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ZOOLOGY
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1. HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Reproductive System Ovaries (primary female sex organ) produce the
TheMale Reproductive System female gamete (ovum) and several steroid
it consists of hormones (ovarian hormones).Each ovary is about
1. A pair of testes 2 to 4 cm in length and is connected to the pelvic
2. Accessory ducts wall and uterus by ligaments.
3. Accessory Glands Female accessory ducts:
4.ExternalGenitalia It consists of the oviducts (fallopian tubes 10 – 12
The testes are seen outside the body in a pouch cm long) uterus, vagina
Parts of oviducts are the funnel-shaped
called scrotum which helps to maintain a low
infundibulum. Finger-like projections called
temperature to the testes fimbriae, the wider part of the oviduct called
Each testis has about 250 compartments called as ampulla. The last part of the oviduct isthmus joins
the uterus.
testicular lobules, which contains one to three
The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow
highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms cervix. The cavity of the cervix is called cervical
are produced. canal. The wall of the uterus has three layers of
tissue.
Seminiferous tubule:
1. External perimetrium
It consists of
2. Middle myometrium and
1. Male germ cells (spermatogonia)
3. Inner endometrium
2. Sertoli cells
The endometrium undergoes cyclical changes
3. Interstitial cells or Leydig cells
during menstrual cycle while the myometrium
The male germ cells produce sperm, sertoli cells
exhibits strong contraction during delivery of the
provide nutrition to the germ cells. Leydig cells or
baby.
interstitial cells secrete testicular hormones called
Female external genitalia:
androgens
It consists of 1. Mons pubis
Male sex accessory ducts:
2. Labia majora
Seminiferous tubules →Rete testis →Vasa
3. Labia minora
efferentia →Epididymis→Vas deferens
4. Hymen
→Ejaculatory duct →Urethra.
5. Clitoris
A loose fold of skin called foreskin covers the
The hymen is torn during the first coitus or during
enlarged end of penis called the glans penis.
physical activities so it is not a reliable indicator for
Male accessory glands:
virginity.
It consists of
Mammary glands (breasts). 15-20 mammary lobes
1. Paired seminal vesicle
containing clusters of cells called alveoli. The cells
2. A Prostrate
of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the
3. Paired bulborethral gland
cavities of alveoli.
Secretions of these glands constitute the seminal
Alveoli -mammary duct- mammary ampulla-
plasma (fructose, calcium and certain enzymes).
lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out.
The secretions of bulbourethral glands helps in the
Gametogenesis
lubrication of the penis.
Spermatogenesis: formation of sperms /male
External genitalia or penis is the copulatory organ
gamete. It has two steps
made up of erectile tissue to facilitate insemination
The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa
The Female Reproductive System
(sperms) by the process called spermiogenesis.
It consists of
After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become
1. A pair of ovaries 2. A pair of oviducts
embedded in the Sertoli cells and are finally
3.Uterus 4. Cervix 5.Vagina 6.External genitalia
released from the seminiferous tubules by the
7.Mammary glands
process called spermiation.

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oocyte then surrounded by a layer of granulosa

cells and forms primary follicle.
During puberty 60,000-80,000 primary follicles are
found in each ovary. The primary follicle is
surrounded by more layers of granulosa and
become secondary follicles.

The secondary follicle become a tertiary follicle with

fluid filled cavity called antrum. The primary oocyte
within the tertiary follicle completes its first meiotic
The GnRH stimulates the secretion of two division( unequal division) and forms large haploid
gonadotropins secondary oocyte and a tiny first polar body.The
1. Luteinising hormone (LH) secondary oocyte then forms a new membrane
2. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). called zona pellucida surrounding it.
LH acts at the Leydig cells and secretes androgens The tertiary follicle changes into the mature follicle
that stimulate the process of spermatogenesis. or Graafian follicle.
FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates the The Graafian follicle ruptures to release the
secretion of some factors, which help in the process secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary by the
of spermiogenesis. process called ovulation
Sperm: Diagrammatic section view of ovary:
It consists of1.Head 2.Neck 3. middle piece 4. tail
The sperm head is covered by a cap-like structure,
acrosome (contains the enzymes that help
fertilisation of the ovum).
The middle piece possesses numerous
mitochondria, which produce energy for sperm
motility.

Menstrual Cycle
Diagrammatic representation of various events
during a menstrual cycle:

The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300

million sperms during a coitus of which 60 per cent
sperms have normal shape and 40 per cent of show
vigorous motility.The Secretions of epididymis, vas
deferens, seminal vesicle and prostate are
essential for maturation and motility of sperms. The 1. The menstrual phase:
seminal plasma with the sperms constitute the First menstruation begins at puberty and is called
semen. menarche. In human females it is repeated at
Oogenesis: interval of about 28/29 days.
Oogonia are formed in embryonic stage udergores The menstrual flow is due to the breakdown of
meiotic division to form primary oocytes. Primary endometrial lining of the uterus and its blood

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vessels which forms liquid that comes out through

vagina. Placenta
Menstruation only occurs if the released ovum is The physiological connection between foetus
not fertilised. Lack of menstruation may indicate and the mother. The chorionic villi and the
pregnancy. uterine tissue interdigitate and become
2. The follicular phase: placenta
During this phase, the primary follicles grows into
Functions: (1) It act as endocrine gland and
mature Graafian follicle and endometrium of
secretes hormones like human chorionic
uterus regenerates through proliferation.
3. The ovulatory phase:
gonadotropin (HCG), human
Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the middle placental lactogen (HPL), estrogens and
of cycle (about 14th day). progesterone
4. The luteal phase: (2) It supplies oxygen and nutrients to the
Remaining parts of the Graafian follicle transform embryo and also removal of carbon dioxide
into corpus luteum. The corpus luteum secretes and excretory products produced by the
large amounts of progesterone which helps in the embryo
maintenance of the endometrium (implantation of Parturition
the fertilized ovum).In the absence of fertilisation, Foetal ejection reflex from fully developed
the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes
foetus and the placenta induce mild
disintegration of the endometrium leading to
contractions
menstruation. In human beings, menstrual cycles
ceases around 50 years of age termed as
Oxytocin induces stronger contractions of the
menopause. uterine muscles which leads to expulsion of
the baby from the uterus
Fertilisation and Implantation The milk produced during the initial few days of
It is the process of fusion of a sperm with an lactation is called colostrum which contains
ovum. Fertilisation takes place in ampullary- several antibodies(IgA) that provide immunity
isthmic junction of fallopian tube after for new-born babies
fertilisationThe zygote undergoes successive
mitotic divisions called cleavage and forms 2, Developmental stages of human embryo
4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
Month Embryonic development
The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called
a morula. The morula continues to divide and
1 Heart is formed.
transforms into blastocyst then it moves into 2 Limbs and digits develop .
the uterus. 3 Limbs and external genital organs well
The outer layer of the blastocyst is called develops
trophoblast and an inner group of cells called 5 Shows movements and appear hair on the
inner cell mass. The trophoblast layer gets head
attached to the endometrium and the inner cell 6 The body is covered with fine hair, eye-lids
mass gets differentiated as the embryo. separate, and eyelashes are formed.
Later the blastocyst becomes embedded in the 9 The foetus is fully developed and is ready for
endometrium of the uterus. This is called delivery.
implantation and it leads to pregnancy.

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 2. REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive health – problems and strategies insert these devices or expert nurses in the uterus
The Govt of India has started family planning (1951) through vagina.
and ‘Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) Two typesof IUD’s are copper releasing lUDs (CuT,
Population increased due to decreased Cu7, Multiload 375) and the hormone-releasing lUDs
(Progestasert, LNG-20)
1. Maternal mortality rate (MMR) IUDs increase phagocytosis of sperms within the
2. Infant mortality rate (IMR) uterus and the Cu ions released suppress sperm
motility and the fertilizing capacity of sperms.
The government has taken measures to check this The hormone-releasing lUDs make the uterus
population growth rate by contraceptive methods. unsuitable for implantation It is one of most widely
accepted methods of contraception in India.
An ideal contraceptive should be user-friendly, easily Oral contraceptives (pills) contain either
available, effective and reversible with no or least progestogens or progestogen-estrogen
side-effects.. Natural/Traditional, Barrier, lUDs, Oral combinations.
contraceptives, Injectables, Implants and Surgical Pills have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days
methods. starting within the first five days of menstrual cycle.
Natural Methods: After a gap of 7 days (during which menstruation
Periodic abstinence – Here the couples avoid or occurs), it has to be repeated in the same pattern to
abstain from coitus from day 10 to 17 of the prevent conception.
menstrual cycle. It helps to inhibit ovulation and implantation as well
as to prevent entry of sperms, eg-Saheli.
Scientists at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI)
Withdrawal or coitus interruptus is another method in
which the male partner withdraws his penis from the in Lucknow developed Saheli-a new oral
vagina just before ejaculation so as to avoid contraceptive for the females-.
insemination.
Administration of progestogens or progestogen-
estrogen combinations within 72 hours of coitus
Lactational amenorrhea this method is because
ovulation and therefore the cycle do not occur during have been found to be very effective as emergency
the period of intense lactation following parturition. contraceptives to avoid possible pregnancy due to
Therefore, chances of conception are almost nil.
rape or casual unprotected intercourse.

Barrier Method:
Condoms (Nirodh’) are barriers made of thin rubber/ Surgical Method
latex sheath that are used to cover the penis in the
male or vagina and cervix in the female, just before
coitus. This can prevent conception
Use of condoms have additional benefit of protecting
the user from STDs and AIDS. Both the male and the
female condoms are disposable.
Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults are also
barriers made of rubber that are inserted into the
female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during
coitus. So it helps to prevent conception by blocking
In male it is called ‘vasectomy’ a small part of the vas
the entry of sperms through the cervix.
deferens is removed or tied up.
In female, ‘tubectomy’ a small part of the fallopian
Intra-Uterine Devices (lUDs):
tube is removed or tied up
IUDs are ideal contraceptives for females. Doctors

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2. REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive health – problems and strategies insert these devices or expert nurses in the uterus
The Govt of India has started family planning (1951) through vagina.
and ‘Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) Two typesof IUD’s are copper releasing lUDs (CuT,
Population increased due to decreased Cu7, Multiload 375) and the hormone-releasing lUDs
(Progestasert, LNG-20)
1. Maternal mortality rate (MMR) IUDs increase phagocytosis of sperms within the
2. Infant mortality rate (IMR) uterus and the Cu ions released suppress sperm
motility and the fertilizing capacity of sperms.
The government has taken measures to check this The hormone-releasing lUDs make the uterus
population growth rate by contraceptive methods. unsuitable for implantation It is one of most widely
accepted methods of contraception in India.
An ideal contraceptive should be user-friendly, easily Oral contraceptives (pills) contain either
available, effective and reversible with no or least progestogens or progestogen-estrogen
side-effects.. Natural/Traditional, Barrier, lUDs, Oral combinations.
contraceptives, Injectables, Implants and Surgical Pills have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days
methods. starting within the first five days of menstrual cycle.
Natural Methods: After a gap of 7 days (during which menstruation
Periodic abstinence – Here the couples avoid or occurs), it has to be repeated in the same pattern to
abstain from coitus from day 10 to 17 of the prevent conception.
menstrual cycle. It helps to inhibit ovulation and implantation as well
as to prevent entry of sperms, eg-Saheli.
Scientists at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI)
Withdrawal or coitus interruptus is another method in
which the male partner withdraws his penis from the in Lucknow developed Saheli-a new oral
vagina just before ejaculation so as to avoid contraceptive for the females-.
insemination.
Administration of progestogens or progestogen-
estrogen combinations within 72 hours of coitus
Lactational amenorrhea this method is because
ovulation and therefore the cycle do not occur during have been found to be very effective as emergency
the period of intense lactation following parturition. contraceptives to avoid possible pregnancy due to
Therefore, chances of conception are almost nil.
rape or casual unprotected intercourse.

Barrier Method:
Condoms (Nirodh’) are barriers made of thin rubber/ Surgical Method
latex sheath that are used to cover the penis in the
male or vagina and cervix in the female, just before
coitus. This can prevent conception
Use of condoms have additional benefit of protecting
the user from STDs and AIDS. Both the male and the
female condoms are disposable.
Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults are also
barriers made of rubber that are inserted into the
female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during
coitus. So it helps to prevent conception by blocking
In male it is called ‘vasectomy’ a small part of the vas
the entry of sperms through the cervix.
deferens is removed or tied up.
In female, ‘tubectomy’ a small part of the fallopian
Intra-Uterine Devices (lUDs):
tube is removed or tied up
IUDs are ideal contraceptives for females. Doctors

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Medical Termination Of Pregnancy (MTP) (iii) In case of doubt, go to a qualified doctor for early
Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 to avoid detection and get complete treatment if diagnosed
its misuse. So it helps to check indiscriminate and
with disease.
illegal female foeticides which are reported to be high
in India. Infertility
In the case of infertility the couples could be assisted
It is important to avoid unwanted pregnancies due to to have children through certain special techniques
either casual unprotected intercourse or failure of the
contraceptive used during coitus or rapes. commonly known as assisted reproductive
technologies (ART). In vitro fertilisation (IVF—
MTPs are also essential in the cases where fertilisation outside the body in almost similar
continuation of the pregnancy could be harmful or
conditions as that in the body) followed by embryo
even fatal either to the mother or to the foetus or
both. transfer (ET).In test tube baby programme Ova from
MTPs are considered relatively safe during the first the wife/donor (female), sperms from the
trimester, i.e., upto 12 weeks of pregnancy. husband/donor (male) are collected and are induced

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) to form zygote under simulated conditions in the
Diseases or infections which are transmitted laboratory.The zygote or early embryo (with upto 8
through sexual intercourse are called sexually blastomeres) is transferred into the fallopian tube
transmitted diseases (STD) or venereal diseases
(ZIFT – Zygote intra fallopian transfer) and embryos
(VD) or reproductive tract infections (RTI).
with more than 8 blastomeres, into the uterus (IUT –
Common STIs. intra uterine transfer).
Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Genital herpes, Chlamydiosis,
Genital warts, Trichomoniasis, Hepatitis-B, AIDS Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the
Early symptoms of most of these are minor and fallopian tube (GIFT – gamete intra fallopian
include itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swellings, transfer) of another female who cannot produce one.
etc., in the genital region. Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICS) sperm is
Hepatitis-B and HIV are transmitted by sharing of directly injected into the ovum. It is the procedure to
injection needles, surgical instruments, etc. with form an embryo in the laboratory.
infected persons and transfusion of blood, from an Infertility cases due to inability either of the male
infected mother to the foetus. partner to inseminate the female or due to very low
All diseases are curable except hepatitis-B, genital sperm counts could be corrected by artificial
herpes, and HIV infections. insemination (Al) technique.
The important steps to control STDs are given below. In this technique, either the semen collected from the
(i) Avoid sex with unknown partners / multiple husband or a healthy donor is artificially introduced
partners. either into the vagina or into the uterus (lUI-Intra
(ii)Always use condoms during coitus. uterine insemination) of the female.

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3. PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

Mendel’s Laws Of Inheritance
Gregor Mendel, conducted hybridisation 2. Law of Segregation:
experiments on garden peas and proposed the laws According to these law the parents contain two
of inheritance in living organisms. alleles, during gamete formation, alleles of a pair
Mendel selected 14 true-breeding pea plant segregate from each other and the gamete receives
varieties, as pairs with contrasting traits. only one of the two alleles.
A homozygous parent produces all gametes that are
similar while a heterozygous one produces two kinds
of gametes.
Non-mendelian inheritance:
a. Incomplete Dominance:
F1 phenotype not resemble either of the two
parents The inheritance of flower colour in the dog
flower (snapdragon or Antirrhinum sp.) is a good
example.
In a cross between true-breeding red-flowered (RR)
and true breeding white-flowered plants (rr), the F1
(Rr) was pink.

Mono hybrid phenotypic ratio 3:1

Genotypic ratio 1:2:1
Back cross and Test cross
Crossing the F1 hybrid with any of the parent
– back cross
Crossing the F1 with Recessive parent
–Testcross (1:1)
Based on these observations,
Mendel proposed that ‘factors’ (genes) transmitted
from parent to offspring through the gametes, over
successive generations.
Genes which code for a pair of contrasting traits are
known as alleles, i.e., they are alternative forms of
the same gene.
According to Mendels experiment, true-breeding tall
are identical or homozygous TT and true-breeding
dwarf pea variety are also homozygous tt.
Based on his observations on monohybrid crosses
Mendel proposed two general rules first law is Law
of Dominance and the Second Law or Law of
Segregation. b. Co-dominance
1. Law of Dominance: Here F1 generation resembles both parents. A
(i) Characters are controlled by discrete units called good example is different types of red blood cells
factors. that determine ABO blood grouping in human
(ii) Factors occur in pairs. beings.
(iii) In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I. The
pair dominates (dominant) the other (recessive). gene (I) has three alleles IA, IA and i.
The law of dominance explains the ratio of 3:1 in F2.

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In the dihybrid cross the phenotypes round-yellow;

Wrinkled- yellow; round- green and wrinkled- green
appeared in the ratio 9:3:3:1.
The four types are RY, Ry, rY and ry.

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance:

Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri noted that the
behaviour of chromosomes was parallel to the
behaviour of genes and used chromosome
ABO blood grouping is a good example of multiple movement to explain Mendel’s laws.
alleles. The chromosomes as well as genes occur in pairs.
C. Pleotropism The two alleles of a gene pair are located on
Multiple effect of single gene homologous sites on homologous chromosomes.
starch synthesis in pea seeds is controlled by one The pairing and separation of a pair of chromosomes
gene. It has two alleles (B and b). Starch is would lead to the segregation of a pair of factors they
synthesised by BB homozygotes and bb carried.
homozygotes have lesser efficiency in starch Linkage and Recombination:
synthesis. Morgan’s dihybrid crosses in Drosophila reveals
After maturation of the seeds, BB seeds are round genes that are sex-linked.
and the bb seeds are wrinkled. Heterozygotes They found that some genes were very tightly linked
produce (showed very low recombination), while others were
round seeds, and so B seems to be the dominant loosely linked (showed higher recombination).
allele. But, the starch grains produced are of For example the genes for the white and yellow were
intermediate size in Bb seeds. very tightly linked and showed only 1.3 per cent
recombination while white and miniature wing
showed 37.2 per cent recombination
Inheritance of Two Genes
Mendel crossed pea plant seeds with yellow colour
His student Alfred Sturtevant found that frequency of
and round shape and seeds of green colour and
recombination between gene pairs on the same
wrinkled shape. Yellow colour was dominant over
chromosome is equivalent to the distance between
green and round shape dominant over wrinkled.Y
genes and ‘mapped’ their position on the
for dominant yellow seed colour and y for recessive
chromosome.
green seed colour, R for round shaped seeds and r
for wrinkled seed shape. The genotypes of the
Sex Determination
parents are RRYY and rryy.
Henking (1891) studied spermatogenesis in insects
The gametes RY and ry unite on fertilisation to
and X body. The ‘X body’ of Henking was given the
produce the F1 hybrid RrYy. When Mendel self
name X-chromosome (sex
hybridised the F1 plants and found that the ratio in
chromosome).Grasshopper is an example of XO
F2 is 9:3:3:1.
type of sex determination in which the males have
Phenotypic ratio: round yellow(9) : round green(3) :
only one X-chromosome besides the autosomes,
wrinkled yellow (3) : wrinkled green(1).
whereas females have a pair of X-chromosomes.
Figure: Result s of a dihybrid cross where the two
parents differed in two pairs of contrasting traits:
seed colour and seed shape. Insects and mammals including man:
Law of Independent Assortment: XY type of sex determination is seen where both
The law states that when two pairs of traits are male (XY- heterogametic) and female (XX-
combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of homogametic) have same number of
characters is independent of the other pair of chromosomes. Both males and females bear same
characters’. number of autosomes. i.e males have autosomes
+XY, while female have autosomes +XX.

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Thus the genetic makeup of the sperm that

determines the sex of the child.

Mutation
It is the sudden change in the genetic makeup of an
organism. The loss (deletions) or gain (insertion/
duplication) of a segment of DNA, result in alteration
in chromosomes. Alteration in chromosomes results
in abnormalities or aberrations.If the mutation also
arise due to change in a single base pair of DNA.
This is known as point mutation. Eg- sickle cell
anemia.

Deletions and insertions of base pairs of DNA,

causes frame-shift mutations.
Many chemical and physical factors induce
Male heterogamety: mutations. They are called as mutagens. Eg-
In XO type and XY type, males produce two physical mutagen – UV radiations.
different types of gametes, Such types of sex Pedigree Analysis:
determination mechanism is seen in drosophila and It is the study of the family history of inheritance of a
human male respectively. particular trait. Such an analysis of traits in several
of generations of a family is called the pedigree
analysis. For this, the standard symbols are used.
Female heterogamety:
In human beings, it helps to find out the inheritance
In birds the total number of chromosome is same in
of a specific character, abnormality or disease.
both males and females. But females produce two
types of gametes.

Female birds have one Z and one W chromosome,

where as males have a pair of Z-chromosomes
besides the autosomes.

1. Sex Determination in Humans:

Out of 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs are same
in both males and females; these are the
autosomes. A pair of X-chromosomes are present
in the female, whereas X and Y chromosome are
present in males.

During spermatogenesis, two types of gametes are Symbols used in pedigree analysis
produced of which 50 per cent carry the X-
chromosome and the rest 50 per cent has Y- Genetic Disorders
chromosome besides the autosomes.Females 1. Mendelian Disorders:
produce only one type of ovum with an X- Genetic disorders are classified into two categories.
chromosome. In case the ovum fertilizes with a Mendelian disorders and Chromosomal disorders.
sperm carrying X-chromosome the zygote develops Mendelian disorders (dominant or recessive) arise
into a female (XX) and with Y-chromosome results by alteration or mutation in the single gene.
into a male offspring. Eg-Haemophilia, Cystic, fibrosis, Sickle-cell
anaemia, Ctflour blindness, Phenylketonuria,
Thalesemia, etc.

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Haemophilia: Phenylketonuria:
Haemophilia is the X-linked recessive trait that is This is an autosomal recessive trait. This is due to
transmitted from carrier female to male progeny in the deficiency of enzyme that converts the amino
the zig-zag manner (Sex linked recessive disease) acid phenylalanine into tyrosine. Because of this
This is the bleeders disease mainly observed in phenylalanine is accumulated and converted into
family of Queen Victoria. In an affected individual, a phenylpyruvic acid.
simple cut will result in non-stop bleeding. The Accumulation of these in brain results in mental
heterozygous female (carrier) for haemophilia retardation. These are also excreted through urine.
transmit the disease to sons
2. Chromosomal disorders:

Sickle-cell anemia: Down’s Syndrome: (Trisomy of 21):

This is an autosome linked recessive trait The affected individual is short statured with small
transmitted from parents to the offspring when both round head, furrowed tongue and partially open
the partners are carrier for the gene. A single pair of
allele, HbA, controls the disease and HbS.The mouth. Palm is broad with characteristic palm
homozygous individuals for HbS (HbSHbS) show the crease. Physical, psychomotor and mental
diseased phenotype. Heterozygous (HbAHbS) development is retarded.
individuals are carrier of the disease.The defect is
Klinefelter’s Syndrome:
caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid by
This is due to the trisomy of sex chromosome 44
Valine at the sixth position of the beta globin chain
autosomes+XXY. Individuals show feminine
of the haemoglobin molecule.It is due to the single
development i.e development of breast, i.e.,
base substitution at the sixth codon of the beta
Gynecomastia such individuals are sterile.
globin gene from GAG to GUG.
Turner’s Syndrome:
This is due to absence of one of the X
The mutant haemoglobin change in the shape of the
chromosomes, i.e. 44 autosomes+ XO, Such
RBC from biconcave disc to elongated sickle like
females are sterile. The ovaries are rudimentary
structure.
and lack other secondary sexual characters.

4. MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

DNA is a long nucleotides polymer of nucleotide. Two nucleotides are linked through 3′-5′
deoxyribonucleotides. phosphodiester linkage to form a dinucleotide.
A nucleotide has three components Polynucleotide chain has at one end a free phosphate
1. Nitrogenous base moiety at 5′-end of ribose sugar and other end of the
2. Pentose sugar (ribose in case of RNA, and polynucleotide chin the ribose has a free 3′-OH group
deoxyribose for DNA), and The backbone in a polynucleotide chain is formed due
3. Phosphate group. to sugar and phosphates.
There are two types of nitrogenous bases.
Purines : Adenine and Guanine RNA has an additional-OH group present at 2′-position
Pyrimidines :Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine in the ribose and the uracil is found at the place of
Cytosine is common for both DNA and RNA and thymine. Friedrich Meischer first identified acidic
Thymine is present in DNA. nature of DNA in 1869 and it called as ‘Nuclein’.
Uracil is present in RNA at the place of Thymine.
Data from the X-ray diffraction studies conducted by
A nitrogenous base is linked to the pentose sugar James Watson and Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins
through a N – glycosidic linkage to form a nucleoside, and Rosalind Franklin showed that DNA has Double
When a phosphate group is linked to 5′-OH of a Helix structure.
nucleoside through phosphor ester linkage, to form

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Erwin Chargaff showed that ratios between Adenine

and Thymine and Guanine and Cytosine are constant
and equals one
Each strand from a DNA acts as a template for
synthesis of a new strand. The two double stranded
DNA thus, produced would be identical to the parental
DNA molecule.
The negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the
positively charged histone octamer to form a structure
called Nucleosome. It contains 200 bp of DNA helix.

Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a

structure in nucleus called chromatin, it is thread-like
stained (coloured) bodies seen in nucleus. The
nucleosomes in chromatin are seen as ‘beads-on-
string’ structure when viewed under electron
microscope (EM).
The salient features of the Double-helix DNA are(i) It
is made of two polynucleotide chains, where the
backbone is sugar-phosphate, The packaging of chromatin at higher level with
(ii) The two chains have anti-parallel polarity, ie. proteins that are called as Non-histone Chromosomal
51 and31 strands. (NHC) proteins.
(iii) The bases in two strands are paired through
hydrogen bond. Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds In a typical nucleus, some region of chromatin are
with Thymine and Guanine is bonded with Cytosine loosely packed (euchromatin) and more densely
with three H- bonds. packed (Heterochromatin). Euchromatin is
(iv) The two chains are coiled in a right-handed transcriptionally active chromatin, whereas
fashion. The pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm. heterochromatin is inactive.
(v) The plane of one base pair stacks over the other in
double helix. Transformation Principle:
In 1928, Frederick Griffith, in a series of experiments
Francis Crick proposed the Central dogma in with Streptococcus pneumoniae (bacterium
molecular biology, which states that the genetic responsible for pneumonia), showed the
information flows from DNA to RNA and RNA to trasformation in the bacteria.
protein. But in some viruses the flow of information is 1. Live S type injected into mice ----Mouse dies
reverse direction, that is from RNA to DNA. 2 .Live R type injected into mice -----Mouse lives
2. Packaging of DNA Helix: 3. Heat killed S type injected into mice--- Mouse
In E. coli, they do not have a defined nucleus it is lives
termed as ‘nucleoid’. The DNA in nucleoid is 4. Heat killed S type + Live R type ---Mouse dies
organised in large loops held by proteins.
In eukaryotes, this organisation is much more
the transforming substance was not a protein or RNA
complex. Here the positively charged, basic proteins
but DNA is the hereditary material.
called histones are associated with DNA.
Genetic Material is DNA:
Histones are rich in the basic amino acid residues
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase (1952) grew
lysines and arginines. Histones are organised to form
bacteriophages on a medium that contained
a unit of eight molecules called as histone octamer.
radioactive phosphorus and some others on medium
that contained radioactive sulfur.

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Viruses grown in the presence of radioactive semiconservative DNA replication. semiconservative

phosphorus contained radioactive DNA but not DNA replication.
radioactive protein because DNA contains The Machinery and the Enzymes:
phosphorus but protein does not. Similarly, viruses In E. coli, the process of replication takes place with
grown on radioactive sulfur contained radioactive the help of DNA-dependent DNA polymerase,
protein but not radioactive DNA because DNA does because it uses a DNA template to catalyse the
not contain sulfur.After the infection the viral coats polymerization of deoxynucleotides.
were removed from the bacteria by agitating them in a Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates have double role.
blender. It is concluded that proteins did not enter the Besides acting as substrates, they provide energy for
bacteria from the viruses. But the DNA is the genetic polymerization reaction same as in case of ATP.
material that passed from virus to bacteria.

Properties of Genetic Material (DNA versus RNA):

A molecule that act as a genetic material must
possess the following features
(i) It should be able to generate its replica
(Replication).
(ii) It should chemically and structurally be stable.
(iii) It should provide the scope for slow changes
(mutation) that are required for evolution.
(iv) It should be able to express itself in the form of
‘Mendelian Characters’. Initially the replication occur within a small opening of
The 2-OH group present at the nucleotide in RNA is a the DNA helix (origin of replication) called as
reactive group and makes RNA labile and easily replication fork. The DNA- dependent DNA
degradable. Therefore, DNA is less reactive and polymerases catalyse polymerization only in one
structurally more stable when compared to direction, that is 51-3’.Here on one strand (the
RNA.Therefore, among the two nucleic acids, the template with polarity 3’-5′), the replication is
DNA is a better genetic material. continuous, while on the other (the template
The presence of thymine at the place of uracil also withpolarity 5′-3′), it is discontinuous. The
gives additional stability to DNA. discontinuously synthesized fragments are later
In fact, RNA being unstable, mutate at a faster rate. joined by the enzyme DNA ligase.
So the viruses having RNA genome having shorter life In eukaryotes, the replication of DNA takes place at S-
span mutate and evolve faster. phase of the cell-cycle. A failure in cell division after
RNA world DNA replication results into polyploidy(a chromosomal
RNA is genetic material as well as a catalyst. But it is anomaly).
reactive and hence unstable. Therefore, DNA has Transcription
evolved from RNA with chemical modifications that The process of copying genetic information from one
make it more stable. strand of the DNA into RNA is termed as transcription.
Replication In transcription only a segment of DNA is copied into
Watson and Crick (1953) proposed replication of DNA. RNA.
They suggested that the two strands separate and act Only single stranded RNA is produced by transcription
as a template for the synthesis of new complementary process. If the two RNA molecules are produced
strands. simultaneously it would be complementary to each
The Experimental Proof: other, hence would form a double stranded RNA. This
DNA replicates in semi conservative manner was first would prevent the translation.
shown in E coli by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Transcription Unit:
Stahl performed the following experiment in 1958: DNA has three regions as transcription unit
After the completion of replication, each DNA 1. A Promoter
molecule have one Watson-Crick model for parental 2. The Structural gene
and one newly synthesised strand. This is termed as 3. A Terminator

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The two strands have opposite polarity and the DNA- and follow the rule of complementarity.
dependent RNA polymerase catalyse the
polymerisation in only one direction, that is, 5′-3′, the
strand that has the polarity 3′-5’acts as a template,
and is also referred to as template strand.
The other strand which has the polarity (5′-3′) and the
sequence same as RNA (except thymine at the place
of uracil), is displaced during transcription. This
strand (which does not code for anything) is referred
to as coding strand.The promoter is located towards
5′ – end (upstream) of the structural gene. It provides
binding site for RNA polymerase.The terminator is Once the polymerases reaches the terminator region,
located towards 3′ – end (downstream) of the coding the nascent RNA and RNA polymerase falls off. This
strand and it usually defines the end of the process results in termination of transcription.
of transcription RNA polymerase catalyse all the three steps, which
are initiation, elongation and termination.
The RNA polymerase bind with initiation factor and
termination-factor to initiate and terminate the
transcription, respectively.

In bacteria, the mRNA does not require any

processing and transcription and translation take
2. Transcription Unit and the Gene:
place in the same compartment.
A gene is the functional unit of inheritance. The DNA
sequence coding for tRNA or rRNA molecule also
define a gene. In eukaryotes, the heterogeneous nuclear RNA
Cistron is a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide, contain both the exons and the introns and are non-
the structural gene in a transcription unit is called as functional.
monocistronic (mostly in eukaryotes) or polycistronic Hence, it is subjected to a process called splicing
(mostly in bacteria or prokaryotes).eukaryotes, the where the introns are removed and exons are joined
structural genes have interrupted coding sequences – together
the genes in eukaryotes are split. The coding hnRNA undergo two additional processing called as
sequences are exons. The exons are interrupted by capping and tailing.
introns. In capping an methyl guanosine triphosphate is
added to the 5’-end of hnRNA.
In tailing, adenylate residues (200-300) are added at
Types of RNA and the process of Transcription:
3′-end in a template.
In bacteria, there are three major types of RNAs:
It is the fully processed hnRNA, called as mRNA that
 mRNA (messenger RNA)
is transported out of the nucleus for translation.
 tRNA (transfer RNA), and
Genetic Code
 rRNA (ribosomal RNA).
The process of translation requires transfer of
All three RNAs are needed to synthesise a protein in
genetic information from a polymer of nucleotides to
a cell. The mRNA provides the template, tRNA brings
a polymer of amino acids.
aminoacids and reads the genetic code, and RNAs
For this, George Gamow, who proposed only 4 bases
play structural and catalytic role during translation
they have to code for 20 amino acids, the code should
DNA- dependent RNA polymerase that catalyses
constitute a combination of bases.
transcription of all types of RNA in bacteria. RNA
The code should be made up of three nucleotides
polymerase binds to promoter and initiates
(triplet) and in various combination would generate 64
transcription (Initiation). It uses nucleoside
codons.
triphosphates as substrate, polymerizes in a template,

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The salient features of genetic code are: The activation of amino acids with ATP and linked to
(i) The codon is triplet. 61 codons code for amino tRNA- a process commonly called as charging of
acids and 3 codons do not code for any amino acids, tRNA or aminoacylation of tRNA. If two such charged
hence they function as stop codons. tRNAs are brought close together the peptide bond is
(ii) One codon codes for only one amino acid, hence, formed.
it is unambiguous and specific. The ribosome also acts as a catalyst for the formation
(iii) Some amino acids are coded by more than one of peptide bond.
codon, hence the code is degenerate. The ribosome consists two subunits; a large subunit
(iv) The codon is read in mRNA in a contiguous and a small subunit. For initiation, the ribosome binds
fashion. There are no punctuations. to the mRNA at the start codon (AUG) that is
(v) code is nearly universal: for example, from recognised only by the initatior t-RNA
bacteria to human UUU would code for
Phenylalanine (phe). Some exceptions to this rule
have been found in mitochondrial codons, and in
someprotozoans.
(vi) AUG has dual functions. It codes for Methionine
(met), and it also act as initiator codon.
Mutations and Genetic Code:
Deletions and rearrangements in a segment of DNA
result in loss or gain of a gene function.
Example of point mutation is a change of single base
pair in the gape for beta globin chain that results in the
change of amino acid Glutamic acid to valine. It results In elongation , amino acid linked to tRNA, and bind to
sickle cell anemia.Insertion or deletion of one or two the codon in mRNA by forming complementary base
bases, changes the reading frame from the point of pairs with the tRNA anticodon. The ribosome moves
insertion or deletion. Such mutations are referred to as from codon to codon along the mRNA.
frame-shift insertion or deletion mutations.
tRNA- the Adapter Molecule:
Amino acids are added one by one and translated into
Francis Crick proposed that an adapter molecule
Polypeptide. At the end, a release factor binds to the
would bind to specific amino acids. tRNA has an
stop codon,terminating translation and releasing the
anticodon loop and an amino acid accepter end to
complete polypeptide from the ribosome.
which it binds to amino acids. tRNAs are specific for
each amino acid.
Regulation Of Gene Expression
The Lac operon:
In eukaryotes, the regulation is possible in
1. transcriptional level (formation of primary
transcript),
2. processing level (regulation of splicing),
3. transport of mRNA from nucleus to the
cytoplasm,
4. translational level.

1. The Lac operon:

Translation
The function of lac operon was first shown by Jacob
Translation is the process of polymerisation of amino
and Monod.
acids to form a polypeptide. The order and sequence
In lac operon the structural gene is regulated by a
of amino acids are defined by the sequence of bases
promoter and regulatory genes. Such arrangement in
in the mRNA. The amino acids are joined by a bond
bacteria is called as operon.Other examples are trp
which is known as a peptide bond. Formation of a
operon, arg operon his operon, val operon, etc.
peptide bond requires energy.

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of each piece of DNA fragment so that it could be

sequenced with ease.
The commonly used hosts are bacteria and yeast, and
the vectors are called as BAC (bacterial artificial
chromosomes), and YAC (yeast artificial
chromosomes). The fragments are sequenced using
automated DNA sequencers that was developed by
Frederick Sanger.
Salient Features of Human Genome:
(i) The human genome contains 3164.7 million
The lac operon consists of one regulatory gene (i nucleotide bases.
gene) and three structural genes (z, y, and a).The i (ii) The average gene consists of 3000 bases. The
gene codes for the repressor of the lac operon. largest known human gene is dystrophin consist of
The z gene codes for beta-galactosidase. 2.4 million bases.
The y gene codes for permease, which increases (iii) The total number of genes is estimated at 30,000.
permeability of the celt to beta galactosides. The 99.9 per cent nucleotide bases are the same in
The a gene codes for transacetylase. all people.
(iv) The functions are unknown for over 50 per cent
Hence, all the three gene products in lac operon are of discovered genes.
required for metabolism of lactose. Lactose (inducer) (v) Less than 2 percent of the genome codes for
is the substrate for the enzyme beta-galactosidase proteins.
and it regulates switching on and off of the operon. (vi) Repeated sequences make up very large portion
In the presence of an inducer, such as lactose, the of the human genome.
repressor is inactivated by the inducer. Then RNA (vii) Chromosome 1 has most genes (2968), and the
polymerase bind to the promoter and transcription Y has the fewest (231)
proceeds. Regulation of lac operon by repressor is DNA Fingerprinting
referred to as negative regulation. It is used to find the similarities and variations of
DNA molecules in different individuals
Human Genome Project The technique of DNA Fingerprinting was initially
This is mainly aims to find out the complete DNA developed by Alec Jeffreys. He used a satellite
sequence of human genome If two individuals differ, DNA as probe. It is called as Variable Number of
then their DNA sequences should also be different, Tandem Repeats (VNTR).
at least at some places. The technique, is based on Southern blot
Human Genome Project was launched in the year
hybridisation using radiolabeled VNTR as probe.
1990 (HGP). Human genome consists of
It involves
approximately 3 × 109 bp.
1. isolation of DNA,
Goals of HGP
2. digestion of DNA by restriction endonucleases,
(i) Identify 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA;
3. separation of DNA fragments by electrophoresis,
(ii) Determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical
4. transferring (blotting) of separated DNA
base pairs.
fragments to synthetic membranes, such as
(iii) Store this information in databases;
nitrocellulose or nylon,
(iv) Improve tools for data analysis;
5. hybridization using labelled VNTR probe, and
(v) Transfer related technologies to other sectors,
6. Detection of hybridized DNA fragments by
such as industries;
autoradiography.
(vi) Address the ethical, legal, and social issues
Applications
(ELSI) that may arise from the project. The project
1. To identify criminals.
was completed in 2003.
2. To determine the real parents in case of
Methodologies:
disputes.
the total DNA from a cell is cloned in suitable host
3. Evolutionary study
using vectors. The cloning resulted into amplification

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5. EVOLUTION
Origin of Life that existed millions of years ago. There has been
In the solar system, earth was originated 4.5 billion gradual evolution of life forms.
years back. There was no atmosphere on early Evidences of Evolution
earth.Water vapour, methane, carbondioxide and Evidence of evolution of life comes from fossils that
ammonia are found on the surface found in sedimentary rocks. This type of evidence is
called paleontological evidence.
The UV rays from the sun broke up water into Analyzing the comparative anatomy and
Hydrogen and Oxygen. Oxygen combined with morphology, shows similarities and differences
ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 and among organisms of today and those that existed
others. years ago.
Oparin and Haldane proposed that the first form of
life that arose from pre-existing non-living organic
molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) and it is followed
by chemical evolution.

In 1953, S.L. Miller, an American scientist created

similar conditions in a laboratory He created electric
discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, H2, NH3 Example of homologous organs in (a) Plants and
and water vapaur at 800°C. He observed the (b) Animals:
formation of amino acids.

The first non-cellular forms of life could have

originated 3 billion years back i.e RNA, Protein,
Polysaccharides, etc…

Later the first cellular forms (single-celled) were

originated. These were occurred in water
environment only. For example whales, bats, Cheetah and human
share similarities in the pattern of bones of forelimbs
Diagrammatic Representation of Miller’s (similar anatomical structure). The same structure
Experiment: developed along different directions due to
adaptions to different needs. So they have different
functions.These structures are homologous. This
type of evolution is called divergent evolution. Other
examples are vertebrate hearts or brains and the
thorn and tendrils of Bougainvillea.

Wings of butterfly and of birds anatomically

dissimilar but they perform similar functions. These
are analogous structures arise due to convergent
evolution.

Other examples are the eye of the octopus and of

Evolution Of Life Forms – A Theory mammals or the flippers of Penguins and Dolphins:
Charles Darwin has conducted a voyage ship called Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem
H.M.S. Beagle round the world and reach the modification)etc.
conclusion that existing living forms share similarities
not only among themselves but also with life forms

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Another evidence supporting evolution is industrial their necks. As they passed on this acquired
melanism Before industrialisation there are more character of elongated neck to succeeding
white-winged moths on trees than dark-winged. generations.
Natural selection lead to the stabilization
1. Stabilizing selection
2. Directional selection
3. Disruptive selection

This is due to white-coloured lichen covered the

trees – in that background the white winged moth
survived But after industrialisation, there were more
dark-winged moths in the same area because the
tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and
soots.
Under this condition the white-winged moth did not
survive due to predators, dark-winged or melanised
moth survived.
Adaptive Radiation
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
In this, the small black birds -Darwin’s Finches are
According to Hardy-Weinberg principle allele
examples. Darwin found that there were many
frequencies in a population are stable and is
varieties of finches in the same island.
constant from generation to generation. This is
called genetic equilibrium. Sum total of all the allelic
Their original seed-eating features are changed and frequencies is 1.
become insectivorous and Variety of beaks of For example, p and q represent the frequency of
finches that Darwin found in Galapagos Island allele A and allele a. The frequency of AA individuals
vegetarian finches. The evolution starting from a in a population is simply p2. The frequency of p
point and radiating to other areas of geography appear on both the chromosomes of a diploid
(habitats) is called adaptive radiation. individual, Similarly of aa is q2, and of Aa is
2pq.Hence, p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1. This is a binomial
Another example is Australian marsupials. A number expansion of (p+q)2.
of different marsupials evolved from an ancestral
stock within the Australian island. Factors affectding hardy Weinberg equilibrium are
gene migration or gene flow, genetic drift, mutation,
Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive
radiation ie they evolved into varieties (e.g., genetic recombination and natural selection.
Placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf marsupial). Sometimes the change in allele frequency is different
The importance of Darwinian theory of evolution lies in the new sample of population that they become a
in natural selection.
different species. The original drifted population

Branching descent and natural selection are the two becomes founders and the effect is called founder
key concepts of Darwinian Theory of Evolution effect.
Before Darwin, Lamarck proposed the use and
disuse of organs.
Examples of Giraffes who in an attempt to forage
leaves on tall trees had to adapt by elongation of

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Origin and Evolution of Man

Stages Characters Years before lived

Dryopithecus More ape like 15mya

Ramapithecus Man like 15 mya

Australopithecus Hunted with stone weapons, ate fruit. 2 mya

Homo habilis
Did not eat meat, 650-800cc brain capacity 1.5 mya

Homoerectus Ate meat ,900cc brain capacity 1.4 mya

Neanderthal man Used hides to protect their body, buried their dead,1400cc 1,00,000-40,000years
Homo sapiens 75,000-10,000
(Modern man) years ago

6 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

Common Diseases In Humans
The major disease-causing organisms( pathogens) are bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, helminths, etc.

Symptoms
Disease Pathogen Group Mode of Transmission
High fever, weakness, stomach
pain, constipation, headache and
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Bacterium Contaminated food and water loss of appetite Confirmed by Widal
test

Fever, chills, cough, headache, the

Streptococcus
Inhaling droplet from patients, lips and finger nails turn gray to
Pneumonia pneumoniae and Bacterium
sharing objects bluish colour
Haemophilus influenza

Inhaling droplet from patients, Nasal congestion and discharge,

Common cold Rhinovirus Virus sharing objects sore throat, hoarseness, cough,

Haemozoin toxin causes chill and

female anopheles mosquito high fever for three to four days.
Malaria Plasmodium sp Protozoa

Constipation, abdominal pain and

Amoebiasis House flies, Drinking water
cramps, stools with excess mucous
(amoebic Entamoeba histolytica Protozoan and food contaminated by the
and blood clots
dysentery) faecal matter
Internal bleeding, muscular pain,
Drinking water and food
fever, anemia and blockage of the
Ascariasis Ascaris Helminths contaminated by the faecal
intestinal passage
matter
The swelling of the lymphatic
Elephantiasis Wuchereria (W. bancrofit
Helminths Female culex mosquito vessels of the lower limbs
(filariasis) and W. malayi)
From soil or by using towels, Dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails and
Microsporum, clothes or even the comb of
Ring worm Fungus scalp, etc. These lesions
Trichophyton and infected individuals
infection accompanied by intense itching.
Epidermophyton

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Immunity
It is the ability of the host to fight the disease
causing organisms
Immunity is of two types:
Innate immunity and
Acquired immunity.
1. Innate Immunity:
It is the non-specific type of defense, that is present
at the time of birth. Innate immunity consist of four
types of barriers.
(i) Physical barriers:
Skin is the main barrier which prevents entry ofthe
micro-organisms. Mucus coating of the epithelium Another type of immune response is called cell-
lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital mediated immunity (CMI) Eg-T-lymphocytes
tracts also help in trapping microbes entering our After the transplantation of heart, eye, liver and
body. kidney, the place of grafts shows rejection if not
(ii) Physiological barriers: confirming matching of tissues and blood group.
Here the cell-mediated immune response is
Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from responsible for the graft rejection.
eyes prevent the microbial growth.
(iii) Cellular barriers: 3. Active and Passive Immunity:
The leukocytes (WBC) like polymorpho-nuclear When the antigens are coming in the form of living
or dead microbes or other proteins, the body of
leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils) and monocytes in organism produce antibodies .This type of immunity
the blood as well as macrophages in tissues can is called active immunity.
phagocytose and destroy microbes. When ready-made antibodies are directly injected to
protect the body against foreign agents, it is called
(iv) Cytokine barriers:
passive immunity.
Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called
Examples of passive immunity:
interferons which protect non-infected cells from
Initial days of lactation, the yellowish fluid colostrum
further viral infection.
secreted by the mother contain antibodies. (IgA).
2. Acquired Immunity:
Foetus get the antibodies from mother through the
It is pathogen-specific and based on memory. The
placenta during pregnancy.
Antigen binding site body meets a pathogen for the
Vaccination and Immunisation:
first time produces a response called primary
response. If the same pathogen attacks second In vaccination, antigenic proteins of pathogen or
time, it possess the memory of the first inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) are
encounter.The primary and secondary immune introduced into the body.
responses are carried out by B-lymphocytes and T-
lymphocytes. in the blood. The vaccines produce memory – B and T-cells that
The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins recognize the pathogen quickly on subsequent
they are called antibodies. But the T-cells do not exposure In the case of snakebites, the injection
secrete Heavy chain antibodies.
which is given to the patients, contain preformed
Each antibody molecule has four peptide chains,
two small called light chains, and two longer called antibodies against the snake venom. This type of
heavy chains. Antibody is represented as H2L2. immunization is called passive immunization.
Different types of antibodies:
Recombinant DNA technology is helpful in the large
IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgG. The response of these
antibodies are called as humoral immune response. scale production vaccines for immunization, e.g.,
hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.

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Allergies: Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible

The response of the immune system to certain for the activation of lymphocytes and cause the
antigens present in the environment is called allergy. immune response.
It is due to the release of chemicals like histamine Lymphoid tissue found in lining of the respiratory,
and serotonin from the mast cells The antibodies digestive and urogenita. tracts are called mucosal
produced to these are of IgE type. associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).
It constitutes about 50 per cent of the lymphoid tissue
Symptoms of allergic reactions are sneezing, watery in human body.
eyes, running nose and difficulty in breathing. The AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)
use of drugs like anti-histamine, adrenalin and AIDS was first reported in 1981 and caused by the
steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy. Human Immuno deficiency Virus (HIV), It is the
category of retrovirus, which possess RNA genome.
Auto Immunity: Transmission of HIV-infection occurs by
It is the memory-based immune response that have (a) Sexual contact with infected person,
the ability to differentiate foreign organisms from (b) By transfusion of contaminated blood and
self cells. bloodproducts,
(c) by sharing infected needles as in the case of
In some cases the body attacks self-cells. This
results in damage to the body and is called auto- intravenous drug abusers
immune disease. Eg-Rheumatoid arthritis. (d) from infected mother to her child through
placenta.
Immune System in the Body:
Infected cell can survive while viruses are being
The human immune system consists of lymphoid
organs, tissues, cells and antibodies. It plays an replicated and released. When the virus enters into
important role in allergic reactions, auto-immune macrophages, the RNA genome of the virus
diseases and organ transplantation.
replicates to form viral DNA with the help of the
enzyme reverse transcriptase. This viral DNA
Lymphoid organs:
These are the organs where origin / maturation and Retrovirus gets incorporated into host cell’s DNA
proliferation of lymphocytes occur. The primary and produce virus particles.
lymphoid organs are bone marrow and thymus
HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes, replicates and
where immature lymphocytes differentiate.
produce progeny viruses. The progeny viruses
After maturation the lymphocytes migrate to released in the blood attack other helper T-
secondary lymphoid organs like spleen, lymph lymphocytes. The patient becomes immuno-
nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of small intestine and
deficient.
appendix The secondary lymphoid organs are the
sites for interaction of lymphocytes with the antigen, Due to the decrease in the number of helper T
which then proliferate to become effector cells. lymphocytes, the person starts suffering from
infections by bacteria especially Mycobacterium,
The thymus organ is large at the time of birth but
viruses, fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma.
reducing in size with age Both bone-marrow and
thymus provide micro-environments for the A widely used diagnostic test for AIDS is enzyme
development and maturation of T-lymphocytes. linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA).
The spleen is the reservoir of erythrocytes and Prevention of AIDS:
contains lymphocytes ant phagocytes. It helps to In our country the National AIDS Control
filter the blood-borne microorganisms. Organisation (NACO) and other non-governmental
The lymph nodes are small solid structures helps to organisation (NGOs) educates people about AIDS.
trap the micro-organism: or other antigens. .

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Cancer cancers are treated by combination of surgery,

In our body, cell growth and differentiation is highly radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
controlled and regulated. In cancer cells, there is
breakdown of these regulatory mechanisms. Tumor cells causes the destruction of immune
Normal cells show a property called contact system. Therefore, the patients are given
inhibition -inhibits the uncontrolled growth of cells. substances called interferon which activate their
But the cancer cells lost this property and give rise to immune system and help in destroying the tumor.
masses of cells called tumors.
Tumors are of two types: benign and malignant Drugs And Alcohol Abuse
Benign tumors seen in specific location and do not The drugs, which are commonly abused are
spread to other parts of the body. opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids.
Malignant tumors are a mass of proliferating cells
called neoplastic or tumor cells. These cells actively
Opioids are the drugs, its receptors present in our
divide, grow and starve the normal cells by
central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract.
competing for vital nutrients. Cells from such tumors
Heroin (smack) the depressant, is chemically
reach distant sites through blood. This is called
diacetylmorphine which is a white, odourless, bitter
metastasis.
crystalline compound.
Causes of cancer:
It is due to physical, chemical or biological agents
are called carcinogens. Ionising radiations like X- It is prepared by the acetylation of morphine which is
rays and gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations extracted from the latex of poppy plant Papaver
like UV cause DNA damage leading to neoplastic somniferum.
transformation.
Cannabinoids are a group of chemicals, its
Oncogenic viruses have genes called viral receptors present in the brain. It is obtained from
oncogenes. These viruses cause the conversion Cannabis sativa.
proto oncogenes into oncogenic transformation of
the cells. The flower tops, leaves and resin are used to
produce marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja.
Cancer detection and diagnosis:
Cancer detection is based on biopsy and histo cocaine (coke or crack) is obtained from coca plant
pathological studies of the tissue, blood and bone Erythroxylum coca, native to South America. It
marrow. affects the transport of the neuro-transmitter
dopamine.
Techniques like radiography (use of X-rays), CT
(computed tomography) and MRI (magnetic It has a stimulating action on central nervous system,
resonance imaging) are very useful to detect producing a sense of euphoria and increased
cancers of the internal organs.Early detection of energy. Excessive dosage of cocaine causes
genes is very helpful in the prevention of cancers. hallucinations.
Such individuals are advised to avoid exposure to
particular carcinogens to which they are susceptible Some plants plants with hallucinogenic properties
(e.g., tobacco smoke in case of lung cancer). are Atropa belladona and Datura cannabinoids are
abused by some sportspersons.

Treatment of cancer: Drugs -barbiturates, amphetamines,

In radiotherapy tumor cells are irradiated without benzodiazepines, and lysergic acid diethyl amides
damaging the normal tissues. Chemotherapeutic (LSD) used to treat mental illnesses like
drugs are used to kill cancerous cells. Some of depression and insomnia
these are specific for particular tumors. Most

232
3. a. Chemicals
 Aspergillus niger(a fungus)- citric acid
 Acetobacter aceti(a bacterium) – acetic acid
 Clostridium butylicum (a bacterium)- butyric
acid
 Lactobacillus (a bacterium)- lactic acid
 Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)- ethanol
3. b. Enzymes
This treatment is continued till the BOD is reduced.
After reducing the BOD, the effluent is passed into a
settling tank where the bacterial ‘floes’ are allowed to
sediment. This sediment is called activated sludge.

A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back

into the aeration tank to.serve as the inoculum. The
remaining major part of the sludge is pumped into
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Lipases: large tanks called anaerobic sludge digesters. Here
They are used in detergent, helpful in removing oily
the bacteria and the fungi are digested. This process
stains from the laundry.
releases gases such as methane, hydrogen sulphide
 Proteases and carbon dioxide.
 Pectinases :
Used to clear fruit juices These gases form biogas and used as source of
3.c. Bioactive molecules energy Later the effluent is released into natural
Bioactive Source Uses water bodies like rivers and streams.
molecules
Streptokinase Streptococcus clot buster The Ministry of Environment and Forests has
initiated Ganga Action Plan and Yamuna Action Plan
Cyclosporin Trichoderma Immunosuppressive to save these major rivers of our country from
A polysporum agent pollution.

Statins Monascus Cholesterol

Microbes In Production Of Biogas
purpureus lowering agent Bacteria which grow anaerobically on cellulosic
material, produce large amount of methane along
with CO2 and H2. They are called as methanogens.
Microbes in Sewage Treatment
eg Methanobacterium.
The wastewater generated in cities and towns are
treated in sewage treatment plants (STPs). It is
done by two stages. These bacteria are commonly found in the anaerobic
sludge during sewage treatment and in the rumen (a
part of stomach) of cattle.
Primary treatment:
It is the removal of large and small particles from
the sewage through filtration and sedimentation.; The excreta (dung) of cattle is rich in these bacteria.
Initially, floating debris is removed by sequential It is used for generation of biogas, commonly called
filtration. Then the grit (soil and small pebbles) are gobar gas.
removed by sedimentation. All solids that settle The slurry is used as fertiliser.
form the primary sludge, and the supernatant forms The biogas is used for cooking and lighting.
the effluent. The technology of biogas production was developed
in India by the joint efforts of Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI) and Khadi and Village
Secondary treatment or Biological treatment:
Industries Commission (KVIC).
The primary effluent is passed into large aeration
Microbes As Biocontrol Agents
tanks that is agitated and air is pumped into it. It
1. The Ladybird, and Dragonflies are useful to
results the vigorous growth of useful aerobic
eliminate aphids and mosquitoes, respectively.
microbes into floes (bacteria associated with fungal
2. Bacillus thuringiensis is used to control butterfly
filaments forms mesh like structures).
caterpillars is an example of microbial biocontrol.
3. Trichoderma species are free-living fungi are
The growing microbes consume the organic matter
effective bio control agents of several plant
in the effluent. It reduces the BOD (biochemical
pathogens.
oxygen demand) of the effluent.

Morphine, sedative and painkiller is very useful in school/college, lack of interest in personal hygiene,
patients who have undergone surgery. withdrawal, isolation, depression, fatigue,
It raise blood pressure and increase heart rate aggressive behavior, deteriorating relationships with
Tobacco, stimulates adrenal gland to release family and friends, loss of interest in hobbies,
adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood circulation. change in sleeping and eating habits, fluctuations in
Tobacco chewing increases the risk of cancer of the weight, appetite, etc.
oral cavity. Smoking also causes cancers of lung It also cause of mental and financial distress to the
throat,emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric family and friends. The direct injection into the vein
ulcer, etc. results the infections like AIDS and hepatitis B.
1. Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol Abuse:
Adolescence is the period between 12-18 years of The side-effects steroids in females include
age. Adolescence is accompanied by several masculinization, increased aggressiveness, mood
biological and behavioural changes. swings, depression, abnormal menstrual cycles,
The first use of drugs or alcohol increase the excessive hair growth on the face and body,
curiosity or experimentation, but later the child starts enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice
using these to escape facing problems In males it includes acne, increased aggressiveness,
mood swings, depression, reduction of size of the
2. Addiction and Dependence: testicles, decreased sperm production, potential for
If the repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of kidney and liver dysfunction, breast enlargement,
the receptors present in our body increases. So the premature baldness, enlargement of the prostate
receptors respond only to higher doses of drugs or gland.
alcohol leading to greater intake and addiction. 4. Prevention and Control:
Thus, it leads to their regular use (abuse). 1. Avoid undue peer pressure-
If it is abruptly discontinued , the person shows
2. Education and counselling
withdrawal syndrome. This is characterised by
anxiety, nausea and sweating, etc. 3. Seeking help from parents and peers
3. Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse: 4. Looking for danger signs.
In youth its symptoms are drop in academic 5. Seeking professional and medical help
performance, unexplained absence from

7. MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE

Microbes In Household Products 1. Fermented Beverages:
Yeasts ( brewer’s yeast-Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
is used for the production of beverages like wine,
beer, whisky, brandy or rum.

Wine and beer are produced without distillation

Whisky, brandy and rum are produced by distillation
of the fermented broth.

2. Antibiotics:
Penicilin-Penicilium
Streptomycin- Streptomyces
Microbes In Industrial Products Tetracyclin – Streptomyces
Microbes are used to synthesise a number of Cephalosporin - Acromonium
products such as beverages and antibiotics. These
are produced in large scale by using large vessels
called fermentors.

233
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3. a. Chemicals This treatment is continued till the BOD is reduced.

 Aspergillus niger(a fungus)- citric acid After reducing the BOD, the effluent is passed into a
 Acetobacter aceti(a bacterium) – acetic acid settling tank where the bacterial ‘floes’ are allowed to
 Clostridium butylicum (a bacterium)- butyric sediment. This sediment is called activated sludge.
acid
 Lactobacillus (a bacterium)- lactic acid A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back
 Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)- ethanol into the aeration tank to.serve as the inoculum. The
3. b. Enzymes remaining major part of the sludge is pumped into
Lipases: large tanks called anaerobic sludge digesters. Here
They are used in detergent, helpful in removing oily
the bacteria and the fungi are digested. This process
stains from the laundry.
releases gases such as methane, hydrogen sulphide
 Proteases and carbon dioxide.
 Pectinases :
Used to clear fruit juices These gases form biogas and used as source of
3.c. Bioactive molecules energy Later the effluent is released into natural
Bioactive Source Uses water bodies like rivers and streams.
molecules
Streptokinase Streptococcus clot buster The Ministry of Environment and Forests has
initiated Ganga Action Plan and Yamuna Action Plan
Cyclosporin Trichoderma Immunosuppressive to save these major rivers of our country from
A polysporum agent pollution.

Statins Monascus Cholesterol

Microbes In Production Of Biogas
purpureus lowering agent Bacteria which grow anaerobically on cellulosic
material, produce large amount of methane along
with CO2 and H2. They are called as methanogens.
Microbes in Sewage Treatment
eg Methanobacterium.
The wastewater generated in cities and towns are
treated in sewage treatment plants (STPs). It is
done by two stages. These bacteria are commonly found in the anaerobic
sludge during sewage treatment and in the rumen (a
part of stomach) of cattle.
Primary treatment:
It is the removal of large and small particles from
the sewage through filtration and sedimentation.; The excreta (dung) of cattle is rich in these bacteria.
Initially, floating debris is removed by sequential It is used for generation of biogas, commonly called
filtration. Then the grit (soil and small pebbles) are gobar gas.
removed by sedimentation. All solids that settle The slurry is used as fertiliser.
form the primary sludge, and the supernatant forms The biogas is used for cooking and lighting.
the effluent. The technology of biogas production was developed
in India by the joint efforts of Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI) and Khadi and Village
Secondary treatment or Biological treatment:
Industries Commission (KVIC).
The primary effluent is passed into large aeration
Microbes As Biocontrol Agents
tanks that is agitated and air is pumped into it. It
1. The Ladybird, and Dragonflies are useful to
results the vigorous growth of useful aerobic
eliminate aphids and mosquitoes, respectively.
microbes into floes (bacteria associated with fungal
2. Bacillus thuringiensis is used to control butterfly
filaments forms mesh like structures).
caterpillars is an example of microbial biocontrol.
3. Trichoderma species are free-living fungi are
The growing microbes consume the organic matter
effective bio control agents of several plant
in the effluent. It reduces the BOD (biochemical
pathogens.
oxygen demand) of the effluent.

234
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3. The importance of Species Diversity to the (iv) Co-extinctions:

Ecosystem: If two species are in obligatory relationship the
The communities with more species are more extinction of one species affect the other. Eg-
stable than those with less species. The stable coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where
community shows much variation in productivity extinction of one species leads to the extinction of
from year to year; they are resistant to the other.
disturbances and spreading of foreign species. Biodiversity conservation
Reasons for bio diversity conservtion
David Tilman found that plots with more species It is mainly based on three concepts narrowly
showed less year-to-year variation in total utilitarian, broadly utilitarian, and ethical.
biomass. He also showed that increased diversity (1) Narrowly utilitarian:
leads to higher productivity. The rich biodiversity is Humans get economic benefits from nature food
not only for ecosystem health but helpful to the (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fibre,
survival of the human race. construction material, industrial products (tannins,
4. Loss of Biodiversity: lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes) and products
The IUCN Red List (2004) included 784 species of medicinal importance.
undergoes extinction. (2) Broadly utilitarian:
Including 338 vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and Biodiversity plays a major role in ecosystem
87 plants. services . Amazon forest is through
Some examples are the dodo (Mauritius), photosynthesis produce 20 per cent of the total
quagga(Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller’s oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere.
Sea Cow (Russia) and three subspecies (Bali, Pollination is another ecosystems service by bees,
Javan, Caspian) of tiger. bumblebees, birds and bats. Nature provides
Causes of biodiversity losses: It is mainly due aesthetic pleasures
to human activities. (3) Ethical:
The four major causes are called as “evil quartet” Every species has an intrinsic value so they are
(i) Habitat loss and fragmentation: conserved for future generations.
The degradation of many habitats by pollution Conservation of Bio diversity:
affects the survival of many species. It results It is through in situ (on site) conservation and ex
large habitats are broken up into small fragments. situ (off site) conservation.
So the mammals and birds requiring large areas In situ conservation:
are affected, it leads to the reduction in Some areas of country are identified as
population. ‘biodiversity hotspots’ These region shows high
(ii) Over-exploitation: species richness and high degree of endemism.
It leads to the over-exploitation of natural In world the total number of biodiversity hotspots
resources. For example the extinction of Steller’s is 34. In India biodiversity hot spot identified as
sea cow, passenger pigeon was due to humans. western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and
The overexploitation of marine fish populations Himalaya. In India, biodiversity-rich regions are
leads to the reduction of commercially important protected as biosphere reserves, national parks
species. and sanctuaries.
(iii) Alien species invasions: Ex-situ Conservation:
The introduction of foreign species cause the It is the conservation of threatened animals and
reduction or extinction of indigenous species. The plants outside their natural habitat. Examples are
Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Zoological parks, botanical gardens and wildlife
Africa led to the extinction of more than 200 safari parks. cryopreservation techniques. In this
species of cichlid fish in the lake. technique, fertilized eggs, embryos, seeds etc are
Introduction of African catfish Clarias gariepinus also stored.
for aquaculture purposes is a threat to the In the Convention on Biological Diversity (The
indigenous catfishes in river. Earth Summit’) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992,
nations taken measures for conservation of
biodiversity and its sustainable utilization.

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4. Baculoviruses are pathogens that attack insects living in the soil) enriching the nitrogen content of
and other arthropods. the soil.
5. The genus Nucleopolyhedrovirus are species- 2. Fungi form symbiotic associations with plants
specific and have narrow spectrum insecticidal (mycorrhiza). The genus Glomus form mycorrhiza.
applications The fungal symbiont absorbs phosphorus from soil
This is better in the area having beneficial insects and passes it to the plant. In addition to these plants
that are coming under integrated pest management are resistance to root-borne pathogens, tolerance to
(IPM) programme. salinity and drought, and an overall increase in plant
Microbes As Biofertilisers growth and development.
1. The root nodules of leguminous plants have the 3. Cyanobacteria which can fix atmospheric
symbiotic association of Rhizobium. These bacteria nitrogen, eg. Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, etc. In
fix atmospheric nitrogen, which is used by the plant paddy fields, cyanobacteria serve as an important
as nutrient. Other bacteria can fix atmospheric biofertiliser. These add organic matter to the soil and
nitrogen eg- Azospirillum and Azotobacter( free- increase its fertility.

8. BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

Biodiversity: (a) Temperate regions subjected to frequent
Diversity among living things glaciations in the past but the tropics undisturbed
Edward Wilson has described biodiversity for millions of years, so in tropics evolution leads
(i) Genetic diversity: to species diversification.
It is diversity at the genetic level. For example the (b) Tropical environments are less seasonal,
Rauwolfia vomitoria growing in different constant, and predictable. Such constant
Himalayan ranges shows the genetic variation i.e environments promote niche specialisation and
due to the concentration of the active chemical lead to a greater species diversity.
(reserpine) that the plant produces. (c) The availability of more solar energy in the
(ii) Species diversity: tropics causes higher productivity, so it leads to
It is the diversity at the species level. For greater diversity.
example, the Western Ghats have a greater (ii) Species-Area relationships:
amphibian species diversity than the Eastern German naturalist and geographer, Alexander
Ghats. von Humboldt observed that relation between
(iii) Ecological diversity: species richness and area to be a rectangular
It is diversity at the ecosystem level. For hyperbola. It is a straight line in logarithmic-spate.
example, the different type of ecosystems within The relationship is given below as equation.
India are deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral
reefs, wetlands, estuaries.
Indian land area occupies 2.4 per cent of the
world’s land area and possess 8.1 per cent of
global species diversity. So India is the one of the
12 mega diversity countries of the world.
Nearly 45,000 species of plants and twice as many
of animals have been recorded from India.

Latitudinal gradients: log S = log C + Z log A whereS = Species richness

The species diversity decreases from the equator A = Area Z = slope of the line (regression
towards the poles. Tropics (latitudinal range of coefficient) C = Y-intercept The value of Z lies in
23.5° N to 23.5° S) have more species than the range of 0.1 to 0.2, But, the species-area
temperate or polar areas. relationships among large areas like continents,
The reason for the greatest biodiversity in tropics the slope of the line to be much steeper.

236