Food Quality and Safety, 2021, 5, 1–9

doi:10.1093/fqsafe/fyaa030
Article

Article

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Microbiological assessment of street foods at
the point of sale in Maputo (Mozambique)
Acácio Salamandane*,**, , Ana Carla Silva*, Luísa Brito* and
Manuel Malfeito-Ferreira*
*Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF) Research Centre, Instituto Superior de Agronomia,
University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal and **Faculdade de Ciências de Saúde, Universidade Lúrio, Bairro de Marrere,
Nampula, Mozambique

Correspondence to: Acácio Salamandane, Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food (LEAF) Research Centre,
Instituto Superior de Agronomia, University of Lisbon, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal. E-mail: [email protected]

Received 14 September 2020; Revised 3 November 2020; Editorial decision 4 November 2020.

Abstract
Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the microbiological quality and safety of street food
sold in the main streets and informal markets of Maputo, the capital of Mozambique.
Materials and Methods: From 83 different vendors selling different types of foods, 83 samples of
ready-to-eat (RTE) street food were analyzed. Mesophiles, Escherichia coli and total coliforms were
used as quality and hygiene indicators. Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) Salmonella
and coagulase-positive staphylococci were used as food safety indicators.
Results: High proportions of unsatisfactory food samples were found in both traditional hot
(76.7%) and cold (75%) foods. L. monocytogenes and Salmonella were tested negative in this
survey. However, when coagulase-positive staphylococci was used as a food safety indicator,
approximately 25% (23/83) of the food samples analyzed were classified as unsatisfactory/
potentially hazardous.
Conclusions: These results, showing that street food sold in Maputo clearly requires adequate
sanitary conditions for its preparation and sale, contribute to the development of good
manufacturing practices (GMP) for street food in Maputo, Mozambique. This is the first report on
the microbiological quality and safety of street food in Mozambique.

Key words: ready-to-eat street food; Escherichia coli; coagulase-positive staphylococci; good manufacturing practices (GMP);
good hygiene practices (GHP).

Introduction It is estimated that 2.5 billion people worldwide consume street

food daily (Jaffee et al., 2019). The sale of ready-to-eat (RTE) street
In developing countries, one of the main challenges is to ensure food
security, i.e. to provide a sufficient amount of food for the entire food is frequent, particularly in large urban centers (Cortese et al.,
population. However, another dilemma in these countries is food 2016). Street food contributes significantly to the diet of many
safety (Paudyal et al., 2017). More than 200 types of diseases are people in developed and developing countries (WHO, 2019). In
estimated to be caused or spread by food, occasionally causing developing countries, street food vending is a livelihood for mil-
long-term health problems in vulnerable groups such as the eld- lions of ‘urban poor’ families, and makes a considerable contribu-
erly, pregnant women, children and immunocompromised people tion to the economy of these countries (Loukieh et al., 2018). In
(Loukieh et al., 2018; WHO, 2019). Thus, it is important to ensure Mozambique, as in many other developing countries, street food
food safety, as a public health measure toward reducing mortality vendors are often found in almost every street in major urban cen-
rate (Paudyal et al., 2017). ters (Gelormini et al., 2015). The main reasons for street food sales

1
© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Zhejiang University Press.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
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2 A. Salamandane et al.

are associated with the growing demand for low-cost, RTE foods, Methodology
but also with the poverty that most citizens face. In various parts of
Study area
Maputo, there is a proliferation of informal markets (unknown to
the domestic taxing authority) operating without minimum hygiene Maputo city, the capital and the most crowded Mozambican city, has
and sanitation conditions. an estimated area of 347.69 km2 and a population density of 3670.6/
In developed countries, the sale of RTE foods is regulated by hy- km2 (CENSO, 2017). Maputo has very diverse cultural groups gath-
giene and safety criteria (Abrahale et al., 2018), often not the case ering nationals and foreign immigrants from both rural and urban
in developing countries (Paudyal et al., 2017). Problems including areas (Barros et al., 2014). The administrative division of Maputo

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the use of untreated water, poor sanitation and personal hygiene City is comprised of seven municipal districts. This study focused
and the use of contaminated utensils by street food vendors act as on five out of the seven municipal districts, namely KaMpfumu,
vectors of foodborne pathogens (Onyeneho and Hedberg, 2013; Nlhamankulu, KaMaxaquene, KaMavota and KaMubukwana,
Schirone et al., 2018). A defective water supply system has often where the main street food sales activities are concentrated
been reported as a major challenge for the sale of RTE street food (Gelormini et al., 2015).
in developing countries (Onyeneho and Hedberg, 2013; Weststrate
et al., 2019). Other factors include poor sanitation and exposure of Characterization of street food vendors' activities
food to dust, flies and other insects, which may harbor pathogens The characterization of RTE street foods and street food vendors
(Alimi, 2016; Shiningeni et al., 2019). Furthermore, the low level was based on observational analysis of the various types of foods
of education and the lack of short-term training initiatives have re- sold in the main informal markets characterized by a high concen-
sulted in most street vendors' ignorance of these factors. This has tration of potential customers (close to bus stops, schools, hospitals
been reported in several studies relating the poor hygiene of street and health centers), where the main street food sales activities are
vendors with the lack of safe food handling (Monney et al., 2014; concentrated (Gelormini et al., 2015). An informal conversation was
Abrahale et al., 2018). Consequently, street foods have been asso- held with the vendors in order to obtain information about their age,
ciated with outbreaks of foodborne diseases in several countries time spent selling street food, source of food ingredients, food prep-
(Aluko et al., 2014). aration methods and main daily difficulties. Precaution was taken
With this framework, this study aimed to assess the microbio- not to disturb the normal course of sales, as suggested by Trafialek
logical quality and safety of street foods at the point of sale, in the et al. (2017).
city of Maputo. We performed a survey on 83 different RTE foods, Street food vendors were divided into two groups: (1) those
from 83 different street vendors within 132 km2, to encompass a preparing food at their homes and transporting them to previously-
wide diversity of food and sale types. International guidelines for the selected strategic points of sale (Figure 1A) and (2) those who pre-
microbiological quality of RTE foods sampled at the point of sale pare or cook food in fixed locations in the streets. In the latter case,
were used to interpret the data. To our knowledge, this is the first these locations may be informal markets (Figure 1B) or the streets
report on the microbiological quality and safety of street food, not (Figure 1C) without any physical structure, such as restaurants or
only in Maputo, but also in Mozambique. canteens, to support food preparation.

A B C

D E F

Figure 1. Street food and associated environments in Maputo. A) rachel, B) cooking badjia in the street, C) sanana, cooking badjia in the street, D) vending food
in cars, E) cooking food in the informal market, F) consumption at the point of sale.
Microbiological assessment of street foods 3

The first group of vendors are usually denoted ‘street hawkers’, immediately packed in sterile sample bags, placed in a refrigerated
as they do not have a fixed selling point. They sell all types of food (4–8 °C) thermal box and transported to the National Laboratory
included in this study, including fruits, sandwiches, salads, full meals of Food Hygiene and Water (Mozambican Ministry of Health). The
(hot food) and other typical Mozambican foods. Typically, the samples were kept between 4–8 °C, until microbiological analysis
vendor of hot meals is present at lunch time, transporting food items was performed, <24 h after sampling.
in 20 L buckets equipped with a lid. Meals are served on reusable
plastic dishes, which, after being used by one customer, are washed Microbiological analyses
in water in a basin with standing water and served to the next cus-

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Food samples were analyzed for each of the following micro-
tomer. Eventually, at the customer's request, food may be served in bial indicators: mesophiles, total coliforms, Escherichia coli (E.
a take-away container with an additional cost. Because these foods coli), coagulase-positive staphylococci, Listeria monocytogenes
are sold at a lower cost than those that are prepared on place, their (L. monocytogenes) and Salmonella. The reference strains were
consumers are mainly low-income people, who live on the streets or used as positive controls for biochemical tests of identification,
work sporadic jobs. namely: Staphylococcus aureus (CECT86T) for coagulase tests;
The second group of vendors is typically composed of women and L. monocytogenes (CECT4032 = NCTC11994) and Listeria
preparing foods, either in informal markets or at the entrance of innocua (CECT910T = NCTC11288) onto ALOA chromogenic me-
informal markets, and near places of high concentration of people, dium (Gellose Listeria selon Ottaviani et Agosti).
such as schools, health centers and bus stops. The best-selling prod- For the enumeration of mesophiles, E. coli, total coliforms and
ucts of this segment, throughout the day, include assorted sand- coagulase-positive staphylococci, 10 g of sample was aseptically
wiches, typical Mozambican cold foods such as badjia, sanana, and, weighed into a sterile BagFilter (Interscience, France) and 90 mL of
at lunch time, full meals (mainly hot foods). Ingredients used for Ringer Solution (RS) was added. Samples were homogenized using a
food preparation are from the local market, and meals are usually paddle blender, 85 rpm for 30 s. Afterwards, decimal dilutions were
served on plastic or porcelain plates. After use, the plates are washed made with RS diluent according to ISO Standard (ISO, 2017b).
in a basin with standing water for re-use by the next customer. In all The enumeration of mesophiles was performed according to
cases, the standing water was carried in buckets and there were no ISO 4833:2003 (ISO, 2003), incorporating 1 mL of the respective
toilets available. decimal dilution in Plate Count Agar medium (Biokar Diagnostics,
Beauvais, France) and incubating for 3 d at 30 ± 1 °C.
Food sampling The enumeration of E. coli, total coliforms and coagulase-positive
The street foods analyzed (Table 1) included, (1) sandwiches like staphylococci was performed by spreading 0.1 mL of the respective
palone and rachel (Figure 1D); (2) traditional Mozambican cold decimal dilution according to ISO (2001) and ISO (1999a). Typical
foods, such as molina or lifete, badjia (Figure 1E) and sanana colonies of E. coli and total coliforms were counted after 24 h at
(Figure 1F); and (3) traditional Mozambican hot foods such as xima 37 ± 1 °C onto Compass ECC Agar medium (Biokar Diagnostics,
and chatine or rice and matapa. Eighty-three food samples were pur- Beauvais, France) (ISO, 2001). Staphylococcus spp. colonies were
chased from 83 vendors (68 women, 10 children and 5 men), in the counted after 48 h at 37 °C onto Baird Parker Agar medium (Biokar
period of September to October 2019. From these vendors, 32 were Diagnostics, Beauvais, France) (ISO, 1999a). Subsequently, coagu-
‘street hawkers’ and 51 prepared food at the point of sale. The in- lase testing was performed according to ISO (1999b) in tubes con-
formation provided by the vendors regarding street foods and their taining 0.3 mL rabbit plasma (Biokar Diagnostics, Beauvais, France)
ingredients is presented in Table 1. The samples were purchased, and 0.1 mL culture.

Table 1. Characterization of the street foods analyzed

Street foods Ingredients Nature of food

Traditional hot foods Rice and cooked meat Rice, meat and tomato and onion Cooked: full meal
Rice and peanut curry Rice, fish, peanut powder Cooked: full meal
Rice and beans Rice, beans and beef tripe Cooked: full meal
Xima* and chatine Xima, dried fish and tomato Cooked: full meal with added aromatic herbs
Rice and matapa Rice, ground cassava leaves and coconut milk Cooked: full meal
Sandwiches Egg Bread, egg, ketchup Raw
Palone** Palone, bread, ketchup Raw
Mixed Bread, egg, ketchup and palone/rachel Mixture of ingredients
Rachel*** Bread, rachel, ketchup Raw
RTE fruit Pear and apple Fruit Raw
Strawberries Fruit Raw
Sliced watermelon Fruit Raw
RTE salads Home-packed Lettuce, tomato, onion, olive oïl, vinegar Raw
Not packed Lettuce, tomato, onion, olive oïl, vinegar Raw
Traditional cold foods Molina/lifete Tapioca, roasted and ground peanuts, sugar Raw: sweet
Badjia Bean paste, salt, aromatic herbs Cooked: fried
Sanana Corn flour, sugar or salt, shredded coconut Cooked: roasted

RTE, ready-to-eat.
*Xima is a thick paste resulting from cooking corn or cassava flour.
**Palone is a type of mortadella.
***Rachel is a type of sausage.
4 A. Salamandane et al.

Detection and enumeration of L. monocytogenes and Listeria of RTE foods sampled at the point of sale of National Institute of
spp. were performed according to ISO (2017c). From each product, Health, by Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Portuguese Ministry of Health (INSA,
25 g was taken into a sterile BagFilter (Interscience, France) with 2019), and the guidelines for assessing the microbiological safety of
225 mL of Fraser Broth (Primary Enrichment Medium) and Half- RTE foods, proposed by Public Health Laboratory Service, United
Fraser Selective Supplement (Biokar Diagnostics, Beauvais, France). Kingdom (PHLS, 2009), were used for the interpretation of the
Samples were homogenized using a paddle blender, at 85 rpm microbiological quality and safety of street foods. For the interpret-
for 30 s. For enumeration, aliquots of 0.1 mL were spread onto ation of the coliforms level, the guidelines used were from Santos
PALCAM medium (Biokar Diagnostics, Beauvais, France) and in- et al. (2005). Table 2 summarizes the criteria used according to the

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cubated at 37 ± 1 °C for 48 h. For detection, the BagFilter bag was food category analyzed and the guidelines mentioned above.
immediately incubated at 37 ± 1 °C for 24 h. After incubation,
0.1 mL portions from each sample were added to 10 mL each of
Fraser medium (Biokar Diagnostics, Beauvais, France) for secondary Results
enrichment, and incubated at 37 ± 1 °C for 24 h. At the end of this Characteristics of street vendors
incubation period, from each secondary enrichment, ALOA plates One hundred and forty-six street food vendors were interviewed. The
(Chromogenic Listeria-selective aga, Biokar Diagnostics, Beauvais, majority (79.5%) were female (Table 3). Forty-five-point two per-
France) were loop inoculated and incubated at 37 ± 1 °C for 24 h cent of sellers have primary education, and there was a greater per-
for the detection of characteristic colonies (blue colonies with an centage (82.8%) of singles and widows (mostly women). The total
opaque halo for L. monocytogenes, and/or blue colonies with no of sellers, 61.6% belong to the group of ‘street hawkers’ (Table 3).
halo for other listeria).
The detection of Salmonella was performed according to ISO
Quality and hygiene indicators of street foods
(2017a). From each product, 25 g was taken into a sterile BagFilter
Mesophiles
bag (Interscience, France) with 225 ml of buffered peptone water
Table 4 shows the number and percentage of unsatisfactory food
(Biokar Diagnostics, Beauvais, France). Samples were homogen-
samples, and the average values of mesophiles. All 83 food samples
ized in a paddle blender, 85 rpm for 30 s, and incubated at 37 ±
presented mesophile values higher than 2.8 log CFU/g. The food
1 °C for 24 h. After, 0.1 ml aliquots were added to 10 ml of Muller-
categories with the higher percentages of unsatisfactory samples
Kauffmann Tetrathionate Novobiocin Broth (MKTTn) enrichment
regarding mesophiles were: traditional hot foods, where 76.7% of
medium (Biokar Diagnostics, Beauvais, France) and portions of 1 ml
the samples were classified as unsatisfactory (>4 log CFU/g); and
were respectively added to 10 ml of Rappaport enrichment medium-
traditional cold foods, where 75% of the samples were classified as
Vassiliadis soya (RVS) (Biokar Diagnostics, Beauvais, France). Tubes
unsatisfactory (>5 log CFU/g). In RTE fruits, only 12.5% of the sam-
were incubated at 37 ± 1 °C and 42 °C for 24–48 h, respectively.
ples were classified as unsatisfactory (>6 log CFU/g).
After 24–48 h, aliquots of 0.1 ml were removed from each enrich-
ment medium and loop inoculated onto XLD Agar and VBM Agar
Plates. Incubation proceeded at 37 ± 1 °C for 24 h for detection of E. coli and total coliforms
characteristic colonies. The number and percentage of unsatisfactory food samples, and
the average values of E. coli and total coliforms, are shown in
Table 4. In traditional hot foods, 63% of the samples were classi-
Data interpretation fied as unsatisfactory with regard to E. coli (>2.8 log CFU/g). When
For each type of street food, and microbiological enumeration, the total coliforms were considered as a hygiene indicator, this per-
average values and respective standard deviations from duplicate centage rose to 76.7% (>2 log CFU/g). In sandwiches, 62.5% of
plates were calculated. The guidelines for the microbiological quality the samples presented >2.5 log CFU of E. coli/g, and were classified

Table 2. Guidelines for the microbiological quality of RTE foods analyzed in this work

Microbiological quality (CFU/g)

Food category* Criterion Reference
Unacceptable/potentially
Satisfactory Acceptable Unsatisfactory hazardous

1 Mesophiles ≤102 >102, ≤104 >104 Not applicable PHLS, 2009

2 ≤103 >103, ≤105 >105 Not applicable INSA, 2019
3 ≤104 >104, ≤106 >106 Not applicable
1 Coliforms ≤10 >10, ≤102 >102 Not applicable Santos et al.,
2 ≤10 >10, ≤103 >103 Not applicable 2005
3 ≤102 >102, ≤104 >104 Not applicable
1, 2 E. coli <10 Not applicable ≥10 Not applicable PHLS, 2009
3 ≤10 >101, <102 ≥102 Not applicable INSA, 2019
1–3 Coagulase-positive <102 Not applicable ≥102, ≤104 >104
staphylococci
1–3 Salmonella Not detected in 25 g Not applicable Not applicable Detected in 25 g
1–3 L. monocytogenes <100 cfu/g Not applicable Not applicable ≥100 cfu/g

E. coli, Escherichia coli; L. monocytogenes, Listeria monocytogenes.

*Category 1: fully cooked foods, not handled after heat treatment (traditional hot foods and traditional cold foods, except molina or lifete). Category 2: foods
composed of fully cooked/pasteurized foods added with raw components or raw meat or fish (xima and chatine, sandwiches and molina or lifete). Category 3:
includes raw fruits and vegetables such as salads and sliced fruits.
Microbiological assessment of street foods 5

Table 3. Characterization of street food vendors in RTE salads, this percentage was 40%. The highest percentage of
unsatisfactory/potentially hazardous food samples (43.7%) was ob-
Characteristics n Percentage (%)
served in traditional cold foods. Although unsatisfactory, none of
Gender the RTE fruit samples were classified as potentially hazardous (<4
Male 30 20.5 log CFU/g).
Female 116 79.5
Age
8–16 38 26 Discussion

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18–45 83 56.8
>45 25 17.1
Characteristics of street food vendors
Education The survey performed in this work, for 146 food street vendors in five
Iliterate 20 13.7 of the seven municipal districts of Maputo, Mozambique, showed
Primary 66 45.2 that a higher percentage of street food sellers were women. This may
Secondary 60 41.1 be related to cultural habits; in Mozambique in particular, and in
Marital status Africa in general, men do not participate in food preparation. In
Married 25 17.1 addition, the illiteracy rate is higher among women, meaning fewer
Single 97 66.4
opportunities for formal jobs. In southern Mozambique, men tend to
Widow 24 16.4
emigrate frequently to work or do business in South Africa, leaving
Type of street vendor
Those who prepare or cook food in 56 38.4
their wives and children behind. As a means of support, women who
fixed locations in the streets take care of their children use street sales as an alternative income.
‘Street hawkers’ 90 61.6 These results corroborate with studies carried out in South Africa,
Duration of food vending (yrs) such as those presented by Sibanyoni et al. (2017), in Mpumalanga,
<2 27 18.5 and by Katiyo et al. (2019) in Pretoria, where 83% and 71% of
2–5 40 27.4 women, respectively, were street food vendors. The percentage
>5 79 54.1 variation is due to local development and business opportunities.
Where do you buy food Children are also often employed in street food selling. These chil-
Informal market 95 65.1
dren generally work as helpers to the adults, who may or may not
Municipal market/supermarket 51 34.9
be their parents. This practice is common in many poor countries.
Training on food safety
Yes 24 16.4
No 122 83.6 Quality and hygiene indicators of street foods
Total 146 The results of the present study regarding mesophilic bacteria in
hot street foods are in agreement with those reported in the neigh-
boring country of South Africa (Nyenje et al., 2012; Mafune et al.,
as unsatisfactory. When the indicator was coliform level, this per-
2016). This is due to hygiene and sanitation conditions at the point
centage increased to 75% (>3 log CFU/g). In RTE salads, 80% of
of sale, as reported by Loukieh et al. (2018) in Beirut. Similarly,
the samples presented >2.4 log CFU of E. coli/g and more than 3.4
Nyenje et al. (2012) reported the occurrence of mesophiles at levels
log CFU of coliforms/g and were classified by both indicators as un-
>6 log CFU/g in hot street foods sold in South Africa. A low occur-
satisfactory. Regarding traditional cold foods, 43.8% and 68.8% of
rence of coliforms and E. coli is expected in hot foods since these
the samples were classified as unsatisfactory, when E. coli (>2.48 log
foods are cooked and the heat treatment is able to eliminate the
CFU/g) or total coliforms (>2.48 log CFU/g), respectively, were con-
non-sporulated bacterial population. However, the unsatisfactory
sidered as hygiene indicators.
levels of these hygiene indicator microorganisms found in this food
category indicate contamination post-preparation, likely associated
Food safety indicators in street foods with specific culinary practices. White rice, present in four of the
Salmonella and Listeria five types of hot food analyzed, is cooked in water and subsequently
The 83 food samples were analyzed for the presence of Salmonella, washed in cold water to loosen the rice. Thus, the contamination
while L. monocytogenes was only analyzed for in sandwiches and may have originated from cold water. In a parallel study carried out
RTE fruits (32 samples). None of the samples were positive for either in Maputo, high amounts of mesophiles, E. coli and coliforms were
pathogen (Table 5). However, non-pathogenic Listeria spp (non- found in the waters provided by the same street food vendors (un-
L. monocytogenes) was detected in six sandwiches (one palone, two published data). In developing countries, food preparation is based
mixed, and three rachel) with 2.47 and 2.54 log CFU/g in two of the on local habits and customs, and this is often the cause of food con-
three rachel sandwiches. tamination, verified in several studies (Abakari et al., 2018; Loukieh
et al., 2018; Arshad and Zahoor, 2019).
Coagulase-positive staphylococci In sandwiches, high levels of E. coli and total coliforms were
The number and percentage of unsatisfactory/potentially hazardous found. This phenomenon may be associated with the way in which
food samples, and the average values of coagulase-positive staphylo- sandwiches are transported and sold. Cross-contamination may be
cocci, are in Table 5. For traditional hot foods, 33% of the sam- associated with vectors such as flies and other insects (Monney et al.,
ples were classified as unsatisfactory/potentially hazardous (>4 log 2014; Kothe et al., 2016). RTE sandwiches are exposed outdoors
CFU/g). One of the traditional hot foods (xima and chatine) pre- and handled by vendors without minimum hygiene conditions.
sented all five unsatisfactory/potentially hazardous samples in this Incorrect storage of RTE foods is common among street vendors in
category, with a mean value of 5.2 log CFU/g (Table 5). 25% of several countries. Kothe et al. (2016), in Southern Brazil, reported
the sandwich samples were unsatisfactory/potentially hazardous; that 75% of the sandwiches were contaminated with total coliforms
6 A. Salamandane et al.

Table 4. Unsatisfactory street foods, collected in Maputo, based on food category and quality (mesophiles) and hygiene (E. coli and
coliforms) indicators

Unsatisfactory food samples (average values ± standard deviation of log CFU/g)

Type and (number) of food (%) total percentage
samples
Mesophiles E. coli Coliforms

Traditional hot foods

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Rice and cooked meat 13/13 7/13 8/13
(5.03 ± 0.54) (3.89 ± 0.73) (4.13 ± 0.34)
Rice and peanut curry 3/5 4/5 4/5
(5.08 ± 1.23) (3.28 ± 0.66) (3.33 ± 0.46)
Rice and beans 1/2 2/2 1/2
(4.54 ± 1.0) (3.36 ± 0.08) (4.94 ± 0.43)
Xima and chatine 3/5 1/5 5/5
(5.19 ± 0.3) (3.51 ± 0.0) (5.30 ± 0.24)
Rice and matapa 3/5 3/5 5/5
(4.12 ± 0.47) (3.32 ± 0.57) (3.57 ± 0.39)
Total (30) 23/30 (76.7%) 19/30 (63%) 23/30 (76.7%)
(4.86 ± 0.81) (3.36 ± 0.67) (4.11 ± 0.71)
Sandwiches
Palone 0/3 2/3 2/3
(4.85 ± 1.01) (2.85 ± 1.36) (3.4 ± 0.16)
Mixed 0/6 4/6 6/6
(5.28 ± 0.48) (2.69 ± 0.25) (3.37 ± 0.2)
Rachel 0/3 2/3 2/3
(5.75 ± 0.75) (2.91 ± 0.2) (3.34 ± 0.88)
Egg 0/4 2/4 2/4
(5.46 ± 0.65) (2.51 ± 14) (3.18 ± 0.17)
Total (16) 0/16 10/16 (62.5%) 12/16 (75%)
(5.16 ± 0.74) (2.71 ± 0.84) (3.35 ± 0.39)
RTE Fruit
Pear and apple 0/8 TN TN
(3.54 ± 0.75)
Strawberries 0/4 3/4 4/4
(5.58 ± 0.47) 3.24 ± 0.53) (4.34 ± 0.43)
Sliced watermelon 2/4 TN 3/4
(4.41 ± 0.04) (2.35 ± 0.02)
Total (16) 2/16 (12.5%) 3/16 (18.8%) 7/16 (47.8%)
(4.33 ± 1.14) (1.24 ± 0.53) (3.36 ± 0.92)
RTE salads
Home packed 0/2 2/2 2/2
(4.61 ± 0.08) (2.5 ± 0.06) (3.45 ± 0.07)
Not packed 0/3 2/3 2/3
(5.48 ± 0.27) (2.83 ± 0.02) (4.03 ± 0.07)
Total (5) 0/5 4/5 (80%) 4/5 (80%)
(4.94 ± 0.41) (2.69 ± 0.17) (3.74 ± 0.3)
Traditional cold food
Molina/lifete 2/5 3/5 4/5
(5.34 ± 0.4) (2.48 ± 0.46) (3.29 ± 0.06)
Badjia 7/7 4/7 7/7
(5.48 ± 0.6) (3.19 ± 1.3) (3.89 ± 0.3)
Sanana 3/4 TN TN
(4.87 ± 0.6)
Total (16) 12/16 (75%) 7/16 (43.8%) 11/16 (68.8%)
(5.37 ± 0.73) (3.19 ± 0.41) (3.53 ± 0.35)
Total 83

For mesophiles and E. coli, the interpretation of the microbiological results was based on PHLS (2009) and INSA (2019). For coliforms, the interpretation of
the microbiological results was based on Santos et al. (2005). E. coli, Escherichia coli; RTE, ready-to-eat; TN, tested negative.

and 30% with fecal coliforms. These contaminations were related to safety procedures. 65.1% of vendors purchased ingredients in in-
poor storage conditions and a lack of good manufacturing practices formal markets that often lack minimum hygiene conditions, where
(GMP) and good hygiene practices (GHP). Other factors that may only 16.4% of vendors had food safety training (Table 3). The con-
contribute to the contamination of these sandwiches are the origin tamination of fresh fruits, such as strawberries and watermelons,
of ingredients and a lack of training of the street vendors in food with E. coli and other coliforms may be due to farm environment,
Microbiological assessment of street foods 7

Table 5. Unsatisfactory/potentially hazardous street foods col- of coliforms in RTE fruits sold on the streets without protection
lected in Maputo based on food category and pathogenic indica- against insect vectors and dust.
tors High levels of bacteria were frequently observed in RTE salads.
Unsatisfactory/potentially hazardous food samples In Kenya, 46% of salad samples were classified as unsatisfactory
(average values ± sd of log CFU/g) for E. coli (>2 log CFU/g) (Mbae et al., 2018). Mugampoza et al.
Type and
(%) total percentage (2013) found concerning levels of coliforms (>11 log CFU/g) and
(number) of
of E. coli (>7 log CFU/g) in street salads sold in Uganda. The lack
food samples
Listeria Coagulase-positive of sanitizing procedures, such as washing with good quality water,

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Salmonella
monocytogenes staphylococci were associated with high levels of microorganisms in salads (Mbae
et al., 2018).
Traditional hot foods
Rice and TN Not analyzed 5/13 Microbial contamination is frequent in traditional cold foods, due
cooked meat (2.88 ± 1.12) to the way in which foods are prepared, handled, preserved and pack-
Rice and TN Not analyzed 0/5 aged. Cross-contamination may also be associated with insect vectors
peanut curry (2.72 ± 0.49) (Monney et al., 2014; Kothe et al., 2016). High values of coliforms
Rice and TN Not analyzed 0/2 and E. coli have been found in traditional cold foods sold in Nigeria
beans (2.99 ± 0.52) (Aluko et al., 2014). Overall, the unsatisfactory levels of food hygiene
Xima and TN Not analyzed 5/5 and of food quality indicator microorganisms found in this study are
chatine (5.20 ± 0.17)
consistent with those found in other developing countries.
Rice and TN Not analyzed 0/5
The water used to wash and cook food is a major contributor
matapa (3.37 ± 0.05)
Total (30) – – 10/30 (33.3%)
to food contamination. The survey in this work was carried out
(3.39 ± 1.1) during the drought period (September to October); whereas, if the
Sandwiches survey was conducted during the rainy season (in Mozambique,
Palone TN TN 0/3 December to April), the expected levels of contamination would
3.46 ± 0.31 have been higher, due to the occurrence of floods in several regions of
Mixed TN TN 3/6 Mozambique, including Maputo. Bancessi et al. (2020) reported that
4.22 ± 1.0 in Guinea-Bissau, a country also characterized by cyclical flooding,
Rachel TN TN 0/3 a lower level of enteric bacteria was found in the water in the dry
3.34 ± 0.58
season compared to the rainy season.
Egg TN TN 1/4
3.86 ± 0.56
Total (16) – – 4/16 (25%) Pathogenic indicators in street foods
(3.53 ± 0.85) Despite the high prevalence of unsatisfactory food samples, ac-
RTE Fruit cording to food quality and hygiene indicators (mesophiles, E. coli
Pear and TN TN TN and coliforms), (Table 4) Salmonella and L. monocytogenes were
apple not detected in the food samples analyzed (Table 5). Although in
Strawberries TN TN 0/4
cooked foods the occurrence of Salmonella is not common, it may
(3.41 ± 0.74)
be frequently observed in street foods due to post-contamination.
Sliced water- TN TN 0/4
melon (2.33 ± 0.28)
Nevertheless, other authors have also reported the absence of
Total (16) – – 0/16 Salmonella in street foods sold in other African countries, including
(2.65 ± 0.58) Nigeria, Uganda and South Africa (Nyenje et al., 2012; Mugampoza
RTE Salads et al., 2013; Aluko et al., 2014).Considering the presence of non-
Home TN Not analyzed 0/2 pathogenic Listeria spp (non-L. monocytogenes) in six sandwiches,
packed (2.5 ± 0.11) the presence of L. monocytogenes was expected, given the origin
Not packed TN Not analyzed 2/3 of the sandwich ingredients and the occurrence of listeriosis out-
(4.42 ± 1.17) breaks in neighboring countries, such as South Africa (Boatemaa
Total (5) – – 2/5
et al., 2019; Katiyo et al., 2019). Notwithstanding, it is known that
(2.6 ± 1.18)
interactions between L. monocytogenes and background micro-
Traditional cold food
Molina or TN Not analyzed 4/5
biota vary between zero effect, positive effects and antagonistic
lifete (5.21 ± 0.7) effects (Oliveira et al., 2012). The non-pathogenic L. innocua may
Badjia TN Not analyzed 2/7 provide specific growth inhibition of certain L. monocytogenes
(3.91 ± 0.98) strains, while other L. monocytogenes withstood this competitive
Sanana TN Not analyzed 1/4 effect (Heir et al., 2018).
(3.89 ± 0.53) When coagulase-positive staphylococci were used as a food
Total (16) – – 7/16 (43.8%) safety indicator, approximately 25% (23/83) of the food samples
(4.14 ± 0.84) analyzed were classified as unsatisfactory/potentially hazardous.
Total 83
Other authors also reported high percentages of street food con-
taminated with coagulase-positive staphylococci at hazardous levels.
The interpretation of the microbiological results was based on PHLS (2009)
Taulo et al. (2008) reported 64% of traditional food samples in
and INSA (2019). RTE, ready-to-eat; TN, tested negative in 25 g.
Malawi were potentially hazardous for S. aureus, with values of
4.26 log CFU/g detected in traditional food served in rural house-
handling and post-harvest processing. Therefore, it is essential that holds. Oranusi and Braide (2012) also reported a high prevalence
these fresh fruits are properly cleaned, disinfected and packaged be- of S. aureus in traditional food in Nigeria. The contamination by
fore being consumed. The results presented here showed high levels coagulase-positive staphylococci most likely indicates poor food
8 A. Salamandane et al.

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consumers. To our knowledge, this is the first study on the quality Cortese, R., Veiros, M., Feldman, C., et al. (2016). Food safety and hy-
and safety of street food sold in the city of Maputo. In addition, giene practices of vendors during the chain of street food production
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The results from this study will hopefully contribute to the develop-
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food safety risks advised by the World Bank (Jaffee et al., 2019) and Heir, E., Møretrø, T., Simensen, A., et al. (2018). Listeria monocytogenes
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Author Contributions INSA (Instituto Nacional de Saúde Doutor Ricardo Jorge). (2019).
Acácio Salamandane: Carried out the experiments, interpreted the results and Interpretação de resultados de ensaios microbiológicos em alimentos
wrote the manuscript. Ana Carla Silva: Carried out part of the experiments. prontos para consumo e em superfícies do ambiente de preparação e
Luísa Brito: Planned the experiments, interpreted the results and wrote the distribuição alimentar Valores-guia. Nstituto Nacional de Saude Dr Ri-
manuscript. Manuel Malfeito Ferreira: Planned the experiments and wrote cardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal.
the manuscript. ISO (International Organization for Standardization). (1999a). Microbiology
of Food and Animal Feeding Stuffs — Horizontal Method for the Enu-
meration of Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci (Staphylococcus aureus and
Acknowledgements Other Species) — Part 1: Technique Using Baird-Parker Agar Medium —
Amendmen, ISO 6888-1. International Organization for Standardization,
The authors thank the National Laboratory of Hygiene of Food and Water
Geneva, Switzerland.
in Maputo for allowing part of this study to be carried out on their prem-
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). (1999b). Microbiology
ises, and project PORBIOTA – Portuguese E-Infrastructure for Information
of Food and Animal Feeding Stuffs — Horizontal Method for the Enu-
and Research on Biodiversity (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-022127), Operational
meration of Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci (Staphylococcus aureus and
Thematic Program for Competitiveness and Internationalization (POCI),
Other Species) — Part 2: Technique Using Rabbit Plasma Fibrinogen Agar
under the PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European
Medium, ISO 6888-2. International Organization for Standardization,
Regional Development Fund (FEDER).
Geneva, Switzerland
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). (2001). Microbiology
of Food and Animal Feeding Stuffs — Horizontal Method for the Enumer-
Funding
ation of Beta-Glucuronidase-Positive Escherichia coli — Part 2: Colony-
This work was supported by national funds through FCT – Foundation for Count Technique at 44 Degrees C Using 5-Bromo-4-Chloro-3-Indolyl
Science and Technology, Portugal, I.P., under the project UID/AGR/04129/2020 Beta-D-Glucuronide, ISO 16649-2. International Organization for Stand-
(LEAF). ardization, Geneva, Switzerland.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). (2003). Microbiology
of Food and Animal Feeding Stuffs — Horizontal Method for the Enu-
Conflict of Interest meration of Microorganisms — Colony-Count Technique at 30 Degrees
The authors declare no conflicts of interest. C, ISO 4833. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva,
Switzerland.
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