COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: MIDTERM REVIEWER

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO
EMPIRICISM
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY  An empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge
via empirical evidence— that is, we obtain
It is the study of how people perceive, learn,
evidence through experience and observation.
remember, and think about information.
 In order to explore how the human mind works,
empiricists would design experiments and conduct
Cognito – to apprehend or to understand
studies in which they could observe the behavior
Cognition is the collection of mental processes and
and processes of interest to them.
activities used in perceiving, learning, remembering,
 In contrast, Aristotle (a naturalist and biologist as
thinking, and understanding.
well as a philosopher) was an empiricist. An
empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge via
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY – the ways of
empirical evidence that is, we obtain evidence
addressing fundamental issues have changed, but many
through experience and observation (Figure 1.1).
of the fundamental questions remain much the same.
 In order to explore how the human mind works,
Ultimately, cognitive psychologists hope to learn how
empiricists would design experiments and conduct
people think by studying how people have thoughts
studies in which they could observe the behavior
about thinking.
and processes of interest to them. Empiricism
therefore leads directly to empirical investigations
The progression of ideas often involves a dialectic.
of psychology EMPIRICISM.
A dialectic is a developmental process where ideas
evolve over time through a pattern of transformation.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF
PHILOSOPHICAL ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY:
RATIONALISM vs EMPIRICISM Early Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition
Philosophy seeks to understand the general nature
of many aspects of the world, in part through 1. Understanding The Structure Of The Mind:
introspection, the examination of inner ideas and Structuralism
experiences (from intro-, “inward, within,” and -spect, it seeks to understand the structure (configuration
“look”); of elements) of the mind and its perceptions by
Physiology seeks a scientific study of analyzing those perceptions into their constituent
life-sustaining functions in living matter, primarily components (affection, attention, memory, sensation).
through empirical (observation-based) methods.  Wundt is often viewed as the founder of
structuralism in psychology.
RATIONALISM  Introspection is a deliberate looking inward at
 A rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is pieces of information passing through
through thinking and logical analysis. consciousness. The aim of introspection is to look
 A rationalist does not need any experiments to at the elementary components of an object or
develop new knowledge. process.
 A rationalist who is interested in cognitive
processes would appeal to reason as a source of 2. Understanding the Process of the Mind:
knowledge or justification. Functionalism
 Plato was a rationalist.  It seeks to understand what people do and why they
do it.

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 This principal question about processes was in  Early Role of Psychobiology

contrast to that of the structuralists, who had asked  Add a Dash of Technology: Engineering,
what the elementary contents (structures) of the Computation, and Applied Cognitive Psychology.
human mind are.
 Functionalists held that the key to understanding
the human mind and behavior was to study the THE WHOLE IS MORE THAN THE SUM OF ITS
processes of how and why the mind works as it PARTS: GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
does, rather than to study the structural contents
and elements of the mind. Gestalt psychology states that we best understand
psychological phenomena when we view them as
Pragmatists believe that knowledge is validated by its organized, structured wholes.
usefulness. Gestaltists, studied insight, seeking to understand
 They are concerned not only with knowing what the unobservable mental event by which someone goes
people do; they also want to know what we can do from having no idea about how to solve a problem to
with our knowledge of what people do. understanding it fully in what seems a mere moment of
 Although functionalists were interested in how time.
people learn, they did not really specify a
mechanism by which learning takes place. COGNITION AND INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence is the capacity to learn from experience,
using metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and
AN INTEGRATIVE SYNTHESIS: the ability to adapt to the surrounding environment.
ASSOCIATIONISM  It may require different adaptations within different
social and cultural contexts.
Associationism- examines how elements of the mind,  People who are more intelligent tend to be superior
like events or ideas, can become associated with one in processes such as divided and selective attention,
another in the mind to result in a form of learning. working memory, reasoning, problem solving,
decision making, and concept formation.

THREE COGNITIVE MODELS OF

INTELLIGENCE CARROLL: THREE-STRATUM
MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE

Stratum I includes many narrow, specific abilities (e.g.,

spelling ability, speed of reasoning).

Stratum II includes various broad abilities (e.g., fluid

intelligence, crystallized intelligence, short-term
memory, long-term storage and retrieval, information
processing speed).

Stratum III is just a single general intelligence

(sometimes called g).

It’s Only What You Can See That Counts: From

GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
Associationism to Behaviorism
 Proponents of Behaviorism
 Criticisms of Behaviorism
 Behaviorists Daring to Peek into the Black Box

EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Cognitivism is the belief that much of human behavior
can be understood in terms of how people think.
 It rejects the notion that psychologists should avoid
studying mental processes because they are
unobservable.
 Cognitivism is, in part, a synthesis of earlier forms
of analysis, such as behaviorism and Gestaltism.
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STERNBERG: THE TRIARCHIC THEORY OF LESSON 2: COGNITIVE

INTELLIGENCE
NEUROSCIENCE
is the field of study linking the brain and other
aspects of the nervous system to cognitive processing
and ultimately to behavior.

 The brain is the organ in our body that most

directly controls our thoughts, emotions, and
motivations.
 It is the central organ of the human nervous system,
and with 0the spinal cord makes up the central
nervous system.
 Localization of functions refers to the specific
areas of the brain that control specific skills or
FUNDAMENTAL IDEAS IN COGNITIVE behaviors.
PSYCHOLOGY
1. Empirical data and theories are both EARLY ROLE OF COGNITIVE
important—data in cognitive psychology can be NEUROSCIENCE
fully understood only in the context of an
explanatory theory, and theories are empty without Karl Spencer Lashley brashly challenged the
empirical data. behaviorist view that the human brain is a passive organ
2. Cognition is generally adaptive, but not in all merely responding to environmental contingencies
specific instances. outside the individual. Instead, Lashley considered the
3. Cognitive processes interact with each other and brain to be an active, dynamic organizer of behavior.
with non-cognitive processes.
4. Cognition needs to be studied through a variety of Donald Hebb proposed the concept of cell assemblies
scientific methods. as the basis for learning in the brain.
5. All basic research in cognitive psychology may Cell assemblies are coordinated neural structures that
lead to applications, and all applied research may develop through frequent stimulation. They develop
lead to basic understandings. over time as the ability of one neuron to stimulate firing
in a connected neuron increases.
“We are what we are because we have been what we
have been, and what is needed for solving the problems COGNITION IN THE BRAIN: THE ANATOMY
of human life and motives is not moral estimates but AND MECHANISMS OF THE BRAIN
more knowledge.” –Sigmund Freud  The nervous system is the basis for our ability to
perceive, adapt to, and interact with the world
around us.
 It is highly complex part of human that coordinates
its actions and sensory information by transmitting
signals to and from different parts of the body.
 It detects environmental changes that impact the
body, then works in tandem with the endocrine
system to respond to such events

THE HUMAN BRAIN

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 Reticular activating system “RAS” – a network of

neurons essential to the regulation of consciousness
(sleep, wakefulness, arousal, attention)
 Helps control eye movement and coordination

CEREBRAL CORTEX AND LOCALIZATION OF

FUNCTION

PART OF THE BRAIN AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Amygdala
 Influences anger and aggression- Stimulation of the
amygdala commonly results in fear. It can be
various in ways such as palpitations, fearful
hallucinations or frightening flashbacks in
memory.
Hypothalamus
 Regulates temperature, eating, and sleeping. It is LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE
involved in emotion, pleasure, pain and stress
reactions.
Cerebral Cortex
 Controls thinking and sensing functions Involved
in receiving and processing information, thinking
and other cognitive processing and planning.
Basal Ganglia
 Controls voluntary motor movements, procedural
learning, eye movements, cognition and emotion.
Thalamus
 Relays sensory information to cerebral cortex
 Primary relay station for sensory information
coming into the brain, transmits information to the NEURONAL STRUCTURE
correct regions of the cerebral cortex.
Hippocampus
 Plays an essential role in memory function. It is
essential for flexible learning and for seeing the
relations among items learned.
Pons
 Serves as the relay station “bridge” because it
contains neural fibers that pass on part of the brain
to another.
 Involved in consciousness
Medulla Oblongata
 Serves as juncture at which nerves cross from one
of the bodyto opposite side of the brain.
 Involved in cardiorespiratory function, digestion
and swallowing TYPES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCE
Brainstem INVOLVED IN NEUROTRANSMISSION:
 Connects the forebrain to the spinal cord
Cerebellum 1. Monoamine neurotransmitters – synthesized by
 Essential to balance, coordination and muscle tone thenervous system through enzymatic actions on
Midbrain one of the amino acids (constituents of proteins) in
 Superior Colliculus our diet (ex. Dopamine, serotonin)
 Inferior Colliculus
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2. Amino-acid - obtained directly from the amino 3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
acids in our diet without further synthesis (ex.
GABA)
3. Neuropeptides – peptide chains (molecules made
fromthe parts of two or more amino acids)

4. Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan)

VIEWING STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF

THE BRAIN

 Postmortem Studiess
 Studying Live Nonhuman Animals
 Studying Live Humans
a. Electrical Recordings
b. Static Imaging Techniques
5. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
1. Brain Angiogram

2. Computed Tomography (CT Scan)

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COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL LESSON 3: VISUAL PERCEPTION

METHODS FOR STUDYING BRAIN
FUNCTIONIONING
COGNITION IN THE BRAIN: THE ANATOMY
AND MECHANISMS OF THE BRAIN

1. The nervous system is the basis for our ability to

perceive, adapt to, and interact with the world
around us.
2. It is highly complex part of human that coordinates
its actions and sensory information by transmitting
signals to and from different parts of the body.
3. It detects environmental changes that impact the
body, then works in tandem with the endocrine
system to respond to such events.

PERCEPTION
 (“perceptio” – “identification and interpretation of
sensory information”
 It is the set of processes by which we recognize,
BRAIN DISORDERS organize, and make sense of the sensations we
receive from environmental stimuli.
STROKE  An awareness of the elements of environment
it occurs when the flow of blood to the brain through physical sensation (a way of regarding, or
undergoes a sudden disruption. interpreting something; a mental impression)
Two kinds of Stroke Perception can be split in two processes
 Ischemic stroke – occurs when a build up of fatty  Processing the sensory input, which transforms
tissue occurs in blood vessels over a period of these low level information to higher-level
years, and a piece of this tissue breaks off and gets information (extract shapes for object recognition)
lodged in arteries of the brain.  Processing which is connected with a person’s
 Hemorrhagic stroke – occurs when a blood concepts and expectations (or knowledge),
vessels in the brain suddenly breaks. restorative and selective mechanisms (as attention)
that influence perception.
Typical symptoms of Stroke
 Numbness or weakness in the face, arms, or legs
(especially on one side of the body.
 Confusion, difficulty speaking or understanding
speech
 Vision disturbances in one or both eyes
 Dizziness, trouble walking, loss of balance or
coordination
 Severe headache with no known cause

BRAIN TUMORS
Also called neoplasm which can affect cognitive
functioning in very serious ways.
Tumors can occur in either the gray or the white
matter of the brain.

Two kinds of Brain Tumor

 Primary brain tumor – childhood brain tumors,
starts tumor in the brain.
 Secondary brain tumor – start as tumor in other
parts of the body.

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Seeing Things That Aren’t There, or Are They? BOTTOM-UP THEORIES

(Form and Pattern Perception)
1. Sometimes we perceive what is not there. Other
times, we do not perceive what is there. Direct Perception – the information in our sensory
2. The existence of visual perceptual illusions receptors, including the sensory context to perceive
suggests that what we sense (in our sensory organs) anything
is not necessarily what we perceive (in our minds).
3. Our minds must be taking the available sensory
information and manipulating that information
somehow to create mental representations of
objects, properties within our environments.

Template Theories – templates that are highly detailed

model for patterns we potentially might recognize.

Feature-Matching Theory – it is the attempt to match

features of a pattern to features stored in memory, rather
than to match a whole pattern to a template or a
prototype..

Recognition-by-Components (RBC) Theory – it

explains the ability to perceive 3D objects with the help
of simple geometric shapes.

How Do We Make Sense of What We See?

VIEWS ON HOW WE PERCEIVE THE WORLD

BOTTOM-UP THEORIES
describe approaches where
perception starts with stimuli whose appearance you
take in through your eyes. (stimulus-driven theory)

TOP-DOWN THEORIES
A perception that is driven by high-level cognitive
processes, existing knowledge, and the prior
expectations that influence perception.
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TOP-DOWN THEORIE Recognizing Patterns and Faces Two Different

 The perceiver uses sensory information as the Pattern Recognition System
foundation for the structure but also uses other
sources of information to build the perception. 1. Feature Analysis System
 The percepts of constructivists are based on three 2. Configurational System
things:
a. What we sense (the sensory data)
b. What we know (knowledge stored in memory)
c. What we can infer (using high-level cognitive
processes)
 The viewpoint of constructive or intelligent
perception shows the central relation between
perception and intelligence.
 We do not perceive simply in terms of what is “out
there in the world” rather, we perceive in terms of
the expectations and other cognitions we bring to THE ENVIRONMENT HELPS YOU SEE
our interaction with the world.
Perceptual Constancies
Perception of Object and Forms  Occurs when our perception of an objects remains
A. Viewer - Centered Perception the same even when our proximal sensation of the
the individual stores the way the object looks to distal object changes.
him or her.  The physical characteristics of the external distal
B. Object-Centered Perception object are probably not changing.
the individual stores a representation of the object,  Two main constancies:
independent of its appearance to the viewer. 1. Size constancy
2. Shape constancy
The Perception of Groups – Gestalt Laws
Depth Perception
Figure-Ground Depth is the distance from a surface, usually using
When perceiving a visual field, some objects (figures) your own body as a reference surface when speaking in
seem prominent, and other aspects of the field recede terms of depth perception.
into the background (ground)
Depth Cues
Proximity  Monocular depth cues (“mon” – “one” , “ocular” –
When we perceive an assortment of objects, we “related to the eyes” .
tend to see objects that are close to each other as  It can be represented in just two dimensions
forming a group. and observed with just one eye.

Similarity  Binocular depth cues (“bin” – “both” , “two”)

We tend to group objects on the basis of their  Based on the receipt of sensory information in
similarity. three dimensions from both eyes.

Continuity
We tend to perceive smoothly flowing or DEFICITS IN PERCEPTION
continuously forms rather than disrupted or discontinues
ones. AGNOSIA
1. Agnosia is a loss or diminution of the ability to
Closure recognize familiar objects or stimuli usually as a
We tend to perceptually close up, or complete, result of brain damage. Difficulties perceiving the
objects that are not, in fact, complete. “WHAT”
2. Agnosias often are caused by damage to the border
Symmetry of the temporal and occipital loss or restricted
We tend to perceive objects as forming mirror oxygen flows to areas of the brain, sometimes as a
images about their center. result of traumatic brain injury.

Types of Agnosia
 Simultagnosia – an individual is unable to pay
attention to more than one object at a time.

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LESSON 4: ATTENTION AND

CONCIOUSNESS

Attention is the means by which we actively process a

limited amount of information from the enormous
amount of information available through our senses, our
stored memories, and our other cognitive processes.

Consciousness includes both the feeling of awareness

and the content of awareness, some of which may be
under the focus of attention.

Conscious attention serves three purposes in playing

a causal role for cognition.
1. It helps monitoring our interactions with the
environment.
2. It assists us in linking our past (memories) and our
present (sensations) to give us a sense of continuity of
experience.
 Prosopagnosia – results in severely impaired 3. It helps us in controlling and planning forour future
ability to recognize human faces. actions.

FOUR MAIN FUNCTIONS OF ATTENTION

1. Signal detection and vigilance – detecting the
appearance of a particular stimulus
2. Search – finding a signal amidst distracter.
3. Selective attention – choosing to attend some
stimuli and ignore others.
4. Divided attention – prudently allocating available
attentional resources to coordinate our performance of
more than one task at a time.

ATAXIA
 Optic Ataxia is the impairment in the ability touse
the visual system to guide movement. People with
this deficit have trouble reaching for things.
 Difficulties in Knowing the “HOW”
 Ataxia results from a processing failure in the
posterior practical cortex, where sensorimotor
information is processed.

ANOMALIES IN COLOR PERCEPTION

Color deficiency are sometimes referred to “color
blindedness”.
SIGNAL DETECTION: Finding Important Stimuli
Kinds of Color Deficiency in a Crowd
1. Rod Monochromacy (achromacy) – a condition Signal Detection Theory(SDT) – is a framework to
where a person have no color vision at all. It is the explain how people pick out the few important stimuli
true form of color blindedness. when they are embedded in a wealth of irrelevant,
2. Dichromacy – only two of the mechanisms for distracting stimuli.
color perception work and one is malfunctioning
3. Protanopia (red-green color blindedness)  It is often used to measure sensitivity to a target’s
4. Deuteranopia (trouble seeing green) presence.
5. Tritanopia (blue and green can be confused)  It can be discussed in the context of “attention,
perception, memory”.

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 Possible outcomes in detecting a target stimulus Feature-Integration Theory

(true positives, false positives, false negatives, true  Explains the relative ease of conducting feature
negatives) searches and the relative difficulty of conducting
conjunction searches.

Similarity Theory
 The data are result of the fact that as similarity
between target and distractor stimuli increases.
 Targets are that are highly similar to distractors are
relatively hard to detect.

VIGILANCE: Waiting to Detect a Signal

Vigilance refers to a person’s ability to attend to a field
of stimulation over a prolonged period, during which
the person seeks to detect the appearance of a particular
target stimulus of interest.

 When being vigilant, the individual watchfully

waits to detect a signal stimulus that may appear at
unknown time.
Guided Search Theory
SEARCH: Actively Looking  suggests that all searches, whether feature searches
Search refers to a scan of the environment for particular or conjunction searches, involve two consecutive
features – actively looking for something when you are stages.
not sure where it will appear (i.e., picked up your  The parallel stage – the individualsimultaneously
parents or friends at a crowded airport) activates a mental representation of all the potential
targets.
 Search is made more difficult by distracters,  The serial stage – the individual sequentially
nontarget stimuli that divert our attention away evaluates each of the activated elements, according
from the target stimulus. (i.e., Grocery items) to the degree of activation.
 Distractors cause more trouble under some
conditions under others (distinct feature like color
or shape)
 Feature search simply scan the environment for a
specific feature of a particular stimulus (featural
singletons)
 Conjunction search looks for a particular
combination (conjunction – joining together) of
features.

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DIVIDED ATTENTION

THEORIES OF SELECTIVE ATTENTION

 Broadbent’s Model – filtering of information right
after noticing at the sensory level.
 Selective Filter Model – recognizing names in an
unattended ear (even when the participant ignore ALLOCATION OF ATTENTIONAL RESOURCES
most other high-level aspects of an unattended
message)
 Attenuation Model (Treisman) – involves a later
filtering mechanism, instead of blocking stimuli
out, the filter merely weakens the strength of
stimuli other than the target stimulus.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE OUR ABILITY

TO PAY ATTENTION
1. Anxiety – being anxious, either by nature or by
situation places constraints on attention.
2. Arousal – your overall state of arousal affects
Late-Filter Model attention as well.
The location of the filter is even later. The stimuli 3. Task difficulty – if you are working on a task that
are filtered out only after they have been analyzed both is very difficult or novel for you, you’ll need more
their physical properties and their meaning. attentional resources than when you work on an
 This later filtering would allow people to recognize easy or highly familiar task. Task difficulty
information entering the unattended ear. particularly influences performance during divided
attention.
4. Skills – the more practiced and skilled you are in
performing a task, the more your attention is
enhanced.

NEUROSCIENCE AND ATTENTION: A

NETWORK MODEL

1) Alerting – is defined as being prepared to attend to

some incoming event, maintaining this attention. It
also includes the process of getting to this state of
preparedness.
2) Orienting – is defined as the selection of stimuli to
attend to. This kind of attention is needed when we
perform a visual search.
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3) Executive Attention– includes processes for  Arousal is a degree of physiological excitation,

monitoring and resolving conflicts that arise among responsivity, and readiness for action, relative to a
internal processes. These processes include baseline. Arousal is often measured in terms of
thoughts, feelings and responses. heart rate, blood pressure, electroencephalogram
patterns, and other physiological signs.
When Our Attention Fails Us
1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD) – the condition that makes it difficult for AUTOMATIC AND CONTROLLED PROCESSES
a person to pay attention and control impulsive IN ATTENTION
behaviors. Automatic Processes – doing an activity involve no
Three main types of ADHD conscious control. They are performed without
a) Hyperactive – impulsive conscious awareness.
b) Inattentive Controlled Processes – accessible to conscious control
c) A combination of hyperactive-impulsive and and even require it.
inattentive behavior
Children with the inattentive type of ADHD CHARAC- CONTROLLED AUTOMATIC
show several distinctive symptoms: TERISTICS PROCESSES PROCESSES
 They are easily distracted by irrelevant sights Amount of Require intentional Require little or no
and sounds. intentional efforts effort intention or effort
 They often fail to pay attention to details. Degree of Require full Generally occur outside
conscious conscious awareness of conscious awareness,
 They are susceptible to making careless awareness although some automatic
mistakes in their work. processes may be
 They often fail to read instructions completely available to
or carefully. consciousness
 They tend to jump from one incomplete task Use of attentional Consume many Consume negligible
resources attentional resources attentional resources
to another. Type of Performed serially Performed by parallel
processing (one step at a time) processing (no particular
2. Change Blindness – an inability to detect changes sequential order)
in objects or scenes that are being viewed. Speed of Relatively Relatively fast
Inattentional Blindness – a person is not able to processing time-consuming
execution
see things that are actually there. Relative novelty Novel and Familiar and highly
of tasks unpracticed tasks or practiced tasks, with
3. Spatial Neglect – an intentional dysfunction in tasks with many largely stable task
which participants ignore the half of their visual variable features characteristics
field that is contralateral to the hemisphere of the Level of Relatively high levels Relatively low levels of
processing of cognitive cognitive processing
brain that has a lesion. processing (requiring (minimal analysis or
analysis or synthesis) synthesis)
Difficulty of Usually difficult tasks Usually relatively easy
tasks tasks, but even relatively
complex tasks
may be automatized,
given sufficient practice
Process of With sufficient practice, many routine and
acquisition relatively stable procedures may become
automatized, such that highly controlled
processes may become partly or even wholly
automatic; the amount of practice required for
automatization increases dramatically for highly
complex tasks.

MISTAKES IN AUTOMATIC PROCESSES

HABITUATION AND ADAPTATION Mistakes are errors in choosing an objective or
 Habituation involves our becoming accustomed to specifying a means of achieving it;.
a stimulus so that we gradually pay less and less Slips are errors in carrying out an intended means for
attention to it. reaching an objective.
 Dishabituation is a change in a familiar stimulus Type of Error
prompts us to start noticing the stimulus again. 1. Capture errors
 Sensory adaptation is a lessening of attention to a 2. Omissions
stimulus that is not subject to conscious control. 3. Perseverations
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4. Description errors LESSON 5: MEMORY

5. Data-driven errors
6. Associative-activation errors
MODELS AND RESEARCH
7. Loss of activation errors METHODS

CONSCIOUSNESS MEMORY
 The Consciousness of Mental Processes  is the means by which we retain and draw on our
 Preconscious Processing past experiences to use that information in the
 Studying the Preconscious-Priming present.
 The Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon  As a process, memory refers to the dynamic
 When Blind People Can See mechanisms associated with storing, retaining, and
retrieving information about past experiences.
STUDYING THE PRECONSCIOUS-PRIMING
Priming is a technique in which the introduction of one Process in Memory
stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent  Encoding - processes used to store
stimulus. Priming works by activating an association or information in memory. It refers how you
representation in memory just before another stimulus transform a physical sensory input into a kind
or task is introduced. This phenomenon occurs without of representation that can be placed into
our conscious awareness, yet it can have a major impact memory.
on numerous aspects of our everyday lives.  Storage - processes used to maintain
information in memory. It refers to how your
retain encoded information in memory.
 Retrieval - processes used to get information
back out of memory. It refers on how you gain
access to information stored in memory.

Tasks Used for Measuring Memory

Recall Task – to produce a fact, a word, or other
item from memory.
1. Serial Recall Task
2. Free Recall Task
3. Cued-Recall Task
Recognition Task - to select or otherwise identify
an item as being one that you learned previously.
THE TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE PHENOMENON
The “tip of the tongue” (TOT) phenomenon is a MEMORY DESCRIPTION OF WHAT EXAMPLE
state in which one cannot quite recall a familiar TASK THE TASKS REQUIRE
word but can recall words of similar form and Explicit- You must consciously recall Who wrote the
meaning. ... These more easily retrieved features of Memory particular information Hamlet?
tasks
low-frequency words may be the features to which we Declarative- You must recall facts What is your
chiefly attend in word- perception. knowledge first name?
tasks
Recall tasks You must produce a fact, a Fill-in-the-blank
word, or other item from tests
memory
Serial-recall You must repeat the items in a Presentation of
task list in the exact order in which series of
you heard or read them. numbers/ letters/
figures (in exact
order)
Free-recall You must repeat the items in a Presentation of
task list in any order in which you series of
recall them numbers/ letters/
figures (in any
order)
Cued-Recal You must memorize a list of List of pair
l task paired items; then when you are words
given one item in the pair, You
must memorize a list of paired
items; then when you are given
one item in the pair, you must
recall the mate for that item.
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Recognition You must select or otherwise Multiple choice SPERLING’S DISCOVERY
tasks identify an item as being one and true or false
that you learned previously. tests
Implicit- You must draw on information List of pair
Whole report procedure
memory in memory without consciously words  Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
tasks realizing that you are doing so.  Identify as many letters as possible
Free-recall You must repeat the items in a Presentation of
 Participants typically remember 4 letters
task list in any order in which you series of
recall them. numbers/ letters/ Partial report procedure
figures (in any  Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
order)  Participants are told to report bottom row
 Participants were able to report any row
requested
IMPLICIT VERSUS EXPLICIT MEMORY
TASKS
Implicit Memory Task
 Require participants to complete task
 The completion of the task indirectly indicates
memory
 When we recollect something but are not conscious
aware that we are trying to do so.

Explicit Memory Task

 Involve conscious recollection
 Participants know they are trying to retrieve
information from memory

METHODS TO ASSESS PROCEDURAL SUBSEQUENT REFINEMENT OF SPERLING’S

MEMORY WORK
1. Rotary-pursuit task - Keep stylus on a dot on a
rotating disk Iconic Memory Research (Averbach & Coriell
2. Mirror-tracing task - Watch mirror image to trace (1961)
a figure  a discrete visual sensory register that holds
information for very short periods.
 Revealed that iconic memory can be erased
MODELS OF MEMORY  Makes our visual sensations more sensible
Atkinson And Shiffrin Multistore Model

1) Sensory store - capable of storing relatively

limited amounts of information for very brief
periods.
2) Short-term store - capable of storing information
for somewhat longer periods but of relatively
limited capability as well
3) Long-term store - of very large capacity, capable
of storing information for very long periods,
perhaps even indefinitely

THE COMPONENTS OF WORKING MEMORY

Working Memory
holds only the most recently activated, or conscious,
portion of long-term memory, and it moves these
activated elements into and out of brief, temporary
memory storage.

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MULTIPLE MEMORY SYSTEM

Semantic memory
 stores general world knowledge.
 It is our memory for facts that are not unique
to us and that are recalled in any particular
temporal context.
Episodic memory
 stores personally experienced events or
episodes.
 We use learn lists or words or when we need
to recall something that occurred to us at a
particular time or in a particular context.

THE COMPONENTS OF WORKING MEMORY

1. Phonological loop
 briefly holds inner speech for verbal
comprehension and for acoustic rehearsal. A CONNECTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
2. Visuospatial sketch pad Parallel distributed processing model
 Used for maintaining and processing  Memory uses a network
visuo-spatial information or visual images.  Meaning comes from patterns of activation
3. Central executive across the entire network
 both coordinates attentional activities and  Spreading activation network model
governs responses.  Supported by priming effects
 It is critical to working memory because it is
the gating mechanism that decides what EXCEPTIONAL MEMORY AND
information to process further and how to NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
process this information. Mnemonists
4. Subsidiary slave systems  someone who demonstrate extraordinarily
 performs other cognitive or perceptual tasks. keen memory ability, usually based on using
5. Episodic buffer special techniques for memory enhancement.
 a limited-capacity system that is capable of  Long strings of words
binding information from the visuospatial  Remembered over 15-18 years
sketchpad and phonological loop as well from
long-term memory into a unitary episodic DEFICIENT MEMORY
representation. 1. Amnesia
a severe loss of explicit memory.
a. Retrograde amnesia
 loss of memory for events that occurred before
the trauma
b. Infantile amnesia
 inability to recall events of young childhood
c. Anterograde amnesia
 no memory for events that occur after the
trauma

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LESSON 6: MEMORY PROCESS

2. Alzheimer’s Disease
 a disease of older adults that cause dementia
as well as progressive memory loss. ENCODING AND TRANSFER OF
 It is typically recognized on the basis of loss INFORMATION
of intellectual function in daily life.  Creating an acoustic code (what it sounds like)
 Alzheimer’s disease leads an atrophy of the  Creating a semantic code (what it means)
brain; especially the hippocampus, frontal and  Creating a visual code (what it looks like)
temporal brain regions. Forms of Encoding
 Alzheimer’s disease is diagnosed when 1. Short-Term Storage
memory is impaired and there is at least one 2. Long-Term Storage
other area of dysfunction in the domains of
language, motor, attention, executive function,
personality, or object recognition. TRANSFER OF INFORMATION FROM STM TO
LTM
 Interference
 Consolidation - integrating new information
intostored information
 Metamemory:
- Knowing what you know
- Knowing how your memory works
- Being able to assess your own memory

Symptoms
(gradual, continuous, and irreversible)
 Memory loss
 Problems doing familiar tasks
 Problems with language
 Trouble knowing the time, date, or place
 Poor or decreased judgment
 Problems with abstract thinking
 Misplacing things often, such as keys
 Changes in mood, behavior, and personality

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NEUROSCIENCE AND MEMORY RETRIEVAL FROM SHORT-TERM MEMORY

CONSOLIDATION
REM Sleep Is the search exhaustive or self-terminating processing?
 Hippocampus acts as a rapid learning system
 Reconsolidation is a topic related to consolidation. Serial processing
 refers to operations being done one after
ORGANIZATION OF INFORMATION another.
Mnemonic devices  Response time is the same no matter how
 are specific techniques to help you organize many numbers were originally presented in
and memorize information. the positive set.
 These devices are especially helpful in Parallel processing
memorizing lists of words because such  refers to the stimulations handling a multiple
devices add meaning to otherwise meaningless operations.
or arbitrary lists of items.  The more numbers were in the positive set, the
Retrospective Memory longer is the response time.
 improving memory from the past
Prospective Memory Is the search serial or parallel processing?
 improve memory in the future
Exhaustive serial processing
 indicates that all items in the set are examined.
 Response time is always the same, no matter
where the test digit was located in the positive
set.
Self-terminating serial processing
 means that after the target is found, the search
stops.
 Response time increases as the test digit is
located later in the positive set.

RETRIEVAL
Refers to how you gain access to information
stored in memory RETRIEVAL FROM LTM
 Availability
 Multiple processes can be used to enhance  is the presence of information stored in
retrieval long-term memory.
 Different strategies are used for short-term
storage and - long-term storage  Accessibility
 Matching the type of processes done during  is the degree to which we can gain access
encoding with the type of processes done at to the available information.
retrieval increases success
 The types of cues you use to retrieve may
affect what you can retrieve..

 Free recall vs. categorized recall

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PROCESSING OF FORGETTING AND 7. Persistence – people sometimes remember things

MEMORY DISTORTION as consequential that, in a broad context, are
inconsequential.
1. Interference Theory
refers to forgetting that occurs because recall of THE EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY PARADIGM
certain words interferes with recall of other words. Eyewitness testimony may be the most common
 Proactive interference source of wrongful convictions in the United States.
occurs when material that was learned in the
past impedes the learning of new material.  What Influences the Accuracy of Eyewitness
 Retroactive interference Testimonies?
occurs when newly acquired knowledge - Suggestive questions
impedes the recall of older material. - Lineups
 Serial-position curve - Confessions
represents the probability of recall of a given - Feedback to eyewitnesses
word, given its serial position (order of  Children as eyewitnesses
presentation) in a list.  Can eyewitness testimonies be improved?
 Recency effect  Repressed Memories
refers to superior recall of words at and near
the end of a list
 Primacy effect THE EFFECT OF CONTEXT OF MEMORY
refers to superior recall of words at and near
the beginning of a list. Encoding specificity
 Memory is improved when information
2. Decay Theory available at encoding is also available at
 asserts that information is forgotten because of the retrieval
gradual disappearance, rather than displacement, of  Researchers have confirmed the importance of
the memory trace. making cues meaningful to the individual to
 Memory is weakened with disuse enhance memory
 Simply passage of time.

THE CONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF MEMORY

Autobiography memory
refers to memory of an individual’s history.

Flashbulb memory
a memory of an event so powerful that the person
remembers the event as vividly as if it were indelibly
preserve on film.

MEMORY DISTORTION

1. Transience – memory fades quickly.

2. Absent-mindedness – discovering things that have
been forgotten after doing such activity.
3. Blocking – information that cannot be retrieved
knowing that the person know the information.
4. Misattribution – people often cannot remember
where they hear what they heard or read what they
read.
5. Suggestibility – people are susceptible to
suggestion, so if it is suggested to them that they
saw something, they may think they remember
seeing it.
6. Bias – people often are biased in their recall.

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