question aloud
search statements that a database will understand. and explain their process to the class. Meanwhile, the
Description: Students will work in teams of two or instructor will write their words and statement on the
three. Each group will be given an index card with a board, with the rest of the class giving input about other
research question on it. They will identify the key con- synonyms or ways to phrase the search.
cepts in the question and brainstorm possible synonyms Tips for conducting the exercise: It is helpful if the
or alternate ways of phrasing each concept. Finally, instructor begins the class with a refresher on the Bool-
they will create a Boolean search statement that will ean operators AND, OR, and NOT. A solid under-

74
 Periodicals and Databases | 75

standing of Boolean searching should be enough to Social Sciences. There are many arguments for and
enable students to create effective search statements against the legalization of illicit drugs. One argu-
on any topic. ment for legalization states that overall demand
This exercise can easily be followed up with an for illegal drugs would go down if drugs were
exercise in searching subject-specific databases. For legalized because the allure of doing something
example, students who created a search statement in forbidden would disappear. Find both support for
the area of literature could run their search statement and criticism of this viewpoint.
through the MLA Bibliography. This would give them
Science. With the ongoing destruction of rain for-
familiarity with the database and also allow them to test
ests and other habitats, the number of plant and
the effectiveness of the search statement they created.
animal species facing extinction continues to
Here are three examples of research questions in the
grow. What are the implications of this loss of
humanities, the social sciences, and science that have
biodiversity on the development of new pharma-
been used for this exercise.
ceutical drugs?
Humanities. Frederick Law Olmstead (1822–1903) This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor-
was a landscape architect who designed a num- mance Indicator 1, and Standard 2, Performance Indi-
ber of public parks, including Central Park in cators 2, 3, and 4.
New York City. Olmstead was well known for his
political opinions; for example, he was a vocal
opponent of slavery. He was also the founder of Subject-Specific
the Nation, the oldest continuously published Periodicals Databases
American periodical in existence and still one
of the leading liberal magazines of its kind. How A major project on subject-specific indexing and
were Olmstead’s political views reflected in his abstracting databases, the Team Database Discovery
designs of public space? Project (exercise 39) is used in the context of a three-

Exercise 38

Creating Effective Search Statements

You will receive an index card with a research question on it. Working as a group, please:
Pick out the key concepts in your research question.
If appropriate, list some synonyms or alternate ways of phrasing each of your key concepts. Use the form below.

Synonyms or Alternate
Key Concept Ways of Phrasing

Structure a search statement that you could use for researching this topic in a database. Use Boolean operators
(AND, OR, NOT) when appropriate.
Be prepared to share your research question, key concepts and synonyms, and search statement with the class.
76 | Periodicals and Databases

credit course in which it alone accounts for 10 percent searches and features; and proper determination of the
of each student’s grade. audience for the database, that is, who would use it.
There are many active learning methods by which Students’ final grade on the project is a combination
students can become familiar with the many indexing of the grades given by their peers and those given by
and abstracting databases available in libraries. For the instructor.
example, an exercise similar to exercise 36 could be Tips for conducting the exercise: Students should be
used to guide students step-by-step through a number given some time during one or more class meetings
of databases. to work on this project. They will also need to get
Alternately, students could be required to complete together outside of class to orga­nize their presenta-
an assignment in which they search for six periodi- tion, come up with sample searches, design visual
cal articles on a semester research topic by using at aids and handouts, and so forth—a fact that should
least three subject-specific databases. They will submit be emphasized. This project is a fair amount of work,
printouts of the database records with subject terms and the instructor’s expectations should be made clear.
circled; printouts of each periodical’s bibliographic Based on particular teaching situations, the amount of
record from the online catalog; a photocopy or print- class time students can be given to discover their data-
out of the first page of each article found; a list of cita- bases will vary, as will the time between starting the
tions to each article in proper format followed by an project and giving the class presentations. In terms of
analysis of why that article is or is not relevant to their presentation, students sometimes enjoy having a role
topic; and finally, a comparison of the scope and the set for them in which to frame the presentation of the
types of citations found in each database. information. You can set up a scenario, for example,
making each group a “sales team” from the database’s
parent company who are trying to sell a subscription
Database Description to the database to the university. This gives them some
and Usability incentive to make the presentation interesting and
helps students who are shy about getting up in front
There is nothing like hands-on practice using a data- of the class as themselves.
base to figure out how it works. Teaching others how to This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2, Perfor-
use a database is also a good way to enhance learning. mance Indicator 1.
Goal: In exercise 39 students will gain an in-depth
understanding of one indexing and abstracting data- This chapter has provided an overview of the uni-
base and a familiarity with several more. Students will verse of information student researchers will encounter
learn the basic characteristics and features of many in periodical publications and of the tools researchers
of the databases they will be using throughout their use to identify information relevant to their needs
academic careers. The common characteristics of all within this ever-expanding universe.
databases will emerge, further empowering students to One aspect of this search for periodical information
learn on their own in the future. that was not emphasized was how to actually find the
Description: For this project, students work in teams articles identified. Therefore, if possible, supplement
of three or four to investigate a particular subject-spe- the exercises presented in this chapter with a full dis-
cific indexing and abstracting database assigned by the cussion of how to physically locate the information
instructor. The students are guided by a worksheet that identified, including using the library catalog to deter-
asks specific questions. They have a certain amount mine if the library (or other libraries in a consortium)
of time to discover the database, after which they are owns the periodical and, if so, where it is shelved.
expected to teach the database to the entire class in Include alternatives for obtaining the article, such as
a presentation of ten to fifteen minutes. Students are interlibrary loan or visiting other local libraries.
encouraged to use visual aids such as posters and hand-
outs to enhance the quality of their presentation. Each Notes
group is graded on a number of criteria by the other 1. John Feather and Paul Sturges, eds., International
members of the class and by the instructor. Criteria Encyclopedia of Information and Library Science
include the group’s effectiveness in presenting the (London: Routledge, 1997).
overall description and scope of the database; examples 2. Carla J. List, Information Research, 2nd ed. (Dubuque,
of basic searches and features; examples of advanced IA: Kendall/Hunt, 2002), 40.
Exercise 39

Database Discovery Project

Groups of three to four students will be assigned a specific database. Your team will have [this class period] to discover
the features of the database and learn how to use it. During our [next] class meeting [date], all teams will teach the
rest of the class how to use their databases. Each team will produce an original fact sheet or user guide. Each team’s
“Database Discovery Project” presentation will be evaluated by the team’s classmates as well as the instructor. Your
final grade will be a combination of these grades.
Your presentation should take approximately ten to fifteen minutes. Every team member is required to actively
participate in their group’s presentation. If you want to do well on this project, be prepared to meet with your team
outside of class to prepare your presentation and any visual aids or handouts that you will be using. The “Database
Discovery Project” worksheet below will guide you in your discovery and help you structure your presentation.
A successful presentation will
• include information on the database’s content, design, time period covered, audience, search capabilities
(basic and advanced), and retrieval options
• include demonstrations and discussion of each item listed above and completely address the questions in
parts 1 and 2 of the “Database Discovery Project” worksheet below
• be flexible—you should be able to explain any unexpected search results or problems that might crop up dur-
ing your presentation and to recover from them if they occur
• include attractive and informative visual aids and handouts
Suggestion: Find the Help or About or news screens for the database. This is where you can find many of the answers
to the following questions.

Part 1: Database Description

What is the name of your database?
What orga­nization is responsible for providing access to the database? (This is often called the “database
vendor.”)
What is the name of the software created by this vendor for searching the database? (This is like a brand name
for the screen interface.)
What orga­nization is responsible for creating the database? Is this the same or different from the database
vendor?
Hint: Often a database will be created by a professional association. For example, the American Economic Association
creates the database EconLit. EconLit is then offered to subscribers through different vendors, each with its own inter-
face. So a library can subscribe to EconLit through the orga­nization OCLC, which calls its search interface FirstSearch.
Or it is possible to subscribe to EconLit through the company Cambridge Scientific Abstracts. This orga­nization calls
its search interface CSA Internet Database Ser­vice. Yet another vendor that carries EconLit is EBSCO Information Ser­
vices, through its software named EBSCOhost.
Find an overview or explanation of the database. Tell us what the database is all about.
What subject areas or disciplines does the database cover?
Who do you think would be the most likely users of this database? Think of as many different groups as you
can and list them in order of most likely to use. Explain your answer.
Try to find out how big the database is. How many entries, or records, does the database contain? What does
this mean?
(cont.)

77
 Exercise 39 (cont.)

What types of materials are included as sources in the database? (Books, book chapters, journal articles,
magazine articles, newspaper articles, conference proceedings, patents, websites, government
publications, and so on.)
How many different sources does the database index? Give an example of two or three titles.
What time period or years does the database cover? What does this mean?
Are the sources indexed in the database all English-language sources? If not, what other languages are
included?
Does the database provide the full text or content of the articles it indexes? If so, does it provide the full text
for all articles indexed?
If the database does not provide full text, then what does it give you? Explain and describe.
How often is the database updated (that is, how often are new records added)?

Part 2: Database Usability

Find the database’s Help or User Guide screens. How do they work? What do they include? Is the help easy or
difficult to understand? Do you think it is helpful? What is most helpful in the Help section?
Does the database use a “controlled vocabulary?” (If you aren’t sure what this is, take a look at your class notes
or the glossary in the back of your textbook.) Is there a Subject Thesaurus or a Subject Terms list? Find
out and be able to explain what it is and demonstrate how to use it. How easy is it to use?
How does one search this database?
Is it user-friendly or difficult to figure out?
By what access points does the database allow you to search?
Be able to demonstrate and describe several methods for searching the database.
Does the database offer advanced search mechanisms? Be able to demonstrate and describe any.
What fields are included in the full record for an item? Show us a record and identify the fields.
Does the database offer Boolean searching? Be able to demonstrate how to set up a Boolean search.
Explain all of the different ways that information from the database can be retrieved (for example, by marking
records, reformatting records, printing records, e-mailing records, and saving records).
In preparation for your presentation, be sure to take clear and comprehensive notes while you are in database-
discovery mode. For example, write down the path to any Help screens you might want to show the class. Note any
searches you did that would be especially useful in demonstrating the database’s features.

78
Chapter Eight

The Web and

Scholarly Research

Although many of today’s students spend a great deal of time surfing

the Web and consider themselves savvy web searchers, others have had very little
experience with it. Not surprisingly, differences in students’ levels of experience
often fall along the lines of economic background, race, and age. For this reason,
when teaching the Web as a research tool, it is important to start with the basics.
What exactly is the Internet? What is the history of the Internet? Who can put infor-
mation up on the Web, and how? And what is the World Wide Web specifically,
in comparison to the Internet as a whole? Just a brief outline of the technology of
the Internet in the simplest terms will benefit all students, not only those who are
inexperienced.
In the context of information literacy, it is of great importance to go into some
detail about where the information on the Web comes from. Who creates it? What
kind of orga­nizations and individuals publish information to the World Wide Web?
Who is their intended audience? What is their purpose? How is their purpose likely
to affect the information they provide?
Just as students learned to differentiate between general, trade, and scholarly
periodicals, they should understand the difference between the types and orienta-
tion of information found on the sites of government agencies (.gov) such as the
Census Bureau or the Bureau of Justice Statistics; educational institutions (.edu)
such as universities and some research institutions and museums such as the
Smithsonian Institute; orga­nizations or associations (.org), including issue-based
orga­nizations like the American Civil Liberties Union or the NAACP; and industry
and professional associations like the Toy Industry Association or the American
Medical Association. In addition, there is what is now the largest category of web-
sites, commercial sites (.com) that exist to advertise or sell a product or ser­vice.
Many students use websites as information sources for high school and college
assignments. In fact, search engines such as Google are often the first place they
turn when faced with a research project. They often seem unaware of the rich vari-
ety and depth of information resources available through their school, college or
university, and public libraries that are simply unavailable on the Web. Librarians

79
80 | The Web and Scholarly Research

hear directly from teachers and professors who are your search terms? Will the search Italian recipes find
unhappy with the quality of information students are information on the concept “Italian recipes,” or will
using, or they hear through the students that their it find pages with either word anywhere in the page?
instructors have arbitrarily ruled that they are “not Does it matter if you type Italian or italian? Can you
allowed to use any information from the Internet.” limit your search, for example, to have the search
This again stresses the importance, emphasized engine only show results from the .gov domain?
throughout these chapters, that students must learn Specialty search engines are available, for example,
to critically evaluate the quality of the information those designed to find results in a particular subject
they find so that they can make intelligent decisions area, such as law or health, and multimedia search
about whether or not it is appropriate for academic use. engines that allow one to search only for sound, image,
Nowhere is this more true than for information they or video files. There are also search engines called
find on the Web. “metacrawlers,” which allow a search to be sent to
several search engines at once, with the results appear-
ing on one page.
Searching the These are but some of the many factors that will
World Wide Web affect the outcome of students’ web searches. Search-
ers’ understanding of how to structure a search accord-
After a general introduction to the Internet, students ing to the characteristics of the particular search tool
should learn about searching the Web in some depth, will allow them more control over the search and will
just as they learned what goes on “behind the screen” produce better results.
of indexing and abstracting databases in chapter 7.
Most students know how to go to Yahoo!, Google,
Ask​.com, or any number of sites for searching the The Library Database
Internet and type in a few words related to what they versus the Web
want to find. They need to learn that each of these
Internet search tools has its own strengths and weak- Many students have no idea of the amounts and types
nesses, methods of indexing, and advanced search of information they miss when they use only the Web
capabilities. for research. Although libraries offer carefully chosen
Students should learn some of the specifics of these collections of high-quality information—often avail-
sites for searching the Web. For example, web direc- able via the Internet—students do not understand
tories are orga­nized by people who select the sites to that often this information is proprietary and not freely
be included, and web search engines are compiled by available. Students need to learn the differences in the
computer programs known as “spiders” or “crawlers” quality of what is freely available on the Web and what
that crawl through the Web, indexing sites according is provided by subscription for academic purposes with
to preprogrammed algorithms. Some search engines restricted access. They need to understand the appro-
index the words in the title of the web page only, while priate uses and caveats for each source of information.
some index the title and the lead paragraphs, and oth- Goal: In exercise 40 students will experience the
ers the entire page. The databases of different search differences between information found in periodical
engines are refreshed periodically, and the frequency articles accessed through the library’s general indexing
that they are refreshed will affect search results. The and abstracting database, and the information found
relative size of the major search engines and directories through searching the Web using a directory or search
varies widely. Search engines rank web pages based on engine. The instructor can take this opportunity to
different criteria. An excellent source of this kind of prove to students that in most cases, a library database
information for instructors and students is the website will yield more information-rich results with less time
Search Engine Watch.1 and effort than conducting the same search on the
Web directories and search engines, like library Web. A second goal is to familiarize students with web
databases, have Help screens that will explain how search tools.
to search most effectively. These screens will out- Description: Students work in teams of two or three
line the search syntax of the site and any advanced people. Each team receives an index card containing
search features. For example, is Boolean searching a specific topic and related questions. Two teams in
supported? How do you search for a phrase? Does the the room receive the same topic. Students follow the
search engine assume that there is an and between worksheet below to search for the answer to their ques-
 The Web and Scholarly Research | 81

tions, using the library’s general periodicals database, likely be found. Who would be an authoritative source
a web directory, and a search engine. Then, of the on the topic? For example, if the researchers want to
sources they find, each team will identify the one that know the weather in Chicago, they could go to Yahoo!
they believe best answers their questions while also and search for “weather and Chicago,” but they might
being the most reputable source, and they will decide have to wade through a large number of irrelevant and
whether they would use that source for a college-level unhelpful results. On the other hand, if the researchers
research assignment. Each team will share their source directly consulted the Weather Channel site, at http://
with the rest of the class, which will decide which of weather.com, it would take only seconds to find out
the sources found by each team on the same topic is the weather for the Windy City. Likewise, if students
better and why. wanted to know how many murders were committed in
Tips for conducting the exercise: Select topics for the United States last year, they could enter “murders
which it will be relatively easy to find information in and United States and [year]” into Alta Vista and face
both a general periodicals database and on the Web. a long list of results. Or the researchers could first ask
Picking topics that might be more likely to have “far- a librarian or think about who collects crime statistics
out” information on the Web, such as “extraterrestri- nationwide. Searching Alta Vista for the “Bureau of
als,” can highlight the difference between information Justice Statistics” will quickly lead to that site, which
found in a library periodical database and on the Inter- has the desired information.
net. Here are some examples of topics that have been
used for this exercise:
Drug testing in the workplace (How common is it?
Use Searching Skills
Are there any problems with this practice?)
Earlier chapters presented exercises for teaching stu-
Breast cancer (What are the available treatments? dents how to break down a research question into key
Are there any new treatments on the horizon? If concepts, come up with a list of possible synonyms
so, which are most promising?) for each potential search term, and then formulate a
Extraterrestrials (How likely is it that intelligent search statement that would be understood by library
life exists somewhere in the universe besides the indexing and abstracting databases. Students should
planet Earth? What do scientists think about this be reminded of these skills they have already acquired
issue?) and be informed that such skills can also be applied
to searching the Internet.
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Per-
formance Indicators 1, 2, and 4; Standard 2, Perfor- Know Your Web Search Tool
mance Indicators 2 and 3; Standard 3, Performance
Indicators 2, 4, and 6; and Standard 5, Performance For the best search results, students should know the
Indicator 1. basic characteristics of their web search tool and how
to most effectively enter their search, given the require-
ments of that site.
Strategies for Searching
the Internet Remember What Is Not
Available on the Internet
In preparation for the next exercise in this chapter, and
as a logical follow-up to the randomness of the search The Internet contains a wealth of information, some
results students may have encountered in the last exer- of it high quality from reputable sources and some of
cise, it is a good idea to present students with a set of it low quality from questionable sources. However, we
general strategies that will help them find information owe it to students to make them truly understand that
on the Web. there is a great deal of information that they will not
find online. In fact, a recent New York Times article
noted that a Google search, despite being able to “see”
Who Would Know? a trillion websites with unique URLs, was only scratch-
ing the surface of the information that actually exists
Before beginning a search, researchers should consider on the Web.2 Furthermore, much has been written
where the information they are looking for would most about the “Invisible Web,” or “Deep Web,” which
 Exercise 40

Should I Use a Library Database,

or Should I Just Search the Web?
For this exercise, you will work in teams of two or three. Each team will receive an index card containing a specific topic
and related questions. One other team in the classroom will receive the same topic as your team. You will be competing
with them to see which of you can find the highest quality, most reliable sources that answer or address your questions.
Look up your topic in the web search tool or library database indicated below and describe the results of your searches
as prompted. As you note how each search tool or database responds to your query, don’t forget to actually find the
answer to your question, noting sources (either articles or websites) that have the information you need. When you are
finished, you will select one source from those you found that best answers your question and appears to be a high-
quality, reputable source.
Be prepared to share your favorite source and how you found it with the class. Would you use this source for a college-
level research assignment?

How did How are What types of

Web search you enter your results materials did you find?
tool or your organized? (e.g., web pages, periodical
reference search? Number (e.g., chronologically, articles, studies; from which
database (Be exact.) of hits by relevance, etc.) domain type; etc.)

Google
(www.google.com)

Bing
(www.bing.com)

[Library’s general
periodical
database]

The Best Sources Found

URL (web address) or path (You may

wish to bookmark the sites and articles
you find, because you will need to get back Description of information found
to your favorites to show the class.) and who wrote it

82
 The Web and Scholarly Research | 83

contains information that cannot be indexed by search be aware that any proprietary or copyrighted infor-
engines because it is hidden within databases. mation is not generally available online for free, at
Search tools such as library indexing and abstract- least not legally. A good rule of thumb is that if an
ing ser­vices are not available on the Web to just any- information resource costs money in print format,
one; institutions or individuals must subscribe to it probably costs money on the Web too, if it is also
them to gain access. In general, students should available there.
 Searching Savvy on the Internet
Contributed by Amanda K. Izenstark

The Web offers tremendous opportunities for discov- (www.clusty.com), Blinkx (www.blinkx.com), and Sci-
ery, but when it comes to Internet searching, few users rus (www.scirus.com).
go beyond the basic search screens. As a foundation, This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2, Perfor-
students should know about an array of search tools mance Indicators 3, 4, and 5.
and understand the specific features that will help
them effectively target searches. Blogs, RSS Feeds, and Feed Readers
Other tools can help students become savvy infor-
mation consumers, but only if they know how to find Weblogs (aka blogs) became popular at the end of the
them and harness their information. Knowing how to 1990s, and they remain a subset of the Web where
find relevant blogs and harvest pertinent postings is
one step in this process.
Exercise 41
So Many Search Engines
Search Engine Extravaganza
Google is currently the most popular search engine,
but it hasn’t always been (AltaVista and AllTheWeb For this exercise, you will work in teams of two. Answer
once also roamed the Net). Competitors continue to the questions below, and be prepared to share your
emerge from the ether to offer alternatives for search- results with the class. If you are not sure of a topic to use
ing the general Web. Other tools may have subject as a sample search, any of your research topics will make
strengths that users never discover. Knowing more than for excellent sample searches.
just one tool can help users develop more sophisticated 1. What is the name and URL of your search engine?
search strategies and have a clearer understanding of 2. Where can you get help? (Is it easy to find, and is it
why they receive the results they do. really helpful?)
Goal: In exercise 41 students will explore the basic 3. How does the basic search work? (Does it use
and advanced features of an assigned search engine. Boolean? Natural language? Something else?) Please
give us an example.
This exercise will introduce students to tools that have
4. Is there an advanced search? How does it work? What
other features and perhaps a different scope from the are some of its features? Please have an example that
tools they currently use. makes good use of some of the advanced features!
Description: Small groups of students will explore (Make sure the advanced search is searching the
an assigned search engine’s basic search, advanced same content the basic search searches!)
search, and other features. Students will present their 5. What kind of results did you get? (Web pages, PDF
search tools and findings to the class and compare their files, news groups, images, or something else?)
findings to the results and functionality of their usual 6. Can you tell why your results show up in the order
search tools. Sharing results will provide the opportu- that they do—is it date, relevance, or something
nity for students to learn about tools other than the one else?
7. Do your results change if you change the order of
investigated for this exercise.
your search terms?
Tips for conducting the exercise: Before the session, 8. Does this tool perform a general web search, or is it
explain and demonstrate some of the advanced fea- more specialized?
tures of the search engine(s) students are most likely to 9. Are there any unique or special features that make
be familiar with already. Then, locate alternate search this search engine better than others? When might
engines freely available on the open Web, and select you want to use this tool over the most popular
one site for every two students. Students will need search engine(s)?
computers with Internet access. Some examples as
of this writing include Bing (www.bing.com), Clusty

84
 The Web and Scholarly Research | 85

much topical discussion takes place. Blogs are informal demonstrate how to determine whether a site offers
means of discussing new developments in a field from an RSS feed. It also may be helpful to provide a list
many different perspectives. of blog search tools to students before they start the
Feed readers can help students turn their informa- exercise. Some examples as of this writing include
tion seeking into information harvesting. Feed readers Google Blog Search (http://blogsearch.google.com),
allow users to create a customizable and centralized Technorati (http://technorati.com), and Ask.com Blog-
list of links that automatically aggregate news or blog search (http://blogsearch.ask.com). A general Internet
posts as they occur. In addition, when RSS feeds are search for “blog search” will produce other options
provided by database publishers, the feeds can be used as well.
to display new articles on a topic. This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2, Perfor-
Some feed readers are web based (optimal for those mance Indicators 1, 2, 3, and 5, and Standard 3, Per-
who use more than one computer on a regular basis), formance Indicator 2.
while others work as browser plug-ins or separate
programs. Most modern browsers (Firefox, Internet
Explorer, Safari, etc.) include some minimal feed-
reading capabilities, but for more functionality, other
tools are recommended. As of this writing, Google Exercise 42
Reader and NetVibes are popular web-based readers,
and Sage is a popular Firefox plug-in. Depending on a Finding and Following
class’s comfort with technology, students can be given Blogs on a Topic
a list of readers to explore and evaluate in relation to
their information needs, or one reader could be recom- You have just started an internship at the company of
mended for the whole class. your dreams, and one of your tasks is to monitor infor-
mation newly published on the Internet about the field
you’re working in and share that information with your
Keeping Up: Blogging
supervisor. Doing this will not only help you fulfill the
requirements of your position but will also keep you
Students in advanced classes can use blogs written by abreast of developing trends as you start your job hunt.
journalists, researchers, and/or practitioners to follow First, select a blog search tool to use. Look at and use
new developments in their fields. Incorporating this the features and functionality of the tool to help you
activity may aid job seekers who might be required to perform a targeted search. Can you limit your search by
show their knowledge of the field in upcoming inter- domain, for example? Does the search tool offer an “alert”
views or at job fairs. or “update” option that saves your search and notifies you
Goal: In exercise 42, students will locate blogs on of new posts on your topic?
their topics or in their current or anticipated fields Next, search for blogs that relate to your topic, major,
or career. Investigate the topics of each blog, and locate
and, with the addition of the optional question, locate
the author’s (or authors’) credentials if possible.
RSS feeds that they can include in a feed reader. This
Narrow down your search to your top three blogs.
exercise will introduce students to additional web tools What criteria have you used to evaluate the blogs you
they can use to locate and harvest information. selected? What features led these to become your top
Description: For this exercise, have students use three? Summarize your search strategies and findings,
the blog search tool(s) of their choice to look for blogs and be prepared to share them with the class.
related to their research topics, majors, or careers. Optional additional question: Do the blogs you’ve
Tips for conducting the exercise: In advance, describe selected offer RSS feeds?
blogs and briefly demonstrate how to search for blogs.
If incorporating feed readers into the exercise, also
86 | The Web and Scholarly Research

Using a feed reader can help the twenty-first-century

researcher stay up-to-date on a topic with little effort.
Exercise 43
Keeping Up: Feed Readers
Following Blogs Using
Many publications have an online presence that Feed Readers
includes regularly updated columns. Locating these
resources and showing students how to import the Feed readers can help you manage the flow of infor-
mation on your topic and keep you updated on new
pages’ RSS feeds into a feed reader will help those
developments with minimal effort on your part. For this
who want to know the latest news without having to exercise, examine at least two feed readers for eventual
remember to check a site regularly. continued use in the future.
Goal: In exercise 43, students will investigate web- Topics to consider when evaluating a feed reader:
based and downloadable feed readers and select a tool 1. Do you always use the same computer, or do you use
that meets their information needs. They will then add multiple computers?
feeds from the blogs they found in exercise 42 to their 2. Do you want or need to make “folders” or use “labels”
feed readers. to manage your incoming information? Does the
Description: For this exercise, students will need feed reader offer this function?
to know how to identify RSS feeds on blogs and in 3. Can you save postings for reading at a later time?
databases.
4. Can you e-mail posts to other people?
Tips for conducting the exercise: It may be helpful to
provide students with a list of feed readers to investigate 5. How easy is the feed reader to use overall?
in advance, including web-based, browser-based, and Which feed readers did you evaluate?
downloadable feed readers for current operating sys- Which functions are most important to you?
tems. This assignment may require that students have Be prepared to share your findings—and your opinions
their own computers available, as they may need to regarding your preferred feed reader—with the class.
install client software. If this is not possible, limit the
list to web-based feed readers and adapt the exercise
as necessary.
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2, Perfor-
mance Indicator 5.
 The Web and Scholarly Research | 87

Information on the Web ernmental, orga­nizational, commercial,

or personal site? From what country does
There is no place where evaluation is more relevant it originate?
than in examining information found on the Web. • Is this site connected to an orga­nization
This is because anyone can create a website. Most of any sort? If so, what is the mission of
web pages do not undergo any sort of editorial review this orga­nization?
process, as do books and periodical articles. Therefore,
critical-thinking skills and an active, questioning mind Accuracy and reliability of the information on the site
are needed to evaluate any information found on the
Internet. • Does the site appear to be well
researched?
Criteria for Evaluating • Are there references to sources of infor-
Web Information mation supporting any statements made
or viewpoints held?
Purpose of the site and intended audience • Is statistical information labeled clearly
and easy to read?
• Are the goals of the author stated? Is • Are the sources for any factual or statisti-
there a statement of scope, target audi- cal information documented so that they
ence, or purpose? can be verified in another source?
• Who is the site designed for? What audi- • What method of data collection or
ence is the site’s author trying to reach? research was used by the author (if appli-
• Is the site scholarly or popular? cable)?
• Does the site contain advertising? What • Does the site include grammatical, spell-
might this tell you? ing, or typographical errors?
• What is the overall purpose of the site? • How does the site compare to print infor-
To inform? Persuade or advocate? Enter- mation resources available on this topic?
tain? Sell a product? • If links to other sites are listed, are they
quality sites?
Authority and credibility of author
Currency and timeliness of the information on the site
• Can the author of the site be identified?
Is it clear who has ultimate responsibility • When was this information published?
for the content of the material, whether Does the page list the date it was cre-
it be an individual or an orga­nization? ated?
• Is contact information given so that you • Does the page indicate when it was last
can get in touch with the author or orga­ updated?
nization for clarification or more infor- • Are there any “dead” links—that is, links
mation? to other sites that no longer work?
• What are the author’s qualifications?
Does he or she list his or her occupa- Objectivity or bias of the site
tion, years of experience, position, or
education? • Are the goals of the author clearly stated?
• Do you think the author has expertise on Is there a statement of scope, target audi-
the subject? ence, or purpose?
• What is the author’s institutional affilia- • Does the site present many opinions on
tion, if any? Is the author affiliated with the topic or only one?
an educational institution? A nonprofit • Can you tell if the site contains mostly
orga­nization? A company? opinions or facts?
• What is the domain of the site (.edu, • Can you identify any bias in the informa-
.gov, .org, .com)? Is it an academic, gov- tion and opinions provided?
88 | The Web and Scholarly Research

• Is the site sponsored by a company or for a research project. The other site is of question-
orga­nization? able quality. Students are divided into teams of two for
• Does the site reflect the agenda of a this exercise. Each team gets one website, so that two
political, religious, or social group or teams are working on the same topic. One team has
institution? the reputable site and another has the site of question-
• If there is advertising on the site, is it able quality. Students spend twenty or thirty minutes
clearly differentiated from the informa- evaluating their sites, using the “Criteria for Evaluating
tional content? Web Information” above. Then each team shows its
site to the rest of the class and explains its evaluation of
Structure and navigation of the site the site, pointing to evidence on the site that supports
the team’s view.
• Is the orga­nization of the site easy to Tips for conducting the exercise: Topics and sites that
understand? Is it clear and logical? have been used for this exercise follow.
• Is it easy to navigate between different
Martin Luther King Jr.
parts of the site?
• Is there a link to return to the first page Martin Luther King Jr.: A Historical
of the site, the home page? Examination, at www.martin
• Does the site offer a table of contents or lutherking.org
a site index? The Martin Luther King Jr. Papers
• Does the site offer a search box? Project, at http://mlk-kpp01
• Do graphics on the site add to or detract .stanford.edu
from the site itself? UFOs

Conclusion CAUS: Citizens Against UFO

Secrecy, at www.v-j-enterprises
.com/caus.html
• Is this site a reliable, well-documented
source of information from a reputable SETI Institute, at www.seti-inst.edu
author or orga­nization? Greenhouse Effect
• Would this be a good source of informa-
tion for a research paper? CO2 and Climate Resource Center, at
www.greeningearthsociety.org

Information on the Web—

Evaluation and Comparison Exercise 44
Information on the Web is not always written by an
expert. Sometimes information on the Web is not Evaluation of Information
entirely accurate. Even worse, sometimes the informa- on the Web
tion on the Web is not even true! A wise web user will
always question the source and quality of information For this exercise, you will work in teams of two. Each team
will receive an index card with the address of a website
found on the open Web.
on it. You will have approximately twenty to thirty min-
Goal: In exercise 44 students will also be made utes to complete this exercise.
aware that there is some very highly questionable Go to the website and explore it thoroughly; then
information on the Internet that often masquerades evaluate the site using the “Criteria for Evaluating Web
as legitimate. They will learn to identify quality infor- Information” discussed earlier. On a piece of paper, note
mation and spot the differences between “good” and the title and URL of your site and summarize your conclu-
“bad” information. sions about the site’s quality, noting specific evidence that
Description: The instructor selects pairs of websites supports your evaluation. Please be prepared to share
related to the same topic. One site is legitimate: it is your site and your evaluation of it with the class.
a reputable site that could be used as a quality source
 The Web and Scholarly Research | 89

EPA Global Warming Site, at dents, and especially to your neighbor and the elderly
http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/ relative.
globalwarming.nsf/content/index Step 3: Pairs, or small groups of students, receive an
.html index card with one website address written on it that
they need to review. There are a total of four tasks to
Many sites created by librarians have lists of websites accomplish and a suggested length of time for doing
that are very good for this type of assignment.3 each task (adjust time as needed).
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 1, Perfor- Step 4: As students begin step 3, begin a short dis-
mance Indicators 1, 2, and 4; Standard 2, Performance cussion of what they hope to find in a website that they
Indicator 2; Standard 3, Performance Indicators 2, 4, trust—for the middle-school student or the elderly
5, and 6; and Standard 5, Performance Indicator 1. relative—or for their own school projects and papers.
Ask them to consider what they think a website needs
to do to prove its worth.
Everything Is on the Web? Step 5: At the end of their investigations, the groups
report to the class by showing their website (either
A huge amount of information is simply not available at their computer work station or by using a class-
via the Internet, for free or for a fee. For example, room computer broadcast system) and sharing a brief
“Only about 8 percent of all journals are on the Web, description of the site. While the students report on
and an even smaller fraction of books.”4 This is espe- their work, ask for a volunteer to record the various
cially the case with older information. Some of the criteria announced from each group.
classics of world literature have been made available Step 6: The class reviews the list together and for-
on scholarly websites such as Project Gutenberg, 5 malizes the most important criteria to develop a class
but those are but a tiny fraction of the written works list of web-evaluation criteria.
of humankind, most of which sit in obscurity on the Step 7: Compare the class list with web-evaluation
shelves of libraries and rare-book rooms worldwide. sites that you are familiar with, such as Susan E. Beck’s
In addition, the explosion of electronic information The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly site, at http://lib
over the past few decades means that there are elec- .nmsu.edu/instruction/evalcrit.html.
tronic archives, research datasets, and personal and We’ve included two lists of websites to use for this
orga­nizational records “out there” that may never be exercise:
preserved, not to mention made public. List A equals fun, strange, or bizarre sites. Some
The significance of all of this to researchers is that of these will be obviously “wrong” to students, but it
although the Internet can be an excellent place to enables them to clarify what is “right” or what needs
conduct research, relying on it exclusively will mean to be in a website that they would trust for good infor-
missing a great deal of valuable information. mation.
Here is another way of approaching web evaluation
that allows the students to identify the most important List A
criteria for evaluating websites for themselves. www.medical-library.net
Goal: In exercise 45 students will investigate http://home.inreach.com/kumbach/velcro.html
assigned websites in order to develop their own set www.ladiesagainstfeminism.com
of evaluation criteria for quality or “worthy” websites. www.breatharian.com
Description: www.dhmo.org
Step 1: The instructor may introduce the session by http://zapatopi.net/treeoctopus/
sharing a story of a recent experience in web search- http://people.csail.mit.edu/rahimi/helmet/
ing—perhaps a young neighbor of middle-school age www.martinlutherking.org
has asked for guidance in finding websites for a school www.ihr.org
project or an elderly relative wants to search for web- www.shorty.com/bonsaikitten/
sites about a medical ailment. www.thedogisland.com/index.html
Step 2: Tell the class that you would like their help
in developing a set of criteria for evaluating quality or List B offers pairs of consumer-health sites that you
“worthy” websites that you can pass along to other stu- may use as comparison examples. These examples are
 Exercise 45

Website Worthiness
Task 1 (five minutes)
Take notes on your investigation of the website. Describe the website content in terms of who, what, where, why, and
when.

Task 2 (ten minutes)

Investigate the website. What’s “right” or “wrong” with the website? Look for clues by critically examining the who, what,
where, why, and when information that is provided by the site. Use the format below to make notes on all that you find.

Element “Right Stuff” “Wrong Stuff”

Who

What

Where

Why

When

Other?

Task 3 (ten minutes)

Consider what you found in terms of “right stuff” and “wrong stuff.”
Develop a list of at least five evaluative criteria that you feel are necessary to judge a website’s validity,
worthiness, and credibility—so that you will always get the “right stuff.”
List them in the chart below.
Next to each criterion that you list, describe what type of information you want to find from any website that will
help you to determine if the website meets or does not meet the stated criteria.

Evaluation Criteria Information That Will Inform the Criteria

Task 4 (five minutes)

Would you recommend this website? Be prepared to share with the class a description of this website, what is “right”
and “wrong” with it, and the evaluation criteria that you have selected.

90
 The Web and Scholarly Research | 91

useful for students who have some experience in criti- Notes

cal evaluation of information. We’ve used these suc- 1. Search Engine Watch, Jupitermedia Corporation,
cessfully in a semester-long credit course after students 1996–2002, www.searchenginewatch.com.
have explored evaluation of encyclopedias, books, and 2. Alex Wright, “Exploring a ‘Deep Web’ That
articles. Google Can’t Grasp,” New York Times 22 (February
2009), www.nytimes.com/2009/02/23/technology/
internet/23search.html?_r=1&th&emc=th.
List B
3. Librarians have created several sites offering links to
www.medical-library.net http://medlineplus.gov
websites of questionable quality for the purpose of
www.amfoundation.org http://nccam.nih.gov instructing students about the pitfalls of web research.
www.apjohncancerinstitute.org www.mdanderson.org These sites include The Good, the Bad and the Ugly;
www.braintumortreatment.org www.abta.org or, Why It’s a Good Idea to Evaluate Web Sources,
http://arthritiscure.org www.arthritis.org by Susan E. Beck, http://lib.nmsu.edu/instruction/
evalcrit.html.
Tips for conducting the exercise: As the students 4. Mark Y. Herring, “Ten Reasons Why the Internet Is
work, the instructor should circulate among the No Substitute for a Library,” American Libraries 32,
groups. If you observe a group that is struggling with no. 4 (April 2001): 76–78.
a task, make statements or ask a few questions that 5. Project Gutenberg Official Home Site, Project
encourage critical thinking (e.g., describe what you Gutenberg and PROMO.NET, 1971–2002, http://
see; give an example of what you are describing; give gutenberg.net.
an example found in the website that supports what
the assignment is asking you to do; what is it that looks
“good” or “wrong”?).
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 3, Perfor-
mance Indicators 2, 4, and 5, and Standard 4, Perfor-
mance Indicators 1, 2, and 3.
Chapter Nine

Other Tools for Research

When students receive a research assignment, they tend to use resources

they already know: reference books, journal articles, and websites. They are fre-
quently familiar with some or all of these sources and know that there is someone
in the library who can help them locate and use other sources of information of
the same kind.

Experts and Organizations

What does not come to mind so easily are human sources of information. There
is a wealth of human knowledge and expertise on every college campus, in orga­
nizations throughout the world, and in local communities. For almost any topic
imaginable, there exists a professional, trade, or special-interest orga­nization.
An example of a professional orga­nization is the American Medical Association
(AMA), whose members are doctors. The AMA provides professional information
and networking opportunities to its members, educates the public and policy mak-
ers about health issues, and advocates for the interests of the medical community.
An example of a trade orga­nization is the National Restaurant Association. This
group is made up of individual restaurant owners and restaurant chains. Their goal
is to represent, educate, and promote the restaurant industry and to advocate for
governmental policies favorable to the industry.
An example of a special-interest orga­nization is the Surfrider Foundation, which
is a nonprofit orga­nization dedicated to protecting our oceans, waves, and beaches.
Other examples of special-interest orga­nizations are the National Orga­nization
for Women, the NAACP, the American Civil Libraries Union, and Greenpeace.

Identification of Experts
and Organizations
How do students identify an appropriate expert or association? One method of
identifying experts is to use a reference directory such as the Encyclopedia of

93
94 | Other Tools for Research

Associations. This encyclopedia is indexed by the title asked what kind of notebook they used for note taking.
and keyword for each orga­nization. Entries show con- Twenty-one of those students used Five Star notebooks.
tact information and the scope of the orga­nizations’ Doing the math required to change these numbers into
activities. It is helpful to note that not all associations a percentage resulted in the descriptive statistic above.
make information freely available to the public. Many Statistical inference is the use of numbers to make
limit information to members only. generalizations or predictions about what a large group
Goal: In exercise 46 students will learn to identify of people will do based on what a smaller group of
experts and orga­nizations that can provide information people did. For example, using the raw data above (of
about a specific topic. 140 Rhode Island students, 21 use Five Star notebooks;
Description: For this exercise, have students use thus, 15 percent use Five Star notebooks), statistical
a directory of associations in print format or online. inference might claim that on the basis of the informa-
Students will identify individuals and orga­nizations tion collected, 15 percent of all university students in
appropriate to their Paper Trail Project topic (see New England’s capital cities use Five Star notebooks.
exercise 50) or to the instructor’s assigned topic. The This statistic implies that students in New England’s
exercise may simply familiarize students with this type capital cities use Five Star notebooks, even though stu-
of directory or may instruct students to contact their dents in only one New England capital city were ques-
chosen orga­nizations and ask for information to be
sent to them.
Tips for conducting the exercise: We have used the Exercise 46
Encyclopedia of Associations and its online counter-
part, Associations Unlimited. Any similar directory Finding Experts and
will work.
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2, Perfor-
Organizations
mance Indicators 1, 2, and 3. For this assignment you may use either the print copy
of the Encyclopedia of Associations or the web version,
Statistics which can be found on the Library Web Resources list
under the title Associations Unlimited.
Another type of information that can be useful in Look through the listings and select three experts or
research is statistics. Statistics are facts and data. Sta- orga­nizations most closely related to your topic. Report
tistics is also the science that deals with collection, the information in the format requested below, giving
specific information for each expert or orga­nization.
classification, analysis, and interpretation of facts or
data. Our world is filled with statistics. Every indi- Name of Expert or Orga­nization: ___________________
vidual in the United States is counted in the census, _______________________________________________
has a Social Security number, lives in a ZIP code area, Contact Information: ____________________________
has an account of one sort or another, goes to school, _______________________________________________
Web Address: ___________________________________
has a flu shot, registers a car, or becomes a statistic in
_______________________________________________
some other way. The U.S. government is the largest
Description of What the Expert or Orga­nization Does
compiler of statistical information in the world. Many (scope): _______________________________________
other groups and individuals collect statistics as well. _______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
Types of Statistics Now go to the website for each expert or association.
Is there any relevant information there? Print it out and
Descriptive statistics use numbers to summarize the attach it to this worksheet or describe it on the back of
information collected concerning a particular situa- this page.
tion. For example, a random sample of students was Contact one expert or orga­nization, using phone, mail,
taken at a university campus in Providence, Rhode e-mail, or fax, and ask them to send you information on
Island. Of those questioned, 15 percent used Five Star your topic. Or create a list of short questions you’d like
notebooks for their course note taking. This descrip- your expert or association to address. Attach the contact
tive statistic is a kind of shorthand for what actually information and the list of questions (if relevant) to the
happened. One hundred and forty students at the response you receive.
university campus in Providence, Rhode Island, were
 Other Tools for Research | 95

tioned. Statistical inference might use the Providence use, whether the death penalty should be abolished,
statistic to infer something about a larger population. how popular the president of the United States is, or
Claims made through statistical inference must be what the most-watched shows on television are. Much
examined very carefully for accuracy and probability. research and data collection are done at universities or
There may be forces at work in Providence causing research institutes or by opinion research firms. Results
university students there to buy Five Star notebooks are reported in scholarly publications like journals and,
that do not extend to all New England cities. To infer in some cases, in the public media.
that what happens in Providence happens elsewhere
in New England may be inaccurate or even incor- Strategies for Finding
rect. The sample size for the study of notebook use Statistical Information
was fairly small—only 140 students were questioned.
It might be that those students all live in the vicinity When looking for statistical information, it is impor-
of the same mall that carries Five Star notebooks. Or tant to look for some key facts. The first question
perhaps the students surveyed were all contacted at to ask is, Who would collect this information? For
the same time of day. Those students taking day classes example, if we were looking for statistics on how many
might have different options for purchasing Five Star people were put to death in the United States last year
notebooks than those who attend classes at night. A under the death penalty laws, it would be necessary
survey of a larger number of people over a longer to consider what orga­nization or department of the
period of time might give very different results, which government might gather and publish that statistic.
would then change what could be inferred from the The death penalty is administered at the state level, so
statistic collected. it might be possible to check every state, but perhaps
there is one place where the information is compiled.
Where Do Statistics Come From? The federal government is likely to collect and com-
pile the statistics from the states concerning the num-
The U.S. government is the largest collector and com- ber of people put to death under the death penalty
piler of statistics in the world. Government agencies laws. What part of the federal government might do
collect their own statistics. For example, the Census this? The department in charge of law enforcement
Bureau, the Bureau of Economic Analysis, the Bureau might be a good place to start, so the Department of
of Labor Statistics, the National Center for Education Justice is the logical place. This department has a
Statistics, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the National Bureau of Justice Statistics. Although an individual
Center for Health Statistics, and the Bureau of Trans- may not know of the existence of this bureau, by fol-
portation Statistics are all government agencies special- lowing a logical thought process and looking for the
izing in the collection of statistics. existence of such a department or division, it should
In the international community, there are intergov- not be too difficult to find the name of an appropriate
ernmental orga­nizations that collect data as well. For agency. Many U.S. government agencies and depart-
example, the United Nations, the World Bank/Inter- ments have websites, and they are all listed in various
national Monetary Fund, and the Orga­nization for government manuals.
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Another possibility for finding this statistic would be
are all intergovernmental agencies cooperating to col- to identify an orga­nization either in support of or in
lect data on a global scale. opposition to the death penalty. These orga­nizations
Professional, trade, and special-interest orga­ would be sure to have the statistic, although it might
nizations also collect statistics. The American Library be important to watch for possible manipulation in
Association, the American Medical Association, the how they report or use that statistic. In fact, it might
American Marketing Association, the American Bar be a good idea to get the same statistic from more than
Association, the Beer Institute, Amnesty International, one source to ensure the reliability of the number.
Greenpeace, and the Toy Industry Association all are Orga­nizations in favor of or against a certain cause are
orga­nizations that collect statistics. likely to be listed in the Encyclopedia of Associations.
There are also agencies, researchers, and individu- Finally, it might be possible to find up-to-date sta-
als that collect statistics for various purposes. These tistics in a newspaper or magazine article about the
groups or individuals tend to focus on specific topics, death penalty. Newspaper indexes are available in
such as attitudes of high school students toward drug most libraries in paper, microform, or online formats.
96 | Other Tools for Research

Using Statistical Sources Using the Statistical

Abstract of the United States
Obtaining statistical information can be a useful part
of the research process. However, like other types of The United States government is one of the largest
information, statistical information must be evaluated. collectors of statistics in the world. The Statistical
Students should become familiar with various reliable Abstract of the United States presents statistics on many
sources of statistics and learn to think about who might different topics from many different sources.
collect the statistics they may need.
Goal: Exercise 47 will familiarize students with
sources of statistical information. Exercise 47
Description: In this exercise students will use
selected sources of statistical information to answer Statistics, Statistics,
specific questions. They will achieve some practice in
looking for, accessing, and retrieving statistical infor-
Statistics
mation. This exercise can be done in class or as a Using the National Restaurant Association website, www
homework assignment. .restaurant.org, answer the following questions:
Tips for conducting the exercise: The sections can be
What were the total sales for U.S. restaurants in
broken into smaller assignments, depending on your
2009? In 2000?
need and time available. Check the websites before
handing out the assignment to make sure that they are How many restaurant jobs are there in Rhode
still active and the URLs are correct. Island?
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2, Perfor- How many jobs is the restaurant industry
mance Indicators 3, 4, and 5. expected to add in the next decade?
How many eating and drinking places were there
Tools for Finding Statistics in Rhode Island in 2007?
What information is not freely available to
One of the best places to start when you’re looking
nonmembers?
for statistics is the Statistical Abstract of the United
States, published annually since 1879 by the U.S. To answer the following questions, access the Kids
government. Count website, at www.aecf.org/kidscount/. From this
In addition to providing statistics on a wide variety address, click on Kids Count Databook Online.
of subjects, the Statistical Abstract can also lead you How many children are there in the United States
to other statistics sources. At the bottom of each sta- under the age of eighteen?
tistical table in the Statistical Abstract, you will find a How many high school dropouts were counted for
reference to the original sources of these statistics. By the most current year in the United States?
consulting the original source, you may find additional
What state had the highest percentage of high
statistical information on that topic. For example, the
school dropouts in the latest year reported?
Statistical Abstract has statistics on the number of CDs
teenagers buy. At the bottom of the table containing Create a line graph for the percentage of families
those statistics, the Recording Industry Association of with children headed by a single parent.
America Inc. is listed as the source for the numbers. By Select Connecticut, Massachusetts, and
Rhode Island as your geographic region.
going to the Recording Industry Association of America
Select the time period that covers the
Inc. website, or by contacting this orga­nization, it is
most current five years. Print your graph
likely that one could find additional statistics about the and attach. Which state has the highest
same topic. At the end of each edition of the Statisti- percentage of single-parent households?
cal Abstract of the United States, all the sources used
Create a map for infant mortality rates for 2008.
for the statistical tables are listed. Keep in mind that
Name three states with a ranking more than
each state has its own statistical abstract as well. The
20 percent better than the median for all
websites and addresses are listed in this section of the states.
Statistical Abstract of the United States.
 Other Tools for Research | 97

Goal: Exercise 48 will familiarize students with the Experts and orga­nizations are frequently overlooked
Statistical Abstract of the United States and the wide as sources of information. With the appropriate tools
variety of statistics that are collected each year. It will to identify the experts and the information that will
also help them identify other sources of statistics that allow students to contact those experts, a rich new field
the government uses. of possibilities for insight and information becomes
Description: For this exercise, students should use available.
the most current year of the Statistical Abstract of the Statistics are part of our lives. Knowing how to
United States. The paper version seems to be more find appropriate statistics can add a dimension to any
helpful for new users of this tool, but using it can be research endeavor. With a little practice, a student
difficult, as most libraries only have one or two copies can easily see that statistics can be collected and inter-
available. The web version is more cumbersome to preted to show just about anything. Learning how to
use, but it will serve more students at the same time. assess and evaluate a statistic and its veracity will serve
Tips for conducting the exercise: Students may need students for the rest of their lives.
some practice in using the electronic version, as it is a
little more complicated than the paper.
This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 2, Perfor-
mance Indicators 3, 4, and 5.
Exercise 48

Evaluating Statistical Finding U.S. Government–

Information Supplied Statistics
Being able to evaluate statistical information is impor- Using the Statistical Abstract of the United States, answer
tant, as statistics can be manipulated to tell the story the following questions. Use the latest year reported for
that the person using them wants to tell. We have all your answers, and list the table number where you found
heard how it is possible to lie with statistics. However, your answer.
evaluating statistical information can be a very diffi- It is a well-known fact within the music industry
cult task, and in some cases, it is something that only that the category of consumers spending
experts or others with advanced knowledge of statistics the most money on CDs and tapes is
know how to do. It requires an in-depth understanding teenagers. What percentage of all buyers of
of the data-gathering process and the mathematical sound recordings are between the ages of
fifteen and nineteen?
techniques used to generate the statistics.
With common sense, however, anyone can learn How many deaths in the United States were
to be wary and critical of the numbers found and can caused by major cardiovascular disease?
avoid being duped by statistics. Here are a few general How many travelers from the United States visited
points to keep in mind when working with statistical South America?
information.
How many overseas travelers visited California?
Who collected the data? Do they have a particular How many existing one-family houses were sold
interest in the results? in the United States, and what was the
Do the statistics show any bias? median sales price?

Are the data timely? What percentage of public schools have Internet
access?
Is the coverage complete? What was the size of the
How much asparagus is commercially produced in
sample for the study? the United States? What state is the leading
Has the data been repackaged? producer?

Is the data from a primary source? If it is from a sec- How much asparagus is used per capita (per
ondary source, has it been properly documented person) in the United States?
so that you can find the primary source?
 Visual Literacy and Statistics
Contributed by Peter J. Larsen

This section is based on a visual literacy and statis- with statistical terms, Huff’s book (listed above), which
tics session from a semester-long information literacy is a basic statistics text, or even Wikipedia will provide
course. The session draws heavily on these books: enough information for the simple level of discussion
required for this assignment. The visual display of
Huff, Darrell. How to Lie with Statistics. New York:
information section follows, using examples of argu-
Norton, 1954.
ments and charts where the meaning is obscured by
Tufte, Edward R. Visual Explanations. Cheshire, accidental or deliberate misuse of graphic conventions.
CT: Graphics, 1997. The idea is to show that the central ideas that make
statistics useful can be displayed well or poorly, and
Although they are not by any means the last words evaluating charts is a critical skill in a world dominated
on the subject, they are excellent introductions to the by “infotainment.”
topic and full of examples that can easily be adapted Tips for conducting the exercise: This exercise is
for classroom use. geared for a fifty-minute session, more or less evenly
divided between statistics and visual literacy. It could
Statistics and Visual be expanded or contracted by increasing or decreasing
Literacy Assignment the depth of the information, the number of examples,
and the number of problems at the end, although
The visual presentation of statistics can make them it is a complex-enough topic that covering all the
seem to imply almost anything. The same statistic ma­terial in less than fifty minutes is difficult. It could
can be used to support both sides of an argument. The be split up into two separate sections. An effective
information-literate student should consider how the way to deliver the questions is to display a slide with
visual display of statistics can affect their interpretation. a scenario or image for discussion; then ask students
Goal: In this exercise, students practice looking at to write down their answer and/or reaction, ask for
statistics and visual literacy examples and evaluating answers from the class, and discuss the answer with
the arguments presented. another slide.
Description: This exercise is usually delivered The blog Strange Maps (http://strangemaps.word​
through PowerPoint and addresses statistics and how press.com) is an excellent source for images that can
they are displayed. The statistics section begins with a be used for scenarios and discussions. There are a wide
brief discussion of absolutely essential statistical ideas range of statistics and economics blogs that can be
(mean, median, and mode) in a very general way. This mined for ideas, although these often have a specific
is not meant to be a statistics class, but some knowl- political agenda.
edge of these terms is critical to understanding any This exercise addresses ACRL Standard 3, Perfor-
depiction of statistical data. For instructors unfamiliar mance Indicators 2 and 3.

98
Exercise 49

Some Basic Statistics

Basic Terms What’s the mode? The mode is the number that appears
Consider the following numbers: 5, 5, 5, 5, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, most frequently. In our list of numbers there are four 5s,
10, 10, 10, 15, 15, 75 eight 10s, two 15s, and one 75. The mode is 10 because
What’s the mean? The mean is the average. Add up the there are more 10s than anything else.
numbers and divide by the number of numbers. The total Now you try it for the following salaries (in $1000s):
is 205. There are 15 numbers. Divide 205 by 15. The mean 25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 40, 40, 40, 40, 90, 90, 90, 250
is 13.7.
What’s the mean?
What’s the median? The median is the number in the
middle. Start at both ends of the list of numbers and find What’s the median?
the number in the middle. In this case, the median is 10. What’s the mode?

When Numbers Are Chart 1

Displayed Graphically d
d d
d d
What are the advantages and disadvantages of d d d d
each of the following charts? d d d d d d d
d d d d d d d d
d d d d d d d d d d
Do you think they reflect the same data? d d d d d d d d d d
Is one more honest than another? 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

snowflake = 10 inches, rounded up

Chart 2 Chart 3

Cumulative Annual Snowfall

200
Snowfall in
Year Inches 180

2000 43 160

2001 29 140

2002 35 120
2003 71 100
2004 39 80
2005 31
60
2006 68
40
2007 18
2008 45 20

2009 20 0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

The three graphs all show a picture using the same data. What are some of the problems you see with the way each graph
is created? Did you notice the lack of labels on the axes in chart 3? What are the most important things to think about
when interpreting data provided visually?
Chapter Ten

The Paper Trail Project

Comprehensive Assessment:
The Paper Trail Project
The quest of many of today’s students is to do their research fast! Very often this
involves good intentions, the Internet, and, frequently, some cut-and-paste. These
efforts do not always produce the results intended by the student and are generally
unacceptable to the instructor or professor on the receiving end of the assignment.
Information literacy projects, courses, and programs can help to alleviate this frus-
tration by teaching students the best and most efficient tools and the techniques
for using them.
At the University of Rhode Island, instructors use the semester-long Paper Trail
Project as a vehicle for students to learn and apply information concepts and
skills. These concepts and skills are experienced, practiced, learned, and applied
by students in a number of smaller projects that culminate in the completion of
the Paper Trail Project. This chapter will explain the goals of the project, the eight
major parts of the project as they are explained to students, and our rationale for
including each part in the project. We will also identify how each of the ACRL
“Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education, Standards,
Performance Indicators, and Outcomes” applies to each part of the Paper Trail
Project. A sample Paper Trail Project and a “Student Time Line for Completing
the Paper Trail Project” are included as well, as is the rubric used to evaluate each
student’s project (see figure 10.1, “Grading Rubric for the Paper Trail Project”).

Goals of the Paper Trail Project

The overall goal of the Paper Trail Project is for students to explore the information
world by learning to use effective methods and techniques for gathering, evaluating,
and presenting information. The knowledge gained from this project will prepare
students to conduct university-level information research. The project requires
students to learn and show expertise in all of the ACRL “Information Literacy

101
102 | The Paper Trail Project

Competency Standards.” By completing the Paper Part 3: Discovery and Planning. This section
Trail Project, students will learn that quality research includes a variety of evidence that displays and illus-
takes time, is rewarding, and can be done by begin- trates how you developed your topic and research ques-
ning college and university students! Beyond this, the tion. Include the concept map, encyclopedia citation,
students’ projects show evidence of their learning as and annotation. For the encyclopedia article, include
indicated by the student-learning outcomes designed the citation and annotation for your useful encyclope-
for the project. A rubric for the project will help you to dia article. As supporting documentation, also include
determine how well the student(s) accomplished the physical evidence or access to the evidence of the
project and how well the class as a whole has learned encyclopedia title page and first page of the article.
the information literacy concepts and skills. Part 3 addresses Standard 1, Performance Indicator 1,
learning outcomes a and b; Standard 2, Performance
Description Indicator 1, learning outcomes a–d; Performance Indi-
cator 2, learning outcomes a–f; Performance Indica-
Simply described, the Paper Trail Project is an anno- tor 3, learning outcomes a–d; Performance Indicator
tated, chronological “map” that follows the research 4, learning outcomes a–c; Performance Indicator 5,
journey for a research question of the student’s design. learning outcomes a–e; and Standard 4, Performance
The goal is to complete the research process and docu- Indicator 1, learning outcomes a and b.
ment it. Once completed, the eight parts of the project Part 4: Research Outline. In this section present an
will accomplish the students’ goals and the objectives outline for your research question. It should include
of the Paper Trail Project. It is not necessary for stu- enough ideas and supporting sources to allow you to
dents to actually write the research paper itself. If so write an eight- to ten-page paper or to present a fifteen-
desired, students could produce a brief report, a poster- to twenty-minute presentation. Your outline is the orga­
presentation session, or a PowerPoint slide show as a nizational plan of your research project. As part of the
way of sharing their answers to the research questions outline, indicate which source provided information
that they addressed; however, the main point here for different points by including the author’s name
is that the research process is practiced and accom- and year of the source. The outline demonstrates how
plished. you directed your research efforts in order to develop
a thoughtful, in-depth answer to your research ques-
Paper Trail Project Student tion. Part 4 addresses ACRL Standard 1, Performance
Learning Outcomes Indicator 1, learning outcomes a–f; and Standard 2,
Performance Indicator 1, learning outcomes c and
There are eight major parts of the Paper Trail Project. d; Performance Indicator 2, learning outcomes a–f;
Part 1: Research Statement and Research Question. Performance Indicator 3, learning outcome b.
The research statement will include a single page with Part 5A: Annotated Bibliography of Relevant and
one or two paragraphs describing your topic, how and Useful Sources. In this section, compile all the sources
why you chose it, and the context within which you you decided to use into one annotated bibliography.
framed your research. Following that, state the research Sources should be listed alphabetically by author.
question that you developed for the Paper Trail project. Make all necessary corrections as noted in feedback
Part 1 addresses ACRL Standard 1, Performance Indi- provided in earlier drafts; the final bibliography should
cator 1, learning outcomes a–f; Performance Indicator be free of any correction marks or notes.
2, learning outcomes a–d; Performance Indicator 4, Part 5B: Supporting Documentation for 5A. Fol-
learning outcomes a and b; and Standard 2, Perfor- low the annotated bibliography with evidence of the
mance Indicator 3, learning outcome b; Performance supporting documents from your research, including
Indicator 4, learning outcomes b and c; Performance photocopies, printouts, articles, book title pages, etc.
Indicator 5, learning outcome a. Be sure to orga­nize the sources to match the bibliogra-
Part 2: Table of Contents. A single page lists each phy’s order—alphabetically by author’s name.
section of the project in the order it appears in the Part 6A: Annotated Bibliography of Less-Relevant
Paper Trail. Part 2 addresses ACRL Standard 2, Per- and Not-Useful Sources. Compile all the sources you
formance Indicator 5, learning outcomes b and c; and decided not to use into a second annotated bibliogra-
Standard 5, Performance Indicator 2, learning out- phy. Sources should be listed alphabetically by author.
come f; Performance Indicator 3, learning outcome a. Make all necessary corrections as noted in prior feed-
 The Paper Trail Project | 103

back. The final bibliography should be free of any learning outcome a; Performance Indicator 4, learning
correction marks or notes. outcomes a–c; Performance Indicator 5, learning out-
Part 6B: Supporting Documentation for 6A. Follow comes c–e; Standard 3, Performance Indicator 2, learn-
this annotated bibliography section with evidence of ing outcomes a–d; Performance Indicator 4, learn-
the supporting documents from your research, includ- ing outcomes a–e; Performance Indicator 5, learning
ing photocopies, printouts, articles, book title pages, outcomes a and b; Performance Indicator 6, learning
etc. Be sure to orga­nize the sources so they match the outcomes a–c; Standard 4, Performance Indicator 1,
bibliography’s order—alphabetically by author’s name. learning outcome b; Performance Indicator 2, learning
Parts 5 and 6 address ACRL Standard 2, Per- outcomes a and b; Performance Indicator 3, learning
formance Indicator 1, learning outcomes c and d; outcomes a–d; and Standard 5, Performance Indica-
Performance Indicator 2, learning outcomes a–f; tor 1, learning outcomes a–d; Performance Indicator
Performance Indicator 3, learning outcomes a–c; Per- 2, learning outcomes a–g; Performance Indicator 3,
formance Indicator 4, learning outcomes a–c; Per- learning outcomes a and b.
formance Indicator 5, learning outcomes a–c; Stan-
dard 3, Performance Indicator 1, learning outcome Explaining the Parts of
a; Performance Indicator 2, learning outcomes a–d; the Paper Trail Project
Performance Indicator 4, learning outcomes a, b, c,
and e; Standard 4, Performance Indicator 1, learning Part 1: Research Statement and Research Question.
outcomes a and b; Performance Indicator 2, learning Students are told they will be doing a semester-long
outcomes a and b; Performance Indicator 3, learning research project that asks them to focus on the process
outcomes a and b; Standard 5, Performance Indicator of finding, evaluating, and using information. They
1, learning outcome d; Performance Indicator 2, learn- may choose any topic of interest to them. The instruc-
ing outcomes a–f; Performance Indicator 3, learning tor may suggest that students look to their program
outcomes a and b. of studies or specific courses they are enrolled in at
Part 7: Research Journal. In this section, include all college, topics that they are passionate about but have
of your individual research journal entries. All required not yet researched academically, or a current trend or
entries should be included. Each entry is thorough and news item that interests them. Tell the students that
addresses the required issues. Orga­nize in chronologi- they will do several exercises and assignments to help
cal order, first to last, over the length of the project. them develop a research statement that describes their
Part 7 addresses ACRL Standard 2, Performance Indi- topic and explains why they chose the topic as well as
cator 1, learning outcomes a–d; Standard 3, Perfor- defining a context for their research topic. Using the
mance Indicator 2, learning outcomes a–d; Standard ideas generated from the exercises and assignments,
4, Performance Indicator 2, learning outcomes a and they will design a research question to use for the
b; Performance Indicator 3, learning outcomes a and project duration.
d; and Standard 5, Performance Indicator 1, learning Part 2: Table of Contents. Requiring students to
outcomes b and d; Performance Indicator 2, learning develop a table of contents for the Paper Trail helps
outcome f. students to orga­nize all the parts, prevents students
Part 8: Research Summary. Use the “Research Sum- from overlooking specific parts of the project, and
mary Guidelines” and develop a thoughtful essay on provides a path for the instructor to follow the student’s
your semester’s work. Your “Research Summary” work.
should be a thorough, thoughtful reflection of the Part 3: Discovery and Planning. Provide activities
research process, successes and challenges, useful- that help students consider and expand their ideas on
ness, and final outcomes. You should also consider the topic they have chosen with the goal of develop-
how this project has contributed to your development ing a research question. Focusing and refining can be
as an information-literate person. Part 8 addresses achieved through the brainstorming process of concept
ACRL Standard 1, Performance Indicator 1, learn- mapping. Concept mapping is a familiar brainstorm-
ing outcomes a–f; Performance Indicator 2, learning ing tool, and it can be done using either paper and
outcomes a–f; Performance Indicator 3, learning out- pencil or using free or commercial software programs,
comes a–c; Performance Indicator 4, learning out- such as bubbl.us (http://bubbl.us) or Inspiration soft-
comes a and b; Standard 2, Performance Indicator 1, ware. Using the ideas generated from exercise 12,
learning outcomes c and d; Performance Indicator 2, “Create a Concept Map,” students should develop an
104 | The Paper Trail Project

open-ended research question that allows them to solve This is one of the more difficult tasks for students after
a problem or take a stand on an issue. they have committed to fifteen sources that seem to
Part 4: Research Outline. The outline is the orga­ meet their needs. The effort expended in fine-tuning
nizational plan of the research project. Using the con- their choices helps students understand that not every
cept map and the research question, as well as the good source is the “right” source.
selected sources gathered over the semester, students Part 6B: Supporting Documentation for 6A. See
develop an outline that reflects the investigation of directly above, “Part 5B.”
the topic. For each heading and subheading of the Part 7: Research Journal. The research journal
outline, students should indicate which source pro- provides a means for students to reflect on the total
vided information for different points by including the research process. In journal entries students should dis-
author’s name and year of the source. The completed cuss how they went about finding a resource and how
outline demonstrates how the student directed his or easy or difficult the search was. Ask students to think
her research efforts in order to develop a thoughtful about how the resources they found did or did not
response to the research question. answer their research question. Suggest they consider
Part 5A: Annotated Bibliography of Relevant and writing about the search planning, search implemen-
Useful Sources. The bibliography illustrates the stu- tation, source discovery and evaluation, and, finally,
dent’s ability to find, evaluate, and use information citing and annotating the materials they have selected.
sources effectively. Over a period of fourteen to sixteen Some students are more comfortable than others
weeks, each student will create mini bibliographies sharing personal thoughts and feelings in written form,
of books, articles, and websites. This final annotated so the range of reflection will vary. Experience has
bibliography requires students to reevaluate all of the shown that students who find it difficult to put their
sources gathered one last time and to select ten (of experiences in writing will eventually visit the instruc-
those fifteen) very best sources that answer the research tor for some help and guidance. After the discussion,
question. The bibliography will include an alphabeti- the instructor might say, “OK, right now, write down
cal list of these ten sources, cited appropriately. Each some notes about this visit with me as one of your jour-
source annotation will include both a brief description nal entries. What happened here? Can you describe
and an evaluation based on criteria. The annotation how you feel about the project, about the sources you
will also explain how the source is relevant to the are finding or not finding? What decisions did you
research question. Students need to describe what make about the research?” Explain that these are the
part of the research question each selected source kinds of comments the instructor expects to see in the
addresses. journal entries for the project.
Part 5B: Supporting Documentation for 5A. This Some students will discover that they enjoy the
part of the project is twofold. For the student, it teaches challenge of academic research. Others will hate
the importance of keeping a log or file of sources of the amount of effort and time necessary to find their
all the research done from the preliminary foray to the research sources. Some may simply provide declara-
final stages of answering his or her research question. tive statements in their journals with no hint of the
For the instructor, seeing the actual sources proves personal experiential journey. Encourage students
fairly well that students have not simply cut and pasted to share their trials and tribulations. Be firm in your
or plagiarized another’s research into their own. All the expectations for the research journal. The journaling
source documentation must match the sources submit- process allows students to articulate their research
ted in the bibliography. This is not easy to accomplish needs in an informal, reflective manner. Writing
unless the student has actually done the research with entries in research journals helps students develop
some degree of integrity. Documentation can be pro- their ideas along the paper trail. The process of writing
vided as photocopies, printouts, or electronically, using journal entries crystallizes the research process.
Digital Object Identifier (DOI) numbers, PURLs (Per- Part 8: Research Summary. The research summary
sistent URLs), and URLs. tells the journey each student took doing his or her
Part 6A: Annotated Bibliography of Less-Relevant Paper Trail Project. There are two parts to the sum-
and Not-Useful Sources. This bibliography emphasizes mary. Students use the following questions to reflect on
the student’s skill in recognizing a source’s faults or the accomplishments and challenges of the research
lack of relevance for a particular research question. process.
 The Paper Trail Project | 105

1. Information need. Did you find enough infor- the group can work together to design the research
mation to enable you to answer your research question. Individual students can contribute work
question? on different aspects of the research, and together
• Are there any gaps or missing pieces that you would the group will make decisions on sources to include.
prefer to have before developing the answer? Individual students can write the research journal
entries for the parts of the research that they them-
• Can you describe what is missing? (“I would have selves worked on, or the group might create a jour-
liked to have found . . .”)
nal entry together, depending on the approach the
teacher has chosen.
2. Information literacy. Think back over the course In the optimal situation, students will be allowed
and answer these questions within your essay: as much time as possible to practice their informa-
• How did the research process go overall? tion literacy skills by doing exercises or homework
assignments that prepare them to complete all of the
• What was the hardest part? What was the easiest project parts. Instructors should set due dates for each
part? part or section of the Paper Trail Project. This will
• For your research need, what were the best help students manage their time and allow plenty of
sources? time for revision after students have received your
• Did you have an “aha” moment in thinking about feedback.
information and doing research in this course?
• Have you changed anything about the way you Introducing the Paper Trail Project
search, evaluate, and use information outside of
academics? Introduce this project early and refresh students’ mem-
ories often.
• Finally, pass along one piece of advice about infor- Explain to students that the project is based primar-
mation research to a non–Library 120 student. ily on the goals and objectives of being information­-
literate students: their ability to gather, evaluate, and
Methods of Facilitating the Project effectively use the resources they provide in their
projects. This project is both the documentation and
The Paper Trail Project can be approached in several the personal journey of a student through the experi-
ways. Our experience is using it in an information lit- ence of the research process. Students should be told
eracy credit course, but it could easily be used within a that the process will be messy. This is expected and
subject-specific course that has an integrated informa- accepted because it reflects the true nature of research.
tion literacy program. The Paper Trail Project is a great opportunity for stu-
Using the exercises provided in this book, class time dents to try methods out over a period of time—be it
can be used to demonstrate, experience, and practice only a few weeks or an entire semester—often without
information literacy concepts involved in completing the added pressures of having to complete the paper
the Paper Trail Project. This project is based on the or project for a subject-based course.
time allowed for a fourteen- to sixteen-week, three- Students may be overwhelmed with the immensity
credit course. When time is limited, the actual number of the project. Explain that it will be done step-by-step
of required sources for each of the bibliographies in with the instructor guiding and facilitating the class.
the project may be reduced. The class members will act as an informal support
The Paper Trail Project can be completed by group as they progress through the assignments that
individual students or by small groups of students. lead up to the finished Paper Trail Project. In the end,
For a group project, the instructor could ask the most students are amazed by the amount of informa-
students to develop a research question using a start- tion they have gathered and the quality of the resources
ing point such as environmental issues or other they have amassed for this project.
current topics of global or national concern. If the Students consider it strange to document the
small-group method is chosen, be sure to create research process and not write the paper. Do all in
individual tasks within the group so that each stu- your power to be clear that the process is the project,
dent can be assessed individually. For example, not the final paper!
106 | The Paper Trail Project

Project Presentation Formats make this graded or nongraded, but usually “manda-
tory” is enough to get them to come visit you.
The Paper Trail Project is specifically designed without Provide several examples of past Paper Trail Proj-
a prescribed presentation style or format parameters. ects and bring these to the classroom, put them on
There are many required components, but the man- reserve in your library, or keep them available in your
ner in which students choose to present their project office. (Note: be sure to get student authors’ permission
is purposely left open. The project should be clearly before you do this.)
outlined and firm in its expectations while at the same The project design generally protects students from
time flexible enough to allow variations in format. mediocrity or failure. However, instructors should be
Examples of Paper Trail presentations include the prepared for last-minute realizations such as “I just
old reliable three-ring binder with page separators, realized I’ve been heading in the wrong direction for
or the more contemporary presentation styles: web weeks!” “I just found a gold mine in a slightly different
pages, blogs, wiki, Google-doc, PowerPoint presenta- vein,” or “This topic is killing me, and I really need
tions, and videos. Of course, there are time limitations, help!” These are natural occurrences, and this project
and these must be considered by the instructor when encourages them to be seen as part of the learning
contemplating various formats. Allowing flexibility in experience.
presentation format leaves room for creativity and for A class web page, a class discussion list, personal
accommodation of multiple learning styles. consultations, and individual e-mails can all be used
to support students while they travel the paper trail.
Tips for Guiding Students There are students who will appear to breeze through
through the Project the project, and for them the project is good practice
for learning college-level research tools. There are
The Paper Trail Project is meant to teach students also students who may not seem to have the “can-
effective and reliable methods to use as they proceed do” attitude or the creativity to complete this project.
through college-level research. At the same time, it Perhaps these are the students who benefit most from
exposes the side trips that occur while one is involved the structure and support of the Paper Trail Project.
in research. A benefit of the Paper Trail Project is that Information literacy, a goal for lifelong learners and
instructors can easily intervene to help students stay considered an important part of the college skill set
on track and remain successful. Instructors can help by many, is worth a little cheerleading!
students during the semester by guiding their progress
toward completion of this project. Here is a list of pos- Grading Criteria for the
sible suggestions to follow: Paper Trail Project
On quizzes and tests, include an extra-credit ques-
tion that might ask students to describe the point they If used as the culminating project for a subject course
have reached in researching their Paper Trail Project (such as history or nursing) or for an information lit-
or tell how they are feeling about the research process eracy credit course, this project should be weighted
and the Paper Trail Project. heavily. The rubric in figure 10.1 gives an example of
Choose specific colors or type or design a symbol to a grading scheme. Keen attention to each part is neces-
brand the Paper Trail exercises and assignments that sary for successful completion of the project. Should
are part of the Paper Trail. Whether you are working in a student overlook or skim lightly the work required
print or online, there are many ways to mark the docu- for even one section, it will seriously impact the total
ments so students will be alerted to their relevance and work of the project. Provide a copy of the rubric for the
importance to the project. students so they are clear as to what the expectations
Remind students of your office hours, send out are and how they may attain the grade they desire.
e-mail alert notices, and mention the project in class.
At midsemester, and again closer toward the end of Tips on Using the Grading Criteria
the project (adjust according to your time frame), hold
an outside-of-class workshop for students who want to The clear grading criteria in the rubric enable both the
bring in their “stuff” for advice and help. students and the instructor to understand exactly what
Require that each student schedule a brief in-person has been agreed on for the project requirements. Share
meeting with you to discuss their progress. You can the expected student learning outcomes with students
Exercise 50

The Paper Trail Project

What Is a Paper Trail?
The Encarta World English Dictionary (2009) defines a paper trail as a “sequence of documents that can be used by
an investigator as a record of someone’s actions or decisions.” Investigators examining the 2001 financial collapse of
the energy corporation Enron pursued a paper trail that eventually led to criminal charges and convictions against
several Enron officials.
Here, however, you are the researcher-investigator pursuing information that is relevant to your research question.
You are also the author of your own paper trail—an annotated, chronological record of your research efforts and overall
outcome.
Use this guide to ensure that your project is complete and orga­nized before handing it in.

What should the Paper Trail include?

Item Details

1. Research Statement A single page with one or two paragraphs describing

your topic, how/why you chose it, and the context
and within which you framed your research.

Research Question State your research question below your research statement.

2. Table of Contents for A single page that lists your sections in the
your Paper Trail order they appear in the Paper Trail.

3. Research Outline—one MANDATORY: Projects submitted without an outline cannot be

that would assist you graded. Your outline is the orga­nizational plan of your research
in writing an eight- to paper. As part of the outline, indicate which source provided
ten-page paper information for different points by including the author’s name
and year of the source (see example). The outline demonstrates
how you directed your research efforts in order to develop
a thoughtful, in-depth answer to your research question.

4. Background Information Citation and annotation for your useful encyclopedia article.

Encyclopedia Assignment Concept map.

Supporting documentation—photocopies of
encyclopedia title page and first page of article.

5a. Annotated Bibliography Compile all the sources you decided to use into one annotated
of Relevant and bibliography. Sources should be listed alphabetically by
Useful Sources author. Make all necessary corrections as noted; the final
bibliography should be free of any correction marks or notes.

5b. Supporting Follow the annotated bibliography section with the supporting
Documentation (for documents from your research, including photocopies,
above sources) printouts, articles, book title pages, etc. Orga­nize to match
the bibliography’s order—alphabetically by author’s name.

(cont.)

107
 Exercise 50 (cont.)

Item Details

6a. Annotated Bibliography Compile all the sources you decided not to use into
of Less-Relevant and a second annotated bibliography. Sources should
Not-Useful Sources be listed alphabetically by author/main entry. Make
all necessary corrections as noted; final bibliography
should be free of any correction marks or notes.

6b. Supporting Follow the annotated bibliography section with the supporting
Documentation (for documents from your research, including photocopies,
above sources) printouts, articles, book title pages, etc. Orga­nize to match
the bibliography’s order—alphabetically by author’s name.

7. Research Journal Provide all of your individual research journal entries.

Make any required corrections before including. Entries
with comments but no required corrections may be
included “as is.” Orga­nize in chronological order, first
to last, and be sure your name is on each one.

8. Research Summary A thoughtful essay on your semester’s work.

See “Research Summary Guidelines.”

What is not included in the Paper Trail?

Any worksheets, tables, etc., that you completed as part of the assignments
Any handouts, exercises, etc., that you did in class
Any uncorrected required components
Your semester project must be well orga­nized. I should be able to examine it without becoming confused about
what is what and where it is. Use a three-ring binder and tabs.

Research Summary Guidelines

Your research summary is a thoughtful essay on your semester’s work. You may prefer to divide it into two parts as
described. Please type it, double-spaced, with a 10- or 12-point font.
Part 1: Research statement and research question
Did you find enough information to enable you to answer your research question?
Are there any gaps or missing pieces that you would prefer to have before developing the answer?
Can you describe what is missing? (“I would have liked to have found . . .”)
Part 2: Information literacy. Think back over the course and answer these questions within your essay:
How did the research process go overall?
What was the hardest part? What was the easiest part?
For your research need, what were the best sources?
Did you have an “aha” moment in thinking about information and doing research in this course?
Have you changed anything about the way you search, evaluate, and use information outside of academics?
Finally, pass along one piece of advice about information research to a non–Library 120 student.

108
Figure 10.1

Grading Rubric for the Paper Trail Project

Exceeds All Meets Does Not Meet Fails to Meet

Element Expectations Expectations Expectations Expectations Score

Project 5 4 3 2–0
Organization Table of Table of contents Table of contents Table of
contents clear mostly clear marginally contents
and accurate. and accurate; adequate; some insufficient;
Paper Trail most items items out of numerous
organized as in order and order or not items out of
required and clearly labeled. clearly labeled. order or not
clearly labeled. clearly labeled.

Defining, 5 4 3 2–0
Planning, Includes a Includes several Includes some Includes some
and Refining variety of meaningful meaningful supporting
supporting pieces of supporting evidence of the
evidence supporting evidence of an research process
displaying evidence evolving, reflective but may not
an evolving, displaying research process. demonstrate
reflective an evolving, meaningful
research reflective progress or
process. research process. reflection.
Includes
encyclopedia
research,
concept
mapping, and
drafts/revisions
of research
statements.

Research 5 4 3 2–0
Statement Topic is Topic is Topic is vaguely Topic is barely
and Question academically academically stated and may not described, is not
oriented, oriented, has be academically academically
has depth. some depth. oriented. Some oriented, and/
Statement Statement and rationale for or lacks depth.
and question question are statement/ No rationale
are clear, with identifiable, with question is for statement/
a compelling good research provided but question is
rationale. rationale. may be unclear. evident.

(cont.)

109
 Figure 10.1 (cont.)

Exceeds All Meets Does Not Meet Fails to Meet

Element Expectations Expectations Expectations Expectations Score

Outline 10–9 8–7 6–5 4–0

Outline Mostly sufficient Included, but Incomplete or
sufficient to to organize a not substantive insufficient;
organize an major research enough for a does not
8- to 10-page paper; contains major research contain relevant
paper. Includes most relevant paper. May source citations.
relevant source source citations. contain only a few
citations. source citations.

Bibliography: 20–17 16–13 12–9 8–0

Sources All 15 sources Most sources Over half the Half or fewer
included meet meet criteria for sources included of the included
project criteria type, quality, meet criteria for sources meet
for type, quality, and variety. At type, quality, and criteria for type,
and variety. least 9 of 15 variety. At least quality, variety,
Contains at included sources 8 useful sources and usefulness.
least 15 useful are useful. for a total of 12.
sources.

Bibliography: 10–9 8–7 6–5 4–0

Citations All citations are At least 12 At least 9 citations 8 or fewer
in the assigned citations are in are in assigned citations are in
citation style. assigned style, style, or 2 elements assigned style,
or 1 element are missing in or 3 elements
is missing in all citations. are missing in
all citations. all citations.

Bibliography: 20–17 16–13 12–9 8–0

Annotations All annotations At least 12 At least 9 8 or fewer
evaluate source annotations annotations annotations
content, author evaluate source evaluate source evaluate source
credibility, and content, author content, author content, author
relevance. credibility, and credibility, and credibility, and
relevance. relevance. relevance.

Bibliography: 10–9 8–7 6–5 4–0

Supporting All supporting Materials for at Materials for at Materials for 8
Materials materials least 12 sources least 9 sources or fewer sources
included. included. included. included.
All materials Organized and Organized and May not be
organized as clearly labeled. labeled. organized
required and and labeled.
clearly labeled.

110
 The Paper Trail Project | 111

Exceeds All Meets Does Not Meet Fails to Meet

Element Expectations Expectations Expectations Expectations Score

Research 5 4 3 2–0
Logs All required All required One or two More than two
entries included. entries included. research logs are research logs
Each entry is Most are missing or do not missing or do
thorough and thorough and fully address the not address the
addresses the address the required issues. required issues.
required issues. required issues.

Research 10–9 8–7 6–5 4–0

Summary Thorough, Mostly thorough Considers most Lacks discussion
thoughtful reflection on the required elements on most of
reflection on research process. but lacks sufficient the required
the research Addresses most thoroughness elements; may
process, of the required or reflection. summarize but
successes and elements. lacks reflection.
challenges,
usefulness, and
final outcomes.

On time? YES NO
If no, number of days late: _____ x 10 = _____
(Late penalty to be subtracted from total)

as they move from part to part in the research experi- falsely believe that they should be able to solve all of
ence. Explain what the project must include to be suc- their academic questions and completely answer all
cessful in fulfilling the eight different parts. As stated of the research issues they address. Allowing students
in the beginning of this chapter, the overall goal of the to focus on the research process and select the best
project is not simply a grade but for students to learn evidence they can find will produce students who can
to understand information concepts and to explore the pursue high-quality research and researchers who will
information world through gathering, evaluating, and stay lifelong learners.
presenting information. Keeping that in mind, what
is most important to the grade? The overall integrity Assessing the Project
and quality of the research are the most important
attributes to look for when grading. Grading Paper If used as the culminating project for a credit course,
Trail Projects must be done based on the integrity of we recommend a very high weighted grade of 25 to 30
the student’s process and the quality of the sources percent. Remind students that the grade is based on a
discovered, but not on whether the research question series of assignments that they will have already had
was perfectly or completely answered. Many students ample opportunity to practice and revise.
 Example of a Completed Paper Trail Project
Student author: Samantha Cummings

Topic: Sex Trafficking Research Paper Outline: Sex Trafficking

Research Statement
I. Introduction
The issue of sex trafficking is one that I had heard little
A. Summary of the topic
about while I was growing up. In recent years, however,
B. Definition of sex trafficking—New Internationalist,
I have noticed the issue being discussed more and more
2007
in the media. From television programs such as Law and
C. Distinction between sex trafficking and prostitu-
Order, to news coverage, to campus forums, and most
tion—Batsyukova, 2007
recently the popular movie Taken, sex trafficking is begin-
ning to gain recognition as a serious threat to the safety II. Overview
and well-being of many women and children. It was from A. Brief history of sex trafficking—Cree, 2008
these media that I first began to take an interest in the B. How the sex trafficking industry operates—​
issue of sex trafficking. I was particularly moved to learn Bhattacharyya, 2005
more about the issue after discovering that Providence, C. Facts and figures—New Internationalist, 2007
Rhode Island, a city not far from my residence, has high
instances of trafficked women and children as it is the III. Victims
only state (aside from certain counties in Nevada) in which A. Victim testimony—Sorajjakool, 2003, and Polaris
indoor prostitution is still legal. Project, 2009
For these reasons, I chose to conduct my research proj- B. Who they are—Feingold, 2005
ect on sex trafficking. I was most interested to learn about C. How they become victims—Shelley, 2003—
the victims of sex trafficking, particularly who they are and
D. What happens to trafficked victims—New Inter-
how they became victims. I feel that the first step to pre-
nationalist, 2007
venting future instances of sex trafficking is to recognize
E. Sex trafficking in different regions—Bolder Image,
the victims and understand how they became involved
2009
in the sex trade. As knowledge is power, if more people
were aware of how victims become involved in the sex IV. Prevention
trade then they could perhaps avoid becoming victims A. Raising awareness—SwirlyGig Media, 2005
themselves. I was able to use these ideas to formulate a B. Reducing demand—Yen, 2008
focused research question.
C. Government action—Academy for Educational
Research Question: Who are the victims of sex traffick- Development, 2008
ing, and how do they become victims?
V. Restoration
Table of Contents A. Civil rights of victims—Nam, 2007
Research Paper Outline Red Tab B. Community outreach—Bolder Image, 2009
Encyclopedia Assignment Pink Tab C. Report trafficking—Polaris Project, 2009
Annotated Bibliography VI. Conclusion
of Relevant Sources Green Tab (Front)
Supporting Documentation Encyclopedia Assignment
for Above Sources Green Tab (Back)
Maddex, Robert L. “Human Trafficking.” Encyclopedia of
Annotated Bibliography
Sexual Behavior and the Law. District of Columbia: CQ
of Nonrelevant Sources Yellow Tab (Front)
Press, 2006.
Supporting Documentation The article “Human Trafficking,” by Robert L. Mad-
for Above Sources Yellow Tab (Back) dex, begins by giving a brief history of the trafficking
Research Journal Orange Tab of humans, particularly in the area of sex trafficking.
Research Summary Blue Tab The article goes on to discuss the magnitude of the
problem, citing the increase of trafficking in places

112
 The Paper Trail Project | 113

like Eastern Europe and even the United States,

credible sources, and is well maintained, timely, and
noting that the majority of the victims of sex traf-
professional.
ficking are female immigrants. The article provides
examples of a number of U.S. federal laws, such as
the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Batsyukova, Svitlana. “Prostitution and Human Trafficking
Act, that outlaw the trafficking of humans for sexual for Sexual Exploitation.” Gender Issues 24.2 (June
or immoral purposes. It also provides a brief history 2007): 46–50. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO.
of the amendments and evolutions of such laws University of Rhode Island. University Library,
making them more specific and including harsher Kingston, RI. 25 Feb. 2009. http://0-search.ebscohost
penalties for offenders. The article, however, states .com.helin.uri.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&
that there was a lack of enforcement for such laws, AN=27053621&site=ehost-live.
as well as a number of other drawbacks, including
This article explores sex trafficking as one of the
immigrant women falsifying claims in order to stay
most prevalent reasons for human trafficking as well
in the country. However, it goes on to state that a
number of changes and improvements have been as outlines the differences between sex trafficking
made to the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Pro- and prostitution. The article argues that sex traffick-
tection Act and cites two court cases that are proof ing is in fact the exploitation of prostitution. In addi-
that trafficking will be prosecuted and trafficking tion, the article looks at the policies for and against
laws will be upheld. prostitution. This article is relevant to my research
because it will help me to understand who the victims
Annotated Bibliography of sex trafficking are as well as the core differences
of Relevant Sources between sex trafficking and prostitution. For instance,
the article will help me to determine whether those
Academy for Educational Development. A Web Resource men and women who voluntarily participate in acts
For Combating Human Trafficking. 2008. Academy for of prostitution can be considered victims like those
Educational Development. 13 April 2009 (www who are exploited. Author Svitlana Batsyukova has
.humantrafficking.org). earned her master’s degree from the University of
This website serves to unite government and non- Washington in public administration. I narrowed my
government orga­nizations in the East Asia and Pacific search results on Academic Search Premier to search
regions in the fights against human trafficking. The specifically for scholarly peer-reviewed journals, so the
website does so by providing information specific journal from which this article originated should be a
to countries in these regions including action plans, scholarly journal.
national laws, and contact information for govern-
ment agencies and NGOs in each individual country. Bhattacharyya, Gargi. Traffick: The Illicit Movement of People
It also provides website viewers with information and Things. London; Ann Arbor: Pluto Press, 2005.
regarding the prevention of trafficking, rehabilitation Traffick: The Illicit Movement of People and Things
and protection for victims, and initiatives on the local explores the illegal economy of trafficking such
and global scale. It is in this section that I was able commodities as drugs, money, arms, and people.
to find information most relevant to my research Author Gargi Bhattacharyya argues that the illegal
topic. On the page titled “Prevention,” I found use- world of trafficking allows for global expansion and
ful information detailing the causes of trafficking is depended upon by the official economy for cheap
and the tactics some criminal groups use to coerce labor, finance, and access to new markets. Traffick
victims into the sex trade industry, answering the explores the mechanics of this illegal economy, spe-
part of my research question concerning how vic- cifically examining, in four sections, drugs, arms, orga­
tims become involved in sex trafficking. I believe nized crime, and the trafficking of humans. It looks
this website meets the evaluation criteria for a num- to the past for explanations for this illegal market as
ber of reasons, including that it is supported by the well as explores what the future may hold. Author
U.S. Department of State, references and cites other Gargi Bhattacharyya is a professor of cultural politics
114
Deception/misleading
Promised better life, Abductions, Force,
Women Children and
C minors education, job, etc. Physical violence
Men? Are men victims?

Families of victims
Sold to settle debts
Runaways How do they
Refuges Who are the
become victims? Poverty
Immigrants victims?
Orphans

Prostitutes (voluntary/ Illegal immigrants don’t

involuntary) want to be deported
Example of a completed Paper Trail Project.

Sex Trafficking

Tolerance zones &

red-light districts What are the laws
Sex industry= Pedophiles & punishments?
huge business

Forced marriages
z Needs to gain Victims
Why are they recognition as How is this allowed punished,
Massage a huge problem and what is being
Concept Map for Sex Trafficking

parlors they exploited? Immigrants ridiculed,

done? deported,
Harsher punishments blamed
Military brothels for exploiters
Media attention
Corrupt govt. On issue—i.e.
Ignore problem Slavery/servitude Movie Taken,
or profits from it Law & Order SVU
 The Paper Trail Project | 115

and religion at the University of Birmingham. She is publication. The article also cites many sources and is
also the author of two other books on her specialty. very current. The author of this article is a professor of
Sections of this book will be relevant to my research social work at the University of Edinburgh.
on sex trafficking, specifically the section on traf-
ficking of humans. The book in its entirety, however, Feingold, David A. “Human Trafficking.” Foreign Policy
is helpful in allowing me to better understand the (Sept. 2005): 26–32. Academic Search Premier.
mechanics of the trafficking market and how and why EBSCO. University of Rhode Island. University Library,
trafficking is allowed to exist. The author appears to Kingston, RI. 25 Feb. 2009. http://0-search.ebscohost
be credible and accurate, as does the information the .com.helin.uri.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&
book contains. Traffick was published in 2005, so the AN=17981371&site=ehost-live.
information is still fairly current and reliable, and the This article explores the various forms of human
back of the book contains an extensive bibliography trafficking, including but not limited to the trafficking
of sources. of men, women, and children for use in the sex trade.
It also looks closely at whether certain laws such as
Bolder Image. Shared Hope International. 2009. Shared anti-immigration laws and the legalization of prosti-
Hope International. 13 April 2009. www.sharedhope tution will increase or decrease instances of sex traf-
.org/index.asp. ficking. This article is relevant to my research because
This website serves as the official website for it will explore the second part of my research ques-
Shared Hope International, a nonprofit orga­nization tion (“How do the victims of sex trafficking become
formed by former congresswoman Linda Smith. The victims?”) as this article looks at the effects laws have
orga­nization and website are dedicated to rescuing on the sex trade industry. Author David A. Feingold is
and restoring trafficked women and children as well as the international coordinator for HIV/AIDS and traf-
preventing and eliminating sex trafficking across the ficking projects for UNESCO as well as the director
globe. The website provides facts and information on of the Ophidian Research Institute. I also found this
sex trafficking, opportunities for visitors to the website article using Academic Search Premier and limiting
to help victims by donating and volunteering, and my search results to scholarly journals.
a comprehensive overview of the actions and steps
being taken by Shared Hope International, including Nam, Jennifer S. “The Case of the Missing Case:
a map of different regions that the orga­nization has Examining the Civil Right of Action for Human
helped. The latter is the most relevant to answering Trafficking Victims.” Columbia Law Review 107.7
my research question as it allows me to use the inter- (Nov. 2007): 1655–1703. Academic Search Premier.
active map to see what countries victims come from EBSCO. University of Rhode Island. University Library,
and how they become victims under different circum- Kingston, RI. 24 Feb. 2009. http://0-search.ebscohost
stances in different regions. The website appears to be .com.helin.uri.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&
well maintained and frequently updated, and it is run AN=27551529&site=ehost-live.
by a credible nonprofit orga­nization. This article examines the civil rights afforded the
victims of sex trafficking under the Trafficking Victims
Cree, Viviene E. “Confronting Sex Trafficking: Lessons Protection Reauthorization Act of 2003. It also makes
from History.” International Social Work 51.6 (2008) a number of policy recommendations with the hopes
763–776. Social Ser­vices Abstracts (CSA). U of Rhode that they will encourage more victims to come for-
Island Lib. 23 March 2009. http://0-csaweb109v.csa ward in the future. As my research topic focuses on
.com/helin.uri.edu. the victims of sex trafficking, this article is relevant
This article explores the problem of sex trafficking, to my research as it discusses legal options that are
including how widespread of an issue it is and what available to the victims. This article does not provide
can be done in response to the problem. This article background information on the author; however, the
explores victims of sex trafficking worldwide and will journal, Columbia Law Review, is a scholarly journal.
help me answer the question “Who are the victims and From reviewing the journal online, it appears to be a
how do they become victims?” For this reason, this reputable journal. The website for the Columbia Law
article is relevant to my research. This article is found Review claims to be one of the leading publications of
in the journal International Social Work. The website for legal scholarship and states that it is published entirely
the journal states that it is a scholarly/peer-reviewed by students at Columbia Law School.
116 | The Paper Trail Project

New Internationalist. “Sex Trafficking: The Facts.” New This article explores sex trafficking from a business
Internationalist 1.404 (2007): 1–3. Women’s Studies perspective, including how crime groups profit and
International. University of Rhode Island. University function in the sex trade. It also explores the recent
Library, Kingston, RI. 23 March 2009. http://0-search increase of trafficked women. This article is relevant to
.ebscohost.com.helin.uri.edu. my research topic because it helps me understand one
This article provides statistics and graphs depict- of the reasons why victims are trafficked. Looking at
ing who the victims of sex trafficking are, where trafficking from a business perspective, one can easily
they come from and where they will be trafficked see how crime groups can profit from the trade. This
to, how large of an issue trafficking is, the impacts article is found in a nonprofit, scholarly journal distrib-
on victims, and other important facts to know about uted by Brown University, and the information seems
sex trafficking. This article is the most relevant to to be well researched and up-to-date. The author is a
my research topic of all the sources I have found. It professor in the Department of Justice, Law, and Soci-
directly answers my question and provides reliable ety as well as the founder-director of the Transnational
statistical information. This article is not attributed Crime and Corruption Center.
to one specific author but to the journal New Interna-
tionalist. This journal appears to be a special-interest Sorajjakool, Siroj. Child Prostitution in Thailand: Listening
journal; however, I still believe it is a reliable source as to Rahab. New York: Haworth Press, 2003.
it cites other sources and has been in publication for This book was inspired by author Siroj Sorajja-
over thirty years. kool’s attempt to understand the sex industry that
surrounded him where he grew up in Bangkok. To
Polaris Project. Polaris Project: For a World without better understand the sex trade, Sorajjakool trav-
Slavery. 6 April 2009. Polaris Project. 13 April 2009. eled to Thailand and conducted a series of research
www.polarisproject.org/component/option,com​ that has come together to form this book. The book
_frontpage/Itemid,1/. explores who the victims of the sex trade are, how
Polaris Project: For a World without Slavery is the the market works, and even who the perpetrators
official website for Polaris Project, one of the largest are. The book provides statistics, facts, and figures, as
anti-trafficking orga­nizations in Japan and the United well as personal stories of victims in Thailand. Soraj-
States. The website details the actions that are being jakool is an associate professor of religion at Loma
taken by Polaris Project in the hopes of eradicating Linda University and was associate director of the
human trafficking by providing the website’s viewers Adventist Development and Relief Agency in Thai-
with information regarding national and local out- land. He earned his PhD in theology and personality
reach programs, factual information regarding human and his MA in theological studies. In the preface of his
trafficking, and opportunities to donate or become book, Sorajjakool gives the reader some understand-
involved with the orga­nization. The one page that I ing of the extensive research he conducted to write
found to be particularly relevant to my research was a the book, and he includes bibliographic information
page titled “Action Center: Survivor Testimonies.” This in the back of the book. He seems to be a credible
area of the website is extremely useful to me as my source as he is an eyewitness to the sex trade indus-
research is focused on the victims of sex trafficking try in Thailand. This book is a useful source as the
and the page provides firsthand accounts of sexual information is current and accurate and provides a
exploitation from actual trafficked victims. I believe different perspective on the sex trade industry, focus-
the website is credible as it is run by an extremely ing particularly on children. The book encompasses a
reputable orga­nization; is frequently updated, well great deal of information and provides some answers
maintained, professional; and does not seek to profit to my research question.
personally but seeks only to help victims.
SwirlyGig Media. Captive Daughters: Dedicated to Ending
Shelley, Louise. “Trafficking in Women: The Business Sex Trafficking. 2005. Captive Daughters. 13 April
Model Approach.” Brown Journal of World Affairs 10.1 2009. www.captivedaughters.org/index.htm.
(2003): 119–131. Women’s Studies International. This website is the official website for Captive
University of Rhode Island. University Library, Daughters, a nonprofit orga­nization dedicated to end-
Kingston, RI. 23 March 2009. http://0-search ing the trafficking of women and children for sexual
.ebscohost.com.helin.uri.edu. exploitation by educating the public, raising aware-
 The Paper Trail Project | 117

ness, and strengthening the anti-trafficking move- this source for a research paper, it would be extremely
ment. It provides website visitors with general facts useful in providing the convincing factual evidence
and information regarding sex trafficking, legislation and statistics that an audience looks for from a reliable
regarding human rights, additional resources, and research paper. The data would provide documented
opportunities to donate and volunteer. The page support and proof for my claims, and as the book was
that is most relevant to my research topic is titled just published in 2005, the data is still fairly current.
“Cause: Demand,” and it answers the second part of my The book also provides an extensive bibliography
research question by citing the cause of sex trafficking. that is orga­nized by region, and although there is no
I believe this website is a valuable source as it is run by one author (there are two editors), the articles were
a credible nonprofit orga­nization, is informative and compiled by a reliable authority: the International
useful to my research, and cites a great deal of cred- Orga­nization for Migration. Overall, this source seems
ible, outside sources. It also links to other resources to meet all the evaluative criteria for a relevant source.
such as articles, books, and films that would be useful I chose not to include this source because it
for further research. focuses primarily on improving methods for research-
ing sex trafficking, and it is not particularly helpful in
Yen, Iris. “Of Vice and Men: A New Approach to answering my research question.
Eradicating Sex Trafficking by Reducing Male
Demand through Educational Programs and Tiefenbrun, Susan W. “Updating the Domestic and
Abolitionist Legislation.” Journal of Criminal Law and International Impact of the U.S. Victims of Trafficking
Criminology 98.2 (2008): 653–686. Women’s Studies Protection Act of 2000: Does Law Deter Crime?” Case
International. University of Rhode Island. University Western Reserve Journal of International Law 38.2
Library, Kingston, RI. 23 March 2009. http://0-search (Aug. 2006): 249–280. Academic Search Premier.
.ebscohost.com.helin.uri.edu. EBSCO. University of Rhode Island. University Library,
This article explores the male perspective of sex Kingston, RI. 25 Feb. 2009. http://0-search.ebscohost
trafficking, including why there is a male demand .com.helin.uri.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&
for trafficked women and how this demand can be AN=25753594&site=ehost-live.
deterred through educational programming. This arti- This article also explores the issue of sex traffick-
cle is relevant to my research as it shows the demand ing from a criminal law perspective and questions
side of the sex industry and why the sex industry is whether sex trafficking laws actually discourage sex
continuing to grow. This partially answers my research trafficking crimes from being committed. This article is
question on why victims become victims of sex traf- useful to my research because it provides background
ficking. The journal that printed this article, the Journal information, including who the victims of sex traffick-
of Criminal Law and Criminology, is a scholarly journal ing are, and facts and statistics regarding sex traffick-
produced by the Northwestern University School of ing. As my topic questions how victims fall into the sex
Law. Iris Yen is a student at Northwestern University trade industry, the article’s discussion of whether sex
School of Law and has a BA in international studies trafficking laws effectively prevent trafficking will shed
and a BS in economics. light on this issue. The author, Susan W. Tiefenbrun, is a
professor of law as well as the director of the Center for
Annotated Bibliography of Global Legal Studies at the Thomas Jefferson School
Nonrelevant Sources of Law. This case appears in a law journal, and like my
other sources, it is a scholarly journal.
Laczko, Frank, and Elzbieta Gozdziak, eds. Data and Re- I chose not to use this article for my research
search on Human Trafficking: A Global Survey. Geneva: because it primarily focuses on sex trafficking from a
International Orga­nization for Migration, 2005. legal standpoint, and although it is a good article, the
This book offers current research and data on legality of sex trafficking is not the primary focus of
human trafficking around the globe, and it features my research question.
nine articles that focus on trafficking in specific
regions. The book also contains articles that explore Weitzer, Ronald, ed. Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography,
issues relating to research methods, particularly how and the Sex Industry. New York: Routledge, 2000.
these methods can be improved and what their cur- This book explores prostitution, pornography,
rent strengths and weaknesses are. If I were to use and the sex industry in three parts. The first part,
118 | The Paper Trail Project

easy to find. I then searched the index and found the

“Perspectives of Sex Workers and Customers,” explores
article that seemed most relevant to my topic (there were
the motivation behind sex work as well as the moti-
also a number of other articles that would also be useful).
vation of the clients. The second part of the book,
I chose the article “Human Trafficking” as the more useful
“Victimization, Risk Behavior, and Support Ser­vices,”
article for my research (in comparison to the article “Sex
explores the physical and health risks inherent with
and Sexuality”) because it seemed to answer or address a
prostitution and sex work as well as the outlets that
number of the questions that I had generated using the
workers can turn to for help. The final section of the
concept map. The article “Sex and Sexuality” only briefly
book, “Politics, Policing, and the Sex Industry,” looks
and barely touched on anything close to my research
at the legal aspects of sex work. The editor, Ronald
topic. I had difficulty finding anything relevant to my
Weitzer, is an associate professor of sociology at
topic in the general encyclopedias and found that the
George Washington University and received his PhD
subject-specific encyclopedia was much more useful. The
from the University of California at Berkeley. He is also
article “Human Trafficking” is entirely relevant to my topic
the author of two other books. The back of the book
and provided me with information that I was not already
provides a list of contributors and their credentials as
familiar with.
well as bibliographic information and a list of other
recommended readings that make me believe that the Entry: Books
book is accurate and well researched. This source is a
The first research step I took for the “Annotated Bibliog-
relevant source as it provides different perspectives of
raphy of Books” assignment was to use the HELIN catalog
sex work (the workers and their clients) as well as legal
keyword search to find books relevant to my topic. Using
information on prostitution in the United States. The
the keywords I had generated with the “Concept Map-
book is also less than ten years old, so general informa-
ping” assignment, I found a number of options for books. I
tion (perhaps not statistics) is still current and relevant.
looked at the bibliographic record for each of these books
This is one of the first sources I found, and it
and located the LC Subject for each of the books I found.
seemed useful to my research at the time, but I discov-
Using these subjects, I searched the HELIN catalog again
ered later in the research process that sex trafficking
and generated even more sources. I printed out about ten
and prostitution are not the same thing, and I have
of these sources and took them to the library with me.
therefore decided not to include this source.
I located the area on the third floor, where most of the
call numbers for my books were located. While searching
Research Journal for my books, I met another student who was using the
Entry: Encyclopedia same research topic for another section of Library 120. We
decided to look for our books together, as we were look-
Before I searched for this encyclopedia in the URI library, ing for many of the same books. Unfortunately, neither
I searched the online HELIN catalog over the weekend, of us was able to find any of the books on our list, so we
using a number of different search terms (such as human/ went to the reference desk and asked a librarian to steer
sex trafficking, prostitution, exploitation, servitude, etc.) as us in the right direction. She helped us find the books
well as the word encyclopedia. I used the term AND to link we were looking for in a row that we had not seen. We
the terms. I was somewhat frustrated by the search when were both frustrated trying to find the books we needed
it yielded only two results, even though I had tried every as there were two rows that started with the proper call
combination of terms I could think of and even resorted number (HQ) and another row with the same call number
to using a thesaurus to find similar words. I was hoping (HQ) that was not in succession with the rows we had
to have more options in case I had difficulty finding one been searching in. However, after being steered in the
or both of the sources or they had already been checked right direction, I was able to find all the books I had been
out by another student. After extensive searching on the searching for as well as a number of other books relevant
HELIN catalog, I decided I wasn’t going to be able to find to my topic. Once I had asked for help from a librarian, and
another subject-specific encyclopedia, and I wrote the call had the help of another student, my search process was
numbers down for both encyclopedias and took the list fairly straightforward.
to the library. I searched for the encyclopedia in the refer-
ence section in the library and was unable to find my first Entry: Academic Search Premier
source. I searched for the encyclopedia I have chosen to The first step I took in my research process was to use the
use as my source after I had no luck with the first source. keywords I had generated from my concept map to search
After I found the right section, the encyclopedia was fairly Academic Search Premier. For the first time I searched, I
 The Paper Trail Project | 119

chose not to use any of the limitation functions that the results. I found this surprising as sex trafficking is a criminal
database offers. I wanted to first see how many results act and is outlawed. I went back to the category page for
the database would find. I searched using the term sex reference databases and decided to search under Social
trafficking, which returned a number of results. However, Sciences. I followed much the same process as I did with
I found that many of the results did not offer the full text, the previous databases. I chose databases that seemed
and I could not locate many of the articles using HELIN. relevant and searched with my keywords. I wasn’t sur-
Additionally, many of the results that did offer full text prised to find a number of options using the Women’s
were not entirely relevant to my research topic. I decided Studies International database, as sex trafficking is an issue
to search again using the term human trafficking as the that affects primarily women. I searched through twelve
issue of sex trafficking is often discussed with human traf- pages of results and found three articles that appeared to
ficking. This search yielded more results, and many of the meet my criteria. The articles answer my research ques-
results seemed more relevant to my topic than those I had tion or a part of it, were scholarly and/or credible, and
found searching with the term sex trafficking. I decided to were at least three pages in length. I then went back to
limit my search by searching only for scholarly journals. the Social Sciences section and found another database
This narrowed my search greatly, but there were still a whose description looked relevant. The Social Ser­vices
number of scholarly articles on the issue of human traf- Abstracts database yielded fewer results than the previous
ficking that did not offer full text that I could locate. As the database, but I was still able to find an article that met my
database had returned a number of articles, I decided to criteria as the others had. When citing these articles, I used
limit my search further by searching for articles that were the handout provided in class for citing articles found
greater than two pages in length. Using these searching through online reference databases. For the annotation
techniques, I found four sources that were relevant to of each article, I searched for the websites of each journal
my research question. I used the abstracts provided and online to ensure that the journals were credible and also
read the first few pages of each article to determine their to determine what type of publication each was. I did the
relevance. I was primarily searching for articles that dis- same for two of the authors whose credentials weren’t
cussed the victims of sex trafficking. The articles I found listed in the print record or first page of the article. I read
elaborate on who the victims are, how the legal system the first few pages of each article as well as the abstract
can help them, and how flaws in the legal system can also provided in the full record to create my annotation. I had
result in increased or uncontrolled trade of men, women, some difficulty comparing the two databases. Although
and children into the sex industry. Once I had found four they were somewhat different, they are both concerned
relevant and peer-reviewed articles, I used the information with social sciences and they yielded many of the same
I had gathered in determining the article’s relevance to results. Both databases were similar except perhaps the
create my annotations. I used the template provided by target audience was different; for instance, the Women’s
Academic Search Premier as well as the book I have from Studies International database was geared more toward
one of my writing classes, MLA Handbook for Writers of women and feminists.
Research Papers, to cite the sources. I searched the Internet
Entry: Websites
for some of the websites of the journals the articles were
published in to make sure they were actually credible and For this assignment, I chose to use two different search
scholarly. I had some difficulty finding one of the authors, engines that we had learned about in class but that I’m
Jennifer Nam, but after finding the website of the journal not particularly familiar with. I chose to use Dogpile and
her article was published in, I determined that the author Exalead.com/search because they seemed to be valuable
was likely a student at Columbia Law School. Other than search engines. I first searched with Exalead by typing my
this, the process seemed to go well. keywords sex trafficking into the search box. My search
generated a number of results, but many of these were
Entry: Subject-Specific Databases
only individual pages dedicated to sex trafficking rather
The first step I took in my research process was to scan than entire websites. I chose to use the advanced search
the different categories of reference databases and find feature to narrow my results. As I familiarized myself with
categories that looked like they would pertain to my the advanced search feature, I noticed a tool that allowed
research question. I first looked under Government, Poli- me to choose where my information would come from.
tics, & Law. I looked at the description for each subject- One of these options was “in title of page” and had the
specific database and chose a few that seemed relevant. word website in parentheses next to it. I clicked this fea-
I then typed my keywords into each of these databases. ture, and it added the following text to the search bar:
None of the databases that seemed relevant yielded any intitle:(sex trafficking). Using this phrasing, my search
120 | The Paper Trail Project

became more focused, returning primarily entire web- information to answer my research question. I would like
sites dedicated to the topic of sex trafficking. I looked at to have found a bit more to address the “how do they
a number of these websites; however, many were run by become victims” part of my question; however, I have
religious orga­nizations and did not seem to be unbiased enough information that it can be answered thoughtfully.
or credible sources. Yet I did find one website, Captive​ Overall, I believe I found relevant and useful sources.
Daughters​.org, which looked promising. I browsed the
Part 2: Information Literacy
website, particularly the About Us section, and deter-
mined that it met my evaluation criteria. Unlike many of I did not come into this class thinking that it would require
the other websites, it was run by a nonprofit orga­nization, as much hard work as it did, and as a junior, I thought I was
was well researched and orga­nized, and did not appear sufficiently able to locate relevant sources from a number
to have any bias. I also found in my browsing that the of different locations and databases. I quickly discovered
website helped to answer my research question. For these that there was much I needed to learn about the research
reasons I chose to use this website as one of my sources. process. Although the research process required a lot of
I chose to use Dogpile for the remainder of my search effort, I think that, overall, the process went smoothly and
after sifting through a number of pages on Exalead and I learned a great deal along the way. I now am comfortable
having difficulty locating any more valuable sources using not only finding sources but determining their relevance
that search engine. I began my search on Dogpile using the as well. The hardest task in this process was retrieving
same keywords in the search bar, sex trafficking. I scanned sources from online databases, and it is in this area that I
the first two pages of results, looking in particular at the feel I have progressed the most. I am now comfortable not
website address listed under each entry. Many of these only using a number of different databases but also using
addresses indicated that the result was only a single page. the tools I have learned over the course of the semester,
To return better results I decided to use the feature located such as Boolean searching and truncation when searching
on the right-hand side of the search engine, “Are you look- these databases. I also found it difficult to locate books
ing for?” Similar to subject terms, this feature listed a num- within the library using call numbers. Now I feel that if I
ber of phrases related to the term sex trafficking, such as need to locate a book, I will be able to do so successfully. I
“Causes in Human Trafficking,” “Facts about Human Traf- felt the easiest part of the research process was preparing
ficking,” etc. I browsed these phrases and searched using the annotations. After the sources were found, the annota-
a number of them, again paying close attention to the tions were simple to create. The best sources I found were
site address. Doing this I was able to locate three more the websites and books. The database articles were useful
relevant sources. I used the same search criteria to deter- because they tended to address one specific issue; how-
mine the value of each website as I had for the Captive​ ever, the books and websites addressed quite a few issues
Daughters.org website. I also browsed the websites to and provided more information in total. In general, I feel
find information that was directly relevant to my research that I have learned more about the research process than
question. Each of the websites I chose answers all or part I had ever expected, and this class has certainly changed
of my research question. I found that Dogpile returned the way I will conduct research in the future. I now realize
more valuable results than Exalead, perhaps because it is that before this class, I was not finding credible and rel-
a metasearch engine. evant sources, and I was also limiting the sources I could
find by only using one search method. Now, however, I
Research Summary realize that I have a number of search tools at my disposal.
If I could give one piece of advice to a non–Library 120
Part 1: Information Need
student, it would be to become familiar with the library’s
Over the course of the semester I found quite a few sources databases and search tips. It is easy nowadays when the
that addressed my research question. These sources came Internet is so useful to just search using search engines
from a number of different literary forms, and although such as Google. Although I have learned that these search
some were more useful than others, I believe that if I had engines can be helpful, I have also discovered that there
to write a research paper utilizing these sources it would is so much information that can be found using other
be well supported and thorough. I certainly found enough sources.
 The Paper Trail Project | 121

Student Time Line for Completing Out of class: Students complete a five-item “Anno-
the Paper Trail Project tated Bibliography of Books,” writing research
journal entries for each item.
This time line is based on implementing the Paper
Trail Project during a fifteen-week information literacy
Week 6: Finding and Using Print
course.
Periodical Literature

Week 1: General Introduction In class: Students practice using print indexes to

to the Paper Trail Project identify citations. Students practice locating
articles using the library catalog.
In class: Students discuss Paper Trail Project goal
and objectives and receive handout describing Out of class: Students identify, read, and evaluate
the requirements for the project. several periodical articles from print indexes for
their Paper Trail Projects.
Out of class: Students brainstorm and jot down
three ideas that can be developed into topics for
their Paper Trail Projects. Week 7: Finding and Using Electronic
Periodical Literature

Week 2: Choosing a Topic In class: Students practice using online periodical

databases to identify relevant periodical citations
In class: Students identify and locate encyclopedias for their Paper Trail Projects. Students practice
during class time. Students use instructor-­provided using evaluative criteria to judge the appropriate-
guide to practice writing encyclopedia citations ness of articles for their projects.
and annotations. Students receive instruction on
how to write research journal entries. Out of class: Students use electronic periodical data-
bases to identify and locate five relevant articles
Out of class: Students find an encyclopedia article on their Paper Trail topic.
on their topic, create a citation and annotation
for the article, and write a research journal entry
about the process. Week 8: Developing an Annotated
Bibliography of Articles

Week 3: Developing the Research Question In class: Using the guide provided, students practice
writing periodical citations and annotations.
In class: Students create a concept map for their
topic. Students use worksheets to develop pos- Out of class: Students develop and write a five-item
sible Paper Trail research questions. “Annotated Bibliography of Periodical Articles”
on their topic and include research journal
Out of class: Students develop finalized Paper Trail entries for each.
Project research questions and write a research
journal entry on the process.
Week 9: Using Experts and Statistics in Research

Week 4: Finding and Using Books In class: Students practice using library tools to
identify experts and statistics on their topics.
In class: Students search the catalog and retrieve
books relevant to their topics. Out of class: Students identify and contact three
experts, asking for information for their research;
and/or students identify and cite three supportive
Week 5: Developing an Annotated statistics for their Paper Trail Project. Students
Bibliography of Books write research journal entries for “Experts and
In class: Using instructor-provided guide and verbal Statistics.”
instructions, students learn to prepare a formal
“Annotated Bibliography of Books.”
122 | The Paper Trail Project

Week 10: Finding Websites for Research Week 12: Putting It All Together
In class: Students explore and practice using effec- In class: Students meet with the instructor to review
tive web-searching techniques to find quality Paper Trail Project progress.
websites related to their topics.
Out of class: Students revise, update, and complete
Out of class: Students select several websites and Paper Trail Project parts.
describe their content and usefulness in journal
entries. Students continue to identify, obtain, and
Weeks 13 and 14: Finalizing the Project
evaluate relevant books, articles, expert informa-
tion, statistics, and websites and comment on In class: The instructor wraps up the semester by
what they have found in their journal entries. reviewing topics and applying assessments.
Out of class: Students complete and finalize proj-
Week 11: Evaluating Websites for Research ects outside of class. Students contact the instruc-
tor via e-mail or phone for guidance.
In class: Students evaluate their selected websites
based on criteria discussed in class. Students
practice writing citations and annotations for Week 15: Paper Trail Project Completed
websites.
In class: All projects turned in today!
Out of class: Students develop and write a five-item
“Annotated Bibliography of Websites,” including
research journal entries for each website used.
Chapter Eleven

Assessment

Assessment is what shows us how well our message or lesson was received
and remembered by our students. It demonstrates student success and learning.
The best methods of assessment require students to use, apply, and/or translate
what they have learned to complete a task or assignment. Assessments can be
complex or simple, long-term or short-term. By asking students to explain what
they have learned, their deep learning (deep learning is the learning that has been
“hardwired” in the brain over the course of the semester; it has been thoroughly
learned and incorporated into the core of what the student knows without really
thinking about it), long-term retention, and ability to transfer concepts to new
applications can be assessed.
Assessment is part of the “feedback cycle of learning.” In addition to telling stu-
dents how well they have learned, the results of assessments will show instructors
where they have been successful in transferring knowledge to students and where
there is a need for improvement. This second piece of the process of assessment
should result in adjustments to the lesson if needed. If the assessment cycle is
completed, lessons should go through adjustments and changes until they are
balanced with student outcomes that meet a preset benchmark (80 percent of the
class scores a C or better on the assessment, for example).
In addition to its other uses, assessment allows students to practice and use what
they know. Long-term retention of information requires repeated application of
that information. Using a variety of assessment types accommodates different learn-
ing styles and allows students to use different methods and skills in completing
the assessment. As part of the learning cycle, students can solidify their long-term
retention by applying what they have learned while completing an assessment.

How Does One Create an Assessment?

It is useful to create an assessment at the same time you are planning a lesson, as
the two are almost inseparable. In planning for any lesson, its important set a goal

123
124 | Assessment

(or outcome) by asking the question “What do I want them examine the advanced search options in a new
the students to learn or take away from this lesson?” database and compare the two.
This goal should be the instructor’s guide for both pre- Class Presentation. Although most students do not
senting the lesson and assessing it. Once the goal has enjoy being in the spotlight giving a class presentation,
been established, it is then necessary to ask, “How can the process of finding the information, putting it into
I determine whether or how well the students received a logical and understandable format, and presenting
and remembered the lesson?” it to an audience is something most students will be
There are many types of assessment. Not every type called upon to do in their working lives. It is beneficial
of assessment is applicable to every learning situation. for students to have practice in this type of assessment
However, each is effective if used properly. In some in class, where the stakes are not as high as they might
situations it is useful to use more than one type of be in the workplace. Class presentations can be done
assessment, especially to address different learning by individuals or small groups. They can be presented
styles. in a variety of ways. Students might use technology
Tests and Quizzes. Most instructors are familiar with to enhance the presentation. Have students do some
testing students by asking them to answer questions research and present their findings to the class. Require
on paper (or online). Tests can include matching, a handout and/or a bibliography of their research.
multiple choice, short answer, and essay or a combi- Annotation. Have students summarize in writing the
nation of these techniques. These kinds of questions reading or lesson they have just completed, pointing
generally test memory, but they may not get to the out the most important points.
heart of whether or not the student has internalized Portfolio with Written Reflection. Have students
the information for use in deep learning. save their work in a portfolio (paper or electronic) and
Some other methods of assessment require students periodically reflect on what they have learned and how
to use, apply, and/or translate what they have learned their learning has progressed over a period of time.
to complete a task or assignment. These assessments Comprehensive Exam. The comprehensive exam
can be simple or complex. They can be long term or should assess the total learning achieved by students
short term. By asking students to explain what they by including a variety of questions requiring the appli-
have learned, their deep learning, long-term retention, cation of what they have learned in class. It should
and ability to transfer concepts to new applications can give students the opportunity to explain, demonstrate,
be assessed, rather than simply their ability to memo- produce, and apply information in a variety of ways.
rize. Some other methods of assessment follow: This is also a possible means of comparing one group
Minute Writing. Ask students to reflect in a time- of students to another (see the “Comprehensive Exam”
limited situation on a reading or concept. Ask one description below).
question that requires the students to explain or apply
what they have learned. This writing should be no
longer than one or two minutes. Long-Term Learning
Muddiest Point. At the end of a lesson, ask students and Retention
to write down the part of the lesson that is least clear to
them or about which they still have questions. Long-term learning and retention are most successful
Peer Teaching. Place students in pairs or small when students
groups and have one student teach the other(s) what
he or she learned in the lesson. • get feedback,
Practical Application. Have students complete an • have the ability to revise and redo, and
assignment that requires the use of the information • reapply skills/knowledge in a new way.
presented in the lesson by using it in a new way. For
example, if the lesson has been about the evaluation of To maximize student success, process assessments
websites, ask students to select a website on a specific so that students get feedback on what they have done
topic and defend its use as an appropriate academic well, what needs work, and how they can do better.
source for a term paper or an appropriate source for a Having students submit assignments they never see
personal application. If the lesson has been about how again, or returning assignments with no accompanying
to use the advanced search options in a database, have feedback, may fulfill the instructors need to measure
 Assessment | 125

student learning. It does not, however, allow the stu- the extent to which the learning outcomes/goals have
dent to learn from their mistakes or to reinforce their been met.
correct answers.
This means that scheduling is an important part of
assessment. With a long-term project like a term paper, Tips for Using Assessments
it is often difficult for students to gauge how well or
how poorly they have done. Because a term paper is Process and return assessments with comments, so that
usually due at the end of the term, there is little time students get feedback on what they have done well,
for feedback and no time for revision. what needs work, and how they can do better.
However, a large project like a term paper could be Use the results of each assessment to evaluate how
broken down into smaller tasks that can be assessed well the assignment/exercise achieved its goals. If stu-
before the whole project is due, allowing students dents did not perform as expected, it’s a clear indica-
time to receive feedback and to revise and apply as tor that the assignment/exercise needs adjustment or
appropriate. Examples of some other large projects revision.
are listed below.
Paper Trail Project
Comprehensive Exam
Portfolio
Capstone Project (a final summative project draw- In teaching information literacy, we wanted to be able
ing together what the student has learned and to provide information to ourselves and to the admin-
showing mastery of the subject) istration that our course was valuable to students and
worth the time, personnel, and equipment required.
Senior Thesis To accomplish this, we wanted all students who took
Library 120 to take the same comprehensive exam.
This exam would test their proficiency in informa-
Rubrics tion literacy, using a variety of testing methods and
requiring students to apply what they learned to new
Students should know what elements of the assign- situations.
ment they will be graded on and how much weight Administration of a common exam was not difficult.
each element carries. This requires the construction of We used the classroom management software (CMS)
a rubric for each assignment. Rubrics can be simple or the university supported. We scheduled common exam
complex. They should be based on the desired learn- times each semester. We had paper backup exams, in
ing outcomes for the assignment they relate to, which case of catastrophic computer failure on campus. We
must, of course, be determined in advance. had computer technicians on hand in case of minor
In essence, the stated goal for the exercise or assign- computer problems. Students came in person to take
ment will break down into measurable components the exam on library computers.
for the completion of the assignment. Each compo- We did not feel we had the expertise or the time to
nent is assigned a value, and students are rated (and create our own testing instrument. We also hoped to
earn points) based on how well they have met the find an instrument that others were using. This would
requirements for each component. Scores for each allow us to assess our students and compare the results
component are totaled for a grade for the assignment of their testing to those of other institutions. Finding
or exercise. a comprehensive exam that met our needs was a little
We have provided the rubric we use for the Paper more difficult. Although there were several field-tested
Trail Project in a three-credit course in information assessments of information literacy available, only one
literacy as an example (see chapter 10, figure 10.1, met our criteria. The Bay Area Community College
“Grading Rubric for the Paper Trail Project”). Information Competency Assessment Project allowed
Rubrics should be given to students with the assign- us to use and modify their exam.
ment, to show them how their assessment will be The instruction group met weekly for several
graded. The rubric serves as a standardized means of months, using grant money to fund several retreats
assigning points and allows the instructor to determine to work exclusively on the comprehensive exam.
126 | Assessment

We identified questions that needed adjustment. Indicators, and Outcomes,” we also used summary
We debated the wording, the type of question, the information to determine whether there were stan-
examples chosen, and so on. Once we had our testing dards that were not being met by our course. Finally,
instrument drafted, we asked a small group of gradu- we used the summarized student results to determine
ate students to field test it for us. Their test results and if there were questions that were problematic because
their comments allowed us to revise and fine-tune the they were poorly worded or hard to understand for
exam. When it had been edited, we asked another some other reason.
small group of graduate students to take the test and After the first administration of the exam, the
to give us feedback on what problems they had in tak- instructors group met again to go over the results,
ing the exam. determine which questions needed adjustment, and
Meanwhile, we worked out the logistics of where rewrite the problem questions. The revised exam was
and when the exam would be given and made con- given again in the spring semester. This cycle contin-
tingency plans for anything that might go wrong. The ued until summer 2009. At this time, we felt we had
students first took the comprehensive exam at the end collected enough data to show that the course was
of the fall semester 2006. The exam counted as 10 per- valuable to the student, that most students were at
cent of their final grade. For our own purposes, we set least meeting the benchmark grade set, and to alert us
a benchmark of 70 percent as the lowest passing grade. to problem areas in our teaching. We continue to use
We were able to determine from this benchmark how the data to assess how our students perform and where
many students scored above or below this benchmark. improvements can be made in our course.
The answers for each question were analyzed to We feel that the comprehensive exam is a valuable
show how many students got each question right or tool when used in concert with the Paper Trail Project.
wrong. Because the exam questions were mapped to Together, these two assessments allow us to determine
the ACRL “Information Literacy Competency Stan- student learning outcomes, teaching outcomes, and
dards for Higher Education, Standards, Performance outcomes for the information literacy program.
Appendix

Information Literacy Competency

Standards for Higher Education

Association of College and Research Libraries, “Information Literacy

Competency Standards for Higher Education, Standards, Performance
Indicators, and Outcomes.” Approved by ACRL Board, January 18, 2000.

Standard One
The information-literate student determines the nature and extent of the infor-
mation needed.

Performance Indicators
1. The information-literate student defines and articulates the need for information.

Outcomes Include

a. Confers with instructors and participates in class discussions, peer work-

groups, and electronic discussions to identify a research topic or other
information need
b. Develops a thesis statement and formulates questions based on the informa-
tion need
c. Explores general information sources to increase familiarity with the topic
d. Defines or modifies the information need to achieve a manageable focus
e. Identifies key concepts and terms that describe the information need
f. Recognizes that existing information can be combined with original thought,
experimentation, and/or analysis to produce new information

2. The information-literate student identifies a variety of types and formats of poten-

tial sources for information.

Outcomes Include

a. Knows how information is formally and informally produced, orga­nized,

and disseminated

127
128 | Appendix: Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education

b. Recognizes that knowledge can be orga­nized Standard Two

into disciplines that influence the way informa-
tion is accessed The information-literate student accesses needed
information effectively and efficiently.
c. Identifies the value and differences of potential
resources in a variety of formats (e.g., multime-
dia, database, website, data set, audio/visual, Performance Indicators
book)
1. The information-literate student selects the most ap-
d. Identifies the purpose and audience of potential propriate investigative methods or information retrieval
resources (e.g., popular vs. scholarly, current vs. systems for accessing the needed information.
historical)
Outcomes Include
e. Differentiates between primary and secondary
sources, recognizing how their use and impor- a. Identifies appropriate investigative methods
tance vary with each discipline (e.g., laboratory experiment, simulation, field-
f. Realizes that information may need to be con- work)
structed with raw data from primary sources b. Investigates benefits and applicability of various
investigative methods
3. The information-literate student considers the costs
and benefits of acquiring the needed information. c. Investigates the scope, content, and orga­
nization of information retrieval systems
Outcomes Include d. Selects efficient and effective approaches for
accessing the information needed from the
a. Determines the availability of needed infor- investigative method or information retrieval
mation and makes decisions on broadening system
the information-seeking process beyond local
resources (e.g., interlibrary loan; using resources 2. The information-literate student constructs and im-
at other locations; obtaining images, videos, plements effectively designed search strategies.
text, or sound)
b. Considers the feasibility of acquiring a new lan- Outcomes Include
guage or skill (e.g., foreign or discipline-based)
a. Develops a research plan appropriate to the
in order to gather needed information and to
investigative method
understand its context
b. Identifies keywords, synonyms, and related
c. Defines a realistic overall plan and time line to
terms for the information needed
acquire the needed information
c. Selects controlled vocabulary specific to the
4. The information-literate student reevaluates the na- discipline or information retrieval source
ture and extent of the information need. d. Constructs a search strategy using appropriate
commands for the information retrieval system
Outcomes Include selected (e.g., Boolean operators, truncation,
and proximity for search engines; internal orga­
a. Reviews the initial information need to clarify, nizers such as indexes for books)
revise, or refine the question
e. Implements the search strategy in various infor-
b. Describes criteria used to make information mation retrieval systems using different user
decisions and choices interfaces and search engines, with different
command languages, protocols, and search
parameters
 Appendix: Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education | 129

f. Implements the search using investigative pro- b. Creates a system for orga­nizing the information
tocols appropriate to the discipline
c. Differentiates between the types of sources cited
and understands the elements and correct syn-
3. The information-literate student retrieves informa-
tax of a citation for a wide range of resources
tion online or in person using a variety of methods.
d. Records all pertinent citation information for
Outcomes Include future reference

a. Uses various search systems to retrieve informa- e. Uses various technologies to manage the infor-
tion in a variety of formats mation selected and orga­nized

b. Uses various classification schemes and other

systems (e.g., call number systems or indexes) to Standard Three
locate information resources within the library
or to identify specific sites for physical explora- The information-literate student evaluates informa-
tion tion and its sources critically and incorporates se-
lected information into his or her knowledge base
c. Uses specialized online or in-person ser­vices and value system.
available at the institution to retrieve informa-
tion needed (e.g., interlibrary loan/document Performance Indicators
delivery, professional associations, institutional
research offices, community resources, experts 1. The information-literate student summarizes the
and practitioners) main ideas to be extracted from the information gath-
d. Uses surveys, letters, interviews, and other forms ered.
of inquiry to retrieve primary information
Outcomes Include
4. The information-literate student refines the search
strategy if necessary. a. Reads the text and selects main ideas
b. Restates textual concepts in his/her own words
Outcomes Include and selects data accurately
a. Assesses the quantity, quality, and relevance of c. Identifies verbatim material that can be then
the search results to determine whether alterna- appropriately quoted
tive information retrieval systems or investiga-
tive methods should be utilized 2. The information-literate student articulates and ap-
b. Identifies gaps in the information retrieved and plies initial criteria for evaluating both the information
determines if the search strategy should be re- and its sources.
vised
Outcomes Include
c. Repeats the search using the revised strategy as
necessary a. Examines and compares information from vari-
ous sources in order to evaluate reliability, valid-
ity, accuracy, authority, timeliness, and point of
5. The information-literate student extracts, records,
view or bias
and manages the information and its sources.
b. Analyzes the structure and logic of supporting
Outcomes Include arguments or methods

a. Selects among various technologies the most c. Recognizes prejudice, deception, or manipula-
appropriate one for the task of extracting the tion
needed information (e.g., copy/paste software d. Recognizes the cultural, physical, or other con-
functions, photocopier, scanner, audio/visual text within which the information was created
equipment, or exploratory instruments)
130 | Appendix: Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education

and understands the impact of context on inter- 5. The information-literate student determines whether
preting the information the new knowledge has an impact on the individual’s
value system and takes steps to reconcile differences.
3. The information-literate student synthesizes main
ideas to construct new concepts. Outcomes Include

Outcomes Include a. Investigates differing viewpoints encountered in

the literature
a. Recognizes interrelationships among concepts
b. Determines whether to incorporate or reject
and combines them into potentially useful pri-
viewpoints encountered
mary statements with supporting evidence
b. Extends initial synthesis, when possible, at a
higher level of abstraction to construct new 6. The information-literate student validates under-
hypotheses that may require additional informa- standing and interpretation of the information through
tion discourse with other individuals, subject-area experts,
and/or practitioners.
c. Utilizes computer and other technologies (e.g.,
spreadsheets, databases, multimedia, and audio Outcomes Include
or visual equipment) for studying the interac-
tion of ideas and other phenomena a. Participates in classroom and other discussions
b. Participates in class-sponsored electronic com-
4. The information-literate student compares new munication forums designed to encourage
knowledge with prior knowledge to determine the value discourse on the topic (e.g., e-mail, bulletin
added, contradictions, or other unique characteristics boards, chat rooms)
of the information.
c. Seeks expert opinion through a variety of mech-
Outcomes Include anisms (e.g., interviews, e-mail, listservs)

a. Determines whether information satisfies the 7. The information-literate student determines whether
research or other information need the initial query should be revised.
b. Uses consciously selected criteria to determine
whether the information contradicts or verifies Outcomes Include
information used from other sources
a. Determines if original information need has
c. Draws conclusions based upon information been satisfied or if additional information is
gathered needed
d. Tests theories with discipline-appropriate tech- b. Reviews search strategy and incorporates ad-
niques (e.g., simulators, experiments) ditional concepts as necessary
e. Determines probable accuracy by questioning c. Reviews information retrieval sources used and
the source of the data, the limitations of the expands to include others as needed
information gathering tools or strategies, and
the reasonableness of the conclusions
Standard Four
f. Integrates new information with previous infor-
mation or knowledge The information-literate student, individually or as
a member of a group, uses information effectively to
g. Selects information that provides evidence for
accomplish a specific purpose.
the topic
 Appendix: Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education | 131

Performance Indicators Standard Five

1. The information-literate student applies new and The information-literate student understands many
prior information to the planning and creation of a of the economic, legal, and social issues surround-
particular product or performance. ing the use of information and accesses and uses
information ethically and legally.
Outcomes Include
Performance Indicators
a. Orga­nizes the content in a manner that sup-
ports the purposes and format of the product or 1. The information-literate student understands many
performance (e.g., outlines, drafts, storyboards) of the ethical, legal and socio-economic issues sur-
b. Articulates knowledge and skills transferred rounding information and information technology.
from prior experiences to planning and creating
the product or performance Outcomes Include

c. Integrates the new and prior information, in- a. Identifies and discusses issues related to privacy
cluding quotations and paraphrasings, in a man- and security in both the print and electronic
ner that supports the purposes of the product or environments
performance
b. Identifies and discusses issues related to free vs.
d. Manipulates digital text, images, and data as fee-based access to information
needed, transferring them from their original
c. Identifies and discusses issues related to censor-
locations and formats to a new context
ship and freedom of speech
2. The information-literate student revises the develop- d. Demonstrates an understanding of intellectual
ment process for the product or performance. property, copyright, and fair use of copyrighted
material
Outcomes Include
2. The information-literate student follows laws, regu-
a. Maintains a journal or log of activities related to lations, institutional policies, and etiquette related to
the information-seeking, evaluating, and com- the access and use of information resources.
municating process
b. Reflects on past successes, failures, and alterna- Outcomes Include
tive strategies
a. Participates in electronic discussions following
accepted practices (e.g., “netiquette”)
3. The information-literate student communicates the b. Uses approved passwords and other forms of ID
product or performance effectively to others. for access to information resources
Outcomes Include c. Complies with institutional policies on access
to information resources
a. Chooses a communication medium and format d. Preserves the integrity of information resources,
that best supports the purposes of the product equipment, systems, and facilities
or performance and the intended audience
e. Legally obtains, stores, and disseminates text,
b. Uses a range of information technology applica- data, images, or sounds
tions in creating the product or performance
f. Demonstrates an understanding of what con-
c. Incorporates principles of design and commu- stitutes plagiarism and does not represent work
nication attributable to others as his/her own
d. Communicates clearly and with a style that sup- g. Demonstrates an understanding of institutional
ports the purposes of the intended audience policies related to human subjects research
132 | Appendix: Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education

3. The information-literate student acknowledges the

use of information sources in communicating the prod-
uct or performance.

Outcomes Include

a. Selects an appropriate documentation style and

uses it consistently to cite sources
b. Posts permission granted notices, as needed, for
copyrighted material

For more complete information, please go to

www.acrl.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/standards/
informationliteracycompetency.cfm and
www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/issues/infolit.
Contributors

Kate Cheromcha is the hospital librarian at the Florence Grant Health Science Library,
Windham Hospital, Willimantic, Connecticut.
Amanda K. Izenstark is an assistant professor in the public ser­vices department at the
Robert L. Carothers Library at the University of Rhode Island, Kingston, where she
serves as the reference and instructional design librarian. She is an active member of
ALA and ACRL and provides research assistance to college students in the Orphan
Foundation of America.
Jim Kinnie is an associate professor in the public ser­vices department at the Robert L.
Carothers Library at the University of Rhode Island, Kingston, where he serves
as the humanities librarian. He is an active member of ALA, ACRL, ACRL New
England Chapter, and the Rhode Island Library Association.
Peter J. Larsen is an associate professor in the public ser­vices department at the
Robert L. Carothers Library at the University of Rhode Island, Kingston, where he
serves as the engineering and physical sciences librarian.
Members of the Instruction Unit at the University of Rhode Island, including
Mary MacDonald, Amanda K. Izenstark, Jim Kinnie, Peter J. Larsen and Kate
Cheromcha, won the ACRL Instruction Section Innovation Award in 2006 for their
“Issues of the Information Age” public forum series.

133
Index

A assessment
Academic Search Premier database, 71, comprehensive exam, 125–126
118–119 creating, 123–124
access to information defined, 123
indexing and, 69–71 long-term learning and retention,
in information age, 48–49, 51 124–125
accuracy of information, 16, 87 methods of, 124
ACRL (Association of College and Paper Trail Project, 111
Research Libraries) rubrics, 125
Standard 1, 127–128 tips for using, 125
Standard 2, 128–129 assignments
Standard 3, 129–130 LMS support, 5
Standard 4, 130–131 Paper Trail Project example, 112–113
Standard 5, 131–132 Association of College and Research
active learning, 4 Libraries. See ACRL (Association of
AllTheWeb search engine, 84 College and Research Libraries)
AltaVista search engine, 84 audience for information, 15, 87
AMA (American Medical Association), authorship
79, 93, 95 defined, 38
American Bar Association, 95 evaluating Web information, 87
American Civil Liberties Union, 79 information age issues, 38–39, 48
American Library Association, 95 information ownership and, 48
American Medical Association (AMA), averages, defined, 99
79, 93, 95
Amnesty International, 95 B
analytical information, 15 background information. See gathering
annotated bibliographies information
about, 57, 59 Bay Area Community College
Paper Trail Project example, 113–118 (California), 125
AnyWho.com website, 49 Beck, Susan E., 89

135
136 | Index

Beer Institute, 95 process for, 29 G

bibliographic record, 54–56 tools for, 7 Gale Expanded Academic Index, 71
bibliographies, annotated, 56–59 Conservapedia wiki, 8 gathering information
Blogger tool, 8 content analysis, 58 from encyclopedias, 23–25
blogs, 8, 84–86, 98 controlled vocabulary, 56–57 in research process, 22
books copyright, 44–45, 48 tools for, 23
annotated bibliographies, 56–59 globalization of information, 2
evaluating, 56–58 D Google Blog Search, 85
finding in library, 54–56 databases Google Docs suite, 7–8
Paper Trail Project example, 118 creating search statements, 71–75 Google Forms tool, 8
Boolean logic, 30, 32, 71, 74–75 defined, 72–74 Google Reader, 85
brainstorming tools, 7, 29 description and usability, 75–78 Google search engine, 84
browsers, feed readers and, 85 Internet versus, 80–82 government agencies, 79, 95
bubbl.us tool, 7 Paper Trail Project example, Greenpeace, 95
Bureau of Economic Analysis, 95 119
Bureau of Justice Statistics, 79, 95 for periodicals, 71–76 H
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 95 Delicious social bookmarking site, 7 handheld devices, 6
Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 95 Department of Justice, 79 history of information, 1–3
Burkhardt, Joanna M., 46 Diigo social bookmarking site, 8 homelessness exercise, 12
Bush, George H. W., 50 disciplines, identifying, 27, 30 How Opal Mehta Got Kissed
Dogpile search engine, 119–120 (Viswanathan), 45, 47
C How to Lie with Statistics (Huff), 98
Cabot, Meg, 47 E Huff, Darrell, 98
catalogs Economic Analysis, Bureau of, 95
bibliographic record, 54–56 educational institutions, 79 I
controlled vocabulary, 56–57 Electronic Privacy Information indexing, 69–71
defined, 53–54 Center (EPIC), 50 Industrial Revolution, 2
subject headings, 56–57 Encyclopedia of Associations, 93–95 industry associations, 79
Census Bureau, 12, 79, 95 encyclopedias for background information
chain of information, 36. See also information, 23–25 characteristics of, 11–12, 18
information cycle EPIC (Electronic Privacy defining, 9–10
Chartle.net website, 7 Information Center), 50 evaluating, 14–16, 26
charts evaluating presenting, 13
displaying statistical information, 99 books, 56–58 unavailable on Web, 89–91
tools for creating, 7 information, 14–16, 26 information age
Cheromcha, Kate, 26, 72–74 information on the Web, 87–89 information literacy forums,
citing works, 48 information sources, 15–16, 40–42
Citizendium wiki, 8 22–23 information quantity in, 37
classroom management software search engines, 80, 84 intellectual property and, 38–39
(CMS), 6, 125 statistical information, 99 issues of, 43–45
classroom-response systems, 6 Exalead search engine, 119–120 plagiarism and, 38–39, 45–48
ClassSpot tool, 6 experts and organizations, 93–95 privacy considerations, 43, 48–51
clickers, 6 information anxiety, 1, 10–12
CMS (classroom management F information cycle
software), 6, 125 factual information, 15 chain of information and, 36
collaboration tools, 6–8 fair use, copyright and, 44–45, 48 defined, 33
comprehensive exam, 124–126 Faviki social bookmarking site, 8 developing research methods,
concept mapping feed readers, 85–86 35–36
defined, 27 FreeMind tool, 7 effects of time and, 34–35
depicted, 28 free-range searching, 4, 55 receiving information, 33–34
 Index | 137

information explosion L Organization for Economic

ages of information, 2–3 Labor Statistics, Bureau of, 95 Cooperation and Development
finding the best information, 3–4 LanSchool (CMS), 6 (OECD), 95
history of information, 1–3 Larsen, Peter J., 60–62, 98–99 organizations, experts and, 93–95
information gathering. See gathering LaTeX format, 7
information LCSH (Library of Congress Subject P
information literacy forums, 40–42 Headings), 56 Paper Trail Project
Information Research (List), 70 learning. See teaching methods and about, 101, 107
information sources. See sources of applications annotated bibliographies, 113–
information learning management systems 118
intellectual property (LMS), 5 assessing, 111
authorship and, 38–39, 48 Library of Congress Classification components, 103–105, 107–108
copyright and, 44 System, 54–56 description, 102
defined, 38 Library of Congress Subject example of completed, 112–120
fair use provision, 44–45, 48 Headings (LCSH), 56 goals of, 101–102
information age issues, 43–45 List, Carla J., 70 grading criteria, 106–111
plagiarism, 38–39, 45–48 LMS (learning management introducing to students, 105
publishers and, 43–44, 48 systems), 5 methods of facilitating, 105
interactive whiteboards, 6 long-term learning and retention, presentation formats, 106
intergovernmental organizations, 124–125 student learning outcomes,
95 loyalty cards, 43 102–103
International Encyclopedia of Lunar Orbiter Image Recovery student time line for, 121–122
Information and Library Project, 51 tips for guiding students, 106
Science, 63 PBworks wiki, 8
International Monetary Fund, 95 M PDAs, 6
Internet mean, defined, 99 periodicals
databases versus, 80–82 median, defined, 99 access tools, 69–70
evaluating information on, 87–89 MediaWiki wiki, 8 databases for, 71–76
information unavailable on, Merriam-Webster Online dictionary, defined, 63–64
89–91 27 indexing, 69–71
Paper Trail Project example, Miles, Libby, 23 Paper Trail Project example,
119–120 mind-mapping tools, 7 118
privacy and, 49–50 mode, defined, 99 taxonomy of, 64, 66–68
resource sharing, 7–8 types of, 64–69
searching, 69, 80–86 N permission settings (LMS), 5
Web 2.0 technology, 5 NAACP, 79 plagiarism, 38–39, 45–48
websites as information sources, National Center for Education point of view, 15
79–80 Statistics, 95 presenting information, 13
Izenstark, Amanda K., 5–8, 84–86 National Center for Health Statistics, primary source of information, 12–
95 13
J National Restaurant Association, 93, privacy considerations
Justice, Department of, 79 96 collaboration tools, 7
Justice Statistics, Bureau of, 79, 95 NetSupport School (CMS), 6 information age and, 43, 48–51
NetVibes reader, 85 right to privacy, 50
K problem-based learning, 3–4
Kelly, Carrie A., 47 O professional associations, 79
Kenney, Barbara F., 4 objective information, 16, 87–88 Project Gutenberg, 89
keywords, 57 OECD (Organization for ProQuest Research Library database,
Kids Count website, 96 Economic Cooperation and 71
Kinnie, Jim, 40–42 Development), 95 publishers, 43–44, 48
138 | Index

Q Paper Trail Project example, survival messages, 1–2

quality of information. See also Paper 119–120 SynchronEyes (CMS), 6
Trail Project strategies using, 81, 84–86
defining, 13–16 searching T
determining, 16–18 creating database statements, teaching methods and applications
quantity of information, 37 71–75 active learning, 4
quizzes discovering terms, 30, 32 problem-based learning, 3–4
assessment and, 124 free-range, 4, 55 technology in the classroom, 5–8
LMS support, 5 Internet, 69, 80–86 TeamSpot tool, 6
strategies for, 81 technology in the classroom, 5–8
R secondary source of information, time, information and, 34–35, 87
radio frequency identification 12–13 Toy Industry Association, 79, 95
(RFID), 43 sex trafficking Paper Trail Project, Transportation Statistics, Bureau of,
receiving information, 33–34 112–120 95
record keeping Smithsonian Institute, 79 Tufte, Edward R., 98
growing need for, 1–2 social bookmarking tools, 7–8
information age considerations, sources of information U
50–51 evaluating, 15–16, 22–23 United Nations, 95
preserving human record, 50 experts and organizations, 93–95 University of Rhode Island, 60,
responsibilities for, 51 identifying, 13–14 65, 101. See also Paper Trail
research institutions and museums, 79 primary, 12–13 Project
research process receiving information, 33–34
analogies about, 19–21 secondary, 12–13 V
concept mapping, 27–29 statistics, 94–99 Venn diagrams, 7
developing essential questions, websites as, 79–80 video surveillance, 43
21–23 Statistical Abstract of the United Visual Explanations (Tufte), 98
developing methods, 35–36 States, 96–97 visual literacy and statistics, 98–99
discovering search terms, 30, 32 statistics Viswanathan, Kaavya, 45, 47
formulating questions using defined, 94
context, 27–29, 31 evaluating information, 99 W
identifying disciplines, 27, 30 information sources for, 96 Web 2.0 technology, 5
identifying subject areas, 27, 30 Statistical Abstract of the United webliographies, 7–8
Paper Trail Project example, 112, States, 96–97 whiteboards, interactive, 6
120 strategies for finding, 95 Wikipedia wiki, 8, 26
steps to success, 22–23 tools for finding, 96 wikis, 8, 26
resource sharing, 7–8 types of, 94–95 WordPress.com tool, 8
RFID (radio frequency visual literacy and, 98–99 World Bank, 95
identification), 43 Strange Maps blog, 98 World Wide Web. See Internet
RSS feeds, 85–86 subject areas Wurman, Richard Saul, 1
identifying, 27, 30
S information literacy instruction, X
Sage reader, 85 60–62 Xmind tool, 7
Scholarpedia wiki, 8 subject headings in catalogs, 56–57
Search Engine Watch, 80 subjective information, 16 Z
search engines Surfrider Foundation, 93 Zoho suite, 7
as access tools, 69, 79 survey tools, 8
evaluating, 80, 84 SurveyMonkey tool, 8
 You may also be interested in
Reflective Teaching, Effective Learning: Instructional
Literacy for Library Educators: This much-needed book
introduces accessible concepts in instructional design (ID)
and instructional technology (IT) that will help librarians at
any level of experience.

Web-Based Instruction: A Guide for Libraries, Third

Edition: Librarians facing the challenge of creating a Web-
based project will find easy-to-understand guidance to
create an educational and interactive Web site—from start to
finish.

Building Bridges: Connecting Faculty, Students, and the

College Library: Packed with useful tips and techniques,
this handy guide offers advice on working with both students
and instructors to develop successful assignments that
integrate your library’s resources.

Marketing Today’s Academic Library: A Bold New

Approach to Communicating with Students: Brian
Mathews uses his vast experience to propose new visions
and ideas for matching services with student needs,
challenging the traditional way of thinking and providing a
framework to target users more precisely.

Order today at www.alastore.ala.org or 866-746-7252!

ALA Store purchases fund advocacy, awareness, and accreditation programs for library professionals worldwide.
 Joanna M. Burkhardt

teaching information literacy

Mary C. MacDonald
C overing the basics of planning, collecting, and evaluating, each of the 50
standards-based exercises in this book with Andrée J. Rathemacher
• Address one or more of the ACRL Information Literacy
Competency Standards for Higher Education
• Promote conceptual and applied skills via active learning,
problem-based learning, and resource-based learning
• Are ready for use by reference and instruction librarians at

teaching
colleges and community colleges, as well as others responsible
for teaching students how to conduct research

Perfect for a full semester course or a single, focused seminar or workshop, ​

these 50 lessons show how to engage with electronic and print information
resources alike.

You may also be interested in

information literacy

Second Edition
50 Standards-Based Exercises for College Students

www.alastore.ala.org

Burkhardt/MacDonald
Second
Edition

American Library Association

50 East Huron Street
Chicago, IL 60611
ISBN 978-0-8389-1053-5
1-866-SHOP ALA
9 780838 910535 (1-866-746-7252)
ALA

www.alastore.ala.org