4.

1 Biological Molecules
Topics
Biological Molecules

Biological molecules are complex molecules essential for life, including carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids, that serve various functions within living organisms.

Carbohydrates provide energy and structure.

Lipids are important for energy storage and cell membrane structure.
Proteins are involved in various cellular functions and act as enzymes.
Nucleic acids carry genetic information and are key for protein synthesis.

DNA Structure

DNA Structure refers to the double helix shape of DNA, composed of two antiparallel strands
made up of nucleotides, containing a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases.

Each strand of DNA is complementary to the other, with adenine pairing with thymine and
cytosine pairing with guanine.
The hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases hold the two strands of DNA together.
The sugar-phosphate backbone provides stability and protects the genetic information.
The structure of DNA allows for replication and makes it the carrier of genetic information.

Food tests

Food tests are scientific methods used to determine the presence or absence of specific
nutrients or substances in a food sample.

These tests involve using indicators that change color based on the chemical properties of
the nutrient being tested.
Common tests include the Benedict's test for sugars, the iodine test for starch, and the Biuret
test for proteins.
Food tests are essential in assessing the nutritional value of foods and ensuring dietary
requirements are met.
Interpreting test results accurately requires understanding how different nutrients react with
specific chemical indicators.

Key Terms
Amino acids
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, consisting of an amino group, a carboxyl group,
and a side chain. They are essential for many cellular functions.

Amino acids are classified into essential and nonessential types based on whether the body
can produce them or they need to be obtained from the diet.
The side chain, or R-group, of an amino acid determines its chemical properties and can be
polar, nonpolar, or charged.
Amino acids can be linked together through peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains, which
then fold into specific protein structures.
The sequence and arrangement of amino acids in a protein determines its unique structure
and function, such as enzyme activity or receptor binding.

Benedict's solution

Benedict's solution is a chemical reagent used to test for the presence of reducing sugars. It
changes color from blue to green, yellow, orange, or red depending on sugar concentration.

The solution contains copper sulfate and citric acid.

A positive test result forms a precipitate of copper(I) oxide.
It is commonly used to test for sugars like glucose and fructose.
The intensity of color change correlates with the amount of reducing sugar present.

Biuret Solution

Biuret solution is a blue-colored chemical indicator used to test for the presence of proteins by
forming a purple color when proteins are present.

It is commonly used in laboratory experiments to detect the presence of proteins in solutions.

It reacts with peptide bonds in proteins, causing the color change.
The intensity of the purple color can indicate the concentration or amount of proteins
present.
If the solution remains blue after adding biuret solution, it indicates the absence of proteins.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They
serve as a primary energy source and are found in foods like bread, rice, and fruits.

Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides based

on the number of sugar units they contain.
Glucose, fructose, and galactose are examples of monosaccharides.
Lactose, sucrose, and maltose are examples of disaccharides.
Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides.
DCPIP

DCPIP is a chemical compound used as an artificial electron acceptor in redox titrations. It

appears blue when oxidized and colorless when reduced.

DCPIP stands for 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol, a dye that changes color based on its redox
state.
It is commonly used in biochemical assays to measure the activity of enzymes that produce
electrons.
DCPIP is often employed in educational settings to demonstrate redox reactions in
photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
The chemical can be toxic and should be handled with care, following proper safety
precautions.

Disaccharide

A disaccharide is a type of carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharide units joined together

through a glycosidic bond.

Common examples of disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Disaccharides are formed through condensation reactions, where a molecule of water is
released.
Enzymes called disaccharidases are needed to break down disaccharides into individual
monosaccharide units.
Disaccharides serve as an important source of energy in the body and are found in foods like
sugar, milk, and grains.

Double helix

The double helix is the structure of DNA, consisting of two strands that are linked together by
hydrogen bonds and twisted into a spiral shape.

The double helix was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.
The double helix shape allows DNA to be tightly packed into chromosomes.
The double helix structure allows for DNA replication and the transmission of genetic
information.
Alterations in the double helix structure can lead to genetic mutations.

Hydrogen bonds

Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between a hydrogen atom in a polar molecule and an
electronegative atom in another polar molecule.

Hydrogen bonds are important in maintaining the structure of DNA.

 They are responsible for the unique properties of water, such as its high boiling point and
surface tension.
Hydrogen bonds are also involved in protein folding and determining the shape of enzymes.
They play a crucial role in the stability and function of many biological molecules.

Iodine solution

Iodine solution is a chemical used in laboratories as an indicator for the presence of starch,
turning from amber to dark blue-black in the presence of starch.

Iodine solution is commonly utilized in experiments to detect the presence of starch in

various samples.
It is crucial to handle iodine solution with care as it can be corrosive and toxic if ingested or
inhaled.
Dilute solutions of iodine may be orange in color whereas a more concentrated solution will
appear dark violet.
Iodine solution must be stored in a cool, dark place to prevent breakdown caused by
exposure to light and air.

Lipids

Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds, insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar
organic solvents, primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Lipids function as energy storage molecules, thermal insulation or as part of cellular

membrane structures.
Examples include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
They are vital for energy storage and regulate body functions like inflammation and immunity.
Dietary lipids can also provide essential fatty acids that the body cannot synthesize.

Monosaccharide

A 'Monosaccharide' is the simplest form of carbohydrate consisting of a single sugar molecule,

fundamental to cellular energy.

Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

They can be classified by the number of carbon atoms they contain: triose, pentoses, hexoses
etc.
Monosaccharides are soluble in water and taste sweet.
They serve as building blocks for complex carbohydrates like di- and polysaccharides.

Nucleotides

Nucleotides are the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA, consisting of a base, a sugar, and a
phosphate group.
 Nucleotides in DNA are adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
Nucleotides in RNA are adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine.
Nucleotides participate in cellular processes like energy storage and transfer.
Nucleotides can bind together in a chain to form a polynucleotide, a structure of DNA or RNA.

Polysaccharide

A Polysaccharide is a complex carbohydrate made up of multiple monosaccharides, or sugar

molecules, linked together to form a chain or a branching structure.

This structure is responsible for their diverse functions, such as energy storage and structural
support.
Examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose, amongst others.
Polysaccharides can be broken down into simpler sugars by the process of hydrolysis.
The structure and function of polysaccharides significantly depend on the type of
monosaccharides they are composed of.

Proteins

Proteins are large, complex molecules essential for all living organisms, performing crucial
functions such as catalyzing metabolic reactions and DNA replication.

Composed of one or more chains of amino acids.

Their structure and function are determined by the sequence of these amino acids.
They play a vital role in cellular processes, including cell structure and transport.
Deficiency or malfunction can lead to diseases like Alzheimer's.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are a type of fat found circulating in the bloodstream and stored in body tissues.
They are the main constituents of body fat and provide energy when metabolized.

High triglyceride levels can lead to heart disease.

Triglycerides are derived from food, especially fatty food and sugars.
They are produced by the liver when excess energy is not utilized.
Triglyceride levels are measured through a blood test.