EEE 362/462

Digital Signal Processing

Lecture 03
1 Discrete-Time Systems
 A discrete-time system is a device or algorithm that operates on a discrete-time
signal, called the input or excitation, according to some well-defined rule, to
produce another discrete-time signal called the output or response of the system.
 In general, a system can be viewed as an operation or a set of operations performed
on the input signal x(n) to produce the output signal y(n).
 The transformation of the input signal x(n) by the system into a signal y(n) can be
expressed mathematically as
𝑦 𝑛 ≡𝓣𝑥 𝑛 (1)
where the operator 𝓣 denotes the processing performed by the system on x(n) to
produce y(n).

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2 Input-Output Description of Systems
 The input-output description of a system is one way of describing the
characteristics of the system and the operation it performs on x(n) to produce y(n).
 It focuses on the behaviour at the terminals of the system and ignores the detailed
internal construction or realisation of the system.
 The input-output description of a discrete-time system consists of a mathematical
expression or a rule, which explicitly defines the relation between the input and
output signals. This known as the input-output relationship.
 Since the exact internal structure of the system is either unknown or ignored, the
only way to interact with the system is by using its input and output terminals (i.e.,
the system is assumed to be a "black box" to the user).

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2 Input-Output Description of Systems (Cont.)
 The input-output description of a system is one way of describing the
characteristics of the system and the operation it performs on x(n) to produce y(n).
 It focuses on the behaviour at the terminals of the system and ignores the detailed
internal construction or realisation of the system.
 The input-output description of a discrete-time system consists of a mathematical
expression or a rule, which explicitly defines the relation between the input and
output signals. This known as the input-output relationship.
 Since the exact internal structure of the system is either unknown or ignored, the
only way to interact with the system is by using its input and output terminals (i.e.,
the system is assumed to be a "black box" to the user).
 If the initial condition of the system is equal to zero, the system is said to be
initially relaxed.

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3 Block Diagram Representation
 Discrete-time systems can be represented using block diagrams. This section
introduces the basic building blocks that can be interconnected to form complex
systems.
Adder
 Figure 1 illustrates a system (adder) that performs the addition of two signal
sequences to form another (the sum) sequence, which we denote as y(n).

x1(n)

y(n) = x1(n) + x2(n)

+
x2(n)
Figure 1: Graphical representation of the adder.
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3 Block Diagram Representation (Cont.)
 Note that it is not necessary to store either one of the sequences in order to perform
the addition. In other words, the addition operation is memoryless.
Constant Multiplier
This operation is depicted by Figure 2, and simply represents applying a scale factor
on the input x(n). Note that this operation is also memoryless.

x(n) a y(n) = ax(n)

Figure 2: Graphical representation of the constant multiplier.

Signal Multiplier
 Figure 3 illustrates the multiplication of two signal sequences to form another (the
product) sequence, denoted in the figure as y(n). The multiplication operation is
memoryless.
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3 Block Diagram Representation (Cont.)
x1(n)

y(n) = x1(n) x2(n)

×
x2(n)
Figure 3: Graphical representation of the signal multiplier.
Unit Delay Element
 The unit delay is a special system that simply delays the signal passing through it
by one sample. Figure 4 illustrates such a system.
 If the input signal is x(n), the output is 𝑥(𝑛 − 1). The sample 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) is stored in
memory at time 𝑛 − 1 and it is recalled from memory at time n to form 𝑦 𝑛 =
𝑥(𝑛 − 1).
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3 Block Diagram Representation (Cont.)
 The unit delay element block requires memory.

x(n) y(n) = x(n – 1)

z-1

Figure 4: Graphical representation of the unit delay element.

Unit Advance Element
 The unit advance moves the input x(n) ahead by one sample in time to yield x(n +
1). Figure 5 illustrates this operation.
 Note that any such advance is physically impossible in real time, since it involves
looking into the future of the signal. On the other hand, if we store the signal in the
memory of the computer, we can recall any sample at any time. In such a non-real-
time application, it is possible to advance the signal x(n) in time.

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3 Block Diagram Representation (Cont.)
x(n) y(n) = x(n + 1)
z

Figure 5: Graphical representation of the unit advance element.

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4 Classification of Discrete-Time Systems
 In the analysis and design of systems, it is desirable to classify the systems
according to the general properties that they satisfy.
 The mathematical techniques for analysing and designing discrete-time systems
depend heavily on the general characteristics of the systems that are being
considered.
 For this reason it is necessary to develop a number of properties or categories that
can be used to describe the general characteristics of systems.
 Note that for a system to possess a given property, the property must hold for every
possible input signal to the system. If a property holds for some input signals but
not for others, the system does not possess that property.
 Thus a counterexample is sufficient to prove that a system does not possess a
property. However, to prove that the system has some property, we must prove that
this property holds for every possible input signal.

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4.1 Static Vs Dynamic Systems
 A discrete-time system is called static or memoryless if its output at any instant n
depends only on the input sample at the same time and not on past or future
samples of the input. In any other case, the system is said to be dynamic or to have
memory.
 If the output of a system at time n is completely determined by the input samples in
the interval from 𝑛 − 𝑁 to 𝑛, where 𝑁 ≥ 0, the system is said to have memory of
duration N.
 If 𝑁 = 0, the system is static. If 0 < 𝑁 < ∞, the system is said to have finite
memory, whereas if 𝑁 = ∞, the system is said to have infinite memory.
 The systems described by the following input-output equations are static or
memoryless:
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 (2)

𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥 2 𝑛 (3)
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4.1 Static Vs Dynamic Systems (Cont.)
 On the other hand, the systems described by the following input-output equations
are dynamic systems or systems with memory:
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 3𝑥 𝑛 − 1 (4)
∞

𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑘) (5)
𝑘=0

 Note that static or memoryless systems are described in general by input-output

equations of the form
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝓣 𝑥 𝑛 ,𝑛 (6)
and they do not include delay elements (memory).

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4.2 Time-Invariant Vs Time-Variant Systems
 In general, systems can be subdivided into the two broad categories, time-invariant
systems and time-variant systems.
 A system is called time-invariant if its input-output characteristics do not change
with time.
 Definition: A relaxed system 𝓣 is time-invariant or shift-invariant if and only if
𝑦 𝑛 =𝓣𝑥 𝑛 (6)
implies that
𝑦 𝑛−𝑘 =𝓣 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 (7)
for every input signal x(n) and every time shift k.
 To determine if any given system is time invariant, the test specified by the above
definition is performed as follows:

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4.2 Time-Invariant Vs Time-Variant Systems (Cont.)
1. The system is excited with an arbitrary input sequence x(n), which produces
an output denoted as y(n).
2. The input sequence is delayed by some amount k and the output is
recomputed. In general, the output can be written as

𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = 𝓣 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑘 (8)
3. The expression for the delayed output 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑘) is determined by substituting
𝑛 = (𝑛 − 𝑘).
 Now if this output 𝑦 𝑛, 𝑘 = 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑘), for all possible values of k, the system is
time invariant. On the other hand, if the output 𝑦(𝑛, 𝑘) ≠ 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑘), even for one
value of k, the system is time variant.

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4.3 Linear Vs Nonlinear Systems
 The general class of systems can also be subdivided into linear systems and
nonlinear systems.
 A linear system is one that satisfies the superposition principle. The principle of
superposition requires that the response of the system to a weighted sum of signals
be equal to the corresponding weighted sum of the responses (outputs) of the
system to each of the individual input signals.
 Definition : A system is linear if and only if
𝓣 𝑎1 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝓣 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝓣 𝑥2 𝑛 (9)
for any arbitrary input sequences 𝑥1 𝑛 and 𝑥2 𝑛 , and any arbitrary constants 𝑎1
and 𝑎2 .
 Figure 6 gives a pictorial illustration of the superposition principle. 𝓣 is linear if
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑦′ 𝑛 (10)
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4.3 Linear Vs Nonlinear Systems (Cont.)

Figure 6: Graphical representation of the superposition principle.

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4.3 Linear Vs Nonlinear Systems (Cont.)
 A relaxed, linear system with zero input should produce a zero output.
 If a system produces a nonzero output with a zero input, the system may be either
nonrelaxed or nonlinear.
 If a relaxed system does not satisfy the superposition principle as given by the
definition above, it is called nonlinear.

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4.4 Causal Vs Noncausal Systems
 Definition: A discrete- time system is said to be causal if the output of the system
at any time n [i.e. y(n)] depends only on present and past inputs [i.e., 𝑥(𝑛), 𝑥(𝑛 −
1), 𝑥(𝑛 − 2), … ], but does not depend on future inputs [i.e., 𝑥(𝑛 + 1), 𝑥(𝑛 +
2), … ]. The output of a causal system satisfies an equation of the form
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝐹 𝑥 𝑛 ,𝑥 𝑛 − 1 ,𝑥 𝑛 − 2 ,… (11)
where 𝐹[∙] is some arbitrary function.
 If a system does not satisfy this definition, it is called noncausal. Such a system
has an output that depends not only on present and past inputs but also on future
inputs.
 Note that in real-time signal processing applications future values of the signal
cannot be observed, and hence a noncausal system is physically unrealizable.
 On the other hand, it is possible to implement a noncasual system in nonreal-time.

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4.5 Stable Vs Unstable Systems
 Stability is an important property that must be considered in any practical
application of a system, Unstable systems usually exhibit erratic and extreme
behaviour and cause overflow in any practical implementation.
 Definition: An arbitrary relaxed system is said to be bounded input-bounded
output (BIBO) stable if and only if every bounded input produces a bounded
output.
 The condition that the input sequence x(n) and the output sequence y(n) are
bounded is translated mathematically to mean that there exist some finite numbers,
say Mx and My, such that
𝑥(𝑛) ≤ 𝑀𝑥 < ∞, 𝑥 𝑛 ≤ 𝑀𝑦 < ∞ (12)
for all n, If, for some bounded input sequence x(n), the output is unbounded
(infinite), the system is classified as unstable.

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5 Interconnection of Discrete-Time Systems
 Discrete-time systems can be interconnected to form larger systems.
 Therc are two basic ways in which systems can be interconnected: in cascade
(series) or in parallel.
Cascaded Interconnection
 The cascaded interconnection is illustrated in Figures 7.

Figure 7: Cascade interconnection.

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5 Interconnection of Discrete-Time Systems (Cont.)
 In the cascade interconnection the output of the first system is

𝑦1 (𝑛) = 𝓣1 [𝑥(𝑛)] (13)

and the output of the second system is
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝓣2 [𝑦1 (𝑛)] = 𝓣2 {𝓣1 [𝑥(𝑛)]} (14)
 Systems 𝓣1 and 𝓣2 can be combined or consolidated into a single overall system
𝓣𝐶 ≡ 𝓣1 𝓣2 (15)
 As a result, the output of the combined system can be expressed as

𝑦(𝑛) = 𝓣𝐶 [𝑥(𝑛)] (16)

 The order in which the operations 𝓣1 and 𝓣2 are performed is important:
𝓣1 𝓣2 ≠ 𝓣2 𝓣1 (17)
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5 Interconnection of Discrete-Time Systems (Cont.)
 However, if the systems 𝓣1 and 𝓣2 are linear and time invariant, then
 𝓣𝐶 is time invariant
 𝓣1 𝓣2 = 𝓣2 𝓣1 , that is, the order in which the systems process the signal is
not important.
 𝓣1 𝓣2 = 𝓣2 𝓣1 yield identical output sequences.
Parallel Interconnecton
 The parallel interconnection is illustrated in Figures 8.
 In the parallel interconnection, the output of the system 𝑦1 (𝑛) is 𝓣1 [𝑥(𝑛)] and the
output of the system 𝑦2 (𝑛) is 𝓣2 [𝑥(𝑛)].
 Hence the output of the parallel interconnection is

𝑦3 (𝑛) = 𝑦1 (𝑛) + 𝑦2 (𝑛) = 𝓣1 [𝑥(𝑛)] + 𝓣2 [𝑥(𝑛)] = (𝓣1 + 𝓣2 )[𝑥(𝑛)] (18)

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5 Interconnection of Discrete-Time Systems (Cont.)

Figure 8: Parallel interconnection.

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5 Interconnection of Discrete-Time Systems (Cont.)
 Systems 𝓣1 and 𝓣2 can be combined into a single overall system

𝓣𝑃 = (𝓣1 + 𝓣2 ) (19)
 Therefore,
𝑦3 (𝑛) = (𝓣1 + 𝓣2 )[𝑥(𝑛)] = 𝓣𝑃 [𝑥(𝑛)] (20)

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