Republic of the Philippine s

OCCIDENTAL MINDORO STATE COLLEGE

Labangan, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro
website: www.omsc.edu.ph email address: [email protected]
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Module
in
Foundations of Special and
Inclusive Education

Compiled by:

NIMFA B. PASTRANA, RPm, PhD

The compilers do not own any of the contents of this learning module. Due credits and
acknowledgment are given to the authors, internet sources, and researchers listed on the reference
page. Such sources
are reserved to further explain concepts and cannot be credited to the compiler and the school. All
diagrams, charts, and images are used for educational purposes only. The sole objective of this
instructional material is to facilitate independent learning and not for monetary gains because this is
NOT FOR SALE.

2020 Revision
 LESSON 1
Understanding Diversity

TOPICS

1. Loden’s Diversity Wheel

2. Ability andDisability as a Dimension of Diversity

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
• define diversity;
• explain different factors leading to diversity and their implications;
• discuss differences in home language and the medium of
instruction in school;
• describe influences of gender and caste stereotypes on children’s
development; and
• discuss ways to promote equitable participation of all in learning
and play

Let us begin with a classroom where the teacher is linking classroom teaching learning with food
eaten by families during different festivals.

Classroom Scene

Nicole is excited today and is not able to concentrate on the classwork given to her by her
teacher. She is eagerly waiting for the lunch break as today, it is her turn to share her favourite
festival food and the details related to the festival with the entire class. This is how her teacher has
linked the lesson on food with daily lives of students. She has also attempted to sensitize students
that different people of different regions serve and eat different foods on festivals and special
occasions. Let us reflect on the classroom scene:

Processing Questions:

• Are all children of the class being involved in this activity?

• Has the teacher been able to sensitize the children about the diversity in the class

Defining Diversity

The term diversity originated from the Latin word diversus which indicates differences.
Diverse means 'differing from each other' and 'made up of distinct characteristics, qualities, or
elements'. Being a large country with a large population, India presents endless varieties of physical
INTRODUCTION
features and cultural patterns. It is a land of diversity in race, religion, caste, language, and so on.
Within school also we see various identities of race, gender, age and social status. Hence, we need to
be equipped to address it in the classroom. The case discussed in the beginning of this lesson, where
Seema's teacher has initiated a festival food sharing exercise to highlight cultural and regional
differences is a simple initiative the teacher has taken to make children aware of existing diversity
among their peers besides linking the curriculum with daily life. Diversity, therefore, consists of
visible and invisible factors, which include personal characteristics such as socio-economic
background, culture, personality and workstyle. In short, the term diversity indicates uniqueness or
differences without any judgment attached to the differences or unique characteristics. Diversity
gives recognition, acceptance and respect to individual differences, irrespective of the origin.

Children with different physical features may not affect the classroom processes directly but
may have implications for classroom dynamics. Like, tall children are often selected for
sports,children with a fair complexion may generate more appreciative comments whereas a
particular colour or shape of eyes may not be easily accepted by others. A child with fair complexion
may be the first choice of the teacher for the role of king/queen/fairy, making other children think
that kings/queens/fairies are only fair skinned. This creates stereotypes that are avoidable. Diversity
in physical traits associated with race, is a natural phenomenon and needs to be accepted

Multi-lingualism

With increased mobility of people in search of work and food, children from different
geographical regions speaking different languages end up studying together. With the Right to
Education, all children are expected to be in school.

Understanding Diversity

It has been observed that children struggle to follow the teaching taking place in the class
due to the divide between home and school language. Only when the medium of instruction in the
school is the same as the one used at home, can learning become effective. That is when the drop
out rate will fall. The divide between the medium of instruction and home language must be
overcome by teachers gradually by respecting and accepting the home language and building upon
the strength in one language to facilitate the learning of the second and third language. We all use
language to communicate with each other, but persons who cannot hear properly use sign language
to communicate. Similarly, persons with vision difficulties use Braille script to write and take notes.
Thus, we can say that another dimension of multilingualism is recognizing and valuing sign language
and Braille as a medium of communication just like any other language of the country.

Ethnicity: Ethnicity refers to belonging to a social group with common regional and cultural
traditions.
This factor greatly impacts textbooks, curriculum, pedagogy as well as the school's day-to-day
functioning. Each ethnic group has its own customs, art and artefacts, clothing style etc. The child
belonging to these groups brings diverse and rich experiences to the classroom which can enrich the
peers as well. These local customs and traditions have direct bearing on the education system. The
textbook, curriculum, school working days, scheduling of holidays, school timings, medium of
instruction etc are all affected by ethnicity. It is also important to integrate the wide range of cultural
arts and artefacts in the curriculum and the everyday routines of the classroom. The school
administration and the teacher need to find ways and means to facilitate the learning experience of
all children enrolled and acknowledge their ethnicity. The teacher can organize special festivals, food
day, dress day, story day, invite parents and give out activity sheets, to sensitise children about the
different ethnic groups in the class.

Gender: The layman understands gender as male and female. Gender needs to be understood in
terms of social and cultural identity associated with being a boy or a girl. 'Sex' is a term closely
related and often used interchangeably with gender. Sex is a biological characteristic whereas gender
is a social characteristic. Biological characteristic of sex is determined by genes, hormones and male-
female reproductive organs. Understanding gender in terms of social cultural identity involves
realizing the expected social characteristics and behaviors expected from a boy or a girl. Children’s
toy preferences are significantly related to parental sex-typing, such as girls playing with dolls and
boys participating in sports.

Socio-economic status: This is one of the major factors responsible for diversity in the classroom.
Those belonging to lower or higher socio-economic groups need to be given due space in the
textbooks, curriculum and classroom activities. All children should be treated as equal irrespective of
their socioeconomic background. Uniforms for school children were perhaps initiated with the same
philosophical assumption. The diversity due to socio-economic status is more apparent in those ECCE
centres where children are not expected to wear a uniform, leaving them free to dress in casuals or
home wear or home clothes. The diversity in the clothes worn by the children indicates a lot about
the financial and social status of the family. The same is also true about their school bags and the
school stationery (geometry box, lunch box, pencil, crayons etc).Diversity due to socio-economic
status can be utilised as teaching learning resource as each child brings with them their own
experiences to the classroom which can be shared and used for teaching learning.

Defining Diversity. The term diversity originated from the Latin word diversus which indicates
differences. Diverse means 'differing from each other' and 'made up of distinct characteristics,
qualities, or elements'. Being a large country with a large population, India presents endless varieties
of physical features and cultural patterns. It is a land of diversity in race, religion, caste, language, and
so on. Within school also we see various identities of race, gender, age and social status. Hence, we
need to be equipped to address it in the classroom. Diversity, therefore, consists of visible and
invisible factors, which include personal characteristics such as socio-economic background, culture,
personality and workstyle. In short, the term diversity indicates uniqueness or differences without
any judgment attached to the differences or unique characteristics. Diversity gives recognition,
acceptance and respect to individual differences, irrespective of the origin.

FACTORS LEADING TO DIVERSITY AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS IN LEARNING

The large number of different cultures knitted together in such a close and perfect manner
make to accurately talk about diversity, especially in the classroom, we need to consider more factors
like:

• Race

• Multilingualism

• Ethnicity

• Gender

• Socio-economic status

• Age

• Level of physical activities

• Religious beliefs

• Learning style

The list above is not exhaustive. Many more factors may be added to it. Let us now
understand how each of these factors generates diversity and also how it affects the teaching-
learning environment in our schools and classrooms. Race: Race is division of human kind on the
 basis of physical features like height, weight, colour of eye, skin etc. as well as also on the basis of
social behaviors, norms, customs and practices. It is a classification system which is used to
categorise humans into distinct populations or groups by anatomical features related to body
structure or physique. These are mostly hereditary, passed on from parents to their children. These
variations are due to geographical, historical, linguistic, or religious belongingness.

TOPIC 1: LODEN’S DIVERSITY WHEEL

 Source: Gardenswartz & Rowe, Diverse Teams at Work (2nd Edition, SHRM, 2003

This model has been Included as just one of the many models that have been developed to
Illustrate the various dimensions that can contribute to the complexity of cultural diversity. This
model Illustrates both the primary and secondary dimensions of diversity that exert an Impact on
each of us at home, work and In society. While each dimension adds a layer of complexity to
Individual Identity, It Is the dynamic Interaction among all the dimensions that Influences selfimage,
values, opportunities and expectations. Together, the primary and secondary dimensions of diversity
give definition and meaning to our lives by contributing to a synergistic, Integrated whole — the
diverse person.

Primary dimensions of diversity. The primary dimensions of diversity Include age, ethnic
heritage, gender, mental/physical abilities and characteristics, race and sexual orientation. These six
differences are termed core dimensions of diversity because they exert an Important Impact on our
early socialisation and a powerful, sustained Impact on our experiences, values, assumptions and
expectations throughout every stage of life.
Secondary dimensions of diversity. Key secondary dimensions of diversity Include, but are
not limited to, elements as Illustrated by the outer circle. Generally, secondary dimensions are less
visible and many contain a greater element of choice. Despite the presence of the term 'race' In
everyday language, and Its use In various policies and statements referred to throughout this toolkit,
the new Macquarie ABC Dictionary under 'usage' of the term states: Because the 19th century
classification of humans Into distinct races has been challenged scientifically, and has been misused,
many now prefer to avoid this term when referring to a group of humans, and to replace It with
another term such as 'peoples' or 'community.

Activity
After spending time looking at the wheel, write down 5 things that describe who you are—the top
five things you think of when you think to describe yourself.

TOPIC 2: ABILITY AND DISABILITY AS DIMENSION OF DIVERSITY

This topic describes the tremendous diversity that characterizes students with disabilities.
Most of these students are eligible to receive special education services provided by the public
schools. Yet, as this chapter shows, one cannot really speak of them as a group in a meaningful way,
except perhaps with respect to the rights that all are accorded under the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, by virtue of their having a
disability.

Some students with disabilities are never taken out of general education classrooms; others
never enter a regular school building. Some have very mild disabilities observed only in school
settings; others have multiple severe disabilities that affect many aspects of their lives. Some spend
only minutes each week with a specially trained teacher, others the whole day. Some graduate from
high school with a full academic courseload and go on to highly competitive colleges; others drop out
of high school entirely; and still others receive special diplomas or certificates of attendance. Some
have parents who are deeply involved in advocating and planning their individualized programs.

Meaningful discussion of standards, curriculum, assessment, and outcomes cannot occur

without some attention to the varied characteristics of these large numbers of children. This chapter
examines how their extraordinary diversity complicates efforts to identify and categorize children
with disabilities and to design effective educational policies for them. It also analyzes how disability
variously affects the school experiences of these students, the roles their parents play in that
schooling, and the possible implications for standards-based reform.

LESSON II
FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

TOPICS
1. Historical Foundations
2. Philosophical Foundations
3. Legal Foundations

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Trace the foundations of special and inclusive education
2. Discuss thephilosophy behind special and inclusive education
Time Allotment– 6 hours

TOPIC 1: HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS

YEAR MILESTONE
1972 Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania and Mills v. Board of Education (District of Columbia). These
cases established the right to education for students with disabilities and
found that denial of education violates the 14th Amendment.

1973 Vocational Rehabilitation Act (VRA) is a civil rights law prohibits

discrimination of individuals with disabilities in any program receiving federal
funding. This applies to students in public and publicly supported schools

1974 Educational Amendments Act cleared the way for increased Federal spending
for education of handicapped children

1982 Board of Education v. Rowley (New York). The Supreme Court defined “free
and appropriate education” and directed that public schools must provide
appropriate special education services.

1984 Perkins Act 10% of all vocational education should be provided in the LRE
secondary support is provided to students with disability

1990 American's with Disabilities Act (ADA) gives civil rights protections to
individuals with disabilities similar to those provided to individuals on the
basis of race, color, sex, national origin, age, and religion

2006 IDEIA regulations for school age youngsters implemented

2011 IDEIA regulations for babies and youngsters implemented

1965 The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was signed into law in
1965 by President Lyndon Baines Johnson, who believed that "full educational
opportunity" should be "our first national goal."

1975 – Education for All Handicapped Children’s Act (EAHCA) was enacted and
required all public schools accepting federal funds to provide equal access to
education and one free meal a day for children with physical and mental
disabilities. Public schools were required to evaluate handicapped children
and create an educational plan with parent input that would emulate as
closely as possible the educational experience of non-disabled students.

1986 Education of the Handicapped Act Amendmen

1992 Oberti v. Board of Education of the Borough of Clementon School District

(New Jersey). A federal district court ruled that a self-contained special
education class was not the LRE for a student with Down syndrome. The court
ruled that school districts were obligated to consider regular class placement
first, with supplementary aids and services, before considering alternative
placements.

2004 - the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA)

2015 Every Student Succeeds Act advances equity by upholding critical protections
for America's disadvantaged and high-need students.

TOPIC 2: PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

Philosophical Foundations of SPED

Inclusive education is a widely accepted pedagogical and policy principle, but its genesis has
been long and, at times, difficult. For example, in 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
included statements about rights and freedoms that have, over the decades, been used to promote
inclusive educational practices. Article 26 of the Declaration stated that parents “have a prior right to
choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.” This declaration later helped some
parent groups and educators to advocate for equal access to schooling in regular settings, and for
parental choice about where their child would be educated.

Following the widespread influence of the human rights-based principle of normalization, the
concept of inclusive education received major impetus from the Education of All Handicapped
Children Act in the United States in 1975, the United Nations (UN) International Year of Disabled
Persons in 1981, and the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2006. A major
focus of the UN initiatives has been the right of people with a disability to participate fully in society.
This focus has obvious consequences for the way education is provided to students with a disability
or other additional educational needs. For many years, up to the last quarter of the 20th century, the
major focus for such students was on the provision of separate specialized services, with limited
attention to the concept of full participation in society. Toward the end of the 20th century and into
the 21st century, there has been increasing acceptance, through parental action, systemic policy, and
government legislation, of inclusivity as a basic philosophical principle.

Both the type of instruction that should be provided to students with a disability and the location of
that instruction in regular or specialized settings have been topics for advocacy and research,
sometimes with mixed and/or controversial conclusions.

5 PRINCIPLES OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Principle 1: Diversity in the classroom enriches and strengthens education

Every student is unique and every group of students is different. Diversity in schools is a given.
Learners have different experiences, cultures, beliefs and values.
This diversity is something all teachers come across. It can present challenges for teachers,
students and their parents. It also creates opportunities for growth and better connection in
personal, social and academic achievement.

Two central questions to ask are:

• How can schools and teachers create welcoming and focused environments that include,
motivate and challenge all learners?
• Do teachers have high expectations of learning, effort and engagement for all their students?
 Inclusive educators are those who draw on the knowledge and experiences of their students.
They question their own beliefs about student learning. They are flexible and ready for a challenge.
And most of all, they embrace diversity in their classroom.

Principle Two: A strength-based and personalised curriculum

Strength-based approaches are a key principle of inclusive education. They recognise each student
has inherent strengths and talents. These strengths, as well as a student’s specific needs, should be
placed at the centre of curriculum planning and implementation. This optimises opportunities for
both teachers and student learning.

A strength-based and personalised curriculum improves:

• student engagement
• motivation
• academic outcomes for all students.

This approach celebrates diversity and difference, and facilitates opportunities for personalised
learning.

Principle Three: Student engagement, agency and voice

Seeking the perspectives of students ensures they make a meaningful contribution to their
schooling and educational experience. The ability to have a voice influences both student
participation and agency. Student roles are often consultative, rather than active, even when matters
directly affect them. The key to listening well is to have a belief in students’ capabilities, and to
develop relationships of trust and respect. It’s not one-sided: students need to trust their teacher
too.

When students are given a platform to share their voice, schools gain insider knowledge and better
understand the student experience. It sends a clear message that student engagement is important.

But how do you make this authentic?

• Facilitate multiple different ways for young people to be heard, regardless of their ability.
• Consider tools such as drawing, writing, talking, paintings, photographs, and videos to
express agency.
• Ask students, as critical stakeholders, to identify indicators of what an inclusive school looks
like and measure the school against them.
Principle Four: Engaging with all your critical stakeholders

An inclusive education is one where all students of all capabilities have the opportunity to
grow and learn. This means providing each student and parent with access to accurate information
on their learning through ongoing formative and summative assessment of each student’s progress.

Schools can also model positive behaviour and feedback, while still offering areas of
improvement. For example, low reading confidence can be turned around with sharing positive
stories of school success where students have improved or progressed.

Over time, this approach creates a positive community perception of the school and raises
awareness about a positive school culture.
Principle Five: Inclusive teachers need commitment, knowledge and practical skills

Good teaching is good teaching for all not just for some.Teaching in inclusive classrooms
requires teachers to have the 3Hs: the heart (commitment), the head (critical knowledge) and hands
(practical strategies).Teachers must be fully committed to include all learners. They need to
understand inclusive practices benefit all students, regardless if they have additional needs.

Inclusive education also benefits teachers. Strategies are used that make classrooms more
engaging, and it can lead to improved professional satisfaction.Inclusion requires teachers to acquire
critical knowledge and skills to teach students who differ in their abilities and their learning styles.

It does not require teachers to become superhuman but it does require them to know about some of
the most powerful evidence-based teaching strategies that engage learners across the board:

• assessment for learning

• peer tutoring
• co-operative learning.

A teacher with the heart, head and hands of an inclusive teacher will be effective for all learners, not
just for those who need additional support. We must not forget that a teacher with all 3Hs need to
be adequately supported by the school leadership team to use and sustain inclusive practices.

TOPIC 3: LEGAL FOUNDATIONS

LEGAL FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

The Right to Inclusive Education: The International Policy Framework

The shift towards an inclusive approach to education was reflected at the 1990 World
Conference on Education for All, by which the problem of the exclusion of students with disabilities
from school systems was acknowledged. Following the Conference, the World Declaration on Education
For All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs (Jomtien Declaration) declared that ‘steps need to be taken to
provide equal access to education to every category of disabled persons as an integral part of the
education system.

The adoption in 1993 of the Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons
with Disabilities provided for integration in mainstream schools affirming that education for persons
with disabilities should form an integral part of national educational planning, curriculum
development and school organization and that education in mainstream schools presupposes the
provision of interpreter and other appropriate support services and adequate accessibility and
support services, designed to meet the needs of persons with different disabilities. However, it also
recognized that in situations where the general school system does not yet adequately meet the
needs of all persons with disabilities, special education may be considered’ but should be aimed at
preparing students for education in the general school system.

It was not until the UNESCO World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and
Equality in 1994 that, for the first time, specific attention was paid to the right to inclusive education
in particular. Signed by 92 Governments, the resulting Salamanca Statement required mainstream
schools to provide quality education to all students, including students with disabilities, without
discriminating on the basis of the higher requirements of support thatthey may need. The Salamanca
Statement proclaimed that every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities, and learning
needs and provided that ‘those with special educational needs must have access to regular schools
which should accommodate them within a child-centred pedagogy capable of meeting these needs’.
It also asserted that ‘regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of
combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society
and achieving education for all.

Subsequently, the Dakar Framework for Action on Education for All adopted in 2000 a World
Declaration on Education for All affirming the notion of education as a fundamental right and
establishing the new millennium goal to provide every girl and boy with primary school education by
2015. To this end, the Declaration stressed that education systems must be inclusive and respond
flexibly to the circumstances and needs of all learners. Children with disabilities were not explicitly
mentioned in this framework but implicitly included in references to most vulnerable and
disadvantaged children. However, it has been noted that the lack of reference to particular minority
groups by name, without consequently articulating strategies most appropriate for their inclusion,
may have led to a lesser response by governments than has been the case when addressing the
needs of more clearly stated groups.

SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

An integrated legal and policy framework covering inclusive education should address all educational
sectors and levels. It needs to be comprehensive, coordinated and comprehensively address issues of

flexibility, diversity and equity in all educational institutions for all learners. Key elements to be
addressed are that its provisions:

• Comply with international human rights standards

• Include a clear definition of inclusion and the specific objectives it is seeking to achieve. Inclusion
principles and practices need to be considered as integral to reform, and not simply an add-on
programme. Provisions, for example, which define certain categories of children as ‘uneducable’
need to be repealed.

• Guarantee children with and without disabilities the same right to access mainstream learning
opportunities, and assure access for individual learners to mainstream education and necessary
support services within all levels.

• Develop a policy framework for inclusive education at the central level that supports the policy,
practice and culture of inclusion across all levels of the mainstream education system.

• Ensure that policy, provision and support are consistent throughout the country.

• Introduce accessible monitoring mechanisms to ensure that policy, together with the requisite
investment, is actually implemented.

• Recognize the need for reasonable accommodations to support inclusion, based on human rights
standards, rather than on the efficient use of resources.

• Ensure that all legislation that potentially impacts upon inclusive education within a country should
clearly state inclusion as a goal.

• Provide a consistent framework for the identification, assessment and support required to enable
children with disabilities to flourish in mainstream learning environments.

• Introduce an obligation on local authorities to plan and provide for all learners, including children
with disabilities, within mainstream settings and classes, including in the most appropriate
languages, modes and means of communication.

• Provide guidance to education institutions on how to fulfil their duties through increased inclusive
education provision.
• Require the creation of partnerships and coordination between all stakeholders, including different
agencies, development organizations and NGOs, and specifically with parents and individuals with
disabilities

LESSON III
MAKING SCHOOLS INCLUSIVE

TOPICS
1. Creating Inclusive Cultures
2. Producing Inclusive Policies
3. Evolving Inclusive Practices

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of thelesson, you should be able to:
Discuss the characteristics of an inclusive school
Suggest policies addressing the needs of special
learners
Identify teaching practices appropriate for special and
inclusive learners
Time Allotment– 6 hours

TOPIC 1: CREATING INCLUSIVE CULTURES

Key Elements To Building An Inclusive School

Throughout the world, educators are seeking ways to create schools that promote justice and
enhance the learning and performance of all children. They are discovering that old patterns of
segregating students by race, gender, culture, language, and ability model oppression, reduce
effective learning, and prevent the development of relationships among diverse children. Innovative
and concerned educators are seeking to create inclusive schools where diversity is valued and
children of great differences learn together. This short paper outlines key elements necessary for
building inclusive schools. These strategies have been developed out of comprehensive literature
review and the Whole Schooling Research Project.

1. Include All students in learning together. The school and staff together make a commitment
that all students should be welcomed into the school and that teachers and other staff will
work to have inclusive classes, heterogeneously grouped where students who are gifted
through severely disabled learn, play, and work together. For this to occur and become part
 of the culture of the school, the total staff must be committed to this as a value for children,
be able to articulate the reasons for their belief, be willing to defend this practice against
detractors, and be willing to struggle, learn, and seek answers when it doesn’t seem to be
working for a particular child. In most schools, this will mean a shifting special education,
gifted, at risk, and other students from separate classes into general education; identifying
the students who are presently in separate special education, gifted, or other schools who
would typically attend our school and invite them back; and redesigning the role of
specialists to provide support for inclusive teaching.

Red lights children in ability groups in class or children with special needs (learning
disabilities, gifted, etc.) clustered in general education classes.

2. Multi-level, authentic instruction for learners of diverse abilities. Schools are typically
structured along grade levels and teach using standardized materials as if all children in a
particular grade were at the same level. The reality, however, is that any class, whether
attempting to be inclusive or not, contains children functioning at 3-6 grade levels apart.
Inclusive schools, and the teachers and staff within them, embrace this diversity of ability
and make it part of the design of instruction. Rather than designing instruction around a
narrow span of abilities, inclusive teachers design their teaching intentionally allowing for
students to be at multiple levels of ability. The idea, however, is not to ‘make it easier for
those kids who aren’t at grade level’. Rather, inclusive teachers ….
▪ Design lessons at multiple levels
▪ That challenge students at their own level (zone of proximal development)
▪ Provide support and scaffolding so children can push ahead to their own next level of
learning.
▪ Using authentic teaching strategies that engage children in learning via activities that
relate to heir lives at home and in the community, that connect to the real world
▪ Engaging the multiple intelligences and learning styles of children so that multiple
pathways for learning and demonstrating achievement are available.
▪ Involving students in collaborative, pair or group work where they draw on each
other’s strengths.
Schools in which teachers teach in this way have few children whose needs are not met.
However, since staff are constantly learning, never getting it quite right all the time, there will often
be children for whom teaching is not working. Staff then figure a range of adaptations to the
curriculum, paying attention to what works and how this might be incorporated next time into an
overall teaching strategy

3. Build community and meet the needs of children with behavioral challenges. For children’s
minds to work well so that they learn, they must feel safe, secure, cared for. When they don’t
learning diminishes or ceases. Therefore, building community in the school is critical. This
involves many dimensions:
▪ Collaborative, supportive, respectful relationships among staff, parents, the community
– study groups, school teams that focus on different issues, team teaching, etc.
▪ Building structures in the classroom among children so they know one another help
one another – peer partners, circles of support, peacemakers (a program for conflict
resolution where children are taught to resolve conflicts among one another under
teacher supervision and guidance), sharing of lives and feelings in talk, writing, the
arts, class meetings, and more.
Giving children choices and teaching them responsibility for choices – for example,
children going to the bathroom on their own (rather than a whole group lined up), selecting
 among several classroom activities, allowing students to sit, stand, move around, lay on the
floor, etc, as they study or work together.
In such a school, ‘behavior problems’ are much less frequent. Children feel cared for,
have choices., do not feel constrained, and yet are intentionally taught responsibility in the
process. However, given the problems children have in their lives, students will still cause
problems and staff seek to respect children and develop proactive solutions.
Rather than viewing children as needing to be ‘controlled’, teachers understand that all
behavior communicates a message. When a child ‘acts out’, this is his or her way of telling
staff about something they need. The challenge is to help figure out what that need is and to
help them learn alternative strategies for meeting it. Glasser’s described five needs of human
beings that can provide a way to understand children:
(1) survival,
(2) love and belonging,
(3) power,
(4) fun,
(5) freedom

Most often, schools ignore many of these needs and actually create behavior problems
in their attempt to thwart children having these needs met. The goal in an inclusive school is
to create a school culture and specific strategies that help students meet their 4 needs in
positive ways. But what do staff in an inclusive school DO? Here are some simple but
powerful steps.
Step 1: Clarify the behavior that is a problem. It’s also helpful to figure out why the
behavior is considered a problem. Are rules too rigid? Are children treated poorly so that
they are responding in kind? What can be done to help meet Glasser’s Five Needs?
Step 2. Why is the behavior occurring? What need does the behavior signal? These are
the questions underlying a good ‘functional assessment’. They are critical for only by
answering them do we understand the child and develop a way to meet needs. Other parts
of this may involve analysis of the following questions: What occurs before, during, and after
the problematic behavior? What is going on in the child’s life?
Step 3. Develop strategies to meet the needs of the child in more positive ways. Develop
these ideas with the child. Help the child to understand that the behavior is not good, we
understand and care, but there are other ways he can get what he needs. Develop an action
plan, do it, evaluate it.
Step 4. Evaluate how well the change worked. How do we know? Traditionally, we know
an intervention worked if the problematic behavior went away. In this case, the strategies
only worked if the needs of the child were met. Who determines this? The child.
School staff can do other things to deal with problematic behavior in a positive way. Some of these
include:

▪ Dialogue and joint planning with the parents.

▪ Create a room where the child can go, under supervision, when he ‘needs a break’ to deal with
emotional stress. This can be the library, a support room, a secluded place in the class (like
under the teacher’s desk).

▪ Build social support for the child. Get a circle of support together of classmates who together
plan with the child and teacher, using MAPS for example, how to help him or her.
▪ Do a “Meeting Needs Audit” of the total school to determine how well the school is meeting
the five needs identified by Glasser for children in the building. Develop a range of activities
that may address discrepancies.
4. Provide support for teachers. Supporting teachers in working with students at multiple ability
levels, who have emotional and social challenges in their lives is critical. This is particularly
 important as the shift towards building an inclusive culture in the school is occurring.
Teachers who are used to trying to teach at only one level have difficulty figuring out how to
teach at multiple levels. Even teachers who do this well sometimes don’t know that they do
or what is multi-level and what is not. A range of specialists are available to most schools to
deal with special needs and problems of children – social workers, special education
teachers, bilingual teachers, psychologists, nurses, occupational therapists, speech
therapists, and others. In a traditional school, most of these people work on their own with
limited consultation with others and pull children out of class for various services.
Special education teachers play an important role in an inclusive school. How this role develops,
however, can vary dramatically depending upon philosophy and purpose. Four roles are emerging
out of research related to in-class special education support by teachers and aides.

1. Remediation or enrichment – the goal is to ‘fix’ the child or ‘enrich’ the child’s experience, often
in pull-out classes or one on one work in the back of the general education class;

2. Adapting – teaching strategies are not questioned and if the ability of the child does not match
requirements, curriculum adaptations are developed – eg. Different worksheets, less work, more
time to do work.

3. Inclusive, multi-level, authentic teaching. Here the support teacher and general education
teacher work together to design lessons that engage children at multiple levels.

4. Teacher need. In this situation, a support teacher provides assistance to the teacher in
strengthening or areas of relative need in the teacher’s repertoire.

In quality inclusive schools, we put our focus on #’s 2 and 3. #1 has little place. #2 will be needed little
as teachers learn how to teach starting from children’s present abilities and strengths. In this way of
working the following are observed:

▪ The support team meeting weekly together to talk about children with special problems and
needs and brainstorm together how to deal with the issue.
▪ Scheduled meetings at least every two weeks between the general education teacher and the
specialists who are providing support in the classroom to develop plans on teaching together
and address concerns of specific children.
▪ Special education teachers (Inclusive Support Teachers) assigned to several rooms where they
collaborate with teachers. When we observe the room we would see the teacher or aide
working with all the students in the class while assuring that the students with special needs
were receiving the help they need. The special education and general education teacher
would work together with each taking responsibility for all students.
▪ General education teacher along with specialists – special education teacher, aide, speech
therapist, social worker – working together with small groups of children who are working on
different projects – centers, inquiry projects, and more.

Red lights

▪ An aide at the back of the class with a student with a disability,

▪ An aide or teacher sitting constantly with a student with a disability clearly working only
with him.
▪ Students in ability groups working with the special education teacher.
▪ A student with special needs separated from the rest of the class
 5. Partner with parents. Parents of children with special needs have typically gone through much
with their children. In traditional schools, these parents receive much negative feedback
from the school. Their children are rejected and ‘sent away’ to special education classes or
separate schools. In an inclusive school, however, we turn this around by
▪ Parents are immediately invited to have their children in inclusive classes.
▪ Meeting with and listening carefully to what parents have to tell us about their
children. We seek to understand the child’s gifts, strengths, and needs, strategies
that work, and interests of the child from the parent.
▪ Welcoming their child into our classes. We communicate that we want their child in our
school and obtain their input for his or her educational plan.
▪ Invite the parent into the school and class. Make them welcome and a part of the
school family and community. q Insure that they are involved in the full life of the
school.

Red lights
▪ Parents who must fight to have their children included in general education
classes in the school.
▪ Separate PTA for parents of children with special needs.
▪ Special nights just for children with special needs. They will be fully included
in any after school program or activity
▪ Teachers sending constant negative notes home to children without
balancing this with positive communications.
6. Decision-making and leadership: Leadership, Democracy, and Empowerment. Given the
amount of segregation in our society based on race, class, culture, and ability, it is not
surprising that building an inclusive school is a very challenging task. What is critical in this
process are these three elements that must be at the foundation of the decision making
process of the school.
⮚ Leadership. An inclusive school is first and foremost built on a vision of what is
good for children. Staff of inclusive schools care more about children than
about their place and power in the school bureaucracy, their salary raise this
coming year. These are important, of course. The needs of staff are critical.
Yet, all is driven by a vision of what helps children.
⮚ Democracy. School leadership must be foremost in helping to impel a vision
for children ahead. However, all school staff, parents, and children
themselves must have a voice in creating an inclusive culture in a school if it
is to survive.
⮚ Empowerment. Similarly, all in the school must be empowered to take action
to make the vision of an inclusive school real. Power must not only be in the
‘office’ and principal, but all work towards this goal.
TOPIC 2: PRODUCING INCLUSIVE POLICIES

A human rights-based approach to inclusive education requires an understanding of inclusion

as an approach to education for all children, based on the provisions of both the Convention on the
Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). It
represents a profound change in the way most education systems are conceived, necessitating a
commitment to creating systems and schools which respond to the needs of individual children,
rather than forcing children with different learning needs to comply with a rigid, pre-determined
structure. In order to bring about such a change, investment is needed in a broad range of measures
to remove the barriers which impede implementation of inclusive education and build the
framework on which it can be sustained.

In this framework, you will see that there are a number of ‘building blocks’ that need to be in
place to support a rights-based approach to education for all children with disabilities. First, inclusive
education requires a broad-based acknowledgement and commitment from government, drawing on
the responsibilities of many different government departments to realize it. Inclusive education
involves the introduction of a comprehensive foundation of legislation, policies, strategies, guidance
and services to build the culture, environment and commitment necessary to remove the barriers to
quality education for all children with disabilities. Building on such a framework, investment is then
needed in specific measures for the education system to address:

● The right of every child to education, together with a systematic approach to

identifying and removing the barriers and bottlenecks that impede access.
● The right to quality education that provides a relevant curriculum delivered through
a pedagogy which reflects the different ways in which children learn, and creates a
learning space which includes rather than excludes children.
● The right to an education which is respectful of the cultural, protection and
participation rights of children − in other words, an environment in which they are
safe, their physical and emotional integrity respected and their voices heard and
taken seriously.

ACTIVITY

You can use the following matrix to undertake a broad assessment of where progress
in the introduction of necessary legislation and policies, if any, has been made in the
Philippines. Once you have undertaken this assessment, it will help you identify the
 legislative and policy priorities for action and which areas require action to move
forward in promoting inclusive education. PLEASE NOTE: the criterion in each box of the
matrix is there to provide indicative guidance of progress. Our country context

may not match it precisely, but you can use it as a general guide in formulating
proposed policies which you believe would be necessary to strengthen the
implementation of Special and Inclusive Education in the country
Guide Questions:

1. What policies are we championing? (Answer to this question should be backed up by

research. Include citation in a PAP format)
2. What are our weak points?
***Note: Answer to these questions should be backed up by research. Include citation in PAP
format.

3. To address the weaknesses, what policies/programs/activities would you propose?

Formulate a policy paper using the following format:
 Rationale/Situationer
Keep it short and concise. This section provides the background of the issue/problem you
would like to be addressed.

Problems Statement
Identify the issue/problem you would like to address. This can be framed in a form of a
question.

Objectives

Identify the objectives of the policy you are going to propose. Make use of the above
matrix as your frame of reference.

Options

Enumerate options and briefly describe each. The options will give the decision maker the
alternative or choices.

Analysis of Options

Do the options answer your objectives? Consider the positive and negative consequences

Recommendations

Select the best option and recapitulate why it is the best. Does the recommendation solve
the issue/problem? Is it attainable and workable?

Note: Your policy paper should have a strong research background

Extending access to education is part of a worldwide agenda. The

Education for All (EFA) initiative from the United Nations is an essential
element of the Millennium Development Goals, in part because education
is seen as being crucial to human development, and also because so many
children do not have access to education UNESCO (2005). Across the
world, there are many reasons why children do not attend school,
including high levels of mobility, social conflict, child labour and
exploitation, poverty, gender and disability. Many children are at risk of
not attending school, or of receiving a sub-standard education. In some
parts of the world, schooling is not available because of a shortage of
school places, a lack of quality teachers, or because schools are too far
from where children live. Sometimes families choose not to send their
children to school because of fears about safety and security, the poor
quality of schooling or because of the economic costs. Such costs might
 TOPIC 3. EVOLVING INCLUSIVE PRACTICES

include school fees, having to buy uniforms, books and materials, and
socalled 'opportunity costs' that arise when young people are not
economically active because they are in school.

Differences in access to, and outcomes from, education depend not only on
children's individual circumstances, but also crucially on the country in which
they live and in many cases, where they live within that country. In well-
schooled, internationally successful countries, such as Scotland, with its long
history of compulsory school attendance, such concerns may seem
irrelevant, but even here, not all children are in school. And even when they
are in school, some children do not have positive experiences of education,
nor do they have much to show for their time in school. The so-called
'achievement gap' between those who achieve most and those who achieve
least, is a major concern in many countries, including Scotland (OECD, 2007).
In response, new initiatives such as More Choices, More Chances (SEED,
2006) have been introduced to tackle this problem. In such countries, the
concern is not only about access to schooling, but it is also about ensuring
meaningful participation in a system in which achievement and success is
available to all (Black-Hawkins, Florian & Rouse, 2007). But why is there such
a long tail of underachievement in many countries? Why do educational
systems have institutional barriers to participation and achievement? And
why do so many teachers think that the problems that some students have in
learning should not be their responsibility because they have not been
trained to deal with these matters?

Throughout the world, there is an increased awareness of differences in

access to and outcomes of education. This has to be understood in the power
of education to reduce poverty, to improve the lives of individuals and
groups, and to transform societies (e.g. Grubb & Lazerson, 2004). Developing
'schools for all' is important because schooling is linked to human, economic
and social development goals. But at the same time, it is apparent that many
school systems perpetuate existing inequalities and intergenerational under-
achievement. The reasons for this are complex, but it often relates to deeply
embedded attitudes to, and beliefs about, human differences. Nevertheless,
dealing with exclusion, marginalization and underachievement is not only the
right thing to do; it makes sound economic and social sense. Failure to
develop schools capable of educating all children not only leads to an
educational underclass, but also a social and economic underclass which has
serious consequences for society now and in the future. Therefore, the
development of successful inclusive schools, 'schools for all' in which the
learning and participation of all children is valued, is an essential task for all
countries. It is hardly surprising therefore that tackling under-achievement
and increasing inclusion are part of a worldwide agenda. As a result of this
interest, a series of national and international initiatives intended to broaden
participation for vulnerable groups of children have been enacted. These
include the United Nations Education for All initiative (EFA), which was
launched in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990, and the Dakar Declaration (UNICEF,
2000).

As previously mentioned, many countries have educational systems that

work better for some children than for others. These concerns have
become more apparent because of concerns about global competitiveness
and the rise of the socalled 'knowledge economy'. In response, many
systems have introduced 'standardsbased' reforms (McLaughlin & Rouse,
2000). The process of mainstream education reform began in many
countries in the mid 1980s when concerns about economic
competitiveness and the efficiency of school systems led to the
introduction of marketplace principles in education (Ball, 2006). Such
reforms were underpinned by the idea that competition and choice raise
standards and accountability. However, it could be argued that
competitive environments result in winners and losers and that in such a
climate, some children may be seen as more attractive to schools than
others. Children who are considered difficult to teach and those who find
learning difficult are at increased risk for exclusion when schools operate
in a competitive educational marketplace (McLaughlin & Rouse, 2000,
Gillborn and Youdell, 2000).

At the same time, but mostly independent of the 'mainstream' reform

legislation, many countries have enacted educational policies designed to
develop their special education systems or to encourage greater inclusion
of children considered to have disabilities or difficulties. Examples can be
seen in a series of European Agency for the Development of Special Needs
Education (2006) and OECD (2005) initiatives and reports. At the national
level, there is the Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland)
Act 2004 which points out that a child may require additional support for a
variety of reasons. It is clear that such legislation will have an impact not
only on the roles of teachers and schools but also significant implications
for professionals working in health, social work and other agencies.

In spite of a positive policy framework in many countries, achieving

inclusion and reducing under-achievement is a daunting task. The
European Agency on the Development of Special Needs Education (2006)
reports that dealing with differences and diversity continues to be one of
the biggest problems faced by schools across Europe. It is suggested that
difficulties in creating schools for all are often associated with low
expectations and aspirations, intergenerational poverty and
underachievement, and a belief by some that education is a privilege and
not a right that should be available to all. In addition, barriers to
participation arise from inflexible or irrelevant curricula, didactic teaching
methods, inappropriate systems of assessment and examinations, and
inadequate preparation of and support for teachers. In some countries
schools are operating in a hostile policy environment that results in
insufficient 'capacity' because of restrictive school structures, a
competitive ethos, negative cultures and a lack of human and material
resources. In turn these views lead to negative attitudes about learners
who struggle, low expectations and a belief that some children are
'worthy' of help but others are 'unworthy' because their difficulties are
their own (or their parents') fault.

It is important to reiterate that this broader policy context can affect the
development of inclusion. Mainstream educational reform initiatives
designed to raise standards can be both a facilitator and a barrier to the
education of children with learning needs. In many cases these two
strands of policy development, inclusion on the one hand and higher
standards on the other, do not necessarily make comfortable partners. On
the one hand it can be argued that higher standards are good for all
children because schools are held accountable for the progress of all
learners. On the other hand, it has been argued that the difficulties
children experience in learning are a consequence of unresponsive
education systems. As a result children are often seen as having
'additional support needs' when there is a discrepancy between what a
system of schooling ordinarily provides and what the child needs to
support their learning. Thus the professional focus tends to be on what is
'additional to or different from' the provision which is generally available,
rather than on what can be done to make schooling more accessible for all
(Florian, 2007).

In addition, there are persistent beliefs that when children find learning
difficult, it is because there is something wrong with them. The 'classic'
special education view assumes that it is not possible to include children
with learning difficulties in mainstream settings because their needs are
different. The assumption that underpins this view is that it is desirable to
group children according to the nature of their abilities, disabilities or
difficulties. There are those who claim that because children are different,
there will be a diversity of instructional needs. In turn this requires
teaching groups to be formed according to these perceived individual
characteristics. According to Kaufman et al. (2005), successful teaching of
children who are different, requires that they be grouped homogeneously
so that special pedagogical approaches can be deployed by teachers who
have been trained to use them. It could be argued that when special
education is conceptualised in this manner, it is a barrier to the
development of inclusion because it absolves the rest of the education
system from taking responsibility for all children's learning.

The research literature suggests that the implementation of inclusion

policies has been uneven (Evans & Lunt, 2002). Whilst there are many
success stories to be told about inclusion (e.g. Ainscow, 1997; Black-
Hawkins, Florian & Rouse, 2007), there have also been failures and
difficulties. Such difficulties have been blamed on a variety of factors
including, competing policies that stress competition and everhigher
standards, a lack of funding and resources and existing special education
practices. It has also been suggested that one of the greatest barriers to
the development of inclusion is because most teachers do not have the
necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to carry out this work (Forlin
2001).

Therefore, although inclusion is seen as important in most countries,

experience tells us that it is difficult to achieve for children with additional
support needs for a number of reasons including:

● Uncertainty about professional roles and the status of teachers

especially those who have responsibilities for additional support
needs
● A lack of agreement about the nature and usefulness of specialist
knowledge
● Territorial disputes between professionals associated with certain
'special' practices
● Inadequate preparation of teachers and a lack of on-going
professional development opportunities.

Teachers' views of the inclusion task

The current context in which teachers are working is one of rapid change.
All areas of education have changed during the past decades, with major
changes to the role of teachers, together with the introduction of new
approaches to the curriculum and assessment. In addition, the legislation
has seen changes in how difficulties in learning are conceptualised from
special educational needs to additional support for learning. These
changes have involved the development of new understandings about the
interactive nature of children's needs and a shift in focus from 'what is
wrong with the child?' to 'what does the child need to support their
learning?' Such developments have substantially affected the professional
identity as well as the roles and responsibilities of many teachers. It also
has implications for how teachers are trained and supported in their
professional development.

In Scotland, as in many other countries, there is currently very little time

allocated within initial teacher education programmes to cover issues of
inclusion and additional support needs. Further, with the exception of
teachers of the blind and the deaf, there are no nationally mandated
qualifications for teachers of pupils with additional support needs. The
General Teaching Council (Scotland) is currently working on the
development of a Framework for Recognition for teachers of children with
autism and dyslexia (perhaps with others to follow), and although
specialist courses are available in a number of universities, funding is
scarce and many teachers do not have the opportunity to pursue courses
leading to higher-level qualifications in the area of learning support and
inclusion.
In addition, the rapidly changing policy context, together with uncertainty
about how best to organise provision leads to a range of understanding
about the purpose and nature of the support needs task. Provision varies
from school to school and from local authority to local authority. Therefore
any exploration of the role, status and identity of teachers who teach
children who have support needs has to take into account the complexity
of the task. Such complexity arises from uncertainty about who these
children are, the 'type' of needs they have, the range of settings in which
they are educated, the professional qualifications of the teachers
themselves, how teachers construct their own professional identity and
how they should work with other adults as well as children.

It is clear that teachers are crucial in building more inclusive schools. But
how do they feel about this task? And how do they perceive their roles,
status and identity. Over the past few years I have carried out one aspect
of a large-scale study of the status of teachers in England for the
Department of Education and Skills (Hargreaves et al.. 2006). This strand
of the research is based on a series of focus group discussions with
teachers designed to explore their perceptions of working with children
designated as having special educational needs (SEN). Although the
research was conducted in England where the policy context is somewhat
different, there are many resonances with the current situation in
Scotland. The findings of this research inform the sections that follow.

Teachers' roles and identities

The range of teachers who have responsibilities for learning support is
wide, as are their professional identities. Primary teachers are more like to
see their identity as a class teacher first, then as a learning support
teacher second, whereas secondary learning support teachers probably
will have made a specific career choice and are more likely to have
undertaken additional professional development leading to qualifications.
Thus, secondary teachers more commonly describe themselves as 'a
learning support teacher' than do primary teachers. Similarly, teachers in
special and local authority support services are more likely to have a clear
professional identity as 'support teachers'. There is considerable variation
in status between learning support teachers in different schools and local
authorities. In some schools provision for learning support is marginalised.
In other schools, the principal teacher (PT) learning support will have
significant influence and a high level of management responsibilities,
often as a member of the senior management team. Although status is
linked to pay and position in the management structure, it is also
associated with personal and professional credibility, knowledge, skills and
responsibilities.

Differences in professional identity are associated with whether the

teachers have specialist qualifications and have made deliberate career
choices to work in this field. Many teachers who have responsibility for
learning support in primary schools see it as a stage in their career,
something they will undertake to get extra experience, or because 'it's my
turn'. Several teachers reported that they became interested in the work
by accident or because it was available on a part-time basis and it fitted
well with other commitments when they returned to teaching.

The picture then is complex. Learning support teachers come from a range
of different professional backgrounds, their identity and status is
influenced by a variety of factors including by where and who they teach,
their experiences and their qualifications. Nevertheless, a common theme
emerged throughout the focus group discussions with teachers. Most
believe that they can make a difference to children's lives. Many said they
were motivated by a desire to help vulnerable children, but they were
frustrated that not all colleagues shared their commitment to this task.

The nature of the work

The support for learning task is complex. In part this is because of the
contested nature of the concept of learning support outlined above and a
lack of agreement about what constitutes best practice. Given the rapidly
changing policy context and a lack of shared understanding about what
constitutes good practice, it is inevitable that roles and responsibilities will
vary between schools. However, when mainstream teachers were asked
about the nature of their roles and the tasks they undertake, a long list
was produced, it includes; teaching, assessing, counselling,
administrating, organising, liaising with external agencies, consulting with
colleagues, providing staff development, and managing other adults. Many
reported tensions between the teaching functions and management and
consultancy functions of the role.

Such wide-ranging tasks require knowledge, skills and attributes that not
all feel they possess. One commented:

When I came into the work, it was to teach children. Now most of my
time is spent working with other adults, such as colleagues and
assistants, external agencies and families. I have never received any
support in making this move, so whilst in some ways it has raised my
status, it has undermined my credibility.

Recent initiatives in integrated children's services, such as Getting it

Right for Every Child (SEED, 2006), are likely to mean that teachers will
be undertaking more multi-agency work with social services, school
psychology services and health authorities. Most respondents saw such
initiatives as a positive development for vulnerable children, but also
wondered whether it would be properly funded and supported. Many
respondents spoke of the difficulty in managing the demands from
colleagues, children and parents. One of the biggest challenges is
convincing their colleagues that there should be a shared responsibility for
children who face difficulties:

My colleagues always want me to deal with their problem pupils and I

find it difficult to say no because I don't want to see the kids struggling.
I know that the more I agree to do this for them the less likely they are
to see it as their responsibility….it leads to a kind of learned
helplessness I suppose.

The overall picture is one of a rapidly changing field in which there is a

lack of consistency in the role and responsibility of many teachers of
children with additional support needs. The nature of tasks and
responsibilities varies from school to school. In part this variation arises
from differences between school policies and the perceived skills and
attributes of teachers. Many however, speak of a role that is overloaded
and confused.

Teachers of children with support needs cover a wide spectrum of

professional roles and responsibilities. Thus, the views of other teachers
are complex and vary from context to context. Crucially it seems to be the
skills and attributes of the teachers themselves that seems to be the
determining factor when it comes to whether they have status in the eyes
of their colleagues. However, there was widespread consensus that
teachers who do this work are held in high esteem by parents and the
community and most of them feel that they do make a positive
contribution to children's lives and learning. Overwhelmingly, they
expressed the view that more sustained professional development
opportunities would help raise the status of the work and enable to work
more effectively with, and through, colleagues in a consultative capacity.

Central to this task was widespread agreement of the need to reform

initial education so that all beginning teachers enter the profession better
prepared to deal with diversity in their classrooms and also more aware
that they will be working with adults as well as pupils.

Teachers' roles in developing inclusion

Teachers are crucial in determining what happens in classrooms and there
are those who would argue that the development of more inclusive
classrooms requires teachers to cater for different student learning needs
through the modification or differentiation of the curriculum (Forlin, 2004).
For some, this approach has been interpreted as requiring
individualisation. At it most extreme, this view can be seen in the call for
one to one teaching of students with learning difficulties. Questions about
the sustainability of such provision are rarely adequately answered.
Further, there are those who argue (e.g. Kaufman et al,. 2005) that there
are specialist teaching approaches for children with different kinds of
disabilities and that specialist training is required. An unintended
consequence of these views is that most mainstream teachers do not
believe that that they have the skills and knowledge to do this kind of
work and that there is an army of 'experts' out there to deal with these
students on a one-to one basis or in small more manageable groups.

Nevertheless teachers do have concerns about inclusion and many

surveys have found that teachers' attitudes towards inclusion are not
particularly positive (Ellins & Porter, 2005). Further, they express concerns
about their lack of preparation for inclusion and for teaching all learners
(Forlin, 2001). But in settings where teachers are encouraged to try out a
range of teaching strategies, they report that they knew more than they
thought they knew and, for the most part, children learn in similar ways.
Although some children might need extra support, teachers do not
distinguish between 'types' of special need when planning this support
(Florian & Rouse, 2001). Many teachers reported that they did not think
that they could teach such children, but their confidence and repertoire of
teaching strategies developed over time. This would suggest that by 'just
doing it' teachers are capable of developing knowledge and positive
attitudes to inclusion.

I have suggested elsewhere (Rouse, 2007) that developing effective

inclusive practice is about not only about extending teachers' knowledge,
but it is also about encouraging them to do things differently and getting
them to reconsider their attitudes and beliefs. In other words, it should be
about 'knowing', 'doing', and 'believing'. But what might this look like in
practice?

For many years, teacher development courses focused on extending

knowledge and skills. Courses would often concentrate on the
characteristics of different kinds of learners, how they should be identified
and the current policy context. In addition they would cover the specialist
teaching strategies that should be used. In other words these courses
focused on:

Knowing about:

● Teaching strategies
● Disability and special needs ● How children learn
● What children need to learn
● Classroom organisation and management
● Where to get help when necessary
● Identifying and assessing difficulties
● Assessing and monitoring children's learning
● The legislative and policy context

It is important to point out that such content knowledge is important, but

the evidence suggests that it is insufficient to improve practice in schools
because many teachers did not act upon this knowledge when they
returned to the classroom. It was clear that there was a big gap between
what teachers knew as a result of being on a course and what they did in
their classrooms. In an attempt to bridge this gap, initiatives have been
designed to link individual and institutional development. In other words
'doing' has become an essential element of professional learning and
institutional development. In many cases this involves action-research
type initiatives built around school- or classroom-based development
projects and new ways of:

Doing

● Turning knowledge into action

● Moving beyond reflective practice
● Using evidence to improve practice

● Learning how to work with colleagues as well as children

● Becoming an 'activist' professional

Although many action research initiatives to develop inclusion have had

positive outcomes and have resulted in changes to practice, it became
apparent that some were 'content-free' and only focussed on process.
Others ran into barriers associated with negative and deterministic
attitudes about children's abilities and 'worth'. Sadly there are those who
believe that some children will never be able to learn those things that are
important to their teachers. Further, there are teachers who do not believe
that they have the skills to make a difference, perhaps because they 'have
not been on the course', and they lack confidence. Therefore it is also
important to consider how it might be possible for teachers to develop
new ways of:

Believing

● That all children are worth educating

● That all children can learn
● That they have the capacity to make a difference to children's
lives
● That such work is their responsibility and not only a task for
specialists.

Changing attitudes is difficult, particularly for those teachers' whose

professional identities are secure. If a teacher sees her/himself as a
teacher of (say) chemistry or French, it is likely that the subject they teach
will play an important part in the construction of their professional identity.
Further, if their subject is seen as intellectually demanding, then why
would they be expected to have to teach it to all learners? But it is not
only subject specialist teachers in secondary schools who have difficulty in
redefining their professional identities. Some special needs teachers see
themselves as experts in dealing with children's difficulties in learning. It is
an identity built upon certain beliefs about specialist knowledge and skills
for the work. In this view, other teachers not only do not know how to do
it, but they wouldn't want to do it if they did know how. Inclusion threatens
assumptions that some teachers have about many aspects of schools and
schooling. In particular it can threaten teachers' identity. If responsibilities
are to be shared and teachers are to take on new roles, then there have to
be changes to the way inclusion is conceptualised and a realisation that it
can only be achieved if all teachers are supported in the development of
all aspects of this process; knowing, doing and believing.

But how might this be brought about? As pointed out earlier, the
traditional way of attempting to bring about developments in inclusion
was to focus on improving teachers' knowledge and skills, but this did not
always work. Providing new knowledge has been seen as a necessary but
not sufficient condition. Equally it was not sufficient to establish 'content
free' action-research development projects as they often drift aimlessly. I
have argued elsewhere (Rouse, 2007) that if two of the three aspects of
development (knowing, doing and believing) are in place, then it is likely
that other aspects will follow. In other words, if teachers acquire new
knowledge and they are supported in implementing new practice, using a
'just do it' approach, then attitudes and beliefs will change over time.
Equally if teachers already have positive beliefs and they are supported in
implementing new practices, then they are also likely to acquire new
knowledge and skills. Therefore, if two of the three elements of developing
inclusive practice are in place, the third is likely to follow.

A crucial element in the development of inclusive practice is better

preparation of and support for teachers that incorporates the elements
outlined above. One way of conceptualising this task might be to take the
lead from Shulman (2004) who talks about the need to ensure that
training and induction in all the professions has three essential elements.
He refers to these elements as the 'three apprenticeships'. The first is the
'apprenticeship of the head': by this he means the cognitive knowledge
and theoretical basis of the profession; the second is the 'apprenticeship
of the hand': this would include the technical and practical skills that are
required to carry out the essential tasks of the role; and the finally the
'apprenticeship of the heart': the ethical and moral dimensions, the
attitudes and beliefs that are crucial to the particular profession and its
ways of working.
 LESSON 4
Components of Special and Inclusive Education

TOPICS

1. Childfind
2. Assessment
3. Placement
4. Accommodations and Curricular Modification
5. Parent Involvement

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
• Evaluate aninstrument for special learners
;
• Propose modifications in the present curriculum of the DepEd
; and
• Discuss the importance of parental involvement in inclusive
education

TOPIC 1: Childfind

Children with special needs can often benefit from a number of therapies and, generally, the sooner
they receive treatment, the better the outcomes will be. But, how do you know if a child needs help?
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires each state to implement early
identification policies to locate and refer children who may have a disability to that state’s early
intervention (EI) program. Although IDEA is a federal law, each state sets its own EI policies and
implements its own programs, much like Medicaid. Not all states will call it early intervention or EI,
but states generally use similar terms meaning early identification and service for children with
disabilities. While certain elements of EI remain consistent between the states, parents and
educators should contact their state’s education agency to learn about state-specific policies and
procedures.
Components of the Child Find Program

There are two methods for identifying and referring a child to EI. The first is a referral, usually by an
educator or a parent. The second is the Child Find program. Mandated by IDEA, Child Find
continuously searches for and evaluates children who may have a disability with the use of Child Find
activities, which can vary widely from school district to school district. For example, one district
might hold periodic conferences to train staff on policies, while another may hold playgroups, during
which parents are asked to complete a developmental milestone questionnaire.

At least seven main elements are included in a Child Find program:

• Definition of Target Population: The state defines the criteria that determine which children
are eligible for help. Some states expand the target population to include at-risk children, not
just those who have disabilities or developmental delays.
• Public Awareness: The state raises public awareness about children who need help and the
services available to them, targeting parents, caregivers, educators, school staff, physicians
and others.
• Referral and Intake: A child is referred for services; specific procedures vary, depending on the
state.
• Screening and Identification: The child is screened for possible disabilities or developmental
delays.
• Eligibility Determination: Results of the screening are compared to the state’s eligibility
guidelines, which must be consistent with federal regulations.
• Tracking: The state tracks and follows up with children who are receiving services.
• Interagency Coordination: Some states have multiple agencies that share responsibilities
mandated by IDEA. Resources must be coordinated to ensure availability of services.

TOPIC 2: Assessment

Introduction to Assessment and Overview

An assessment in special education is the process used to determine a child’s specific learning
strengths and needs, and to determine whether or not a child is eligible for special education
services. Assessment in special education is a process that involves collecting information about a
student for the purpose of making decisions. Assessment, also known as evaluation, can be seen as a
problem-solving process (Swanson & Watson, 1989) that involves many ways of collecting
information about the student.
According to Gearheart and Gearheart (1990; cited in Pierangelo and Giuliani, 2006), assessment is
“a process that involves the systematic collection and interpretation of a wide variety of information
on which to base instructional/intervention decisions and, when appropriate, classification and
placement decisions. Assessment is primarily a problem-solving process”.
Importance of Assessment

The importance of assessment should never be underestimated. In special education, you will work
with many professionals from different fields. You are part of a team, often referred to as a
multidisciplinary team that tries to determine what, if any, disability is present in a student. The
team’s role is crucial because it helps determine the extent and direction of a child’s personal journey
through the special education experience (Pierangelo and Giuliani, 2006). Consequently, the skills you
must possess in order to offer a child the most global, accurate, and practical evaluation should be
fully understood. The development of these skills should include a good working knowledge of the
 following components of the assessment process in order to determine the presence of a suspected
disability:

• Collection: The process of tracing and gathering information from the many sources of background
information on a child such as school records, observation, parent intakes, and teacher reports
• Analysis: The processing and understanding of patterns in a child’s educational, social,
developmental, environmental, medical, and emotional history
• Evaluation: The evaluation of a child’s academic, intellectual, psychological, emotional, perceptual,
language, cognitive, and medical development in order to determine areas of strength and
weakness
• Determination: The determination of the presence of a suspected disability and the knowledge of
the criteria that constitute each category
• Recommendation: The recommendations concerning educational placement and program that
need to be made to the school, teachers, and parents Purpose of Assessment

Assessment in educational settings serves five primary purposes:

• screening and identification: to screen children and identify those who may be experiencing delays
or learning problems
• eligibility and diagnosis: to determine whether a child has a disability and is eligible for special
education services, and to diagnose the specific nature of the student's problems or disability
• IEP development and placement: to provide detailed information so that an Individualized
Education Program (IEP) may be developed and appropriate decisions may be made about the
child's educational placement
• instructional planning: to develop and plan instruction appropriate to the child's special needs
• Evaluation: to evaluate student progress. (Pierangelo and Giuliani, 2006)
The Difference Between Testing and Assessment

There is sometimes confusion regarding the terms "assessment" and "testing." While they are
related, they are not synonymous. Testing is the administration of specifically designed and often
standardized educational and psychological measures of behavior and is a part of the assessment
process. Testing is just one piece of the assessment process. Assessment encompasses many
different methods of evaluation, one of which is using tests.

Role of the Education Professional in the Special Education Process

The professional involved in special education in today’s schools plays a very critical role in the overall
education of students with all types of disabilities. The special educator’s position is unique in that he
or she can play many different roles in the educational environment. Whatever their role, special
educators encounter a variety of situations that require practical decisions and relevant suggestions.
No matter which type of professional you become in the field of special education, it is always
necessary to fully understand the assessment process and to be able to clearly communicate vital
information to professionals, parents, and students (Pierangelo and Giuliani, 2006).
Assessment and Federal Law

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Public Law 105-476, lists 13 separate categories
of disabilities under which children may be eligible for special education and related services. These
are:
• autism: a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and
social interaction, generally evident before age 3
• deafness: a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic
information, with or without amplification

• deaf-blindness: simultaneous hearing and visual impairments

• hearing impairment: an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating

• mental retardation: significantly sub average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently
with deficits in adaptive behavior
• multiple disabilities: the manifestation of two or more disabilities (such as mental
retardationblindness), the combination of which requires special accommodation for maximal
learning
• orthopedic impairment: physical disabilities, including congenital impairments, impairments caused
by disease, and impairments from other causes
• other health impairment: having limited strength, vitality, or alertness due to chronic or acute
health problems
• serious emotional disturbance: a disability where a child of typical intelligence has difficulty, over
time and to a marked degree, building satisfactory interpersonal relationships; responds
inappropriately behaviorally or emotionally under normal circumstances; demonstrates a pervasive
mood of unhappiness; or has a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears
• specific learning disability: a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved
in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect
ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations
• speech or language impairment: a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired
articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment
• traumatic brain injury: an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting
in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both
• visual impairment: a visual difficulty (including blindness) that, even with correction, adversely
affects a child educational performance

TOPIC 3: Placement
Educational Placements of Students with Disabilities

Part B of IDEA and its implementing regulations require "that, to the maximum extent appropriate,
children with disabilities, including children in public and private institutions and other care facilities,
should be educated with children who are not disabled; and that special classes, separate schooling,
or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only
when the nature and severity of the disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of
supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily" (34 CFR 300.550). The Part B
regulations further specify that "a continuum of alternative placements is available to meet the
needs of children with disabilities for special education and related services" (34 CFR 300.551).

Each year, OSEP collects data from States and Outlying Areas on the number of students with
disabilities served in each of six different educational environments: regular class, resource room,
separate class, public or private separate school, public or private residential facility, and
homebound/hospital placements. The data are collected by age group for students age 3 through 21
and by disability for students age 6 through 21.

• Regular class includes students who receive the majority of their education program in a
regular classroom and receive special education and related services outside the regular
classroom for less than 21 percent of the school day. It includes children placed in a regular
class and receiving special education within the regular class, as well as children placed in a
regular class and receiving special education outside the regular class.
• Resource room includes students who receive special education and related services outside
the regular classroom for at least 21 percent but not more than 60 percent of the school day.
This may include students placed in resource rooms with part-time instruction in a regular
class.
• Separate class includes students who receive special education and related services outside
the regular classroom for more than 60 percent of the school day. Students may be placed in
selfcontained special classrooms with part-time instruction in regular classes or placed in
selfcontained classes full-time on a regular school campus.
• Separate school includes students who receive special education and related services in
separate day schools for students with disabilities for more than 50 percent of the school
day.
• Residential facility includes students who receive education in a public or private residential
facility, at public expense, for more than 50 percent of the school day.
• Homebound/hospital environment includes students placed in and receiving special
education in hospital or homebound programs.

During the last five years, the percentage of regular classroom placements reported by States
increased by almost 10 percentage points (see figure 1.1). The use of resource rooms has decreased
and all other placement settings have remained stable. The increase in the number of students
placed in regular classrooms may be attributed to changes in placements in California, Indiana, New
York, and Minnesota. The number of students in California reportedly served in regular classes
increased almost 100 percent from 1991-92 to 1992-93, with similarly large decreases in resource
room placements. State officials in California believe the shift is due primarily to improved data
collection and reporting that better conforms to OSEP data collection requirements. Indiana,
Minnesota, and New York all reported similar shifts in placement data and also attributed the shifts
to improved data collection and reporting procedures that more accurately reflect Federal guidelines.
In 1992-93, 39.8 percent of students with disabilities age 6 through 21 were served in regular
classroom placements under Part B and Chapter 1 (SOP). An additional 31.7 percent were served in
resource rooms, and 23.5 percent were served in separate classes in regular school buildings. Fully
95 percent of students with disabilities were served in regular school buildings. Of those students
served in separate facilities, 3.7 percent were served in separate day schools for students with
disabilities, 0.8 percent were served in residential facilities, and 0.5 percent were served in
homebound/hospital settings.

Placement Patterns by Age Group

Educational placements for students with disabilities vary a great deal by age group. Students age 6
through 11 are most likely to be served in regular classroom settings. As shown in figure 1.2, almost
50
percent of students with disabilities age 6 through Figure 1.1 Percentage of Students Age 6 through
11 are served in regular classroom placements, compared to 30 percent for students age 12 through
17, and 23 percent for students age 18 through 21. These percentages may occur because overall,
the environments and curriculums used in elementary schools are less complex. In elementary
school students tend to stay in one classroom with one teacher for most of the day. Therefore,
adaptive equipment has to be moved less frequently and guidance on inclusive practices can focus
on fewer environments and variations in instructional practices. The relatively large percentage of
students age 18 through 21 served in separate classes and schools may reflect placements in
specialized vocational programs or other transition programs located outside the regular school
building.

Students with specific learning disabilities, other health impairments, orthopedic impairments, and
serious emotional disturbance were generally served in regular schools, regular classes, resource
rooms, and separate classes. Students with mental retardation continued to be served primarily in
resource rooms and separate classrooms.

Students with hearing or visual impairments were served in a wide variety of settings. Twenty-nine
percent of students with hearing impairments and 45 percent of students with visual impairments
were served in regular classrooms. Twenty-three percent of students with hearing impairments and
15 percent of students with visual impairments were served in separate schools, residential facilities,
and homebound/hospital settings.

Students with multiple disabilities, autism, deaf-blindness, and traumatic brain injury were typically
served in more restrictive settings than other students with disabilities. Separate class and separate
day school placements were most common for students with multiple disabilities, autism, and
traumatic brain injury. The majority of students with deaf-blindness were served in separate classes,
separate schools, or residential facilities.

Findings Related to Inclusive School Practices

Providing individualized and appropriate education for all children and youth with disabilities in
general education classrooms requires substantial commitment and support from a variety of levels.
Recognizing this reality, OSEP has funded a number of projects over the last decade that have
focused on specific research issues (such as promoting academic achievement of students with
learning disabilities, and promoting physical and social integration of students with severe
disabilities), demonstration projects that assist LEAs in implementing inclusive schooling practices,
institutes (such as the California Research Institute and the Consortium on Inclusive Schooling
Practices) to help schools include students with significant disabilities in general education
classrooms, or State capacity-building activities that promote inclusive schooling (for example, 29
States have received Statewide Systems Change Project Grants). From these and other efforts,
several conditions have been identified as supporting inclusive schooling practices. They are
described below.

• Commitment to using a team of professionals with various levels of expertise to plan and
implement the IEPs of children and youth with disabilities (Rainforth, York, and MacDonald,
1992).
• Leadership demonstrated by individuals within school buildings, districts, and at the State
level that helps educators build a vision of inclusive services and supports actions to achieve
realization of that vision (Janney, Snell, Beers, and Raynes, 1995; Salisbury, 1991).
• Active involvement and support from families of children with disabilities for inclusive
education (Nesbit, 1992).
• Ongoing and vigilant support and training of the front-line general and special education
teachers as the general education curriculum is adapted to ensure IEPs are implemented for
the children and youth with disabilities (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Phillips, and Karns, 1995).

Positive learning results are attainable for students with disabilities served in inclusive contexts.
These, and other benefits, can be attained when staff perceive themselves and their students as
adequately supported, and when programs provide the supports necessary for students with
disabilities to learn effectively and efficiently. Many of these supports require redeployment of
existing resources, rather than procurement of new services and personnel. Given these parameters,
table 1.8 gives an overview of some of the trends and findings that have been reported in the
literature. Most are grounded in the work of research and demonstration projects funded by OSEP.

Factors Affecting Attainment of Positive Results

Research has shown that several factors affect the school environment. The National Center on
Educational Restructuring and Inclusion (NCERI) (Lipsky and Gardner, 1994) found that successful
inclusion programs had strong leadership, collaboration, and supports for students; refocused use of
assessments and funding; and effective parental and family support.Two of the factors, strong
leadership and collaboration, can take different forms. For example, the perceived availability of
administrative, technical, and collegial support affected how the teachers rated their experiences in
inclusive settings (Wolery, Werts, Caldwell, Snyder, and Lisowski, 1995; Karasoff, Alwell, and
Halvorsen, 1992).Other factors that affect the school environment are student and classroom
accommodations (Hamilton, Welkowitz, Mandeville, Prue and Fox, 1995; Peters, 1990), building a
sense of community in the classroom (Salisbury, Gallucci, Polombaro, and Peck, in press) and
involvement of and support provided to parents (Nisbet, 1992).

TABLE 1.8 Positive Learning and Social Results Using Inclusive School Practices

Skill Area: Academic/learning Results:

• Higher quality IEPs compared to those in special classes (Hunt, Farron-Davis, Curtis, & Goetz,
1994).
• Higher levels of engaged time in general education compared to students in special
education (Hunt, Farron-Davis, Curtis, & Goetz, 1994).
• Higher levels of engaged time for elementary students with and without disabilities in
classrooms in which there are students with more significant disabilities (Hollowood,
Salisbury, Rainforth, & Palombaro, 1994).
• Disruptions to classroom learning time not associated with students with significant
disabilities (Hollowood, Salisbury, Rainforth, & Palombaro, 1994).
• Students with disabilities learn targeted skills in general education classrooms (Wolery,
Werts, Caldwell, & Snyder, 1994; Hunt, Staub, Alwell, & Goetz 1994).
• No decline in academic or behavioral performance of nondisabled classmates on

standardized test and report card measures (Sharpe, York, & Knight, 1994). Skill Area: Social

Results:

• High school students report that interactions with students with disabilities produced
positive attitudes, increased responsiveness to needs of people, and increased appreciation
for diversity (Helmstetter, Peck, & Giangreco, 1994).
• Students with disabilities in general education settings are alone less often and display more
social contact than students in special classes (Hunt, Farron-Davis, Curtis, & Goetz, 1994;
Kennedy & Itkonen, 1994; Romer & Haring, 1994).
• Demonstrated gains in social competence for students in inclusive settings compared to that
of students in segregated placements (Cole & Meyer, 1991).
• Social acceptance and opportunity for interactions not uniquely associated with child's level
of functioning (Evans, Salisbury, Palombaro, Berryman, Hollowood, 1992).
• Regular class participation is an important factor in determining the composition and stability
of social networks for high school students with disabilities (Kennedy & Itkonen, 1994).

Implications for the Future

Despite advances in understanding the conditions associated with positive social and academic
results for students with disabilities in general education classrooms, substantial gaps continue to
exist in our knowledge of inclusive schooling. Substantial gaps also continue to exist between what is
known and what occurs in many public schools.
In addition to these and other areas of clear research need, continued efforts are needed to ensure
that the findings and innovations from research projects become widely adopted and used in the
majority of the nation's schools. Support should continue for projects such as those described below:

• demonstration projects to build a cadre of model schools that engage in inclusive schooling
practices;
 • outreach projects to assist schools in addressing particular problems they face when
implementing inclusive schooling practices;
• State-level projects for addressing policy barriers to inclusive schooling and for identifying
and addressing State needs related to inclusion;
• State and regional projects to address the training and support needs of teachers employed
in schools engaged in inclusive schooling; and
• systematic projects designed to synthesize the existing knowledge on inclusive schooling and
to evaluate means for ensuring its utilization in schools and representing diverse
demographic characteristics.

TOPIC 4: Accommodations and Curricular Modification

For many students with disabilities—and for many without—the key to success in the
classroom lies in having appropriate adaptations, accommodations, and modifications made to the
instruction and other classroom activities. Some adaptations are as simple as moving a distractible
student to the front of the class or away from the pencil sharpener or the window. Other
modifications may involve changing the way that material is presented or the way that students
respond to show their learning.

Adaptations, accommodations, and modifications need to be individualized for students, based upon
their needs and their personal learning styles and interests. This allows students to access the
general curriculum and other learning materials and activities and to demonstrate what they have
learned. As they experience success in the classroom, motivation and learning increase, and overall
student outcomes improve.

It is not always obvious what adaptations, accommodations, or modifications would be beneficial for
a particular student, or how changes to the curriculum, its presentation, the classroom setting, or
student evaluation might be made. This Resources You Can Use is intended to help teachers and
others find information that can guide them in making appropriate changes in the classroom based
on what their students need. All of the resources are rich with suggestions and techniques that can
help teachers and, ultimately, students. We have included a description of each resource so that
readers can select the ones that are most relevant to their needs and their students. Contact
information for book publishers is provided at the end of this document, so that readers can easily
obtain those resources of interest to them.

Introduction

Modifying existing general curriculum has been an effective way to create more accessible learning
environments to support all students and their teachers in various educational contexts. There are
many terms in use regarding changes made to curriculum, such as enhancements, accommodations,
overlapping, and adaptations. We differentiate curriculum modification from curriculum
enhancement for the purposes of this paper. In this way, we can clarify the definition and nature of
curriculum modification to emphasize its effectiveness in improving education for all children, and to
provide vivid examples and useful resources which will enrich actual classroom practices for diverse
learners. Although both ideas, enhancement and modification, become pivotal when we consider
improving accessibilities of general curricula in relation to individual students’ needs, the approach,
design, and methods that result from each idea may differ significantly.

Curriculum enhancement is most likely to be built around existing general curriculum and to involve
teachers’ alterations of curriculum. Frequently, teachers will enhance curriculum with additions of
instructional strategies. Frequently enhancements are created to evaluate and teach adequate
background knowledge in preparation for a new task. Additionally, teachers may incorporate a
variety of instructional materials and procedures to meet students’ needs, including the use of co-
teaching and/or instructional collaboration.

Curriculum modification differs from curriculum enhancement in that modification is a more extreme
alteration to the curriculum than that of an enhancement. Modifications involve combinations of
altered content, conceptual difficulty, educational goals, and instructional method versus building
scaffolding and bridges between existing curriculum and people involved in the educational process.
Such differentiation between curriculum modification and curriculum enhancement is based on
ranging degrees in which our educational approach becomes distinct from or maintains the
similarities to existing general curriculum. In other words, educational practices in which student and
teacher interactions differ from those designed in existing general curriculum are present to a greater
extent when curriculum is modified than when enhanced.

There are numerous ways curriculum modifications are put into practice for different purposes and
outcomes on various levels (such as individual, classroom, and school-wide). Due to a flexible nature
and countless applications, curriculum modification often remains an ambiguous concept and is
understood as an umbrella term to include multifarious aspects of everyday teaching practices. We
have refined our definition of curriculum modification based on understandings of its nature and
potentialities. The discussion below introduces a way to understand the concept and some concrete
practices of curriculum modification through to presenting how we have defined curriculum
modification, how components can be categorized, what research says about its effectiveness, and
how such empirical evidence can be applied to general education settings. We provide, in the final
section, a list of useful web resources and related literature for the reader.
Curriculum Modification

It is important to note that no single definition of curriculum modification exists. Many researchers
offer many definitions from various fields of discipline. In other words, the practice of curriculum
modification has been discussed in different languages by many researchers from various specialty
areas in education. For instance, in addition to the most frequently used terms, accommodation and
adaptation, some use terms such as alteration, differentiation, change, revision, enhancement,
compacting, integration, and scaffolding to discuss teaching events involving curriculum
modification. Another issue is that discussions regarding curriculum modification are often
interwoven with ideas of strategy use for intended educational purposes. This creates a situation in
which we face the difficulty of separating literature focusing on teaching strategies from those
focusing on curriculum modification.

Our challenge is to clarify these ambiguities and to refine the definition of curriculum modification. In
this review, we define curriculum modification as modified content, instruction, and/or learning
outcomes to meet diverse student needs. In other words, curriculum modification is not limited to
instructional modification or content modification but includes a continuum of a wide range of
modified educational components. Similarly, Comfort (1990) defines curriculum modification as “the
adapting or interpreting of a school’s formal curriculum by teachers into learning objectives and units
of learning activities judged most reasonable for an individual learner or particular group of learners”
(p. 397). Curriculum modification involves change to a range of educational components in a
curriculum such as content knowledge, the method of instruction, and students’ learning outcomes,
through the alteration of materials and programs (Comfort, 1990; King-Sears, 2001; MacMackin &
Elaine, 1997; Reisberg, 1990).

Although some may distinguish instruction from curriculum and argue that mere instructional
modification should not be considered as curriculum modification, defining curriculum modification
requires us to understand curriculum as a broad concept which involves various educational
components and people involved in educational processes. After all, content, instruction, input and
output inseparably construct daily teaching and learning. We also conceive school curriculum as a
framework for guiding teachers (Comfort, 1990). In short, the way that we interpret curriculum
influences our understanding of curriculum modification. Reisburg (1990) lists examples of the
modifications of content, such as teaching learning strategies, simplifying concepts or reading levels,
teaching different sets of knowledge and skills needed by students, and setting up specific objectives
and examples of modifications to instructional methods including reducing distractions, altering the
pace of lessons, presenting smaller amounts of work, clarifying directions, and changing input and
response modes. All of these teaching events should be considered as examples of curriculum
modification.

For the purpose of this report, we have adopted the categorization of curriculum modification
suggested by King-Sears (2001). King-Sears identified four types of curriculum modification: (a)
accommodation, (b) adaptation, (c) parallel curriculum outcomes, and (d) overlapping curricula on a
continuum. This categorization represents the relation between modified curriculum and general
curriculum in terms of differences and similarities in educational input including content knowledge
and conceptual difficulty, educational output including educational goals, and methods of
instruction. The extent to which a modified curriculum differs from the general curriculum becomes
greater as educational practice moves from accommodation to overlapping curricula. For instance, in
accommodation, the only educational components which may differ from general curriculum are
instructional method and educational goals, whereas, in overlapping curricula, all components—
input, output, and instructional methods that students receive—can be totally different from those
designed in general curriculum.

As conceptualized along this continuum, curriculum modification that King-Sears suggests contains a
wide range of educational practices and shares the essence of the aforementioned definition of
curriculum modification: modified content, instruction, and/or learning outcomes for diverse student
needs. Modifications identified by King-Sears, for example, range from an educational practice of
simply providing an audio book to some students who have reading difficulties during reading
lessons to an educational practice of having some special needs students work on individual (IEP)
goals, such as following directions, while they engage in general science lessons. Moreover, these
four types of curriculum modification, according to King-Sears, are extensions of curriculum
enhancement within the process for teachers to determine the degree of accessibility of their
classroom for students with disabilities. In other words, curriculum modification, in King-Sears’ view,
is a suggested step to take when curriculum enhancement alone is not effective to achieve objectives
for inclusion.

King-Sears’ clear categorization and analysis of the components of curriculum modification is

valuable for educators to capture the essence of curriculum modification. As stated above, her
categorization consists of a wide range of educational practices. Since curriculum modification is
practiced in numerous ways, it is important to broaden the definition rather than limiting it to
particular events.

Components and Features

As noted above, the components of curriculum modification are well categorized by King-Sears
(2001) into four types: (a) accommodation, (b) adaptation, (c) parallel curriculum outcomes, and (d)
overlapping curricula. Switlick (1997) explains that the purpose of modifying curriculum is “to enable
an individual to compensate for intellectual, physical, or behavioral challenges” and to create
learning environments which “allow the individual to use existing skill repertoires while promoting
the acquisition of new skills and knowledge” (p. 236). We need to understand that these are the
purposes which underlie the four types of curriculum modification identified by King-Sears.

In the following section, brief explanations of each type of curriculum modification with examples
from actual classrooms are presented. Actual educational practices reflecting modified curriculum
vary in many ways, as modification occurs in various educational settings across diverse subject
areas, students, assignments, assessments, evaluations, and so on. Presenting examples for all
educational situations is beyond the scope of this paper. Therefore, we selected a range of examples
across four types of curriculum modification with a special focus on the examples from integrated
general classrooms. For instance, the section regarding accommodation involves an example of using
assistive technology in writing class for students with learning disabilities and an example of using
audio books for English Language Learners in a reading lesson. Likewise, various settings (math,
language arts, social studies, and science) and learners (students with moderate to severe disabilities
as well as students identified as gifted and talented) appear in the examples presented across the
four types of curriculum modification.
Following the description and examples of each curriculum modification type is a table illustrating
comparisons among four types of curriculum modification in relation to components modified and
the extent to which modified curricula differ from the general curriculum. The table helps us visually
recognize that, as we move forward from accommodation to overlapping curricula, focused
components shift from instruction-oriented to content-oriented and that educational practices
reflecting modified curriculum become more distant from educational practices based on general
curriculum.

Accommodation

The term accommodation is used to mean a modification to the delivery of instruction or method of
student performance and does not change the content or conceptual difficulty of the curriculum (see
Table 1). Both teachers and students can play a role in the changes to instructional methods in order
to achieve the same intended instructional outcomes suggested in general curriculum. Examples of
accommodation are countless. Some include incorporating different types of teaching devices and
techniques (such as use of audio or other formats as an alternative to print), technology, graphic
organizers, and pictorial representation; and changing the amount of input, time-frame for learning,
and levels of support for individual students’ needs.

Among these examples, using assistive/adaptive technologies typically exemplify an accommodation

to general curriculum. Bray, Brown, and Green (2004) define assistive/adaptive technologies as
“contentfree technologies” (p. 34) which does not address curriculum or promote specific learning
but rather helps students’ overcome inaccessibility due to individual differences. In an actual
classroom, a student with physical disabilities may use computer input devices, such as a trackball
mouse which requires less hand movement or an alternate keyboard with extra-large keys, to
complete his/her writing task. In this case, the content and difficulty level of tasks remain the same
as the tasks in which other students in the class engage. An accommodation through the use of
assistive/adaptive technologies allows students to complete their tasks required in general
curriculum which would be difficult to complete otherwise.

Another example of accommodation is making audio versions of books available for students who are
English Language Learners (ELLs) and students with print disabilities when they engage in reading
sessions focusing on reading comprehension skills. Instead of providing the traditional written or
printed form of text, teachers can have these students work individually or in a small group to read
an assigned book with auditory support. Again, through this type of accommodation, students with
diverse needs can acquire the same content knowledge as other students and move on to the next
stage of learning with them. In the case of ELLs, students can comprehend the text with audio
support and then participate in the followup activities with other classmates based on their
understanding of what was read. Frequently, teachers regard ELL students’ developing language
proficiency as a disadvantage which causes a necessary lagbehind (Valdes, 2002). As a result,
teachers may provide curriculum modification with more contentfocused alteration, which simplifies
the content, may change the standards and goals, does not provide enough cognitive challenge and
academic stimulus, and does not help students’ acquisition of the English language. Although it is
important to understand that acquiring a second language, especially academic language, is not a
quick fix and takes many years of instruction (Cummins, 2000), teachers also need to know that ELLs,
like other general students, should receive an appropriate cognitive challenge with appropriate
conceptual difficulties and a sense of belonging to their class regardless of their developing language
proficiencies (Igoa, 1995). When used with students with appropriate language proficiency levels, an
accommodation to general curriculum can be a powerful tool to support ELL students’ unique
linguistic, academic, and social needs.

Switlick (1997) has listed other examples of accommodations, such as requiring completion of every
other word problem on a math worksheet or providing for oral performance instead of written. As
we see in these examples, accommodation is not a change of educational input designed in general
curriculum, such as content knowledge and the conceptual difficulty of the subjects. Rather,
accommodation is a modification of instructional methods intended to meet individual student’s
needs of acquiring necessary input from lessons. The information that students receive remains the
same. However, an accommodation to curriculum modifies the way that students acquire and/or
respond to the information.

Another important point to add is that the intended goals of accommodated curriculum may change
from those of general curriculum depending on educational contexts. For instance, using an audio
book in a reading comprehension lesson creates an opportunity for students to use their listening
skills in addition to reading or decoding skills. If the students were English-speaking children with
reading difficulty who had already established English listening skills, the intended goals of
curriculum would remain the same as those in general curriculum. However, if the students were
ELLs who were still in the process of developing their listening skills, teachers could indicate an
additional goal for them (which is the development of listening skills). Thus, accommodation has a
flexibility of adjusting intended educational goals based on context.
 TOPIC 5: Parent Involvement

Why is parent involvement so important?

When teachers and parents work together to support the learning and social/emotional needs of
students, that students do better in school. Not only does it help students learn and achieve
academically, it helps students develop positive peer relationships as well. We have a shared
responsibility in educating students.

Involving parents and the community is an important principle of quality, both in and out of the
classroom. It is even more relevant in the case of inclusive education, which is much broader than
formal education and should not only take place within the four walls of a classroom. Parents’
collaboration is not only of benefit for children: there are also possible gains for all parties, for
instance: • Parents increase interaction with their children, become more responsive and sensitive to
their needs and more confident in their parenting skills.

• Educators acquire a better understanding of families’ culture and diversity, feel more
comfortable at work and improve their morale.

• Schools, by involving parents and the community, tend to establish better reputations in
the community. Creating a climate and sustaining a culture of collaboration is a challenge for schools.
But it is one that pays large dividends through time.

However, the recognition that family engagement in education benefits children does not
make clear how the involvement becomes a positive force. The first step for families to become
involved in a collaborative way with schools is to promote a social and educational atmosphere
where parents and partners feel welcomed, respected, trusted, heard and needed.
Cultural factors and traditions strongly influence the relationship between schools and the
community. In many places throughout the globe, schools are the centre of community life and are
used to encourage and achieve social participation. Such cultural environments will ease the process:
parents, schools and community leaders know how to work together and find creative solutions for
improving learning, responding to economic crisis and disease outbreaks, or assisting populations
affected by disasters caused by natural hazards.

The levels of family involvement in children’s education might vary in accordance with the
participation opportunities that the education system makes available to them. In the case of
children with disabilities, the willingness of a family to engage in collaboration might be influenced by
the type of disability, as well as the family’s socio-economic status and the nature of the parent-child
(or guardianchild) relationship.

A number of scales have been used to evaluate the different types and degrees of
collaboration between schools, families and communities. It is useful to distinguish between the
different types and purposes of collaboration. While variances in approaches, dynamics and
subsequent effectiveness and sustainability have been studied by numerous researchers, the value of
understanding such distinctions is not merely academic. On the contrary: they have made it possible
to systematize and analyze the different ways or levels of involvement, which is useful to
understanding the dynamics amongst participants and helps in making collaboration a meaningful
and sustained experience that is valued and appreciated by all. One of the most popular scales
(Figure 1) was developed with the idea of encouraging an examination of why and how people
participate throughout communities. The ladder helps us to distinguish among forms of participation
that are oriented by the idea of empowering people, and others that remain at a symbolic level or
are directly manipulative.

Providing support and regular training to parents, facilitating regular access to information
and consultation and creating a friendly institutional environment appear among the most frequent
recommendations for implementing good policies to engage parents and the community with
inclusive education.
In its well-known Open File on Inclusive Education, UNESCO introduces a detailed list of
possible ‘parent engagement’ options aimed at making the experience a two-way-street type of
relationship:

• Families as activists: Frequently, families – particularly those organized into networks or

associations – play a lead role in moving education systems towards more inclusive approaches and
policies. Some of the actions in which parent groups can have an impact are identifying schools that
are willing to move forward, establishing links and partnerships with education authorities in support
of inclusive education, organizing seminars and workshops to introduce new thinking and new
practice, and supporting teacher development.

• Families as contributors to inclusive education: Under this option, the role of parents is
emphasized in supporting inclusion in the family and children’s learning and development at home.
The main idea is that families and communities should reinforce inclusive and learning experiences. •
Schools, families and the community as partners: There are many opportunities for partnerships and
collaboration, from exchanging information to family members supporting learning at home.
 • Families supporting other families: This is particularly advised in the case of parents of
children with disabilities who live in poverty, isolated communities, or have culturally or linguistically
diverse backgrounds. In this case the support of parents of children with disabilities who are in a
better social or educational position can be extremely valuable.

• Family and community involvement in school governance and management: Includes the
participation of families in decision making and in supporting aspects of daily management of
activities.

Recent research shows that empowering families and enabling them to participate in
decision making is an effective contribution to the process of change in the context of education.
Instead of ‘involving’ families, or proposing specific tasks or set roles for parents, the idea of
‘engagement’ seeks the active participation of parents within the process of improving education for
all. Collaboration must be both constructive and efficient and this is more likely to happen when all
parties feel comfortable in the process, the different roles are agreed and understood, and
information is provided regularly in an open and democratic way. Bear in mind also the need to
provide regular opportunities for all participants to clarify their expectations, understand the
complexities of the process (accomplishments as well as disappointments and drawbacks) and
discuss how to improve the quality of the collaborative process.

Attachment 1

July 6, 2009
DO 72, s. 2009
Inclusive Education as Strategy for Increasing Participation Rate of Children

To: Undersecretaries
Assistant Secretaries
Bureau Directors
Regional Directors
Schools Division/City Superintendents
1. Special Education in the Philippines has only served 2% of the targeted 2.2 million children
with disabilities in the country who live without access to a basic human right: the right to
education. Most of these children live in rural and far flung areas whose parents need to be
aware of educational opportunities that these children could avail of.
2. The Department of Education (DepED) has organized the urgency to address this problem
and therefore, guarantees the right for these children to receive appropriate education
within the regular or inclusive classroom setting. Inclusive education embraces the
philosophy of accepting all children regardless of race, size, shape, color, ability or disability
with support from school staff, students, parents and the community.
3. A comprehensive inclusive program for children with special needs has the following
components:
1. Child Find. This is locating where these children are through the family mapping
survey, advocacy campaigns and networking with local health workers. The children
with special needs who are not in school shall be listed using Enclosure No. 1. These
children shall be visited by Special Education (SPED) teachers and parents should be
convinced to enroll their children in SPED Centers or schools nearest their home.
2. Assessment. This is the continuous process of identifying the strengths and
weaknesses of the child through the use of formal and informal tools for proper
 program grade placement. Existing SPED Centers in the Division shall assist regular
schools in the assessment process.
3. Program Options. Regular schools with or without trained SPED teachers shall be
provided educational services to children with special needs. These schools shall
access educational services from SPED Centers or SPED trained teachers. The first
program option that shall be organized for these children is a self-contained class for
children with similar disabilities which can be mono-grade or multi-grade handled by
a trained SPED teacher. The second option is inclusion or placement of the child with
disabilities in general education or regular class where he/she learns with his/her
peers under a regular teacher and/or SPED trained teacher who addresses the child’s
needs.

The third option is a resource room program where the child with disabilities shall be
pulled out from the general education or regular class and shall report to a SPED
teacher who provides small group/one-on-one instruction and/or appropriate
interventions for these children.

4. Curriculum Modifications. This shall be implemented in the forms of adaptations

and accommodations to foster optimum learning based on individual’s needs and
potentials. Modification in classroom instructions and activities is a process that
involves new ways of thinking and developing teaching-learning practices. It also
involves changes in any of the steps in the teaching-learning process. Curriculum
modifications shall include service delivery options like cooperative or team
teaching, consulting teacher program and others. The provision of support services
from professionals and specialists, parents, volunteers, and peers or buddies to the
children with special needs is an important feature in the inclusion program.
5. Parental Involvement. This plays a vital role in preparing the children in academic,
moral and spiritual development. Parents shall involve themselves in observing
children’s performance, volunteering to work in the classroom as teacher aide and
providing support to other parents.
4. District and school-based special education and regular teachers, administrators and parents
need to collaboratively develop and facilitate the most effective program for children with
disabilities. This program shall be included in the School Improvement Plan (SIP).
5. To realize the successful implementation of inclusive education in the schools, the duties and
responsibilities of DepED officials are defined in Enclosure No. 2.
6. Officials at the division, region and central offices shall provide the needed training on
inclusive education to administrators, teachers and other school staff; regularly monitor the
implementation of the program and provide the corresponding technical assistance needed
and conduct evaluation to determine the effectiveness of the program and improve its
implementation.
7. Immediate dissemination of and compliance with this Order is directed.
 LESSON V
PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT AND LEARNING DISABILITIES

TOPICS
1. Physical Impairment
2. Learning Disabilities

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the characteristics of the physically impaired and
those with
learning disabilities
2. Identify teaching practices appropriate for
these categories ofspecial
and inclusive learners
Time Allotment– 6 hours

A. Physical Impairment

Physical activity and mobility may be impaired by a number of conditions, some of which are
permanent, others of a temporary or intermittent nature. These conditions include cerebral palsy,
arthritis, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson’s disease and repetitive strain injury
(RSI). Back or neck injuries may also affect general mobility. A stroke may result in temporary or
permanent loss of feeling or movement of part of the body – frequently on one side. Speech and
vision may also be affected in students with cerebral palsy and multiple sclerosis for example, and in
those who have suffered a stroke.

Coordination and balance may be mildly or severely affected by any of these conditions. Movement
may be impaired by muscle spasms, numbness or pain. As a consequence, both manipulation of
equipment and writing may be difficult. Some students use wheelchairs to enhance their mobility
whilst others will walk with the aid of callipers, crutches or walking stick. Some students may
experience chronic fatigue and for others there will be extreme fluctuations of energy from day to
day.

Physical disability may also result from head injury (ABI – acquired brain injury). Increasing numbers
of students are returning to education following vehicle or sporting accidents in which they have
sustained some degree of brain injury. Resulting impairment may affect speech, vision or
coordination, and the injury may also be responsible for personality disorders or depression.
In providing accommodations for students with physical disabilities we need to remember that some
conditions are characterised by periods of remission, so the disability will not always be visible and
will not always impact on the student’s ability to function in the educational environment in the
same way. Each learner with a physical disability should be assessed individually and
accommodations should be implemented based on the unique needs of each student.
 Impact of a physical disability

The impact of physical disability on learning will vary but for most students the issues of most
significance relate to physical access, manipulation of equipment (e.g. in a laboratory), access to
computers, participation in field trips and the time and energy expended in moving around campus.
Students may be affected in the following ways:

• When there is limited time to move between venues, students may miss the beginning of a class.
• Fatigue is common for many of these students. Using facilities that others take for granted, such as
toilets, food-outlets, libraries and lecture rooms, may be a major undertaking.
• Some students may experience functional difficulties: an inability to write using a pen; reduced
writing speed; involuntary head movements which affect the ability to read standard-sized print; and
reduced ability to manipulate resources in the learning environment. They may have difficulty
turning pages or using standard computers.
• Students may have frequent or unexpected absences from class owing to hospitalisation or changes
in their rehabilitation or treatment procedure. Earlier periods of hospitalisation may have meant
gaps in schooling.
• Students with a long-standing mobility disability may have experienced gaps in their schooling due to
periods of hospitalisation.This may have affected their confidence in learning.
• Students with a mobility impairment may have fewer opportunities for interaction with other
students. Feelings of separateness in the learning environment may have an impact on learning.

Teaching Strategies

There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to learn but there are
some specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group which includes students with physical
impairment.

The fact that students have a mobility disability may not always be immediately apparent. Needs will
vary, and difficulties may fluctuate. Some students will choose to disclose their disability; others will
not. At your first lecture, you might invite any students who have a disability to contact you for a
confidential discussion of their specific learning needs. You might also ask students what, if any,
information would need to be shared with other members of staff, or with other students in the
class. Below are some further suggestions:

• Students who use wheelchairs, callipers or crutches, or who tire easily, may find it difficult moving
about within the constraints of lecture timetables. Absence or lateness may be a result of the
distance between teaching venues, so at the end of a lecture you may need to recap any information
given at the beginning.
• Check that academic activities which take place off-campus (such as industry visits, interviews or
fieldwork) are accessible to people with a mobility disability. Consider supplementary laboratory
practicals, films or videos as alternative options to field trips.
• Students with a mobility disability may sometimes wish to use their own furniture, such as
ergonomic chairs or sloped writing tables. Extra space may need to be created in teaching rooms, but
this should be done unobtrusively.
• Some students with back problems may prefer to stand in lectures or classes, rather than sit.
• Some students may need to use a tape recorder or note-taker in lectures. Extra time is involved in
processing information acquired in this way. It is common practice in some departments to routinely
tape all lectures. This is a practice which will assist a variety of students, including those who may be
absent from time to time because of their disability.
• Students may need extensions to deadlines for work involving locating and using library resources.
Provide reading lists well before the start of a course so that reading can begin early.
• Academic isolation may be an issue for students who are unable to participate in some class
activities. One-to-one sessions with a tutor may help fill this gap in participation.

Assessment Strategies

In considering alternative forms of assessment, equal opportunity, not a guaranteed outcome, is the
objective. You are not expected to lower standards to accommodate students with a disability, but
rather are required to give them a reasonable opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned.

Students with a mobility disability may need particular adjustments to assessment tasks. Once you
have a clear picture of how the disability impacts on performance you can consider alternative
assessment strategies, such as those suggested below:

• A reader or an oral examination (either presenting answers on tape or participating in a viva) are
alternatives to the conventional written paper. An oral examination is not an easy option for
students. Give the same time for an oral examination as for a written exam, but allow extra time for
the student to listen to and refine or edit responses. In your assessment, allowance should be made
for the fact that spoken answers are likely to be less coherent than written answers.
• For some students the combination of written and oral examination will be most appropriate. Allow
students to write answer plans or make outline notes, but then to answer the question orally. Your
assessment should be based on both the notes and the spoken presentation.
• Students may need to use a personal computer or a personal assistant in an examination. If so, it may
be necessary to provide extra space for equipment, or a separate examination venue if the noise
from equipment (e.g. a voice synthesiser) is likely to be distracting for other students.
• Provide extra time in examinations for students who have reduced writing speed. Some students
with a mobility disability may need rest breaks. Take-home examinations and split papers may be
options, given that some students may need double time to complete examinations.
• Allow extensions to assignment deadlines if extensive research involving physical activity (e.g.
frequent trips to the library or collection of data from dispersed locations) is required.

B. Learning Disabilities

Children with learning disabilities are a heterogeneous group. These children are a diverse
group of individuals, exhibiting potential difficulties in many different areas. For example,
one child with a learning disability may experience significant reading problems, while
another may experience no reading problems whatsoever, but has significant difficulties with
written expression.

Learning disabilities may also be mild, moderate, or severe. Students differ too, in their
coping skills. According to Bowe (2005), “some learn to adjust to LD so well that they ‘pass’
as not having a disability, while others struggle throughout their lives to even do ‘simple’
things.

Over the years, parents, educators, and other professionals have identified a wide variety of
characteristics associated with learning disabilities (Gargiulo, 2004). One of the earliest
profiles, developed by Clements (1966), includes the following ten frequently cited
attributes:

• Hyperactivity

• Impulsivity

• Perceptual-motor impairments

• Disorders of memory and thinking

• Emotional labiality

• Academic difficulties

• Coordination problems

• Language deficits

• Disorders of attention

• Equivocal neurological signs

Almost 35 years later, Lerner (2000) identified nine learning and behavioral characteristics of
individuals with learning disabilities:

• Disorders of attention

• Reading difficulties

• Poor motor abilities

• Written language difficulties

• Oral language difficulties

• Social skills deficits

• Psychological process deficits

• Quantitative disorders

• Information processing problems

According to Gargiulo (2004), not all students with learning disabilities will exhibit these
characteristics, and many pupils who demonstrate these same behaviors are quite successful
in the classroom. As Smith (1979) observes, it is the quantity, intensity, and duration of the
behaviors that lead to the problems in school and elsewhere.
Academic Achievement Deficits

Children with learning disabilities often struggle with various areas of academic
performance. During the elementary school years, a discrepancy between ability and
achievement begins to emerge in students with learning disabilities. Often puzzling to
teachers, these students seem to have strengths similar to their peers in several areas, but
their rate of learning is unexpectedly slower (Smith et al., 2004). These problems usually
persist from the primary grades through the end of formal schooling, including college
(Bradshaw, 2001).

Academic deficits for children with learning disabilities normally fall into the following areas:
reading, mathematics, and written expression. Some children have problems in only one
select academic area, while others may experience difficulties in all three.

Reading Deficits

Reading provides a fundamental way for individuals to exchange information. It is also a

means by which much of the information presented in school is learned. As a result, reading
is the academic area most often associated with academic failure. Reading is a complex
process that requires numerous skills for its mastery. Consequently, identifying the skills that
lead to success in reading is extremely important.

Reading difficulties are observed among students with learning disabilities more than any
other problem area of academic performance. It is the most prevalent type of academic
difficulty for students with learning disabilities. It is estimated that as many as 90% of
students with learning disabilities have reading difficulties, and even the low estimates are
approximately 60% (Bender, 2001).

Most authorities believe that this problem is related to deficient language skills, especially
phonological awareness—the ability to understand that speech flow can be broken into
smaller sound units such as words, syllables, and phonemes.

According to Hallahan and Kauffman (2003), it is easy to see why problems with phonology
would be at the heart of many reading difficulties. A person who has problems breaking
words into their component sounds will have trouble learning to read. And there is
suggestive evidence that readers of English are more susceptible than readers of some other
languages to problems with phonological awareness. Some have speculated that this is why
reading disabilities are more prevalent in English-speaking countries than in some other
countries (p. 162).

Becoming a skilled reader is so important in our culture that an unskilled reader is at a great
disadvantage in school and in the workplace. The following problems may prevent a child
with learning disabilities from learning to read (Kirk, Gallagher, & Anastaiow, 2003, p. 224).

• Faulty auditory perception without hearing impairment

• Slow auditory or visual processing

• Inability to distinguish or separate the sounds of spoken words

• Lack of knowledge of the purpose of reading

• Failure to attend to critical aspects of the word, sentence, or paragraph

• Failure to understand that letters represent units of speech

Recent research has begun to reveal a great deal about the fundamental nature of children’s
reading disabilities and the type of instruction most likely to remediate reading problems
(Jenkins & O’Connor, 2001). In summarizing the research, Torgeson and Wagner (1998) state
that (1) the most severe reading problems of children with learning disabilities lie at the
word, rather than the text, level of processing (i.e., inability to accurately and fluently
decode single words), and (2) the most common cognitive limitation of these children
involves a dysfunction in the awareness of the phonological structure of words in oral
language (p. 226).

Clearly, problems with the reading process are very prevalent among students identified as
having learning disabilities. However, the specific problems that they have in reading vary as
much as the many components of the reading process (Hardman et al., 2005). These
difficulties include, but are not limited to oral reading, reading comprehension, word
recognition skills, and reading habits.

Oral Reading Difficulties

Many students with learning disabilities have difficulties with reading fluency (Mercer,
Campbell, Miller, Mercer, & Lane, 2000). Reading fluency, most frequently defined as the
rate of accurate reading (correct words per minute), is more than a status symbol for
children; it is an important indicator of reading ability (Hunt & Marshall, 2005). Students
with fluency problems may read aloud in a word-by-word manner without appropriate
inflection or rhythm, unable to relate the patterns of spoken language to the printed word.
Students with weakness in this area often dread being asked to read in class (Friend, 2005).

According to Salvia and Ysseldyke (1998), common oral reading problems include the
following:

• Omissions. The student skips individual words or groups of words.

Insertion. The student inserts one or more words into the sentence being orally read.

• Substitution. The student replaces one or more words in the passage by one or more
meaningful words.

• Gross mispronunciation of a word. The student’s pronunciation of a word bears little

resemblance to the proper pronunciation.

• Hesitation. The student hesitates for two or more seconds before pronouncing a
word.

• Inversion. The student changes the order of words appearing in a sentence.

Disregard of punctuation. The student fails to observe punctuation; for example, may not
pause for a comma, stop for a period, or indicate a vocal inflection, a question mark, or an
exclamation point.

Analyzing Oral Reading Miscues. An oral reading error is often referred to as a miscue. A
miscue is the difference between what a reader states is on a page and what is actually on
the page. According to Vacca, Vacca, and Grove (1986), differences between what the reader
says and what is printed on the page are not the result of random errors. Instead, these
differences are ìcuedî by the thought and language of the reader, who is attempting to
construct what the author is saying. Analysis of miscues can be of two types. With
quantitative miscues analysis, the number of reading errors made by the student is counted.
With qualitative miscues analysis, the focus is on the quality of the error rather than the
number of different mistakes. This type of analysis is not based on the problems related to
word identification, but rather on the differences between the miscues and the words on the
pages. Consequently, in qualitative miscue analysis some miscues are more significant than
others (Vacca et al., 1986).

According to John (1985), a miscue is significant if it affects meaning. Miscues are generally
significant when the following statements apply:

• The meaning of the sentence or passages is significantly changed or altered, and the
student does not correct the miscue.

• A nonword is used in place of the word in the passage.

• Only a partial word is substituted for the word or phrase in the passage.

• A word is pronounced for the student.

Miscues are generally not significant in the following cases.

• The meaning of the sentence or passage undergoes no change or only minimal

change.

• Miscues are self-corrected by the student.

• They are acceptable in the student’s dialect.

• They are later read correctly in the same passage.

Through miscue analysis, teachers can determine the extent to which the reader uses and
coordinates graphic, sound, syntactic, and semantic information from the text. According to
Goodman and Burke (1972), to analyze miscues you should ask at least four crucial
questions:

• Does the miscue change meaning? If it does not, then it is semantically acceptable
within the context of the sentence or passage.
• Does the miscue sound like language? If it does, then it is grammatically acceptable
within the context. Miscues are grammatically acceptable if they sound like language
and serve as the same parts of speech as the text words.

• Do the miscue and the text word look and sound alike? Substitution and
mispronunciation miscues should be analyzed to determine how similar they are in
approximating the graphic and pronunciation features of the text words.

• Was an attempt made to self-correct the miscue? Self-corrections are revealing

because they demonstrate that the reader is attending to meaning and is aware that
the initial miscuing did not make sense.

Oral reading problems often cause tremendous embarrassment for children. Children with
oral reading problems may read in a strained voice with poor phrasing, ignore punctuation,
and grope for words like a much younger child would do when reading. Pollaway, Patton, and
Serna (2001) confirm that a student’s self-image and feelings of confidence are greatly
affected by unhappy reading experiences. Deficits in reading skills can also lead to acting-out
behavior and poor motivation.

Reading Comprehension Deficits

Students with learning disabilities often have difficulties with reading comprehension
(Gersten, Williams, Fuchs, & Baker, 1998). These children often lack the skills required for
understanding text and have poor word-analysis skills (Hunt & Marshall, 2005). Reading
comprehension refers to a student’s ability to understand what he or she is reading. Some
students with reading comprehension difficulties are able to read a passage so fluently that
you might assume they were highly proficient readers. However, when they are asked
questions about what they have read, they have little or no understanding of the words.
Students with this problem sometimes are referred to as word callers (Friend, 2005).

It is always necessary to assess not only decoding but also the ability to understand what is
being decoded. According to Salvia and Ysseldyke (1998), there are six different types of
reading comprehension skills:

Literal comprehension. The student reads the paragraph or story and is then asked questions
based on it.

Inferential comprehension. The student reads a paragraph or story and must interpret what
has been read.

Listening comprehension. The student is read a paragraph or story by the examiner and is
then asked questions about what the examiner has read.

Critical comprehension. The student reads a paragraph or story and then analyzes, evaluates,
or makes judgments about what he or she has read.

Affective comprehension. The student reads a paragraph or story, and the examiner
evaluates his or her emotional responses to the text.
Lexical comprehension. The student reads a paragraph or story, and the examiner assesses
his or her knowledge of vocabulary words.

Here are some common reading comprehension problems of children with LD:

• Difficulties recalling basic facts (unable to answer specific questions about a passage,
such as What was the dog’s name in the story?)

• Difficulties recalling sequence (unable to tell the sequence of the story that was read)

• Difficulties recalling the main theme (unable to recall the main topic of the story)

When evaluating a child for reading comprehension, it is important to ask the following
questions:

• Does the student guess at answers to the questions presented?

• Does the student show unwillingness to read or make attempts at reading?

• Does the student skip unknown words?

• Does the student disregard punctuation?

• Does the student exhibit inattention to the story line?

• Does the student drop the tone of his or her voice at the end of sentences?

• Does the student display problems with sounding out word parts and blends?

• Does the student exhibit a negative attitude toward reading?

• Does the student express difficulty attacking unknown words?

Problems with Word Recognition

Students with learning disabilities often have difficulties with word recognition, which relates
to the student’s ability with respect to sight vocabulary. According to Salvia and Ysseldyke
(1998):

In order to identify written words, we use a number of different skills. Here are some of the
most important word analysis skills:

• The ability to associate sounds with the various letters and letter combinations used
to write them (phonic analysis)

• Immediately recognizing and remembering words (sight-word reading)

• Using the surrounding text to help figure out a specific word (using context)

The skills listed above rely heavy on perception, selective attention, memory, and
metacognitive skills. Thus, word recognition depends almost entirely on the cognitive skills
that are most problematic for individuals with disabilities (Hunt & Marshall, 2005).
According to Gargiulo (2004), here are common word recognition errors:

• Omissions. Omitting a word (Tom saw [a] cat.)

• Insertions. Inserting words (The dog ran [fast] after the cat.)

• Substitutions. Reversing letters in a word (no for on, was for saw)

• Mispronunciations. (Mister for miser)

• Transpositions. Reading words in the wrong order (She away ran instead of she ran
away.)

• Unknown words. Hesitating for 5 seconds at words they cannot pronounce

• Slow choppy reading. Not recognizing words quickly enough (20 to 30 words per

minute) Poor Reading Habits

Children with reading difficulties often have poor reading habits. As a teacher, it is critical
that you be aware of these actions when watching your students read on a daily basis.
Gargiulo (2004) lists some behaviors that are exhibited by children with poor reading habits.

• Tension movements. Frowning, fidgeting, using a high-pitched tone of voice

• Insecurity. Refusing to read, crying, attempting to distract the teacher

• Loses place. Losing place frequently

• Lateral head movements. Jerking head

• Holds material close. Deviating extremely from 15 to 18 inches

Dyslexia

Dyslexia is one of several distinct learning disabilities. It is a specific language-based disorder

characterized by difficulties in single word decoding, usually reflecting insufficient
phonological processing abilities. The difficulties in single word decoding are often
unexpected in relation to age and other cognitive and academic abilities; they are not the
result of generalized developmental disability or sensory impairment. Dyslexia is manifested
by variable difficulty with different forms of language, often including, in addition to
problems reading, a conspicuous problem with acquiring proficiency in writing and spelling.

Simply stated, dyslexia is a type of reading disorder in which the student fails to recognize
and comprehend written words. Dyslexia is a severe impairment in the ability to read,
despite normal intelligence, normal opportunities to read, and an adequate home
environment. Although the precise organic cause of dyslexia is unknown, it is generally
thought that this problem results from difficulties with phonological awareness—a lack of
understanding of the rules that govern the correspondence between specific sounds and
certain letters that make up words (Lyon & Moats, 1997; cited in Gargiulo, 2004, p. 216). In
other words, letter-sound recognition is impaired.
Various types of reading disorders have been recently cited by the American Academy of
Special Education Professionals’ Educator’s Diagnostic Manual of Disabilities and Disorders
(2007).

Listed below are the reading disorders most frequently seen in children with dyslexia:

• Direct Dyslexia. Direct dyslexia refers to the ability of the individual to read words aloud
correctly, yet not comprehend what he or she has just read.

• Dyseidesia Dyslexia. Such an affected individuals will have poor sight-word vocabularies
and will rely on using time consuming word attack skills (a phonetic approach) to decode
many words. As a result, students with this condition will read laboriously. Decoding
becomes inaccurate for many phonetically irregular words, log for laugh. Characteristic
spelling errors include phonetic equivalents for irregular words, such as rede for ready.

• Dyseidetic Dyslexia. Children with the dyseidetic type of dyslexia are able to sound out
individual letters phonetically but have trouble identifying patterns of letters in groups. Their
spelling tends to be phonetic even when incorrect (laf for laugh). Children in this group have
deficits in vision and memory of letters and word shapes, making it difficult for them to
develop a sight vocabulary. However, they have the ability to acquire adequate phonetic
skills.

• Dyslexia with Dysgraphia (Deep Dyslexia). With this condition, a person has a problem in
writing letters and words, grasping word-meanings, integrating the sounds of letters, and in
pronouncing unfamiliar and, sometimes, even familiar words. People in this category face
the biggest challenge and need our closest attention for educational and career planning.

• Dyslexia without Dysgraphia (Pure Dyslexia). This disorder occurs when a person has
problems reading but not writing. Some students with pure dyslexia have trouble doing
written arithmetic because they have to read the text and the numbers, but may not have
any problem doing spoken arithmetic. Dyslexia without dysgraphia may never be identified,
because, to confuse matters, a person may have nearly normal oral language and his or her
writing and oral spelling may be virtually unimpaired.

• Dysnemkinesia Dyslexia. Dysnemkinesia involves minimal dysfunction of the area of the

motor cortex involved in letter formation. Individuals with this disorder can be
characteristically distinguished by their frequent letter reversals, such as d for b, as in doy for
boy.

• Dysnomia. A type of dyslexia specifically associated with difficulties in naming and

naming speed.

• Dysphonetic Dyslexia. Dysphonic readers have difficulty relating letters to sounds, so

their spelling is totally chaotic. They are able to recognize words they have memorized but
cannot sound out new ones to figure out what they are. They may be able to read near the
appropriate grade level but are poor spellers. Dysphonetic dyslexia is viewed as a disability in
associating symbols with sounds. The misspellings typical of this disorder are phonetically
inaccurate. The misreadings are substitutions based on small clues, and are also semantic.
• Literal Dyslexia (Letter Blindness). With this condition, a person has difficulty identifying
letters, matching upper case letters with lowercase, naming letters, or matching sounds with
the corresponding letters. Here, a person may read individual letters of the word but not the
word itself, or read a word, but not understand the meaning of the word. Some people with
literal dyslexia may read words partially. For example, a person may read the word lice as ice,
or like. The person may realize that these words are incorrect, but cannot read the words
correctly. Some people with literal dyslexia do better by moving their finger along the outline
of a word, or by tracing the letters in the air.

• Mixed Reading Disability Dyslexia (Alexic Reading Disability). Children with mixed reading
disabilities have both the dyseidetic and dysphonic types of reading disorder. This subtype
combines the deficit of the first two groups. This person may have disability in both sight
vocabulary and phonetic skills. People with this form of dyslexia are usually unable to read
or spell.

• Neglect Dyslexia. This condition occurs when a person neglects the left or the right side
of words, a problem particularly highlighted in reading long words. For example, if asked to
read strowt, he or she may read it as owt. Given a word such as alphabetically, persons with
this particular form of dyslexia will miss some of the first few letters. For example, they may
read it simply as betically. There may be a problem with compound words. For example, a
compound word such as cowboy may be read partially, as cow or boy.

• Phonological Dyslexia. This disorder occurs when an individual has difficulty in converting
letters to their sounds. They can read words that are already familiar to them, but have
trouble reading unfamiliar or novel words. They also have difficulty in reading a nonword
such as tord. They may misread this nonword as a real word that looks similar. They
sometime also misread actual words as other ones that look similar. The word shut may pose
this particular problem, much to a listener’s dismay.

• Primary Dyslexia. This is a dysfunction of, rather than damage to, the left side of the
brain (cerebral cortex) and does not change with maturity. Individuals with this type are
rarely able to read above a fourth-grade level and may struggle with reading, spelling, and
writing as adults. Primary dyslexia is hereditary and is found more often in boys than in girls

• Semantic Dyslexia. This occurs when a person distorts the meaning of a word or
incorrectly reads a word because of the confusion in the meaning of the given word. People
with semantic dyslexia may say an antonym, a synonym, or a subordinate of a word instead
of the word proper. For example, they may misread dog as cat or fox. They may misread
twist as twisted, or buy as bought. Some have trouble reading function words such as of, an,
not, and and.

• Spelling Dyslexia. This occurs when a person has problems reading all types of words and
sometimes has trouble identifying individual letters. Their reading is extremely slow and
hesitant, particularly on long words. While a normal reader takes about 30 milliseconds for
reading each additional letter, a spelling dyslexic may take about a second to do the same.
Some dyslexics tend to read words one letter at a time, even if the words are short and
familiar.
• Surface Dyslexia. This condition occurs when a person can read words phonetically but
has problems with whole word recognition (i.e., yacht = yachet).

• Trauma Dyslexia. This condition usually occurs after brain trauma or injury to the area of
the brain that controls reading and writing. This type of dyslexia is rarely diagnosed in
today’s school-age population because they will often receive a classification in special
education of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) rather than LD.

• Visual Dyslexia. People with this condition usually cannot learn words as a whole
component. There are problems with visual discrimination, memory synthesis, and
sequencing of words. Reversal of words or letters when reading, writing, and spelling is
common.

It is important to identify students with dyslexia or other severe reading disabilities early,
before they fall far behind their peers in word-recognition skills. Students who appear to be
learning letter-names, sounds, and sight words at a significantly slower rate than their
classmates are at a risk for developing later reading problems. And yet, despite the
enormous problems children with dyslexia face, the general consensus among researchers is
that they can improve. When the diagnosis of dyslexia is made in the first two grades, more
than 80% of the children are brought up to grade level. However, if the diagnosis is not made
until the fifth grade, only 10 to 15% are helped (Kirk et al., 2003).

Finally, it is critical to remember that not all children with learning disabilities suffer from
dyslexia. The term dyslexia is overused in the popular press, which often gives an inaccurate
impression that everyone with a reading or literacy problem suffers from dyslexia.

Math Deficits

Although disorders of reading have traditionally received more emphasis than problems with
mathematics, the latter are gaining a great deal of attention (Hunt & Marshall, 2005).
Authorities now recognize that math difficulties are second only to reading disabilities as an
academic problem area for students with LD (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2003). Researchers
estimate that about one out of every four pupils with LD receives assistance because of
difficulties with mathematics (Rivera, 1997). According to Lerner (2003), each student with
mathematical difficulties is unique; not all children exhibit the same deficiency or
impairment.

Students with learning disabilities may have problems in both math calculations and math
reasoning (USOE, 1977). These students often have a number of problems in mathematical
thinking (Hunt & Marshall, 2005). Mathematical thinking is a process that begins early in
most children. Even before formal education begins, children are exposed to various
situations that involve the application of mathematical concepts. As they enter formal
schooling, they take the knowledge of what they had previously learned and begin to apply
it in a more formal manner.

It is necessary to understand that mathematics and arithmetic are actually two different
terms. Although most people use them interchangeably, they each have distinct meanings.
According to Merriam-Webster (m-w.com), arithmetic is:
a branch of mathematics that deals usually with the nonnegative real numbers including
sometimes the transfinite cardinals and with the application of the operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division to them while mathematics is:

the science of numbers and their operations, interrelations, combinations, generalizations,

and abstractions and of space, configurations and their structure, measurement,
transformations, and generalizations.

Mathematics involves many different abilities, as suggested by the list below:

• Estimating

• Doing computational skills

• Solving problems

• Understanding measurement

• Using mathematics for prediction

• Creating and reading graphs and charts

Schools begin the process of learning math skills in kindergarten and proceed throughout
the child’s formal education. Even at the college level, mathematics is often a core
requirement in many liberal arts schools. In general, next to reading, mathematics is
probably the area most frequently assessed in school systems.

Analysis and Interpretation of Math Skills

According to McLoughlin and Lewis (1990), mathematics is one of the school subjects best
suited for error analysis because students respond in writing on most tasks, thereby
producing a permanent record of their work. Also, there is usually only one correct answer
to mathematics questions and problems, making scoring unambiguous.

Today, the most common use of error analysis in mathematics is assessment of computation
skills. Cox (1975) differentiates between systematic computation errors and errors that are
random or careless mistakes. With systematic errors, students are consistent in their use of
an incorrect number fact, operation, or algorithm (p. 354). McLoughlin and Lewis (1990)
identified four error types in computational analysis:

• Incorrect operation. The student selects the incorrect operation. For example, the
problem requires subtraction, and the student adds.

• Incorrect number fact. The number fact recalled by the student is inaccurate. For
example, the student recalls the product of 9 ˘ 6 as 52.

• Incorrect algorithm. The procedures used by the student to solve the problem are
inappropriate. The student may skip a step, apply the correct steps in the wrong sequence,
or use an inaccurate method.
• Random error. The student’s response is incorrect and apparently random. For example,
the student writes 100 as the answer to 42 ˘ 6. (p. 354)

Different types of errors can occur in the mathematics process other than these four
mentioned. For example, a student may make a mistake or error in applying the appropriate
arithmetical operations. Such an example would be 50 – 12 = 62. Here, the student used the
operation of addition rather than subtraction. The student may understand how to do both
operations, but consistently gets these types of questions wrong on tests due to the
improper use of the sign involved.

Another problem the student may encounter is a slip. When a slip occurs, it is more likely
due to a simple mistake rather than a pattern of problems. For example, if a child correctly
subtracts 20 – 5 in eight problems but for some reason not in the ninth problem, his or her
error is probably due to a simple slip rather than a serious operational or processing
problem. One error on one problem is not an error pattern. Error patterns can be assessed
by analyzing all correct and incorrect answers. When designing a program plan for a
particular child in mathematics, it is critical to establish not only the nature of the problems
but also the patterns of problems that occur in the child’s responses.

Also, handwriting can play an important role in mathematics. Scoring a math test often
involves reading numbers written down on an answer sheet by the student. If a student’s
handwriting is difficult to interpret or impossible to read, this can create serious problems
for the evaluator with respect to obtaining valid scores. When a student’s handwriting is not
clear on a math test, it is important that the evaluator ask the student for help in reading the
answers. By doing so, the evaluator is analyzing the math skills that need to be assessed
rather than spending time trying to decode the student’s responses.

Robinson, Manchetti, and Torgeson propose that for some children, math difficulties may be
due to either deficits in phonological processing of the features of spoken numbers or failure
to grasp meaningful concepts. They note that 43% of the students with a math disability also
have reading problems (2002; cited in Smith et al., 2004).

Dyscalculia

Arithmetic involves recognizing numbers and symbols, memorizing facts, aligning numbers,
and understanding abstract concepts such as place value and fractions. Any of these may be
difficult for children with developmental arithmetic disorders, also called dyscalculia, which
refers to selective impairment in mathematical thinking or in calculation skills (Fletcher &
Forman, 1994). Problems with number or basic concepts are likely to show up early.
Disabilities that appear in the later grades are more often tied to problems in reasoning.

Various types of mathematical disorders have been cited by the American Academy of
Special Education Professionals’ Educator’s Diagnostic Manual of Disabilities and Disorders
(2007). Below are mathematical disorders frequently seen in children with dyscalculia:

• Basic Number Fact Disorder. Individuals with a Basic Number Fact Disorder have
problems memorizing and retaining basic arithmetic facts, such as the answers to 8 – 2, 7 +
1, or 12 ˘ 2. It is not that individuals with Basic Number Fact Disorder do not
remember any arithmetic facts, but rather they have problems memorizing as many facts as
other children do. Furthermore, they appear to forget facts rather easily. These children may
struggle for years, will count their fingers to add and subtract, and seem unable to develop
efficient memory strategies on their own.

• Calculation Disorder. By definition, calculation is problem solving that involves numbers

or quantities. The calculation of numbers often gives students with learning disabilities great
difficulties. Inconsistent calculation can lead to numerous errors when doing math work.
Students with calculation difficulties often perform the incorrect mathematical operations.
For example, when calculating 8 + 2, they may respond 6, because they subtracted rather
than added the two numbers.

• Mathematical Abstraction Limitation Disorder. Individuals with this disorder do not

possess the ability to function at a high level of mathematical abstraction and as a result can
only function on a concrete level of understanding. Individuals with this disorder tend to
reach a ceiling in their ability to comprehend abstract math concepts.

• Mathematical Estimation Disorder. Children with dyscalculia seem to have an impaired

sense of number size. This may affect tasks involving estimating numbers in a collection and
comparing numbers.

• Mathematical Language Disorder. According to Garnett (1998), some students with LD

are particularly hampered by the language aspects of math, resulting in confusion about
terminology, difficulty following verbal explanations, and weak verbal skills for monitoring
the steps of complex calculations. Teachers can help by slowing the pace of their delivery,
maintaining normal timing of phrases, and giving information in discrete segments. Such
sloweddown chunking of verbal information is important when asking questions, giving
directions, presenting concepts, and offering explanations.

• Mathematical Measurement Disorder. Individuals with this disorder may have difficulty
with concepts involving measurements, such as speed (miles per hour), temperature (energy
per unit of mass), averages, and proportional measures.

• Mathematical Navigation Disorder. Children with this disorder can usually learn the
sequence of counting words, but may have difficulty navigating back and forth, especially in
twos, threes, or more.

• Mathematical Organization Disorder. Individuals with this disorder may have an inability
to organize objects in a logical way. They may be unable to comprehend or mentally picture
mechanical processes. They may lack big picture/whole picture thinking. They may have a
poor ability to visualize the location of the numbers on the face of a clock, the geographical
locations of states, countries, oceans, streets, and so on.

• Mathematical Sequencing Disorder. People with this disorder have trouble with
sequence, including left/right orientation. They will read numbers out of sequence and
sometimes do operations backwards. They also become confused on the sequence of past or
future events.
• Symbolic Mathematical Operations Disorder. Individuals with this disorder may find it
especially difficult to translate between number words, where powers of ten are expressed
by new names (ten, hundred, and thousand) and numerals (where powers of ten are
expressed by the same numerals but in terms of place value).

• Temporal/Monetary Math Disorder. People with this disorder tend to have difficulties in
topics relating to time, telling time, keeping track of time, estimating time, monetary
concepts, and counting money. Older children may exhibit difficulties with money and credit
and cannot do financial planning or budgeting (e.g., balancing a checkbook). Individuals may
have fear of money and cash transactions and may be unable to mentally figure change due
back, the amounts to pay for tips, taxes, and so forth.

• Visual–Spatial Math Disorder. Students with this disorder have disturbances in visual–
spatial–motor organization, which may result in weak or missing understanding of concepts,
very poor number sense, specific difficulty with pictorial representations, poorly controlled
handwriting, and confused arrangements of numerals and signs on the page. Students with
this disorder might have spatial problems and difficulty aligning numbers into proper
columns.

• Written Symbol System Disorder. According to Garnett (2000), many younger children
who have difficulty with elementary math actually bring to school a strong foundation of
informal math understanding. They encounter trouble in connecting this knowledge base to
the more formal procedures, language, and symbolic notation system of school math
(Allardice & Ginsburg, 1983). The collision of their informal skills with school math is like a
tuneful, rhythmic child experiencing written music as something different from what she
already can do. In fact, it is quite a complex feat to map the new world of written math
symbols onto the known world of quantities, actions and, at the same time, to learn the
peculiar language we use to talk about arithmetic.

Whether because of the reading requirement or the ability to understand the mathematical
concepts captured in a problem, students with learning disabilities may be unable to sort
critical extraneous information, to recognize the correct computational procedure, or to
determine whether the answer they obtain is reasonable (Jordan & Hanich, 2003).
Mathematical difficulties are often major obstacles in the academic paths of students with
LD and frequently continue to cause problems throughout high school. Mastery of
fundamental quantitative concepts is vital to learning more abstract and complex
mathematics, a requirement for youth with learning disabilities who are seeking to complete
high school and attend colleges or universities (Cirino, Morris, & Morris, 2002; cited in
Hardman et al., 2005). Further research on difficulties with mathematics and on effective
instruction for students encountering such problems grows more important as such young
people seek to achieve more challenging educational goals (p. 178).

Given these difficulties, it is not surprising that 50% of students with learning disabilities
have IEP goals in math. As with reading and writing, explicit, systematic instruction that
provides guided meaningful practice with feedback usually improves the math performance
of students with learning disabilities (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2001; cited in Heward, 2003).

Written Expression Deficits

Many individuals with LD exhibit deficits in written language (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Lloyd,
1999). Learning disabilities in the area of written expression are beginning to receive more
recognition as a serious problem (Smith et al., 2004). Writing is a highly complex method of
expression involving the integration of eye–hand, linguistic, and conceptual abilities. As a
result, it is usually the last skill children master. Whereas reading is usually considered the
receptive form of a graphic symbol system, writing is considered the expressive form of that
system. The primary concern in the assessment of composition skills is the content of the
student’s writing, not its form.

The term written language refers to a variety of interrelated graphic skills.

Composition. The ability to generate ideas and to express them in an acceptable grammar,
while adhering to certain stylistic conventions

Spelling. The ability to use letters to construct words in accordance with accepted usage

Handwriting. The ability to execute physically the graphic marks necessary to produce legible
compositions or messages (Hallahan et al., 1999)

The impact of written language problems increases with a student’s age because so many
school assignments require a written product. Students with written language problems
often exhibit the following characteristics:

• Feel overwhelmed by the idea of getting started

• Struggle to organize and use the mechanics of writing

• Struggle to develop their fluency

• Have difficulties spelling and constructing written products in a legible fashion •

Submit written work that is too brief

Many students with difficulties with written language use a “retrieve-and-write” approach, in
which they retrieve from immediate memory whatever seems appropriate and write it
down. They seldom use the self-regulation and self-assessment strategies of competent
writers: setting a goal or plan to guide their writing, organizing their ideas, drafting, self-
assessing, and rewriting. As a result, they produce poorly organized compositions containing
a few poorly developed ideas (Sexton, Harris, & Graham, 1998; cited in Heward, 2003).

Handwriting Difficulties

Handwriting refers to the actual motor activity that is involved in writing. Most students are
taught manuscript (printing) initially and then move to cursive writing (script) in later grades.
Some educators advocate that only manuscript or only cursive should be taught. In truth,
problems may appear among students using either system. Children’s writing changes as
they mature. The focus of a youngster’s writing shifts from the process of writing
(handwriting and spelling), to the written product (having written something), to
communication with readers (getting across one’s message) (Hallahan et al., 1999, p. 396).

Gargiulo (2004) notes that early on, pupils focus on becoming competent in mastering the
mechanical aspects of composition—spelling and handwriting; in the later grades, they learn
to organize and present their ideas in a lucid and logical fashion. Children with learning
disabilities, however, lag behind their nondisabled peers. Investigators have observed that
individuals with LD use less complex sentence structure, incorporate fewer ideas, produce
poorly organized paragraphs, and write less complex stories (p. 219).

Dysgraphia

Dysgraphia, the learning disability associated with written expression, entails writing skills
that fall substantially below those expected given the individual’s age, IQ, and education,
such that academic achievement or activities of daily living are significantly impaired.
Dysgraphia is the inability to perform motor movement, in other words, extremely poor
handwriting. It is associated with a neurological dysfunction. Agraphia is an acquired
disorder in which the ability to write and make patterns is impaired (Birsch, 1999; cited in
Kirk et al., 2003). Students’ handwriting problems can rise from any of the following
conditions:

• A lack of fine motor coordination

• Failure to attend to task

• Inability to perceive and/or remember visual images accurately

• Inadequate handwriting instruction in the classroom

In general, students with dysgraphia often learn less from an assignment because they must
focus on the mechanics of writing instead of on the content of their assignment (Turnbull et
al., 2004).

Three different types of writing disorders have been recently cited by the American Academy
of Special Education Professionals’ Educator’s Diagnostic Manual of Disabilities and Disorders
(2007). Below are the writing disorders most frequently seen in children with dysgraphia:

Dyslexic Dysgraphia. With this disorder, spontaneously written text is illegible, especially
when the text is complex. Oral spelling is poor, but drawing and copying of written text are
relatively normal. Finger-tapping speed (a measure of fine-motor speed) is normal.

Motor Dysgraphia. With this disorder, both spontaneously written and copied text may be
illegible, oral spelling is normal, and drawing is usually problematic. Finger-tapping speed is
abnormal.
Spatial Dysgraphia. Individuals with this disorder display illegible writing, whether
spontaneously produced or copied. Oral spelling is normal. Finger-tapping speed is normal,
but drawing is very problematic.

Spelling Problems

Spelling is the ability to use letters to construct words in accordance with accepted usage.
Spelling ability is viewed by some teachers and school administrators equally with other
academic skills. Being a poor speller does not necessarily mean that a child has a learning
disorder. However, when poor spelling occurs with poor reading and/or arithmetic, then
there is reason for concern. It appears that many of the learning skills required for good
spelling are the same ones that enable students to become good readers.

Learning to spell is a developmental process, and young children go through a number of

stages as they begin to acquire written language skills. Writing begins in the preschool years
as young children observe and begin to imitate the act of writing.

Dysorthographia is the learning disability associated with spelling. Individuals with this
disorder have difficulties utilizing clues from several sources that aid in deciding on the
correct spelling of a word. Marshall and Hunt (2005) note that many students with learning
disabilities spell a word as if it were being approached for the first time, without reference to
an image of the word held in memory. The difficulties students with LD have in learning and
applying the rules of phonics, visualizing the word correctly, and evaluating spellings result in
frequent misspellings, even as they become more adept at reading. It is not uncommon to
find the same word spelled five or six different ways on the same paper, regardless of
whether the student is in the fifth grade or college (e.g., ther, there, thare, and they’re for
their).

Analysis of Spelling Skills. Several questions should be addressed before one begins to
analyze a child’s spelling abilities (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2005).

Does the child have sufficient mental ability to learn to spell? This information can be
obtained from the school psychologist if an intellectual evaluation was administered.
However, if no such test was administered, you may be able to find the results of a group
school abilities index, which may be present in the child’s permanent folder.

Are the child’s hearing, speech, and vision adequate? This information can be obtained through
the permanent record folder, information in the nurse’s office, or informal screening
procedures.

What is the child’s general level of spelling ability according to teacher comments, past
evaluations, or standardized tests? Teacher comments and observations about the child’s
spelling history are very important to show patterns of disability. Also, look at standardized
tests to see if patterns exist through the years on such tests.

It is also important to look at these attributes:

• The child’s attitude toward spelling in the classroom

• The extent to which the child relies on a dictionary in the classroom

• The extent of spelling errors in classroom written work

• Any patterns of procrastination or avoidance of written work

• The student’s study habits and methods of work in the classroom

• The history of scores on classroom spelling tests

• Any observable handwriting difficulties

• Any evidence of fatigue as a factor in the child’s spelling performance

Spelling Errors Primarily Due to Auditory or Visual Channel Deficits. Certain spelling errors
may be evident in students with auditory channel deficits (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2005).

Auditory discrimination problems. The child substitutes t for d or sh for ch and/or confuses
vowels; for example, spells bit as bet.

Auditory acuity or discrimination problems. The child does not hear subtle differences in, nor
discriminate between, sounds and often leaves vowels out of two-syllable words.

Auditory–visual association. The child uses a synonym such as house for home in spelling.

Auditory–visual associative memory. The child takes wild guesses with little or no
relationship between the letters or words used and the spelling words dictated, such as
spelling dog for home or writing phe for home.

These spelling errors may be evident in students with certain visual channel deficits:

Visual memory problems. The child visualizes the beginning or the ending of words but omits
the middle of the words; for example, spells hppy for happy.

Visual memory sequence. The child gives the correct letters but in the wrong sequence, for
example, writes the word the as teh or hte.

Visual discrimination problems. The child inverts letters, writing u for n, m for w.

Visual memory. The child spells words phonetically that are nonphonetic in configuration, for
example, tuff for tough.

In general, common spelling errors to look for in students with dysorthographia include the
addition of unneeded letters, reversal of vowels, reversal of syllables, and the phonemic
spelling of nonphonemic words. Fortunately, the writing and spelling skills of most students
with LD can be improved through strategy instruction, frequent opportunities to practice
writing, and systematic feedback (Heward, 2003).
Language Deficits

Students with learning disabilities often have difficulties with the mechanical and social uses
of language (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2003). Specific mechanical deficits difficulties are often
present in the three different areas (Gargiulo, 2004).

Syntax. Rule systems that determine how words are organized into sentences

Semantics. Word meanings

Phonology. The study of how individual sounds make up words

Language deficits are found in the areas of oral expression and listening comprehension.
These two areas control our ability to communicate with others, and therefore a deficit in
either or both can have a major impact on the quality of life of a child with a learning
disability, as well as his or her life in education (Smith et al., 2004). Studies have found that
more than 60% of students with LD have some type of language disorder (Bryan, Bay, Lopez-
Reyna, & Donahue, 1991).

Oral Language Problems

Students with LD frequently experience difficulties with oral expression—a problem that can
affect both academic and social interactions. Common problems associated with oral
language include the following:

• Choosing the appropriate word. Children with LD will often use a less appropriate
word because the right word will not come to them.

• Understanding complex sentence structures

• Responding to questions

• Difficulties in retrieving words. The response rate of children with learning disabilities
may be slower than that of their nondisabled peers, and they may speak more slowly.

Listening Comprehension Problems

Listening problems can also be misinterpreted. A child with a disability in listening

demonstrates that disability in a negative way, for example, by failing to follow directions or
by appearing oppositional or unmotivated. A teacher’s careful observation and assessment
of a student’s language ability is important for ensuring the student’s success (Smith et al.,
2004).

Problems with Pragmatics

One aspect of oral expression that is receiving increased attention is pragmatics, the
functional use of language in social situations. Researchers note that children with learning
disabilities sometimes experience communication problems in social settings (Bryan, 1998).
Research in the field of children with language–learning disabilities has begun to focus more
and more on the area of pragmatics. Simply stated, pragmatics is the use of language in
 social situations. Children with learning disabilities often have problems with social
conversations. These students may exhibit the following characteristics:

• Need extra time to process incoming information

•
Not understand the meaning of the words or sequences

• Miss nonverbal language cues

• Not understand jokes

• Laugh inappropriately or at the wrong times

• Have difficulty doing group work

• Have difficulties giving or following directions

• Have conversations marked by long silences

• Not be skilled in responding to statements

• Not be skilled at responding to questions

• Have a tendency to answer their questions

• Make those with whom they talk feel uncomfortable (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2003)

Participating in conversations with friends can be especially troublesome for someone with a
learning disability. The ebb and flow that is characteristic of conversations may elude them, and
nonverbal language clues may also be overlooked. In short, many individuals with learning
disabilities are not good conversationalists (Gargiulo, 2004). They have great difficulties trying to
engage in the mutual give and take that conversation between two people requires.

Disorders of Attention

• Attention is a critical skill in learning. Conte (1991) suggests that to be effective

learners, children must be able to initiate attention, direct their attention
appropriately, sustain their attention according to the task demands, and shift
attention when appropriate. Deficits in these areas can have an impact on all areas of
school. When children are not paying attention, they cannot respond appropriately to
questions, follow directions, or take notes during a lecture. Social problems occur
when the student interrupts others and does not listen to peers. Estimates of the
number of students with LD that have attention problems range from 41% to 80%
(Smith et al., 2004).

Attention problems for children with learning disabilities are often characterized as short
attention span. A short attention span is defined as an inability to focus one’s attention on a task
•
for more than a few seconds or minutes. Parents and teachers note that many children with LD
share the following characteristics.

Cannot sustain attention for more than a short period of time

• Exhibit excessive daydreaming

• Are highly distractible

Individuals with learning disabilities often have attention problems (Kotkin, Forness, & Kavale,
2001). Their attention difficulties are often severe enough for them to be diagnosed as also
having Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ADHD is a diagnosis normally made by
either a psychiatrist or psychologist, using the criteria as established by the American Psychiatric
Association (1994). Although estimates vary, researchers have consistently found an overlap of
10 to 25% between ADHD and learning disabilities (Forness & Kavale, 2002).

Several characteristics of ADHD have long been recognized in many children with learning
disabilities, and there is a significant level of comorbidity (a situation in which multiple
conditions occur together) between the two conditions (some experts estimate as high as 25%).

Overview of ADHD

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a condition that can make it hard for a person to sit
still, control behavior, and pay attention. These difficulties usually begin before the person is 7
years old. However, these behaviors may not be noticed until the child is older. Doctors do not
know just what causes ADHD. However, researchers who study the brain are coming closer to
understanding what may cause it. They believe that some people with ADHD do not have
enough of certain chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in their brain. These chemicals help the
brain control behavior. Parents and teachers do not cause ADHD. Still, there are many things
that both parents and teachers can do to help a child with ADHD. As many as 5 out of every 100
children in school may have ADHD. Boys are three times more likely than girls to have ADHD.
There are three main signs, or symptoms, of ADHD. These are (1) Problems with paying
attention, (2) Being very active (called hyperactivity), and (3) Acting before thinking (called
impulsivity).

More information about these symptoms is listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (4th ed. rev.) (DSM IV-TR), published by the American Psychiatric Association
(2000). Based on these symptoms, three types of ADHD have been defined:
•
• Inattentive ADHD. The person can’t seem to get focused or stay focused on a task or
activity

• Hyperactive-impulsive ADHD. The person is very active and often acts without
thinking

• Combined ADHD. The person is inattentive, impulsive, and too active

Inattentive ADHD. Many children with ADHD have problems paying attention.

Children with the inattentive type of ADHD often exhibit the following characteristics:

• Do not pay close attention to details

• Can’t stay focused on play or school work

• Don’t follow through on instructions or finish school work or chores

• Can’t seem to organize tasks and activities

• Get distracted easily

• Lose things such as toys, school work, and books (APA, 2000, pp. 85–86)

Hyperactive-Impulsive ADHD. Being too active is probably the most visible sign of ADHD. The
hyperactive child is ìalways on the go,î although as he or she gets older, the level of activity may
go down. These children also act before thinking. For example, they may run across the road
without looking or climb to the top of very tall trees. They may be surprised to find themselves
in a dangerous situation. They may have no idea of how to get out of the situation.

Hyperactivity and impulsivity tend to go together. Children with the hyperactive-impulsive type
of ADHD often may:

• Fidget and squirm

• Get out of their chairs when they’re not supposed to

• Run around or climb constantly

• Have trouble playing quietly

• Talk too much

•
• Blurt out answers before questions have been completed

• Have trouble waiting their turn

• Interrupt others when they’re talking

• Butt in on the games others are playing (APA, 2000, p. 86)

Combined ADHD. Children with the combined type of ADHD have symptoms of both of the
types described above. They have problems with paying attention, with hyperactivity, and with
controlling their impulses. Of course, from time to time, all children are inattentive, impulsive,
and too active. With children who have ADHD, these behaviors are the rule, not the exception.
Such behavior can cause a child to have real problems at home, at school, and with friends. As a
result, many children with ADHD feel anxious, unsure of themselves, and depressed. These
feelings are not symptoms of ADHD. They come from having problems again and again at home
and in school. There is no quick treatment for ADHD. However, the symptoms of ADHD can be
managed. It’s important that the childfamily and teachers find out more about ADHD, learn how
to help the child manage his or her behavior, create an educational program that fits the child’s
individual needs, and provide medication, if parents and the doctor feel this would help the
child.

Achievement Discrepancy

Although students who receive special education services under the learning disabilities
category are an extremely heterogeneous group, it is important to remember that the
fundamental defining characteristic of students with learning disabilities is specific and
significant achievement deficits in the presence of adequate overall intelligence (Heward, 2003).
Students with LD perform below expectations based on their measured potential, in addition to
scoring below their peers in overall achievement. Attempts to quantify the discrepancy between
academic achievement and academic potential for students with LD have appeared in the
literature for some time, but the field still lacks a broadly accepted explanation of the
phenomenon (Roderiques, 2002; cited in Hardman et al., 2005).

Early in the school years, youngsters with LD may find themselves two to four years behind their
peers in level of academic achievement, and many fall even further behind as they continue in
the educational system. This discouraging pattern often results in students dropping out of high
school or graduating without proficiency in basic reading, writing, or math skills (U.S.
Department of Education, 2002; cited in Hardman et al., 2005, p. 178).

The difficulties experienced by children with learning disabilities—especially for those who
cannot read at grade level—are substantial and pervasive and usually last across the lifespan
(Mercer, 1997). The tendency to think of learning disabilities as a mild disability erroneously
supports “the notion that a learning disability is little more than a minor inconvenience rather
than the serious, life-long condition it is [and] often detracts from the real needs of these
students” (Hallahan, 1998, p. 4; cited in Heward, 2003).
Memory Deficits

It is well documented that children and adolescents with LD have significant difficulties
remembering academic information and nonacademic information, such as doctors’
appointments, homework assignments, multiplication facts, directions, and telephone numbers.
Teachers frequently comment that, with these students, it seems to be “in one ear and out the
other,” which can be highly aggravating for teachers as well as parents (Gargiulo, 2004).

Teachers and parents also report that memory skills are inconsistent. For example, a student
may know the multiplication facts on Thursday and then fail the test on Friday (Hardman et al.,
2005).

Parents often state that they cannot understand how their children can be so intelligent and
forget such simple things. Early research in learning disabilities has documented that students
with LD have a real deficit in memory (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2003). Teachers have long
complained that children with LD have poor memory.

Several studies have suggested that students with LD have more deficits in memory than
students without LD except in the area of long-term memory (Swanson, 1994). Students with
memory deficits have difficulty retaining learned information, repeating information read or
heard, following multiple directions, and performing tasks in the right sequence (Smith et al.,
2004).

The memory difficulties faced by students are normally either in short-term memory (STM) or
working memory (WM). STM involves the ability to recall information after a short period of
time. Short-term memory tasks involve the recall, in correct order, of either aurally or visually
presented information (such as a list of digits, letters, or pictures) shortly after hearing or seeing
the items several times (Hallahan, 1999). Working memory requires that the individual retain
information while simultaneously engaging in another cognitive activity. According to Silver
(2001), people with LD are more likely to have concerns with short-term rather than long-term
memory. He explained that children and youth with these limitations need to concentrate on
new information, and to repeat it continually, in order to keep it in short-term memory. If their
attention is disrupted, the information may be lost (Bowe, 2005). Working memory is involved,
for example, when we try to remember a person’s address while also listening to directions on
how to arrive there (Swanson, 1994). Deficits in memory, particularly working memory, often
translate into difficulties in the classroom. Success with reading and math seems to depend
more on working memory than short-term memory. Working memory also appears to be crucial
for word recognition and reading comprehension (Ashbaker & Swanson, 1996).

Although there are various theories as to why students with learning disabilities have difficulties
with memory tasks, it appears that they do not use “strategies for remembering” the way their
nondisabled peers do. For example, when presented with a list of words to memorize, most
children will rehearse the names to themselves. They will make use of categories by rehearsing
the words and grouping them together. Students with learning disabilities are not likely to use
these names spontaneously (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2003).

O’Shaughenessy and Swanson (1998) suggest that the problem is mainly with an inability to
code new information for memory storage and a decreased motivation for difficult mental
effort. On a positive note, when children with learning disabilities are taught a memory strategy,
they perform memory tasks as well as non learning-disabled students (Smith et al., 2004).

Cognition Deficits

Students with learning disabilities will often demonstrate problems in cognition. Cognition is a
broad term covering many different aspects of thinking and problem solving. Students with
learning disabilities often exhibit disorganized thinking that results in problems with planning
and organizing their lives at home (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2003). Research suggests that children
with LD have differing, rather than uniformly deficient, cognitive abilities (Henry, 2001). This
finding has led to the development of specific, highly focused instruction for individuals with
learning disabilities to replace generic curricula, reflecting the assumption that their cognitive
skills are generally poor (Hardman et al., 2005).

According to Smith and colleagues (2004), students with problems in cognition may share the
following characteristics:

• Make poor decisions

• Have trouble adjusting to change

• Make frequent errors

• Require concrete demonstrations

• Have delayed verbal responses

• Have difficulties understanding social expectations

• Require more supervision

• Have trouble getting started on a task

• Have trouble using previously learned information in a new situation

Metacognition Deficits

Students with learning disabilities often have problems with metacognition. Metacognition is
defined as one’s understanding of the strategies available for learning a task and the regulatory
mechanisms needed to complete the task.

Metacognition has at least three components:

Recognize task requirements. Students with LD frequently have problems judging how difficult
tasks can be. For example, they may approach the reading of highly technical information with
the same level of intensity as reading for pleasure.

Select and implement appropriate strategies. Students with LD often do not come up with
strategies to help themselves in and outside of school. For example, if asked to name ways in
which they can help themselves remember to bring their homework into school the next day,
they may not have any ideas, whereas the nondisabled peers will suggest writ-ing a note to
themselves, putting the homework by the front door, and so on.

Monitor and adjust performance. Students with LD often have problems with comprehension
monitoring. Comprehension monitoring is the ability to keep track of one’s own comprehension
of reading material and to make adjustments to comprehend better while reading. For example,
a student with LD may not have a good sense he does not understand what he is reading. Good
readers are often able to make the necessary adjustments, such as slowing down or rereading
difficult passages. Students with reading problems are also likely to have problems picking out
the main ideas of paragraphs.

Hallahan and colleagues (1999) refer to metacognition as “thinking about thinking.” Students
with problems in this area might have difficulty focusing on listening, purposefully remembering
important information, connecting that information to prior knowledge, making sense out of
the new information, and using what they know to solve a problem. They often lack strategies
for planning and organizing, setting priorities, and predicting and solving problems. An
important component of metacognition is the ability to evaluate one’s own behavior and
behave differently when identifying inappropriate behavior or mistakes (Smith et al., 2004).
Competency as a learner requires that students exhibit these metacognitive skills (Kluwe, 1987).

Social–Emotional Problems

The literature suggests that to be socially accepted, students should be cooperative, share, offer
pleasant greetings, have positive interactions with peers, ask for and give information, and
make conversation (Gresham, 1982). Some children with LD have a real strength in the area of
social skills. However, several characteristics of learning disabilities, such as those noted
concerning language, can create difficulties in social and emotional life (Smith et al., 2004).
Although not all children with LD have social–emotional problems, they do run a greater risk
than their nondisabled peers of having these types of problems. In the early years they are
often rejected by their peers and have poor self-concepts (Sridhar & Vaughn, 2001). As adults,
the scars from years of rejection can be painful and not easily forgotten (McGrady, Lerner, &
Boscardin, 2001). A possible reason for these social–emotional problems is that students with
LD often have deficits in social cognition. They may have the following characteristics:
•
Misread social cues

• Misinterpret the feelings of others

• Not know when they are bothering others

• Be unaware of the effect of their behavior on someone else

• Be unable to take the perspective of others or put themselves in someone else’s

shoes

Research has consistently found a higher-than-normal rate of behavioral problems in the

classroom among students with learning disabilities (Cullinan, 2002). In a study of 790 students
enrolled in K–12 LD programs in Indiana, the percentage of students with behavioral problems
(19%) remained consistent across grade levels. However, it should be noted that the
relationships between students’ behavioral problems and academic difficulties are not known.
In other words, we do not know whether the academic deficits or the behavioral problems
cause the other difficulty. Furthermore, many children with LD exhibit no behavioral problems
at all (Heward, 2003). Research further suggests that social interaction problems for students
with LD seem to be more evident in those who have problems in math, visual-spatial tasks,
tactual tasks, self- regulation, and organization (Worling, Humphries, & Tannock, 1999).

After reviewing 152 different studies, Kavale and Forness (1996) concluded that 75% of students
with LD exhibit deficits in social skills. Studies of teacher ratings also suggested that students
with learning disabilities have lower social status than other students. Social skills deficits
include the following:

• Acceptance by peers

• Difficulty making friends

• Being seen by peers as overly dependent

• Being less likely to become leaders

• Resolving conflict

• Managing frustrations

• Initiating or joining a conversation or play activities

• Listening
•
• Demonstrating empathy

• Maintaining a friendship

Working in groups

Some students with LD, however, experience no problems getting along with peers and
teachers. For example, Sabornie and Kauffman (1986) reported no significant difference in
sociometric standing of 46 high school students with LD and 46 peers without disabilities.
Moreover, they discovered that some of the students with LD enjoyed socially rewarding
experiences in inclusive classrooms. One interpretation of these contradictory findings is that
social competence and peer acceptance are not characteristics of LD but are outcomes of the
different social climates created by teachers, peers, parents, and others with whom students
with LD interact (Vaughn, McIntosh, Schumm, Haager, & Callwood, 1993; cited in Heward,
2003).

In some cases, the social dimensions of life pose greater problems for students with LD than
their specific academic deficits, and yet this dimension is essentially ignored in the definitions
and labels that relate to learning disabilities. Many professionals would not support broadening
the definition of learning disabili-ties to incorporate social and emotional dimensions, although
it is clear that these are substantial (Hutchinson, Freeman, & Bell, 2002; cited in Hardman et al.,
2005).

Years of failure can create other concerns. Wright-Strawderman and Watson (1992) found that
36% of a sample of students with learning disabilities indicated depression. Other researchers
have reported psychological problems including feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, frustration, and
anger (Bender, 2002).

Many students with LD are inept at understanding and interpreting social cues and social
situations, which can easily lead to strained interpersonal relationships. Bryan (1977) suggests
that the social–emotional difficulties of persons with learning disabilities may be the result of
social imperceptiveness—a lack of skill in detecting subtle affective cues.

Nonverbal Learning Disorders (NLD)

Nonverbal learning disorders (NLD) is a neurological syndrome consisting of specific assets and
deficits. The assets include early speech and vocabulary development, remarkable rote memory
skills, attention to detail, early reading skills development, and excellent spelling skills. In
addition, these individuals have the verbal ability to express themselves eloquently. Moreover,
•
persons with NLD have strong auditory retention. Four major categories of deficits and
dysfunction also present themselves.

• Motoric dysfunction. Lack of coordination, severe balance problems, and difficulties with
graphomotor skills

Visual–spatial–organizational dysfunction. Lack of image, poor visual recall, faulty spatial

perceptions, difficulties with executive functioning (the brain’s ability to absorb information,
interpret this information, and make decisions based on this information), and problems with
spatial relations

• Social dysfunction. Lack of ability to comprehend nonverbal communication, difficulties

adjusting to transitions and novel situations, and deficits in social judgment and social
interaction

• Sensory dysfunction. Sensitivity in any of the sensory modes: visual, auditory, tactile,
taste, or olfactory.

Foss (2004) reports that statements like the following are often true of individuals with a
nonverbal learning disability:

• They talk a lot but really say very little.

• They see the trees, not the forest.

• They focus on details, but do not apprehend the main idea.

• They do not see the whole picture.

• They do not read facial expressions, gestures, nor other nonverbal aspects of
communication; they miss the subtleties, nuances.

• They may be inappropriate in their social interactions.

• They have few friends; friendships tend to be with older or younger persons rather than
peers.

• They tend to process information in a linear, sequential fashion, not seeing multiple
dimensions.

• In spite of relative strength in sequencing or recalling sequences, they may confuse

abstract temporal concepts; they have significant difficulty recognizing cause–effect
relationships. (NLD Online, 2004)
•
Motivational and Attribution Problems

Students with LD will often lose the motivation to succeed in school. As failure starts to become
more prominent, they begin to take on an external locus of control. External locus of control is a
motivational term whereby an individual believes that he no longer has control over his fate in
life. People with external locus of control believe that they will have a good day or a bad day
depending on how outside influences affect them. They feel powerless and no longer believe
that
they control their own destiny. This differs from people with an internal locus of control, who
believe that they are “the captain of their ship,” that they control their successes and failures.

Students with LD and external locus of control believe that their lives are dictated by luck or
fate, rather than by their own internal factors such as determination, hard work, or ability.

Chronic difficulties with academic assignments often lead children with learning disabilities to
anticipate failure; success is seen as an unattainable goal no matter how hard they try. Seligman
(1992) identifies this outlook as learned helplessness. Youngsters who maintain this attitude
frequently give up and will not even attempt to complete the task. As a result, even when
success is possible, the individual no longer tries because she has the mindset that failure is
inevitable anyway. What individuals believe about the source of their own success or failure on
a task is known as attribution. Many students with LD attribute success not to their own efforts
but to situations or events beyond their control.

Because of their propensity for academic failure, individuals with learning disabilities tend to
become passive or inactive learners. They are not actively involved or engaged in their own
learning (Torgeson, 1977) and often fail to demonstrate initiative in the learning process.

Swanson (1998) calls these pupils “actively inefficient learners.” Motivation is the desire to
engage in an activity. Many special education and general education teachers, especially those
in middle and high schools, comment that students with learning disabilities are not motivated
to learn, and research suggests that this is a common characteristic (Fulk, Brigham, & Lohman,
1998).

Perceptual Deficits

Many students with LD exhibit perceptual problems (Lerner, 2003). Perception does not pertain
to whether a student sees or hears but rather to how that student’s brain interprets what is
seen or heard. Perceptual disorders affect the ability to recognize stimuli received through sight,
hearing, and touch, and to discriminate between and interpret the sensations appropriately. A
child with a learning disability might not have any problems in these areas, or he might have
deficits in any or all of them (Smith et al., 2004). For example, a student with a visual perception
problem may see perfectly well the letters b-a-t written on the page. What the brain interprets
them to be is t-a-

b. Problems in auditory perception often include difficulties with perceiving sounds that are not
attributable to a hearing loss (Kruger, Kruger, Hugo, & Campbell, 2001). For example, some
students may have trouble understanding whether the word spoken was king or kin, hot or hut,
fire or file. The result can be misunderstood directions, poor communication, and awkwardness
in social situations (Friend, 2005).

Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be evident that children with LD are truly a heterogeneous group. The
characteristics exhibited by one child with a learning disability may be quite different than
another one with a learning disability. As a future educator, it is essential that you understand
all of the possible characteristics that may be seen in these children. By knowing what to look
for and being able to identify the common characteristics, you may be able to help in the
identification, diagnosis, and assessment of a child with a suspected learning disability.

Ultimately, depending on where a student’s problems lie, understanding these characteristics or

learning styles can lead to significant improvement in the academic performance, social
awareness, and overall self-esteem of a child with a learning disability in your classroom.

Learning Activity.

Fill out the matrix below:

Type of Learning Disability Appropriate Teaching Strategies

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6
7.
8.
9.
10.
 LESSONVI
OTHER DISABILITIES

TOPICS
1. Autism
2. Emotional Disturbance
3. Intellectual Disability
4. Multiple Disabilities
5. Speech/Language Impairment

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the symptoms and characteristics of Autism,Emotional
Disturbance, Intellectual Disability, Multiple Disabilities and Speech
and Language Disorder
2. Identify teaching practices appropriate for these categories of special
and inclusive learners

Time Allotment– 6 hours

Autism – An Overview

Doctors define autism in a specific way. It’s a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects how kids process
certain types of information. Autism is lifelong.

People with autism tend to have common challenges.

Trouble with social skills. This is a hallmark of autism. Many people have trouble recognizing and
responding to other people’s feelings. They struggle to “read” nonverbal cues like body language and
facial expressions. Some kids (and adults) can be very literal and don’t always understand puns, riddles,
or figures of speech. They might also have trouble with “unwritten” social rules — like saying “hi” back
to others when they say “hi.”
Language and communication challenges. For many kids, trouble with language development is a first
sign of autism. Many struggle to express themselves and participate in conversation . Some also can’t
control how loud they speak, and with what tone.
It’s a myth that people with autism don’t feel empathy or emotions. In fact, they can feel deep empathy
and have strong feelings — but they may have a hard time showing it.

Sensory processing . It’s common for people with autism to have trouble taking in and responding to
sensory information. They may seek out or avoid certain sensations , or have a heightened sensitivity to
light, sound, touch, taste, or other senses . This can also lead to sensory overload and meltdowns .

Executive functioning. This set of mental skills helps us plan, set goals, and get things done. It’s a
frequent trouble spot with autism. One common challenge is with flexible thinking , or the ability to
think in new ways about a problem.

Motor planning problems. Some people with autism struggle with motor skills. So they may seem clumsy
and uncoordinated. Kids may have trouble with things like handwriting, riding a bike, catching a ball, or
running.

Along with these challenges, people with autism also tend to have common behaviors or traits:

Passionate, narrow interests. This “special interest” is usually around a certain topic or object. It can be
anything from knowing all the details of a certain period in history to being especially interested in cars.
Often kids are captivated by a type of toy, like LEGO train sets.

Repetitive behaviors and movements. Physical behaviors like arm flapping or rocking (sometimes called
stimming) are common. Some might also repeat certain sounds or phrases.

A need for routine and consistency. Predictable routines and structure help people feel safe and
comfortable. A change in the way things usually go, like schedule changes during a school vacation, can
cause anxiety and discomfort. People with autism may perseverate or “get stuck” on a topic or an idea
when something unexpected happens.

Emotional Disturbance

In the special education realm, conditions which generate behavioral issues fall under the category
emotional disturbance. Several disorders receive this classification, as the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act’s (IDEA) definition suggests. This lengthy definition reads:

A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a
marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance:

(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.

(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.
The term includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted,
unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance.

WHAT EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE LOOKS LIKE-

Some emotional problems you can see—others you cannot. If a student has internalized her emotional
problems, for example, she may become withdrawn or depressed, and the teacher may not be aware of
the student’s distress. If a student has externalized emotional problems, however, the teacher is likely to
know. This student puts emotions on display and may become disruptive, even antagonistic, in class. It’s
important, therefore, that teachers know the early warning signs for both kinds of emotional problems.
A student may have internalized emotional ▪ Is frequently absent because of illness.
problems if he ▪ Appears isolated from peers. A student may have externalized emotional
▪ Seems overly dependent on others. problems if she
▪ Is moody. ▪ Becomes a chronic discipline problem.
▪ Exhibits feelings of helplessness. ▪ Exhibits a lack of empathy
▪ Shows an interest in cults. or compassion.
▪ Has an inordinate attraction to fantasy. ▪ Has temper tantrums.
▪ Is apathetic. ▪ Is truant often.
▪ Is a bully victim.
▪ Experiences poor academic ▪ Bullies others.
performance.
▪ Has conflicts with authority figures.

▪ Cries inappropriately and too often. ▪ Damages the property of others.

▪ Abuses himself. ▪ Becomes noncompliant.
▪ Becomes impulsive.
▪ Becomes aggressive.
Source: Compiled from Gresham, F. M., MacMillan, D. L., & Bocian, K. (1996). “Behavioral earthquakes”:
Lowfrequency salient behavioral events that differentiate students at risk of behavior disorders. Behavioral
Disorders 21(4), 277–292.

5 Tips for Handling EBD Kids (Emotional Behavior Disorder) in an Inclusive Classroom

1. Keep class rules/activities simple and clear.

Your EBD students (as well as some of your more focused students) will most likely struggle if
you impose a long list of complicated rules and demands. Try to keep your classroom guidelines
broad and simple—no more than 3 to 5 main rules. Let students know about them on the first day of
class, and post them in the classroom as well. An example list might be:

• Be on time
• Try your best
• Be polite
• Respect one another

Along with simple and clear rules, there should be simple and clear teaching activities. Using
activities that don’t have complicated directions allow students with EBD to follow along and interact
with the rest of the class. Some activity examples are:

• Responsive cards
• Clickers
• Choral responding (Unison responding)
• Guided notes

By including clear activities in your classroom, your students will engage and interact with the lesson
plan, ensuring that they learn alongside other students.

2. Reward positive behaviors

While you will, at times, have to discipline children for improper behavior, remember that rewarding
positive behavior is ultimately far more effective in the long run. Many students with Emotional and
Behavioral Disorder tend to take any discipline as a personal attack, and because of this, they often
learn very little from it.

Try to celebrate the successes of these students more than you reprimand or punish their mistakes.
When they receive positive feedback and rewards, they start to see that there is a positive benefit to
good behavior. They will then start to see you as more of an ally than an adversary, and this will in
turn motivate them to want to behave and do well in your classroom.

3. Allow for mini-breaks

A lot of EBD kids lack the emotional balance and maturity needed to remain focused and on-task for
long periods. Instead of reprimanding these students for their lapses, build in short rest periods or
mini-breaks into the school day.

Take time to periodically stop teaching and allow students to catch up if need be. Give them time to
finish their assignment, and allow those who have finished to stretch, get out of their seats, and
move around a bit. This will allow them to burn off any excess energy that might have built up from
sitting still for a long period of time. (And it’s good time for you to stretch, too!)

4. Fair treatment for all

Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders also often don’t respond very well to situations
that appear unfair to them. This can trigger a cascade of negative emotions and acting-out behavior.

To ensure that you are treating all of your students in a consistently fair manner, don’t bend your
established rules for any student. Enforce the expected consequences every time, with every
student. Allowing exceptions opens you up to accusations of being unfair.

5. Use motivational strategies

Unfortunately, Emotional and Behavioral Disorder students tend to have had a lot of negative
experiences in school. Therefore they often lack the desire or motivation to try to succeed.

To avoid disruptive or off-task behaviors, take some extra steps to motivate these students. Offer
them incentives for academic successes, large and small. Celebrate their hard work, and praise their
good efforts consistently. This can go a long way in giving these students the motivation to excel in
your class.

Intellectual Disability

The term 'intellectual disability' refers to a group of conditions caused by various genetic disorders
and infections. Intellectual disability is usually identified during childhood, and has an ongoing
impact on an individual’s development. Intellectual disability can be defined as a significantly
reduced ability to understand new or complex information, learn new skills and to cope
independently including social functioning. As with all disability groups, there are many types of
intellectual disability with varying degrees of severity. These include considerable differences in the
nature and extent of the intellectual impairments and functional limitations, the causes of the
 disability, the personal background and social environment of the individual. Some people have
genetic disorders that impact severely on their intellectual, social and other functional abilities.
Others with mild intellectual impairment may develop adequate living skills and are able to lead
relatively independent adult lives. Approximately 75 per cent of people with intellectual disability
are only mildly affected, with 25 per cent moderately, severely or profoundly affected.

Impact of intellectual disability

The characteristics and impact of a person’s intellectual disability will vary depending on the cause.
There are a number of common characteristics that may have a significant impact on an individual’s
learning, including:

• difficulty understanding new information

• difficulties with communication and social skills
• slow cognitive processing time
• difficulty in the sequential processing of information
• difficulties comprehending abstract concepts.

Austed discussions during 2014 highlighted the challenges that students with an intellectual
disability can experience at university level. Students may cope well with the 'hands-on' components
of post-secondary study, but find it difficult to understand complex information.

One strategy known to be successful is to integrate people with an intellectual disability by providing
opportunities for auditing classes. Auditing is an approach whereby a person attends lectures in an
award course for general interest (i.e. not for the purpose of completing the requirements of the
award). Auditing does not include assessment, online learning material, or attendance at laboratory
or tutorial classes. It can include access to the library and general campus facilities.

Teaching strategies

It is important to know that despite difficulties in a learning environment students with intellectual
disability can and do have the capacity to acquire and use new information. There is a range of
inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to learn but there are some specific
strategies that are useful in teaching a group which includes students with intellectual disability:

• Provide an outline of what will be taught - highlight key concepts and provide opportunities to
practise new skills and concepts.
• Provide reading lists well before the start of a course so that reading can begin early.
• Consider tailoring reading lists and provide guidance to key texts. Allow work to be completed on an
indepth study of a few texts rather than a broad study of many.
• Whenever you are introducing procedures or processes or giving directions, for example in a
laboratory or computing exercise, ensure that stages or sequences are made clear and are explained
in verbal as well as written form.
• Students may benefit from using assistive technology.
• Use as many verbal descriptions as possible to supplement material presented on blackboard or
overhead
• Use clear, succinct, straightforward language.
• Reinforce learning by using real-life examples and environments.
• Present information in a range of formats – handouts, worksheets, overheads, videos – to meet a
diversity of learning styles.
• Use a variety of teaching methods so that students are not constrained by needing to acquire
information by reading only. Where possible, present material diagrammatically - in lists, flow charts,
concept maps etc.
• Keep diagrams uncluttered and use colour wherever appropriate to distinguish and highlight.
• Ensure that lists of technical/professional jargon which students will need to learn are available early
in the course.
• Recording lectures will assist those students who have handwriting or coordination problems and
those who write slowly as well as those who have a tendency to mishear or misquote.
• Students will be more likely to follow correctly the sequence of material in a lecture if they are able
to listen to the material more than once.
• Wherever possible, ensure that key statements and instructions are repeated or highlighted in some
way.
• One-to-one tutoring in subjects may be important; this can include peer tutoring.
• Students may benefit from having oral rather than written feedback on their written assignments.
• It may be helpful for students with intellectual disability to have an individual orientation to
laboratory equipment or computers to minimise anxiety.

Assessment strategies

Students with intellectual disability may need particular adjustments to assessment tasks. Once you
have a clear picture of how the disability impacts on learning, you can consider alternative
assessment strategies. In considering alternative forms of assessment, equal opportunity is not a
guaranteed outcome, it is the objective. You are not expected to lower standards to accommodate
students with disability but rather are required to give them a reasonable opportunity to
demonstrate what they have learned:

• Allow extensions to assignment deadlines

• Use technology to record students work, e.g. digital photography, tape and video.
• Students may take longer to organize thoughts and sequence material. They will benefit from
discussing their outlines, with particular attention being paid to appropriate relationships and
connections between points.
• Encourage the student to submit an early draft of assignments to allow the opportunity for feedback
to the student as a formative process.
• Students with an intellectual disability will need extra time in an examination for reading and
analysing questions and for planning their answers. Some students will request that examination
questions be read to them. Some students may prefer to dictate their answers to a scribe. They will
need a venue which is quiet and distraction-free.
• Keep short your written examination instructions and sentences within examination questions.
Questions using bullet points, lists or distinct parts are more likely to be correctly interpreted.
• Because students with intellectual disability find it difficult to read multiple choice questions in a
way that allows them to appreciate subtle changes in the arrangement of words, short answer
questions will be a better test of their knowledge.
• Students may benefit from an exam timetable that features a number of days between exams to
assist in exam preparation.
• Many students with intellectual disability are chronic misspellers and use dictionaries only with great
difficulty.

Multiple Disability

Definition
As the term suggests, this disability category encompasses a combination of conditions that may
impact a student's ability to learn and achieve success in an academic setting. Students with severe
disabilities are typically included under this umbrella terminology.

Multiple disabilities are defined in one regulation as "concomitant impairments (such as mental
retardation-blindness, mental retardation-orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which
causes such severe educational problems that they cannot be accommodated in special education
programs solely for one of the impairments." (34 C.F.R., sec. 300[b][6])

This disability category includes those students with the most severe physical, cognitive, and
communicative impairments. It should be noted however, that these students can also have average
or even above-average intelligence. The common connection between students in this category is
not just that they have two or more coexisting impairments, but that they generally need extensive
support across any number of skill areas.
Prevalence
The U.S. Department of Education reports 5,971,495 students receiving special education services in
the 2003-2004 school year. Of that number, roughly 2.2%, or 132,333 students, received special
education services based on a classification of multiple disabilities.

Characteristics
The multiple disability category represents a wide range of specific conditions and impairments. The
best places for a classroom teacher to learn about their individual student with multiple disabilities
are past assessments and Individualized Education Programs. The next step in learning about the
student is to form a relationship with the student's parents, as they are really the greatest experts on
the capabilities of their child.

However, children with multiple disabilities will typically share deficits in five distinct areas of
development: intellectual functioning, adaptive skills, motor skills, sensory functioning, and
communication skills.

Impact on Learning
Most of the students served under the multiple disability category do have some level of cognitive
impairment, but the specific diagnosis of this impairment can often be ambiguous or undetermined.
The ability levels of these students can vary widely, from functional academics to basic life skills.
However, most of these students are still quite capable of learning at their own level when provided
the appropriate supports and materials.

While developing age-appropriate adaptive skills is a challenge for students with multiple disabilities,
their ability to learn can help provide them with some level of independence in a number of life skills
areas. Appropriate educational programming for these students should include self-care and
selfadvocacy components, as these skills are absolutely essential for their inclusion in the
community.

Deficits in motor development can impact independence in these self-care areas and can also force
limitations on mobility and access to the environment. These deficits may be a result of poor muscle
tone or an unavoidable aspect of the specific condition. Physical therapy in conjunction with
orthopedic supports may be necessary to ensure independent travel.

Sensory impairments may also be present in students with multiple disabilities, and knowing the
specifics of their hearing and/or visual impairment is absolutely essential to the development of an
appropriate instructional program. More importantly, students with multiple disabilities have
deficits in the area of communication, making it difficult for them to communicate their wants,
needs and pains to those around them. This limitation can be devastating to the emotional and
intellectual development of a child, but can be addressed through the use of assistive technology
and augmentative communication systems.

Teaching Strategies

Determining an appropriate educational program for a student with multiple disabilities can be a
daunting task due to the variety of pervasive supports needed by these students. The planning
process should be a multidisciplinary process, including parents, teachers, physical therapists,
assistive technology teachers and any number of additional support staff. Of course at the center of
the planning process should be the student, and the strength and desires of the students should
guide the entire process. Specific steps to success need to be identified, and timelines set for each
educational objective. In addition, resources and supports needed for the student to achieve his
goals should be defined and addressed.

One area of support that can be particularly effective for all involved is peer tutoring. Peer tutoring
has been proven to bring positive results for students with multiple disabilities in a number of
research studies. However, care must be taken that the mentoring is not a one-way relationship, but
is reciprocal. The student with multiple disabilities should also be able to provide something to the
mentoring process, even it is just a simple social behavior. Some training on both sides will be
necessary make this a fruitful support system.

Assistive Technology

Assistive technology can be an effective tool for students with multiple disabilities in overcoming
functional and communicative limitations. A variety of evaluations should be conducted by qualified
professionals to determine the appropriate technological support for the needs of the individuals
student. Positioning, language, motor skills, and sensory issues all need to be considered in
implementing the most effective support system. Both the environment and the specific tasks to be
addressed should also guide the selection of the most appropriate assistive technology.

One particularly promising technological support can be found in the handheld personal computer.
Using software such as the Visual Assistant, teachers and service providers can program a number of
different skill sets and instructions to be accessible to students anytime. These technology can
include visual information in the form of digital pictures or line drawings, as well as audio messages
and instructions. This can be instrumental in helping students gain independence in the community,
such as during vocational training activities. These handheld computers use a touchscreen, making
them more accessible to students with motor control issues. Best of all, they are portable, and the
students can take the computer with them into nearly any setting. They can also be quite effective in
supporting communication with unfamiliar individuals, making them an excellent instrument for use
in an augmentative communication system.

Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

Supporting meaningful communication in individuals with multiple sensory, cognitive and physical
impairments has been a concern for inclusive teachers and rehabilitation personnel for many years.
Sign language is the most obvious choice of communicative skills that can aid communication and
can be very effective in developmentally capable individuals with dual sensory impairments.
However, in individuals with multiple disabilities and additional cognitive issues, sign language can
sometimes be a limiting communication strategy. Gestural communication alone often restricts
social interaction in this population to the immediate present, to items or things that can be touched
at that particular moment. In addition, many individuals with coexisting physical impairments are
unable to effectively use gestural communication of any kind due to limitations in their fine motor
skills. Materials and tools designed to augment communication for students with multiple
disabilities can be used to bridge this gap and provide these individuals with the means to
communicate and make purposeful choices in their lives.

The use of augmentative communication systems for individuals who are unable to communicate by
other means has been steadily increasing over the last thirty years, as both technology and research
has risen to the challenge. Augmentative and alternative communication can be defined as any
instructional technique, device or system that serves to support and bolster communication in
individuals with multiple sensory, physical, and cognitive impairments. This can include tangible and
tactile symbol systems, choice boards, object prompts and symbols, physical modeling and
pprompting, and any numer of techniques reliant on computer or microswitch technology.
Microswitches are typically used with htose students with the most limited physical range of
motion;thses devices control for fatigue by allowing the manipulation of technology with the least
expenditure of technology. The ultimate goal of augmentative and alternative communication
devices and systems is to provide the student with the means to communicate effectively with
others, sharing in the countless emotional and social benefits that can come from a reciprocal
interaction with another person. Whether low tech or high tech, augmentative communication
devices all share four key features: symbols, displays, selection and output.

Speech and Language Impairment

Definition
Speech and language impairment is defined as a communication disorder that adversely affects the
child's ability to talk, understand, read, and write. This disability category can be divided into two
groups: speech impairments and language impairments.

Prevalence
Speech and language impairments are considered a high-incidence disability. Approximately 20% of
children receiving special education services are receiving services for speech and language
disorders. This estimate does not include children who receive services for speech and language
disorders that are secondary to other conditions such as deafness. More than one-half (55.2%) of all
3-, 4-, and 5-year olds with a disability receive speech and language services.

Characteristics
Speech Impairments
There are three basic types of speech impairments: articulation disorders, fluency disorders, and
voice disorders.

Articulation disorders are errors in the production of speech sounds that may be related to
anatomical or physiological limitations in the skeletal, muscular, or neuromuscular support for
speech production. These disorders include:

▪ Omissions: (bo for boat)

▪ Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit)
▪ Distortions: (shlip for sip)

Fluency disorders are difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech characterized by hesitations,
repetitions, or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases. Common fluency disorders
include:

▪ Stuttering: rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds especially at the beginning of

words, prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal blocks
▪ Cluttering: excessively fast and jerky speech
Voice disorders are problems with the quality or use of one's voice resulting from disorders in the
larynx. Voice disorders are characterized by abnormal production and/or absences of vocal quality,
pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration.

Language Impairments
There are five basic areas of language impairments: phonological disorders, morphological disorders,
semantic disorders, syntactical deficits, and pragmatic difficulties.

Phonological disorders are defined as the abnormal organization of the phonological system, or a
significant deficit in speech production or perception. A child with a phonological disorder may be
described as hard to understand or as not saying the sounds correctly. Apraxia of speech is a specific
phonological disorder where the student may want to speak but has difficulty planning what to say
and the motor movements to use.

Morphological disorders are defined as difficulties with morphological inflections (inflections on

nouns, verbs, and adjectives that signals different kinds of meanings).

Semantic disorders are characterized by poor vocabulary development, inappropriate use of word
meaning, and/or inability to comprehend word meanings. These students will demonstrate
restrictions in word meanings, difficulty with multiple word meanings, excessive use of nonspecific
terms (e.g. thing and stuff), and indefinite references (e.g. that and there).

Syntactic deficits are characterized by difficulty in acquiring the rules that govern word order and

other aspects of grammar such as subject-verb agreement. Typically, these students Definition

Speech and language impairment is defined as a communication disorder that adversely affects the
child's ability to talk, understand, read, and write. This disability category can be divided into two
groups: speech impairments and language impairments.

Prevalence

Speech and language impairments are considered a high-incidence disability. Approximately 20% of
children receiving special education services are receiving services for speech and language
disorders. This estimate does not include children who receive services for speech and language
disorders that are secondary to other conditions such as deafness. More than one-half (55.2%) of all
3-, 4-, and 5-year olds with a disability receive speech and language services.

Characteristics

Speech Impairments

There are three basic types of speech impairments: articulation disorders, fluency disorders, and
voice disorders.

Articulation disorders are errors in the production of speech sounds that may be related to
anatomical or physiological limitations in the skeletal, muscular, or neuromuscular support for
speech production. These disorders include:

Omissions: (bo for boat)

Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit)
Distortions: (shlip for sip)
Fluency disorders are difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech characterized by hesitations,
repetitions, or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases. Common fluency disorders
include:

Stuttering: rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds especially at the beginning of words,
prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal blocks

Cluttering: excessively fast and jerky speech

Voice disorders are problems with the quality or use of one's voice resulting from disorders in the
larynx. Voice disorders are characterized by abnormal production and/or absences of vocal quality,
pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration.

Language Impairments

There are five basic areas of language impairments: phonological disorders, morphological disorders,
semantic disorders, syntactical deficits, and pragmatic difficulties.
Phonological disorders are defined as the abnormal organization of the phonological system, or a
significant deficit in speech production or perception. A child with a phonological disorder may be
described as hard to understand or as not saying the sounds correctly. Apraxia of speech is a specific
phonological disorder where the student may want to speak but has difficulty planning what to say
and the motor movements to use.

Morphological disorders are defined as difficulties with morphological inflections (inflections on

nouns, verbs, and adjectives that signal different kinds of meanings).
Semantic disorders are characterized by poor vocabulary development, inappropriate use of word
meanings, and/or inability to comprehend word meanings. These students will demonstrate
restrictions in word meanings, difficulty with multiple word meanings, excessive use of nonspecific
terms (e.g., thing and stuff), and indefinite references (e.g., that and there).
Syntactic deficits are characterized by difficulty in acquiring the rules that govern word order and
others aspects of grammar such as subject-verb agreement. Typically, these students produce
shorter and less elaborate sentences with fewer cohesive conjunctions than their peers.
Pragmatic difficulties are characterized as problems in understanding and using language in
different social contexts. These students may lack an understanding of the rules for making eye
contact, respecting personal space, requesting information, and introducing topics. Impact on
Learning

Speech and language disorders are problems in communication and related areas such as oral motor
function. Delays and disorders may range from so subtle that they have little or no impact on daily
living and socialization to the inability to produce speech or to understand and use language.
Fortunately, only a very small percentage of children are at the most extreme of severity. However,
because of the importance of language and communication skills in a child's development even mild
to moderate disorders or disturbances can have a profound effect on all aspects of life, sometimes
isolating children from their peers and their educational environments.

Teaching Strategies

As with all students who receive special education services, collaboration of a multi-disciplinary team
is necessary. Students with speech or language disorders will receive services from many education
professionals, including general education teachers, special education teachers, and speech-
language pathologists.

Speech-language pathologists provide a variety of professional services aimed at helping people

develop effective communication skills. These services may include:

• Helping children with articulation disorders to learn proper production of speech sounds
 • Helping children who stutter to speak more fluently
• Assisting children with voice disorders to improve their voice quality
• Helping individuals with aphasia to relearn speech and language skills
• Assisting individuals who have difficulty swallowing as a result of illness, surgery, stroke, or
injury
• Evaluating, selecting, and developing augmentative and alternative communication systems
• Enhancing communication effectiveness

The general education teacher should work with the speech-language pathologist to incorporate
strategies to help the student generalize strategies mastered in speech therapy. This may include
corrective measures, helping with speech and language exercises, and providing the student with
immediate feedback when the speech-language pathologist is not present. The general education
and special education teacher should both collaborate with the speech-language pathologist for
interventions and teaching strategies.

Assistive Technology

For students with speech and language impairments, the major types of assistive technology can be
divided into two areas.

First, students with speech and language impairments have an array of computer software packages
available to develop their speech and language skills. An example is First Words, a language program
that has a number of applications for teaching those who are developing or reacquiring language
functions. The program uses graphic presentations combined with synthesized speech to teach high-
frequency nouns, and is one of many software packages that can help develop both speech and
language.

Secondly, students with speech and language impairments may use augmentative or alternative
communication (AAC). AAC is the use of symbols, aids, strategies, and techniques to enhance the
communication process. This includes sign language and various communication boards, both
manual and electronic, that are used by individuals with impaired oral motor skills.

The most basic AAC devices are non-electronic communication boards. The boards usually are
limited to a number of choices (two to four). The choices can be represented by real items, pictures
of items, and symbols for items (including print). The objective of the communication board is to
have the student make a choice, typically of food or activity. Electronic AAC devices range from very
simple devices with few buttons (such as the Cheap Talk) to very elaborate systems that use a
keyboard and synthesized speech (such as the Dyna Vox and Liberator).