Chapter 10:

WAVE OPTICS

Wavefront: The locus of points which vibrates in same phase is called a

wavefront. (OR) Surface of constant phase is called wavefront.

Types of wavefront:
1. Spherical wavefront: The wavefront formed due to a point source at finite
distance is called spherical wavefront.
2. Plane wavefront: The wavefront formed due to parallel beam of light by the
source at infinite distance is called plane wavefront.
3. Cylindrical wavefront: The wavefront formed due to linear source is called
cylindrical wavefront.

Spherical wave front Plane wave front

Note:
1) The energy of the wave travels in a direction perpendicular to the
wavefront.
2) The speed with which the wavefront moves outwards from the source is
called the speed of the wave.

Huygens principle:
Statement:
1) “Each point of the wavefront is the source of a secondary secondary
wavelets, which travel in all directions with the velocity of light in the
medium”.
2) The tangent drawn to the secondary wavelets in the forward direction gives
new wavefront called secondary wave front.
Explanation:

Note: There is no backward flow of energy when a wave travels in the forward
direction. Therefore wavefront which shows backward propagation of light is
not considered.

Derive Snell’s law using Huygens principle:

Let PP1= Interface, n1= R.I of medium (1)
n2 = R.I of medium (2) (n2>n1)
v1 = speed of light in medium (1)
v2 = speed of light in medium (2)
AB = plane wavefront incident on PP1
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction
CE = Refracted wavefront
The distances BC and AE are
travelled by light in same time ‘t’

BC dis t a n ce
For medium (1) v1 = ∴ velocity =
t time
∴ BC = v1 t --- (1) v=
d
AE t
For medium (2) v2 =
t
AE = v2 t --- (2)

BC
From right angled triangles ABC, sin i =
AC -------(3)
AE
From right angled triangles AEC, sin r =
AC --------(4)
Divide eqn 3/4

BC
sin i AC
Consider, =
sin r AE
AC
sin i BC
=
sin r AE
From eqn 1 & 2
ୱ୧୬ ௜ v1t
=
ୱ୧୬ ௥ v t
2

sin i v1
=
sin r v 2
v1 n 2
But =
v 2 n1
sin i n 2
∴ = = n 21
sin r n1
sin i
∴ n 21 =
sin r
This is Snell’s law.

Note:
If λ1 and λ 2 denote the wavelengths of light in medium (1) and medium (2) and
if BC =λ1 and AE = λ2 then
λ1 BC v1t
= =
λ 2 AE v 2 t
v1 v 2
=
λ1 λ 2
i.e., when a wave travels from rarer medium to denser medium, the
speed of light decreases but frequency remains constant.
Refraction of a plane wave at a rarer medium:

A plane wave incident on a rarer medium for which, v2 > v1 , bends away from
the normal.
i.e., i < r
According to Snell’s law,
sin i n
= n 21 = 2
sin r n1
If, i=ic, then, r=900 & sinr=1,
n2
∴ sin i c =
n1
And for all angles of incidence, i>ic the wave will undergo total internal
reflection.

Derive law of reflection using Huygens principle:

Let AB = Incident plane wavefront
CE = reflected plane wavefront
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of reflection
t = time taken by light to travel from
B to C and A to E.
v = speed of light
 BC AE
But v= and v =
t t
i.e., BC = vt i.e., AE = vt
∴ BC = AE
The two triangles EAC and BAC are congruent.
Therefore, i = r
This is the law of reflection.

Explain reflection of plane wavefront by concave mirror:

When a plane wavefront is incident on a concave mirror then the
reflected wavefront will be spherical wavefront .

Explain refraction of plane wavefront through a convex lens:

When a plane wavefront is incident on a convex lens then the refracted
wavefront will be spherical wavefront.

Explain refraction of plane wavefront through a prism:

When a plane wavefront is incident on a prism then the refracted
wavefront will be plane wavefront.
 INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
The modification in the distribution of light energy due to superposition
of two or more light waves is called Interference.
Ex. 1) A thin layer of oil spreaded over a water appears coloured due to
interference.
2) A thin soap film appears coloured due to interference.
Note: Interference was first observed by Newton and it was first explained by
Thomas Young.

Types of Interference: There are two types

I.Constructive interference: When crest of one wave falls on crest of another
and trough of one wave falls on trough of another wave. Then the interference
is called Constructive Interference. In constructive interference intensity of
light is maximum. Therefore bright fringe is formed.
In constructive interference, two waves are in phase,
C2
C1 C1 and C2 = crest
T1 T1 and T2 = trough
T2

II. Destructive Interference: When crest of one wave falls on trough of

another and trough of one wave falls on crest of another. Then the interference
is called destructive interference.
In destructive interference, the intensity is minimum or zero. Therefore dark
fringe is formed.
In destructive interference, the two waves are out of phase.
C1 C2

T2 T1

Note:
1. During interference, energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. But it is
redistributed. i.e. light energy is conserved during interference.
2. In order to get interference the light waves should have same amplitude,
same wavelength, same frequency and of constant phase difference.

Coherent sources: Two sources are said to be coherent sources if they emit
light waves of same amplitude, same wavelength, same frequency and of
constant phase difference.
Ex: Young’s double slits
 Two independent identical sources cannot act as a coherent sources,
because they do not maintain constant phase difference.

Theory of interference:
Consider two coherent sources S1 and S2. The
two waves coming from S1 and S2 are superposed at
‘P’.
The displacement of wave at ‘P’ due to S1 is
Y1=a sinωt
Where, a=amplitude, ω=2πf=angular frequency,
ωt=phase
The displacement of wave at ‘P’ due to S2 is
Y2=a sin(ωt+φ)
Where, φ=phase difference between two waves.
From superposition principle,
The resultant displacement is
Y=Y1+Y2
Y=a sinωt+ a sin(ωt+φ)
Y=a[sinωt+ sin(ωt+φ)]
  ωt + ωt + φ   ωt − ( ωt + φ )  
Y = a  2sin   × cos  
  2   2 
A+B A−B
Q sin A + sin B = 2sin   cos  
 2   2 

 2ω t + φ   φ
Y = 2a sin   cos  −  but, cos(−θ)=cosθ
 2   2
 φ φ
Y = 2a sin  ωt +  cos  
 2 2

φ  φ
Y = 2a cos   sin  ωt + 
2  2
 φ
Y = R sin  ωt + 
 2
φ
Where, R = 2a cos   = Resultant amplitude
2
This is the theory of interference
Obtain the condition for constructive interference and destructive
interference:
We have resultant amplitude
φ
R = 2a cos  
2
Where, a=amplitude, φ=phase difference
But resultant intensity ∝ (resultant amplitude)2 , I∝R2

Condition for constructive interference: For constructive interference I is

maximum, therefore R is also maximum.
φ I ∝ R2
When cos   = ±1
2 φ
R 2 = 4a 2 cos 2
2
φ=0, 2π, 4π, 6π….. R is maximum,
φ
in general, φ=2nπ When, cos = ±1
Where, n=0, 1, 2, 3, …… 2

This is condition for constructive interference in terms of phase difference

λ
but path difference= × Phase difference
2π
λ R is minimum,
path difference= ×φ
2π φ
When, cos =0
λ 2
path difference= × 2nπ
2π
Path difference = nλ
Where, λ=wavelength.
This is the condition for constructive interference interms of path difference.

Condition for destructive interference: For destructive interference, I

is minimum, therefore R is also minimum.
φ
When, cos   = 0
2

φ=π, 3π, 5π, ………….

In general φ=(2n+1)π
Where, n=0, 1, 2, 3…..
This is the condition for destructive interference in terms of phase difference.
λ
But, path difference = ×φ
2π
 λ
Path difference= × ( 2n + 1) π
2π
λ
Path difference= ( 2n + 1)
2
This is the condition for destructive interference in terms of path difference.

Young’s double slit experiment:

S1 β

1st bright
d 1st dark
⊗ Central
bright fringe
Source
β

S2

D
Screen
The monochromatic light coming from the source is made to fall on a
narrow rectangular slit ‘S’. The light coming from ‘S’ is made to fall on two
narrow closely spaced parallel slits S1 and S2. S1 and S2 acts as coherent
sources. The light waves (wavefront) coming from S1 and S2 are superposed
each other and produce interference pattern on the screen. The pattern
consists of alternate bright and dark fringes. The bright fringe is due to
constructive interference and dark fringe is due to destructive interference. The
central fringe is always bright.
The distance between centers of two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called
fringe width (β).
λD
Fringe width: β= ,
d
Where, λ= wavelength of light, d= distance between double slits
D= distance between screen and double slits.
Note:
1. The intensity distribution curve of interference pattern is as shown.

→ path difference
2. Width of bright fringe = width of dark fringe

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon of bending of light waves around the edges of obstacle
is called diffraction.
The diffraction was first observed by F.M. Grimaldi

Examples for diffraction:

1. The different colures observed in a spider web are due to diffraction.
2. Coloured rings around the moon are due to diffraction.
3. Luminous border rounding the profile of a mountain is due to diffraction.

Diffraction at a single slit (Fraunhoffer diffraction):

The monochromatic light coming from source is made to incident on a

convex lens L1 to obtain parallel beam of light. The parallel beam of light is
made to incident on a narrow slit ‘AB’ of width ‘a’. The diffracted waves are
passed through another convex lens ‘L2’.
Since point O on the screen is equidistant from points A and B, the
secondary wavelets from A and B reach the point O in the same phase and
hence constructive interference takes place.
∴ O is position of central maximum
The secondary wavelets will also be diffracted through an angle θ and
reach the point P on the screen.
From figure, ∆ABN, sinθ=BN/a
path difference = BN=a sinθ
Where, θ=angle of diffraction

i) Condition for diffraction minima: Let, path difference=λ

i.e., a sinθ=λ
In general, for nth minima
Path difference = a sinθn=nλ
 Since, θn is very small
aθn=nλ
nλ
θn =
a
Phase difference = 2nπ
Where, n = 1, 2, 3, ……….
λ = wavelength of light.

ii) condition for secondary diffraction maxima:

λ
If path difference = a sinθ is an odd multiple of , then the constructive
2
interference takes place at P. Hence point P is the position of secondary
maxima.
For nth maxima.
λ
Path difference = a sinθn = ( 2n + 1)
2
θn is small
λ where
θn = ( 2n + 1) , n = 1, 2, 3, ………..
2a

Note-1: The distance of 1st minimum on either side from the centre of the
central maxima is
λD
x= Where, λ = wavelength of light
a
a = width of slit
D = distance between slit and screen.

Note-2: Width of central maxima: It is the distance between the two first
minima on either side of the central maxima.
2λ D
i.e., 2x =
a
2x 2x 2λ
Note-3: Angular width of central maximum = 2θ = = =
f D a
Intensity distribution curve:
Intensity

Central maxima

First minima First secondary maxima

second minima
Second secondary maxima

Path difference

The diffraction pattern consist of a very bright band called central

maxima or principal maxima. On either side of the principal maxima, alternate
minima and secondary maxima are present.

Difference between interference and Diffraction patterns:

Interference Diffraction

It is due to superposition of two It is due to superposition of
wavefronts originating from two secondary wavelets originating from
coherent sources. the different points of the same
wavefront.

All the maxima i.e., bright fringes The bright fringes are of varying
are of the same intensity. intensity. (intensity decreases away
from the central maxima on each
side).

The dark fringes are usually almost The dark fringes are not
perfectly dark. perfectly dark.

The width of fringes is equal Width of central fringes is
double than the width of other
maxima.

Bands are large in number and are Bands are few in number and
equally spaced. are unequally spaced.

.
 POLARISATION
Unpolarised light:
It is the light which has vibrations in all planes perpendicular to
direction of propagation.

It can be represented

Polarisation:The electric vectors are restricted to a single plane perpendicular

to direction of propagation. This is called polarisation.

Polarised light: It is the light in which the electric vectors are restricted to a
single plane perpendicular to direction of propagation.

It can be represented as

Note:
1. Light wave is a transverse wave, the electric field vibrations (electric vector)
are right angles to the direction of propagation of light.
2. An instrument used to produce polarised light from unpolarised light is
called a polarizer.

Polaroid:
Polaroids are the synthetic crystal sheets used produce and analyse
polarised light.

Pass axis: The direction perpendicular to the direction of aligned molecules is

called pass axis.

Uses of polaroid:
1. Polaroid can be used to control the intensity of light.
2. It is used in sun glass.
3. It is used in windowpanes of aeroplanes and trains.
4. Used in photographic cameras and 3D movie cameras.
Malus law: It states that “ the intensity of polarised light transmitted through a
analyser is directly proportional to the square of the cosine angle between the
plane of analyser and polariser”

I=I0cos2θ This is called Malus law.

Where, I=Intensity of polarised light after passing through P2.
(Intensity of emergent polarised light)
I0= Intensity of polarised light after passing through P1. (intensity of
incident polarised light)
θ=angle between two pass axes of P1 and P2.