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PROGRAMMING IN QUANTUM COMPUTERS

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21 JNS 33/2023

PROGRAMMING IN QUANTUM COMPUTERS

BLERTA LEKA (MOÇKA)1, DANIEL LEKA2
1
Department of Mathematics and Informatics, Faculty of Economics and
Agribusiness, Agricultural University of Tirana, Albania
2
Special Court of First Instance for Corruption and Organized Crime, 1016,
Tirana, Albania
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Quantum computers have emerged as a transformative technology,
challenging the traditional binary language of classical computers. Since
their inception in the 1980s, quantum computers have revolutionized data
processing by utilizing quantum bits (qubits) capable of existing in
superpositions, representing both 0 and 1. This unique property enables
quantum computers to excel in a wide range of computational tasks,
especially those demanding substantial processing power. Consequently,
corporations, governments, and academic institutions are heavily investing
in the development of quantum hardware, software, and applications. This
article provides a survey of quantum computers, explains the programming
languages involved in the field, and explores the integration of Python into
quantum computers. Even through the challenges in years of quantum
computers, we will identify the beginning but also the challenges in that and
theirs.
Key words: Quantum computers, qubits, Python, Qiskit.
Përmbledhje
Kompjuterët kuantikë kanë dalë si një teknologji transformuese, sfiduese për
gjuhën binare tradicionale të kompjuterëve klasikë. Që nga themelimi i tyre
në vitet 1980, kompjuterët kuantikë kanë revolucionarizuar procesimin e të
dhënave duke përdorur bitët kuantikë (qubit) të cilët mund të ekzistojnë në
supozime duke u shfaqur si 0 dhe 1. Kjo cilësi e veçantë u mundëson
kompjuterëve kuantikë të jenë mjaft të përshtatshëm në një gamë të gjerë të
detyrave kompjuterike, sidomos atyre që kërkojnë fuqi të madhe të
procesimit. Si rezultat, koorporatat, qeveritë dhe institucionet akademike po
investojnë shumë në zhvillimin e hardware-ve e, software-ve dhe
22 JNS 33/2023

aplikacioneve kuantike. Ky artikull ofron një studim të kompjuterëve

kuantikë, shpjegon gjuhët e programimit të përdorura në këtë fushë dhe
hulumton integrimin e Python në kompjuterët kuantikë. Gjithashtu me anë të
zhvillimit në vite të kompjuterav kuantike, do të identifikojmë përparësitë por
edhe sfidat në përdorimin dhe zhvillimin e tyre.
Fjalët kyçe: Kompjuterat kuantikë, qubit-et, Python, Qiskit.
Introduction
The concept of a quantum computer was first proposed in the early 1980s by
the physicist Richard Feynman, who suggested that quantum computers
could simulate complex quantum systems that are too difficult to simulate by
classical computers (Richard, 1982). However, the first experimental
realization of a quantum computer was not achieved until the late 1990s. In
1998, a team led by Isaac Chuang and Neil Gershenfeld at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) demonstrated a two-qubit quantum computer
using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques (Gershenfeld &
Chuang, (1998). This system was able to perform simple quantum
algorithms, such as the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm, which is designed to
determine whether a function is constant or balanced. There have been many
advances in quantum computing, with researchers developing a variety of
technologies for creating and manipulating qubits, including superconducting
circuits, trapped ions, and topological qubits. Classical computers, reliant on
binary bits, face exponential costs in simulating complex physical systems.
Quantum computers, manipulating qubits based on quantum mechanical
components, offer a paradigm shift. Richard Feynman's early 1980s proposal
paved the way for circumventing the computational limitations of classical
computers (Demmer et al.).
While current quantum computers are still limited in size and their
performance, they have already demonstrated the potential to solve some
problems much faster than classical computers and to simulate quantum
systems that are too complex to be handled by classical computers
(Rijmenam, 2022). Quantum computers are being discussed more and more
at the scientific level and are being implemented in many companies. Figure
1 shows a timeline of their development.
23 JNS 33/2023

Figure 1 The Quantum Computer Industry (Domain of Science, 2021)

Quantum computers have the potential to solve many specific problems
faster than conventional or classical computers (Lee, 2021). They can also be
used for optimization problems, such as finding the shortest path between
multiple points or optimizing resource allocation, and for simulating
quantum systems, such as chemical reactions or the behavior of materials at
the atomic scale. Through the speed of calculation on a very large amount of
data, quantum computers will change the operation in telecommunications,
finance, medicine, cyber security and many other fields. These computers
have the potential to replace classic computers in almost every field and will
have a successful future (Sharma, 2020).
How quantum computers work
Quantum computers work differently from classical computers. In classical
computers, everything was based on binary language, with 0 and 1. Quantum
computers are not limited to these two states (Figure 2). They can have a
much larger number of states at the same time (Bourzac, 2019).

Figure 2 Comparison of classical Bit with Qubit (Quantum states)

In order to understand this large number of states, we must first understand

three main characteristics: superposition, interference and entanglement
24 JNS 33/2023

(Qiskit Development Team, 2022). In classical computers a state is called a

bit. In quantum computers it is called quantum bits or qubits. These
conditions work in very different ways. The classic bit, if we will call it that,
functions as a switch which can have the state 0 for off and 1 for on. These
two conditions are independent of each other and well defined. But Qubit
doesn't work the same way, it's more complex.
We can think of it as an arrow which can point in a 3-dimensional space. If
the mark above is the value 1 and if the mark below is the value 0. But, in
addition to these, we also have the superstates, which are combinations of 0
and 1. Whether it will take the value 1 or 0 will be decided by the highest
percentage in which the arrow is located. (Figure 3)

Figure 3 a) value 0; b) value 1; c) superposition can take the value 0 or 1

(Hajjar, 2022).

Figura 1 Entanglement
25 JNS 33/2023

Qubits are not independent of each other; they are all part of a larger state.
This is true regardless of the number of qubits we have. Based on the number
of the qubit we calculate the number of possible states which is 2 to the
power of the number of the qubit (Table 1)
Number of Number of
qubit states
1 2
2 4
… …
n 2n
Table 1 Number of states depending on the number of qubits
(StackExchange, 2018).
Interference
The quantum wave function can be represented as a sphere (Qiskit
Development Team, 2022). Several qubits are several wave functions added
together to give a multifunction. Although there can be multiple states that
some qubits can be in, when we measure it, we only have one state at a given
time. In computers we must use constructive interference to get the correct
answer and use destructive interference to reduce the number of wrong
answers. (Figure 5)

Figure 5 Constructive and destructive interference

Entanglement
In classical computers, state 0 is independent from state 1. While in quantum
computers, these two states are dependent on other things or intertwined
together. When we analyze the state of a single qubit, it is determined by the
26 JNS 33/2023

percentage. If we look at the state of two qubits, they will have several
combinations of states (Figure 4 a). If the arrow on one of the qubits changes
it will affect all the other states. This is the entanglement property, which is
observed when we have more than one qubit. This mode of operation of
quantum computers allows them to process massive and complex data sets
more efficiently than classical computers. Current quantum computers
usually isolate qubits from their environment as best they can, but as the
number of qubits multiplies, this isolation becomes extremely difficult to
maintain (Ball, 2021).
Quantum Computing Challenges
In the dynamic landscape of quantum computing, characterized by the
emergence of quantum processors exemplified by Google's Sycamore, the
trajectory of computing power is undergoing a paradigm shift, ushering in
the era of quantum supremacy (Tepanyan, 2023). This transformative phase,
rooted in three decades of interdisciplinary breakthroughs, holds the promise
of substantial disruption in the technological landscape. However, the
realization of quantum computing's full potential is intricately entangled with
a myriad of limitations and challenges.
As highlighted by Clark et al., stakeholders in quantum computing must
grapple with cryptographic vulnerabilities, navigate technological
uncertainties, and effectively harness quantum advancements for societal
benefit. The multifaceted challenges in quantum computing demand
comprehensive attention from various quarters. Quantum decoherence
emerges as a critical hurdle, with quantum systems proving highly sensitive
to environmental disturbances, leading to qubit entanglement issues (Banafa,
2023; Priya, 2023; UGI and Swayne, 2023). The inherent fragility of
quantum systems, necessitating costly refrigeration, and the limited
coherence time of qubits further complicate their practical implementation.
Geopolitical competition introduces concerns about potential divisions in
quantum networks, posing challenges to global governance (Brooks, 2021).
Security risks, particularly in quantum decryption, underscore the imperative
of ethical considerations and the development of post-quantum
cryptography. Policymakers face the intricate task of navigating institutional
transitions into the quantum age, with initiatives like the National Quantum
Initiative Act aimed at addressing these challenges. Collaboration between
private sector leaders is deemed essential for progress. On a technical front,
challenges span scalable and stable quantum hardware, noise management,
27 JNS 33/2023

the development of efficient quantum algorithms, error correction, quantum

communication advancement, and seamless integration with classical
technology (Swayne and Priya, 2023). The shortage of skilled professionals,
lack of standardization, and high expenses present additional hurdles.
Despite the formidable nature of these challenges, ongoing efforts, increased
funding, and collaborative initiatives provide hope for overcoming these
obstacles and unlocking the transformative potential inherent in quantum
computing.
Programming in quantum computers
Quantum computers are able to reduce the machine learning process from
several hundreds of years to seconds (Zyga, 2015). Major technologies such
as IBM and Google are investing in and producing quantum computers (Lee,
2021). Quantum programming languages are instructions designed to run on
quantum computers. The most suitable quantum languages and which require
the order to be learned are (Hajjar, 2022; Muthyala, 2021):
• QLC (Quantum Computing Language) is a redevelopment of the
C language for quantum computers. It is the first Quantic language
implemented.
• QMASM (Quantum Macro Assembler) or quantum low-level
language was released in 2016. This language and from the name
itself have features of Assemble language where programmers need
to know hardware specifications in detail and write code is performed
by writing instructions in a low-level abstraction.
• SILQ is a high-level language released in 2020. It is written in the D
language. The D language has 482 stars, 10 contributions on github
and is a language that updates regularly.
Quantum Computing with Python
Python is becoming an increasingly popular language for quantum
computing research and development. There are several reasons for this:
• Easy to learn and use: Python is known for its simplicity and ease of
use, making it a good choice for researchers and developers who are new to
quantum computing.
• Large community and ecosystem: Python have a large community of
users and developers, and a rich ecosystem of libraries and tools,
28 JNS 33/2023

making it easy to find resources and get help with quantum

computing projects.
• Versatility: Python is a versatile language that can be used for a wide
range of tasks, from data analysis to machine learning to web
development, making it well suited for quantum computing research
and development.
• Integration with quantum software and hardware: Many quantum
software and hardware providers offer Python APIs and software
development kits (SDKs), allowing developers to easily integrate
quantum functionality into their Python applications.
There are several Python development tools designed specifically for
quantum computing, such as Qiskit, PyQuil and Cirq. These tools provide a
range of functionality, from simulating quantum circuits to interfacing with
real quantum hardware. The characteristics of the most commonly used
Python tools for quantum coding are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Comparison of Python tools (Web: Qiskit, Cirq, PyQuil; Metwalli,
2022 )
Qiskit Cirq PyQuil
It was developed by Cirq is developed by PyQuil was developed by
IBM and provides a Google and focuses on Rigetti Computing and is
complete set of tools providing a clean and specifically designed for
and libraries for simple API for building programming and simulating
quantum computing. quantum circuits. quantum computers.
It supports a wide range It offers a wide range of It provides a high-level
of quantum operations quantum gates and interface for quantum
and gates, making it operations, making it programming, making it
suitable for complex suitable for various accessible to users without
quantum circuit quantum algorithms and prior experience in quantum
construction. simulations. computing.
Qiskit allows users to Cirq provides simulators PyQuil supports a variety of
run their circuits on real for circuit simulation, quantum gates and operations,
quantum hardware including the ability to enabling users to build
provided by IBM simulate measurement complex quantum circuits.
Quantum. results.
29 JNS 33/2023

It provides a rich set of It supports a variety of It provides simulators, such as

simulators, including backends, including Wavefunction Simulator, that
the state vector Google's Quantum allow users to simulate
simulator, which allows hardware, allowing users quantum circuits and obtain
users to simulate to run their circuits on wavefunction or measurement
quantum state evolution real hardware. results.
and derive measurement
results.
Qiskit has a large and Cirq has a lower PyQuil can connect to
active community, with approach compared to Rigetti's Quantum Virtual
extensive Qiskit, which makes it Machine (QVM) or the Forest
documentation and suitable for users who platform to run programs on
tutorials available. prefer finer control over their quantum hardware.
their quantum circuits.

Installing and using Qiskit, Cirq and PyQuil

All three SDK are installed using the pip (Python package manager)
command when we have Python pre-installed on our computer. Related
commands:
pip install qiskit
pip install cirq
pip install PyQuil
Qiskit provides various modules to work with different aspects of quantum
computing, including quantum circuits, simulators, and supports for running
circuits on quantum hardware. Cirq provides a variety of classes and
methods for working with quantum circuits.
Creating quantum circuits:
Code in Qiskit:
from qiskit import QuantumCircuit, execute, Aer
# Creating a quantum circuit with two qubits
circuit = QuantumCircuit(2)
circuit.h(0)
""" Application of the CX gate that checks the first qubit and the second
qubit with circuit.cx(0, 1)."""
30 JNS 33/2023

circuit.cx(0, 1)
# Circuit simulation using the Aer simulator
simulator = Aer.get_backend('qasm_simulator')
job = execute(circuit, simulator)
result = job.result()
# Numbering of measurement results
counts = result.get_counts(circuit)
print(counts)

Code in Cirq:
import cirq
# Creating a quantum circuit
circuit = cirq.Circuit()
qubits = cirq.LineQubit.range(2)
circuit.append(cirq.H(qubits[0]))
circuit.append(cirq.CNOT(qubits[0], qubits[1]))
# Circuit simulation
simulator = cirq.Simulator()
result = simulator.simulate(circuit)
# Numbering of measurement results
measurements = result.measurements
print(measurements)

Code in PyQuil:
from pyquil import Program
from pyquil.api import QVMConnection
# Creating a quantum circuit
31 JNS 33/2023

program = Program()
program += program.h(0)
program += program.cnot(0, 1)
# Simulating the program using QVM (Quantum #Virtual Machine)
qvm = QVMConnection()
result = qvm.run_and_measure(program, [0, 1], trials=10)
# Numbering of measurement results
print(result)
All three languages have similar procedures. The main difference lies in the
specific classes and methods they provide for working with quantum circuits
and simulating quantum algorithms. Qiskit is developed by IBM, Cirq by
Google and PyQuil by Rigetti, so the choice is based on preference or the
quantum hardware the user will be using. Qiskit is the most popular and
widely used quantum programming library.
Using the Qiskit library in the quantum teleportation algorithm
Quantum teleportation is a foundational concept in the field of quantum
information, enabling the transfer of an unknown quantum state from one
qubit (referred to as the sender qubit, or user qubit A) to another qubit
(designated as the receiver qubit, or user qubit B) through the utilization of
quantum entanglement and classical communication (Rieffel & Polak, 2011).
This phenomenon carries significant implications for the domains of
quantum communication and computational tasks.
In contrast to classical data transfer methods, quantum teleportation offers
several intriguing advantages. Traditional methods rely on transmitting
information through classical channels, which can be subject to various
limitations such as bandwidth constraints, signal degradation, and
eavesdropping risks. In contrast, quantum teleportation leverages the unique
properties of quantum entanglement to transfer quantum states without
exposing the actual state itself during transmission. The key distinction lies
in the principles of superposition and entanglement, which allow quantum
teleportation to transmit quantum information in a way that is not achievable
by classical means. Quantum teleportation provides a secure and efficient
means of transferring quantum states across large distances, making it a
32 JNS 33/2023

promising candidate for quantum communication and cryptography

applications.
The code presented below was developed and executed using the IBM
Quantum Platform. The chosen account type is a free subscription, which
facilitates the simulation of quantum teleportation through the utilization of
the Qiskit library.
Code Implementation (Qiskit, Quantum Teleportation):The code
implementation (Qiskit, Quantum Teleportation):
from qiskit import QuantumCircuit, execute, Aer
from qiskit.visualization import plot_histogram
# Creating a qubit circuit with three qubits
circuit = QuantumCircuit(3, 3)
# A prepares the conditions to be teleported
circuit.h(0)
circuit.cx(0, 1)
circuit.barrier()
# Entanglement of qubit 2 with the state to be teleported
circuit.cx(1, 2)
circuit.h(0)
circuit.barrier()
circuit.measure([0, 1], [0, 1])
circuit.barrier()
circuit.cx(1, 2)
circuit.cz(0, 2)
# Measuring the final teleported qubit
circuit.measure(2, 2)
# Simulate the circuit using the Air simulator
simulator = Aer.get_backend('qasm_simulator')
job = execute(circuit, simulator, shots=1000)
33 JNS 33/2023

result = job.result()
# We take and draw the measurement results
counts = result.get_counts(circuit)
plot_histogram(counts)

The results of the code are depicted in Figure 6, c, which displays histograms
representing the measurement results of the teleported qubit. These
histograms illustrate the distributions of measurement outcomes for varying
numbers of simulations, specifically, for 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000 runs.
Notably, as the number of simulations increases, the observed trend reveals a
convergence towards near-equal separations among the measurement
outcomes, highlighting the statistical robustness and consistency of the
quantum teleportation process as the computational workload scales.

Figure 6 Histograms according to the number of simulations: a for 10, b for

100, c for 1000 and d for 1000 (Souce: Authors simulations)

Moreover, our observation that the measurement outcomes tend to approach

equal separations as the number of simulations increases underscores the
statistical predictability and stability of quantum teleportation. In contrast,
34 JNS 33/2023

classical data transfer methods may exhibit variability and susceptibility to

external factors that can affect the reliability of transmitted information.
Python, in general, is a versatile and accessible language that is suitable for
quantum computing research and development, and its popularity is likely to
continue to grow in the future (Skecic & Yakaryılmaz, 2022). By studying
and comparing several quantum computing SDKs, we identified that each
quantum SDK has its own documentation and provides users with cross-
platform support with an easy-to-use syntax. However, programming for
quantum computers is still unknown and difficult. Some of the difficulties
we may encounter in programming are (Muthyala, 2021; Dilmegani, 2022 ):
 The difficulty in formulating a universal QC (Quantum Computing)
language;
 Incomplete and hidden variables in quantum machines;
 Quantum computers themselves are still in their infancy and are not
powerful enough to run complex quantum algorithms.
Conclusions
Quantum computing programming is in its early phases but is advancing
rapidly. Leading global IT giants such as Google, IBM, Microsoft, Intel,
Amazon, and many others are actively harnessing the potential of quantum
computers to advance fields like materials science, medicine, and artificial
intelligence applications. As quantum technology progresses, the intricate
integration of quantum systems with existing classical computing platforms
becomes increasingly challenging. The interest and expertise among
programmers, students, and programming enthusiasts in quantum computing
are continually expanding.
Quantum programming environments like Qiskit, Cirq, and PyQuil provide
developers with tools to navigate the complexities of programming quantum
computers and explore real-world applications. These technologies are in a
constant state of advancement. In a recent scientific study, Qiskit
demonstrated its utility as an open-source tool for investigating quantum
teleportation, offering pre-built functions and tools for the construction,
simulation, and execution of quantum circuits, simplifying the
implementation of quantum protocols such as teleportation. Due to its rapid
development, quantum computer programming is poised to progress at an
accelerated rate compared to classical computing. This accelerated
advancement promises to unlock new innovations and vast opportunities
35 JNS 33/2023

across a wide array of fields. As time unfolds, programming for quantum

computers will continue to evolve and establish itself as a potent tool for
conquering intricate computational challenges and fostering groundbreaking
applications.
Challenges in the trajectory of quantum computing, such as quantum
decoherence, the fragility of quantum systems, geopolitical competition, and
security risks, necessitate comprehensive attention from policymakers,
researchers, and industry stakeholders, but ongoing efforts and collaborative
initiatives offer hope for overcoming these hurdles and realizing the
transformative potential of quantum computing.
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