300-350 Words

1. Dictionaries – Their Types and Characteristics;

Dictionaries describe the vocabulary of a language . Accordingly, it is desirable a source is reliable
because it is important how information or meanings are conveyed. I do really think that in such case
dictionary will be more demanded by people, because everyone chooses to get information in a easy
way.
We know that there are different types of dictionaries: monolingual, bilingual, encyclopedic
dictionaries, dictionaries of idioms, synonyms, antonyms and so on.
In monolingual dictionaries the language of a word and the language which describes this
particular word are the same . Bilingual dictionaries provide us words in a particular language and
their equivalents in another language.
We should also highlight encyclopedic dictionaries and their characteristic. Encyclopedic
dictionaries include many short listings and a wide range of topics. Encyclopedic dictionaries can be
general and specialized. General encyclopedic dictionaries contain articles on topics in different
fields, while specialized encyclopedic dictionaries deal with particular fields, such as – art, medicine,
law…
We mentioned dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms. A dictionary of synonyms allows us to
find all the equivalent of a word in a particular language, for example thesaurus.com provides us
with information that essential, influential, vital are synonyms of important. On the other hand , a
dictionary of antonyms allows us to find all the opposites if a word in a language. According to
above-mentioned dictionary, which also gives us antonyms, Antonyms of important are inessential,
secondary, unimportant and so on.
While speaking about dictionaries it is necessary to mention two terms : source language and
target language. A source language is a language being translated from, while a target language is a
language being translated into. It should be noted that sometimes while interacting with bilingual
dictionaries , it is hard to find all the equivalents , because in english language about 40% of words
are polysemous. Polysemous words can cause difficulty in contexts where the meaning of a word is
different from its primary meaning.

2. English Dictionaries;
A dictionary is an important tool for someone who is trying to learn a new language. A dictionary
can provide us information about a word, its meaning, spelling, origin of that word and many more.
Most of us probably have an idea what a dictionary is but some of us may don’t know that there are
different types of dictionaries. Usually, when we think about dictionaries the one thing that comes to
our mind is a book or electronic source with information about words, but dictionaries contains
some other interesting things.
Dictionaries can be separated into monolingual, bilingual ,multilingual dictionaries and so on. In
monolingual dictionaries the language of a word and the language which describes this particular
word are the same . Bilingual dictionaries provide us words in a particular language and their
equivalents in another language.
As for today we are aware of different types of dictionaries and through it we can learn a new
language. I would like to talk about the ,,big five” monolingual dictionaries, which are mostly
intended for learners.
1-the oxford advanced learners dictionary – it contains about 3000/5000 core vocabulary that every
student needs to learn. Obviously, it is intended for advanced learners.
2- the Cambridge international dictionary of english - is a dictionary of english as a foreign language
learners. Its information is based on the Cambridge corpus and contains 100 million words.
3- the longman dictionary of contemporary english – is an advanced learner’s dictionary, providing
information by using a restricted vocabulary, helping non-native english speakers to understand
meanings easily.
4- the collins cobuild english dictionary- is a computer application that collects word definitions.
5-the Macmillan english dictionary – is the most current , comprehensive and effective dictionary
that is available for students. Over 200 million words from modern written and spoken sources are
included in this dictionary. Over 100 lexicographers from the UK and the USA worked to compile this
dictionary.

3. Vocabulary Control Movement and Learners’ Dictionaries;

Learners dictionaries were created as an innovative solutions to people. It kind of developed a
new vision and determination how to make learning much easier. Many people, especially teachers
of english worked on these topics and today there are a tremendous choice of dictionaries tailored
learner’s needs.
A Learner’s Dictionary of Current English was published in 1948 and It was characterized by the
following features: the wordlist contained the most important words necessary for foreign learners,
the definitions were made by a simple language. It also gave information on the plurals of nouns,
the, irregular verbal forms, countable and uncountable nouns. This dictionary also recorded a great
number of phrases.
As summarized by Prof. Tinatin Margalitadze, key features of a learner’s dictionaries are:A
focus on the more frequent words and the more frequent meanings of words; No information that is
not functional, for example, no etymology;Definitions written with a limited defining vocabulary and
so on.
The most authoritative and academic monolingual learner's dictionaries of the English language
are the so-called "Big Five":
1-The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary;
2-The Cambridge International Dictionary of English;
3-The Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary;
4-The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English;
5-The Macmillan English Dictionary.
It must be noted that vocabulary control movement played a big role in developing learner’s
dictionaries. This movement started in the first half of twentieth century. The main idea was to
create dictionaries that would consist of frequently used words and phrases which carried the chief
burden of communication. Beside that, vocabulary control movement focused on another topic.
They believed it was a great idea for language students to learn most commonly used words.
Michael west , Harold palmer and Hornby were three main figures of vocabulary movement who
created learner’s dictionaries. They were teachers of english as a foreign language.
Michael west was a teacher and researcher in India, who created a new method and was focused
on identifying the most commonly used words.
Harold palmer was teacher in Japan and he investigated the grammatical patterning of words, in
particular, verb patterns. We should mention that he is author of a grammar of english words that he
published in 1938z
Hornby was also a teacher of english in Japan and he created a Beginner’s English-Japanese
dictionary. later he published idiomatic and syntactic dictionary that focused on collocations and
idioms.

4. The Comprehensive English-Georgian Online Dictionary and English- Georgian Military

Dictionary;
the idea to create first comprehensive english -Georgian academid dictionary was conceived back
in the 1960s , at the Tbilisi state university by famous Georgian scholar and translator, the first head
of chair givi gachechiladze. translators felt that there was lack of academic english-georgian
dictionaries. one of the main reasons to create such dictionary was to translate english literature into
georgian.it should be noted that the process of creating dictionary was hard and it went through
many difficulties: there were chosen incorrect source for the dictionary, they also lacked educational
experience and of course financing was one of the main problem too.
in 1992 a small team decided to digitalize the edited entries of the dictionary . it is important to
know that they started publishing dictionaries in fascicles on a letter-by- letter basis.in 1995 the first
fascicle of the comprehensive english-georgian dictionary was published and in 1996 letter a was
followed by letters b and c . as for today there are printed and also published 14 more fascicles on
the english-georgian dictionary.
it must be acknowledged that the idea to create the comprehensive english- Georgian online
dictionary was born in 2009 and it was posted on internet in 2010. the online version comprises
letters from q to z, not published as a fascicles.
i would like to mention that working on a dictionary is never-ending process as language changes
constantly and it affects the society using this language in question. thats why we can call the
comprehensive english-georgian online dictionary living dictionary as it is always updated by its team
and this work is set to continue in the future.
I would like to say a few word about what I came across while looking up for word ‘grace’ in this
dictionary. There were 10 entries found . It started with grace as a noun with the meaning of
მოხდენილობა.the entry included information about grace as a verb(შემკობა), as an adjective
(graceful - გრაციოზული,მოხდენილი), as an adverb gracefully and so on. Plus while searching
exact match it only provided two entries- as a verb and as a noun.
On the other hand, we should also talk about English-Georgian military dictionary. This dictionary
is one of the most famous specialized dictionary which was compiled by lexicographic centre of Ivane
javakhishvili Tbilisi State university but the idea to create such dictionary was initiated by the
Georgian ministry of defense. The dictionary itself includes 9400 different varieties of fields
, as well as military terms, political and NATO related terms. It also includes military literature ,
military colloquial and military slang words. historic-military terms are intended for the individuals,
who have to work on the military literature. military colloquial and military slang words and
expressions that are presented by this dictionary are for the military servicemen, who have to
communicate with their foreign colleagues during their participation in various international
peacekeeping or military operations.It is worth mentioning that the entries with english words and
collocations are given in a dictionary with their transcription , which will facilitate their correct
pronunciation.

5. Learners’ Dictionaries and Specialised Dictionaries - Similarities and Differences;

Learners dictionaries were created as an innovative solutions to people. It kind of developed a new
vision and determination how to make learning much easier. Many people, especially teachers of
english worked on these topics and today there are a tremendous choice of dictionaries tailored
learner’s needs.
A Learner’s Dictionary of Current English was published in 1948 and It was characterized by the
following features: the wordlist contained the most important words necessary for foreign learners,
the definitions were made by a simple language. It also gave information on the plurals of nouns,
the, irregular verbal forms, countable and uncountable nouns. This dictionary also recorded a great
number of phrases.
As summarized by Prof. Tinatin Margalitadze, key features of a learner’s dictionaries are:A
focus on the more frequent words and the more frequent meanings of words; No information that is
not functional, for example, no etymology;Definitions written with a limited defining vocabulary and
so on.
It must be noted that vocabulary control movement played a big role in developing learner’s
dictionaries. The main idea was to create dictionaries that would consist of frequently used words
and phrases which carried the chief burden of communication. Beside that, vocabulary control
movement focused on another topic. They believed it was a great idea for language students to learn
most commonly used words. Michael west , Harold palmer and Hornby were three main figures of
vocabulary movement who created learner’s dictionaries. Michael west was a teacher in India, who
created a new method and was focused on commonly used words. Harold palmer created a grammar
of english words in Japan that consisted grammatical pattering. Hornby was also a teacher of english
in Japan and he created a Beginner’s English-Japanese dictionary. later he published idiomatic and
syntactic dictionary that focused on collocations and idioms.
Beside of that, we have specialized dictionaries . A specialized dictionary contains special terms
and special subject fields.there is one main rule we should remember, dictionaries can be specialized
according to a linguistic or thematic content, or of a speech community. Specialized dictionary
contains terms of one or more special subjects such as economic, mathematics or electrical
engineering. For this reason such dictionaries are known as restricted dictionaries. It is important to
know that specialized dictionaries can also contain some varieties of language such as dialects and
slangs. Specialized dictionaries may be of place-names , also of the origins of given names and so on.
In Georgia we have many specialized dictionaries such as English-Georgian military dictionary,
Botanical dictionary, English-Georgian mathematical dictionary and so on.
We should also talk about the similarities and differences between Learner’s dictionary and
specialized dictionary. Similarity between them is that they both focus on specific subject field, but
there is difference too. Learner’s dictionaries were created for learners and specialized dictionaries
are for everyone. One of the difference between them could be orientation to words that are
commonly used and easier to understand by people which is not characteristic of specialized
dictionaries.

6. Different Types of Dictionaries; Specialised Dictionaries;

Dictionaries describe the vocabulary of a language. There are different types of dictionaries, such
as : monolingual, bilingual, multilingual, encyclopedic dictionaries, dictionaries of idioms, synonyms,
antonyms and so on.
In monolingual dictionary the language of a word and the language which describes this particular
word are the same. Bilingual dictionaries provide us with words in particular language and their
definitions in another language.
We should also highlight encyclopedic dictionaries and their characteristic. Encyclopedic
dictionaries include many short listings and a wide range of topics. Encyclopedic dictionaries can be
general and specialized. General encyclopedic dictionaries contain articles on topics in different
fields, while specialized encyclopedic dictionaries deal with particular fields, such as – art, medicine,
law…
We mentioned dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms. A dictionary of synonyms allows us to find
all the equivalent of a word in a particular language, for example thesaurus.com provides us with
information that essential, influential, vital are synonyms of important. On the other hand , a
dictionary of antonyms allows us to find all the opposites if a word in a language. According to
above-mentioned dictionary, which also provides us with antonyms, Antonyms of important are
inessential, secondary, unimportant and so on.
There are also specialized dictionaries. Specialized dictionary contains terms of one or more
special subjects such as economic, mathematics or electrical engineering. For this reason such
dictionaries are known as restricted dictionaries. It is important to know that specialized dictionaries
can also contain some varieties of language such as dialects and slangs. Specialized dictionaries may
be of place-names , also of the origins of given names and so on.
There is one main rule we should remember- dictionaries can be specialized according to a
linguistic or thematic content, or of a speech community. In Georgia we have many specialized
dictionaries such as English-Georgian military dictionary, Botanical dictionary, English-Georgian
mathematical dictionary and so on.
 7. Lexicography - Functions, Types, History;

lexicography is a discipline that involves compiling,writing or editing dictionaries.everyone needs

a dictionary to learn a foreign language.we might say that a dictionary is necessary and usable book
or electronic source which ivloves words,their spelling,meanings and so on.
it must be mentioned that john gelard was the first person who used the word 'dictionary' in the
13th century .the fisrt dictionary was published in 1538 by thomas elyot with the title of latin-english
dictionary.
we look through dictionaries mainly form this 2 points of view:
1-as a reference book for different types of information on words,for example
pronunciation,etymology,usage and so on and this may be called the store house function of a
dictionary.
2-as a reference point for distinguishing the good or proper usage from the bad or wrong usage and
this is thelegistative or the court house function of a dictionary.
dictionary is very compicated system.when scientists create a dictionary they should use reliable
sources while explaining words because it is important how information or meanings are conveyed.i
do really think that in such case a dictionary will be more demanded by people because everyone
prefers to get iformation in a simple way.
lexicography is closely related to lexicology.they both derived from greek word 'lexicos' but this
doesn't mean they have everything in common.they differ from each other as lexicology means
science of words while lexicography means writing of words.
as it is known there are two types of lexicography:practical and theoretical
1-practical lexicography includes writing or editing dictionaries
2-theoretical lexicography involves analysis or description of the vocabulary of a particular
language.we should mention that theoretical lexicography is mostly focused on structural and
semantic relationships among words in the dictionary because it inludes theoretical
analysis.theoretical lexicography is also known as metalexicography.
in conclusion being familiar with this discipline means to be familiar with lexicons which is an
expression used in linguistics to point out the archive of lexems.lexems are the smallest components
in a language that connect interrelated forms of a word together.

8. The Development of the European Lexicography;

In Europe lexicography developed in middle ages ,that time when latin was the universal
European lingua franca of the Christian religion, philosophy and scholarship.Manuscripts, lexicons
and glossaries were compiled for studying latin language.the earliest example of such glossary dates
back to 8th century and it consisted of 5000 words.
England also has such glossary created by Galfridus Anglicus in 1440 and it consisted of 10000
words and phrases. It is interesting fact that that glossary was copied by hand and the copies were
transported to the libraries of other monasteries. only nine years later printing was invented by
Gutenberg. Printing made it available for people to get one if they wanted and if they were able to
pay for it.
It should be noted that there were 2 main reasons why lexicographic work became more popular.the
first one is the invention of printing by Gutenberg as we already mentioned and the second one is
the rise of national languages, such as French, Italian, English and so on.
We must mention that a major role in development of lexicography was played by Dr.Samuel
Johnson who created a dictionary called ,,a dictionary of the English language ” in less than 8
years.on the other hand this was the first formal description of English language. Samuel’s method
greatly influenced the style of future dictionaries.
The process of creating dictionaries continued and in 19th century the brothers Grimes created a
dictionary called “Deutsches Worterbuch”.this was the first dictionary which tried to cover an
enormous increase in grammatical and lexical knowledge. We should put an emphasis on the fact
that they didn’t compile it alone, a hundred of scholars played a huge part in compiling that
dictionary which included letters from A to F. The work of the Grimes inspired a number of similar
ventures.
In the 20th century, bilingual lexicography led the field in terms of understanding the importance
of phraseology.In the 21st century the dictionary publication has rapidly switched from paper to on-
line formats.

9. A Brief History of the Georgian Lexicography;

While talking about history of Georgian Lexicography, we must mention that the Kartvelian
Language family includes – Svan, Megrelian, Laz languages. The history of written Georgian can be
divided into three periods :
Old Georgian – from the 5th to the 12th century A.D.
Middle Georgian- from the 12th to the 18th century A.D
Modern Georgian – since the 19th century
the structure of the language has remained quite stable throughout time so that Old Georgian
texts can still be understood by modern speaker
The first Georgian dictionary ever published was the Georgian-Italian dittionario compiled by
Stefano Paolini. The Georgian, who assisted Paolini, was nobleman Niceforo Irbachi, who was
educated in Italy. Looking at the first two pages of the dictionary, which was the first book printed
with Georgian Mkhedruli letters , it becomes clear that it was compiled with no linguistically based
lexicographical method and with no sufficient knowledge of Georgian. The dictionary itself contains
3084 words printed in three columns. The Georgian alphabet and the Latin equivalents of each of its
letters appear on pages 1–2.
also we should mention Sukhan-Saba orbeliani’s dictionary. The first dictionary from Georgia that
has survived is The Kartuli Leksikoni by Sukhan-Saba orbeliani. Also he is the author of the famous ,,
book of wisdom and lie” which is a collection of fables and tales form various oriental sources.
We should also state that Sukhan-Saba Orbeliani’s ,, the Georgian dictionary” is an enormous
treasure of rare words, including obsolete and foreign words, it also contains some ,,ghost words”.
We can say that other several dictionaries of Georgian were published abroad. Fo example, Davit
Chubinashvili published the first Georgian-Russian-French dictionary in St.petersburg. Beside of that,
two dictionaries have been compiled by Nikoloz Chubinashvili in the first half of the 19th century ,
Georgian-Russian and Russian-Georgian dictionaries. That dictionaries have not been published in
their printed forms and remain as the form of manuscripts.

10. Lexicography in Georgia; Donald Rayfield’s Comprehensive Georgian- English Dictionary

The first Georgian dictionary published was the Georgian-Italian dictionary compiled by Stefano
Paolini. Looking at the first two pages of the dictionary, which was the first book printed with
Georgian Mkhedruli letters , it becomes clear that it was compiled with no linguistically based
lexicographical method and with no sufficient knowledge of Georgian.
The first dictionary from Georgia that has survived is The Kartuli Leksikoni by Sukhan-Saba
orbeliani. Also he is the author of the famous ,, book of wisdom and lie” which is a collection of
fables and tales form various oriental sources.
 We should also state that Sukhan-Saba Orbeliani’s ,, the Georgian dictionary” is an enormous
treasure of rare words, including obsolete and foreign words, it also contains some ,,ghost words”.
We can say that other several dictionaries of Georgian were published abroad. Fo example, Davit
Chubinashvili published the first Georgian-Russian-French dictionary in St.petersburg. Beside of that,
two dictionaries have been compiled by Nikoloz Chubinashvili in the first half of the 19 th century ,
Georgian-Russian and Russian-Georgian dictionaries. That dictionaries have not been published in
their printed forms and remain as the form of manuscripts.
The Georgian-English dictionary presents the English equivalent for the entire lexical corpus of
the Georgian language. It contains ancient , classical and modern, as well as literary, colloquial
dialectical fields. It is important to mention that dictionary is published in two volumes and includes
140 000 word-entries.
We should mention that this dictionary relies on some major sources. It includes entries from
explanatory dictionary of the Georgian language, some date-bases about Georgian weekly and daily
press and texts of contemporary writers. But the major sources probably are dictionaries of old
Georgian, dictionaries of various dialects of modern Georgian and some brunches of science and
technology. The editor in chief of this comprehensive English-Georgian dictionary is David Rayfield.
This dictionary mostly intended for english-speaking readers who are interested In Georgian literary
texts, historical sources and Kartvelian languages..

11. Meaning and Equivalency;

It is well-known fact that there are different types of dictionaries. Two of them are monolingual
and bilingual dictionaries.in monolingual dictionary the language of the word and the language
which describes this particular word are the same.for example,in Collins English dictionary words are
in english which are defined also using english language, but bilingual dictionaries provide us words
in particular language and their equivalents in another language, for instance English- Georgian or
German- Georgian dictionaries.they are designed for translation and they provide equivalents.
On the other hand we should highlight what does aquivalent mean. The Dictionary of Lexicography
gives the following definition of ‘equivalence’ and ‘equivalent’: “the relationship between words or
phrases, from two or more languages, which share the same meaning”.
So when two or more words have the same meaning is defined as aquivalent, but finding such
similarities is quite compilcated. So here we might get question – is it possible that the meaning of
english words be equivalent to the meaning of corresponding Georgian words? Somehow it is
possible. For example a word reverberate -to have strong effect on people for a long time, to have
continuing and serious effect; Georgian equivalent of this word might be გამოხმაურება-showing of
some kind of positive attitude toward something .
Another example is english word ,book, that is defined as written or printed work consisting of
pages glued together. Its equivalent will be Georgian word წიგნი - a handwritten or printed work of
fiction or nonfiction. In general I can say that it is not 100% possible to find equivalents, especially in
bilingual dictionaries because we encounter various structural difficulties among words and its
definitions.
I would like to say a few words about meaning. Meaning is a concept attached to a word. Lexical
meaning reflects not a segment of reality but a concept that a language community has about it.
The school of linguistics at Tbilisi State University following theories of some Russian and foreign
linguists viewed meaning as a structure consisting of semantic components arranged in a hierarchical
order. The Georgian linguist Mary Iankoshvili regarded the meaning of a word as a structure
consisting of a core and peripheral potential semes.

12. The Principles of Forming a Word-entry in a Dictionary;

 Dictionary is a reference work containing an alphabetical list of words with information followed
each word , usually, including spelling ,transcription, homonymy, polysemy, etymology and so on.
This is how word-entry is formed in a dictionary.
Word-entry begins with a description of the word spelling. We need spelling because of the fact
that some languages have several options for writing a word, especially in the case of English. despite
spelling dictionary gives us information about word’s transcription.We can say that transcription is
written version of pronunciation.
Some words have the same spelling but different pronunciation so while using book dictionaries
we need transcription of the word to know how to read and pronounce it correctly. We might say
that transcription and its symbols gives us strict written rules about pronouncing words. It must be
noted that some languages like french and Italian don’t need transcription because they are
pronounced exactly the same as they are written , but in some languages transcriptions seems to be
very important to learn how to speak properly.
We should also mention polysemy, which is one of the fundamental properties of the lexical
system of a language.The majority of words are polysemous which means that they have more than
one meaning, for example the word ‘chair’ which has several different meanings. In one case it
means a seat for a person and in another case it is an official position of person in charge of meeting
or position of person in charge of university department. English polysemy may be motivated by
metaphor which is the mechanism for seeing one thing in terms of another.
We must mention that one of the main element of word-entry is homonym. Homonyms are
words with different origins.they are spelled in the same way and sound the same but have different
meanings. A simple example of homonym can be right, pink and so on.’pink’ has several
Meanings: 1- sailing vessel; 2-a young salmon before it becomes a smolt; 3-the general
Name of various species of Dianthus.
It should be noted that a word-entry also contains qualifications that are divided into several
types, such as: temporal qualification, stylistic and local qualification. Temporal qualification shows
how the word is used in a language, whether it is rarely used archaic or outdated. Stylistic
qualifications are connected with bookish style and colloquial speech. local qualifications is very
important in English dictionaries.it is well known fact that there are four main variants of english
language – British, American , Australian and New Zealand. On the other hand Canadian and South
African English is also important because they are known as official languages..

13. Corpus Linguistics;

Corpus linguistic is the most rapidly growing and developing methodologies in the modern
linguistic, which is as important as it looks at language from the social perspective. While talking
about corpus linguistic we should mention background of this methodology and say that the word
corpus linguistic appeared in 1980s but as a sub-discipline It was created much before. We might say
that dictionary makers have been collecting examples of a language to define particular words until
computer was invented. On the other hand computer development made it easy to create brown
corpus. Brown corpus was created in 1961 and consisted of about 1 million words. It must be
mentioned that the number of words changed and grew over the years and recently, it contains over
hundred of millions of words. Through this science and modern technologies we can learn a new
language. In general we might say that a corpus is a large collection of natural examples of language
which are stored electronically .it is a body of a language . It must be noted that there are some
examples of different type of corpora. We have general, comparable , parallel, specialized, historical ,
monitor , heterogeneric and monogeneric corpora where there are texts collected ready to be
analyzed.
General corpora is very large which contains over 100 millions of words, also includes text from a
wide variety of spoken and written language. General corpora is often referred to as reference
corpora because they are used as a baseline.
Specialized corpora contains special and specific texts. They may contain a sample of this type of
text.There are numerous examples of specialised corpora. These include The Michigan Corpus of
Spoken English and Nottingham Health Communication Corpus.
Comparable corpora- as we can guess from the name there must be constructed t two or more
similar parameters, but it is important for each of these parameters to contain a different language a
different variety of the same language.
Parallel corpora is similar to comparable corpora because they hold two or more collections of
texts in different languages. The difference is that you can see examples of some terms in one
language and all the all the translation equivalents in another language.
Historical corpora studies how language changes over a time and texts from different times of
period.
A monitor corpus is one that is ‘topped up’ with new texts on a regular basis. example of this type
is the Bank of English, held at the University of Birmingham.
Heterogeneric and monogeneric corpora contain text of many different types. Heterogeneric
corpora has a tendency to be large, typically at least 100 million words in size. Monogeneric corpora
is easy to compile , it could be created by individual researchers with a special interest in a particular
discourse type.
I searched for Georgian corpora and came across with the Georgian web corpus (kaWac) . I looked
up for word book and there were 24 search results. I think 24 for search result for this word isn’t
enough which makes me think that there isn’t as many texts as it needs to be but still one can get
some information she has been looking up for

14. Machine Translation - Types and Usefulness.

There are several ways for rendering a text of a source language into a target language and these
ways are machine translation, CAT and human translation. Machine translation, however, is one of
the most prominent ways of translating a text. In MT, the computer applications carry out the
process of translation totally and these kind of applications are Google Translate, Microsoft
Translator. The user of MT must input a text and the application carries out an entire process. In this
scenario, a user may not well be familiar with a target language, which may cause many mistakes. In
case of MT a user may use the applications despite his competence in a target language.
The use of mechanical dictionaries was first introduced in the 17th century, however, it was not
until the 20th century that the first concrete proposals were made by my George astroni and pert
troyanski. even though they both contributed it was troyanski's proposal that was the most
significant one, as he envisioned both bilingual and multilingual Translation. significant changes were
made after World War I when technology developed. In 1954, Georgetown University collaborated
with IBM to publicly demonstrate the machine translation system. 49 Russian sentences was
translated into English, using 250 words and only six grammar rules.
today we have several different types of machine translation:
machine translation for watches - Machine Translation for Watcher is intended for readers who
wanted to gain access to some information written in a foreign language who are also prepared to
accept a possible bad translation rather than nothing. This was the type of MT envisaged by the
pioneers. This came in with the need to translate military technological documents.
machine translation for receivers - translation with a quality comparable to that of the first draft
produced by humans. The translation output can be considered only as brush-up so that a
professional translator freed from that very boring and time-consuming task.
Machine translation for translators - provide translators with online dictionaries, translation
memories, tools and so on to help them to the work
Machine translation for authors - helps authors around the world to translate their work from one
language to another.
To sum up, I would like to say that machine translation, though not always and completely
accurate or correct, has been of a huge help to linguists around the world . Even though it is not
perfect right now, let's hope that in the future it will develop so that.