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What general education
interventions should be
tried on a short-term basis?

Is there a possibility that the

student has a disability and
needs further assessment?

Student is referred
or is not referred.

Who are the teachers, therapists, or other

professionals who should be involved?
What assessment approaches or procedures
are indicated?

Identify individuals responsible for

assessment and identify assessment
approaches and procedures.

Does the student have a disability?

What disability does the student have?
Does the student meet the eligibility
criteria for special education services?

The student does or

does not meet the
criteria for eligibility.
 Assessment of
Children and Youth
with Special Needs

F I F T H E D I T I O N

Libby G. Cohen
University of Southern Maine

Loraine J. Spenciner
University of Maine at Farmington

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
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Vice President and Editorial Director: Cover Designer: Karen Noferi
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Editorial Assistant: Andrea Hall Media Project Manager: Noelle Chun
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Senior Art Director: Jayne Conte Cover Printer: Moore Langen
Text Designer: Aptara®, Inc. Text Font: StoneSerif

Credits and acknowledgments for materials borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in
this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text.

Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the
Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet
addresses listed in this textbook will change.

Photo Credits: Quanlin Huang, p. iii (top) Zhu Qing, cover, p. iii (bottom); Kali9/E+/Getty Images, p. 3;
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Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States
of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher
prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material
from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake
Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cohen, Libby G.
Assessment of children and youth with special needs/Libby G. Cohen, University of Southern Maine,
Loraine J. Spenciner, University of Maine at Farmington.—Fifth edition.
pages cm
ISBN 978-0-13-357107-3
1. Psychological tests for children. 2. Child development—Testing. 3. Youth—Psychological testing.
4. Adolescence. 5. Behavioral assessment of children. 6. Behavioral assessment of teenagers.
7. Educational tests and measurements. I. Spenciner, Loraine J. II. Title.
BF722.C638 2015
371.26—dc23
2013045250

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-13-357107-6

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-357107-3
THE COVER IMAGE, Holding the Umbrella for You, is a watercolor and an accompanying poem which is part of a series of one hundred
paintings and poems that were completed by Zhu Qing over a period of one hundred days, painting a picture each day. Zhu Qing is
a senior student at Beijing University of Technology in Beijing, China. She hopes that through her paintings the world will become a
little bit more kind.

Original text in Chinese

Translated:
Holding the Umbrella for You
It’s raining
Umbrellas in the street
Large and small
But I have the confidence
To make you see easily
The one umbrella
I am holding for You
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

New to This Edition

The purpose of the fifth edition of Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs is to
present future and experienced educators and other professionals with an up-to-date under-
standing of contemporary perspectives on the assessment of children and youth. This edition
expands previous coverage of both traditional and contemporary assessment approaches.
The text explains various assessment approaches in detail that can be implemented by teach-
ers and other professionals and discusses individual tests at length

New to this edition is:

• To enhance affordability and portability, this exciting new edition is available as a

Pearson eText. With the eText students can easily take and share notes, highlight, and
search for key concepts.
• A pedagogical strategy to assist the reader in understanding and reflecting on the
content material was added. Pause and Consider sections, embedded within the chapters,
provide thought-provoking questions, encouraging the reader’s active involvement.
These sections also support the reader’s use of suggested resources to discover additional
information.
• The Snapshots features reflect increased diversity in schools, relevance, and the readers’
involvement.
• In addition, this edition includes a new classroom-based assessment cycle, including the
characteristics of classroom assessment and the approaches that teachers use.
• Expanded discussions of classroom assessment practices will assist the reader in devel-
oping a greater understanding of the role of the special educator in inclusive settings
and in response to intervention (RTI) schoolwide assessment practices, which are imple-
mented to assess and monitor all children’s academic work, behaviors, and progress.
• Furthermore, a new section on interpreting assessment information (Chapter 7) pro-
vides the reader with numerous examples of how to interpret class-room assessment
approaches, observations, and standardized assessments.
• Each chapter now includes the latest information on assessment tests, tools, measures,
techniques, and approaches with an emphasis on assessment approaches, such as curric-
ulum-based assessment and informal tools that class-room teachers can use.

Upon completing this textbook, the reader should have acquired knowledge, under-
standing and skills related to the special education assessment process, including referral for
special education services, response to intervention, assessment timelines, eligibility require-
ments, monitoring, and evaluating student progress. The reader should be able to discuss
various approaches to assessing academic and behavioral concerns and be able to compare
and contrast specific approaches and implement them. Given assessment information, the
reader should be able to interpret the assessment results and explain the results to peers. The
reader should be able to describe how to use and interpret assessment information, write as-
sessment reports, tailor interventions, and evaluate students’ progress.
Major topics covered in this edition include the following:

• Response to intervention This chapter (Chapter 2) describes the essential compo-

nents of response to intervention (RTI). The reader follows examples of the use of RTI for

v
vi Preface

students who experience difficulty in literacy (reading, written language, and/or spelling),
mathematics, and behaviors. The chapter discussion includes examples describing when RTI
becomes a prereferral for special education services.
• In-depth considerations of recent research on assessment practices Becoming a
professional involves understanding how special educators and other school personnel use
research findings to inform assessment practices. Many of the chapters in this new edition
contain summaries of important research findings. For example, in Chapter 2, we learn that,
based on the research, curriculum-based measurement is a highly effective assessment prac-
tice for monitoring and evaluating progress for students with disabilities.
• Universal design and assistive technology Universal design concepts applied to
assessment practices hold much promise, allowing many children and youth with disabilities
to demonstrate what they know and can do alongside peers without disabilities. For other
students, the use of assistive technology devices allows access to the same assessment mate-
rial as their peers without disabilities. Throughout this new edition, various chapters embed
discussions of how special educators are applying universal design, accommodations, and
assistive technology in practice.
• Accommodations and modifications This edition expands previous discussions of
the use of accommodations and modifications in assessment activities. Chapter 1 includes
examples of typical accommodations and modifications used during the assessment process.
• The role of families in the assessment process Enhanced emphasis on the role of
families in the assessment process helps the reader understand both federal mandates and
best practices. Chapter 4 provides an expanded discussion of professional activities and the
importance of being responsive to the diversity of families. The reader is encouraged to con-
sider relevant research such as parent involvement and the perception of special education
services. Chapters 10, 11, and 14 describe contemporary approaches to assessing reading,
writing, spelling, and mathematics and suggest ways that educators can share this informa-
tion with peers and family members and implement approaches that help to assess aca-
demic progress.
• Students with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds Following the lead of
previous editions, the fifth edition of Assessment of Children and Youth with Special Needs con-
tains strands that run through most chapters. The reader will find that the responding to
diversity strand has been expanded and updated to include best practices. Chapters 2 and
3 provide up-to-date information on implementing a range of assessment approaches in
schools. Chapter 13 discusses the changing demographics of the school population and the
new challenges of assessing oral language skills when students are learning English as a sec-
ond or third language.
• Contemporary approaches to the assessment of mathematics and literacy Readers
will be able to explain and implement various approaches to the assessment of reading, writ-
ing, spelling, and mathematics. Readers will be able to convey ways in which standardized
achievement tests, curriculum-based assessment, curriculum-based measurement, progress
monitoring, and performance-based and informal approaches can be used in the assessment
of literacy.
• Standardized instruments, with the latest updates Each content area chapter, in-
cluding reading, written language, oral language, and mathematics, includes updated stand-
ardized assessments. Additional chapters on topics including cognitive development, behav-
ior, young children, and youth in transition also provide the reader with descriptions of the
most recent editions of relevant assessment instruments.
• Curriculum-based assessment and curriculum-based measurement The fifth
edition provides the reader with an in-depth foundation of curriculum-based measurement
(CBM), beginning in Chapter 2. Chapters 10, 11, 12, and 14 illustrate the use of these assess-
ment approaches in various areas of the curriculum.
 Preface vii

• Interpreting tests and writing reports Interpreting assessment information is a key

skill for special educators and other professionals working with children and youth with dis-
abilities. Chapter 7 provides an expanded discussion of interpretation, with new examples of
assessment information and Web-based resources.
• Assessment of young children Chapter 17 in this edition contains a complete up-
date of standardized instruments appropriate for screening young children and determining
eligibility for services. The chapter includes a new section on contemporary assessment ap-
proaches and discusses how parents are involved in the assessment process and ways that
parents provide information to team members.
• Transition assessment The transition chapter, Chapter 18, has been revised and
updated to include recent research. Readers should be able to explain the purposes of transi-
tion assessment and ways in which students’ transition needs and preferences are assessed.
Person-centered planning and self-determination are emphasized.

Organization
Several themes appear throughout the book. Each chapter begins with a set of objectives. We
hope that the reader will use these objectives as guideposts in learning. Each chapter con-
tains an Overview section that discusses theories, perspectives, and conceptual frameworks.
Features called Tests-at-a-Glance provide brief information about specific standardized assess-
ment instruments; Snapshots examine individual students and teachers so that the reader
may deepen understanding and involvement in the examples. Research-Based Practices de-
scribe research findings, Pause and Consider involve the reader in understanding and reflect-
ing upon the material, and Responding to Diversity considers issues of sensitivity and respon-
siveness to students and the uniqueness of their families. Key points from each chapter are
summarized.

Acknowledgments
We dedicate this book to current and future teachers—we admire and respect you for your
dedication to improving the lives of children and youth. We extend our sincere apprecia-
tion to the many people who helped and supported us in the development of this book.
Thank you to our reviewers, who provided thoughtful and insightful reviews for the fifth
edition: Jeanette W. Farmer, Marshall University Graduate College; Merridi Haskell, Arizona
State University; Kathryn Klingler Tackett, George Mason University; and Joel Shapiro, Green
Mountain College.
Special thanks to colleagues, educators, and friends at the National Institute of Educa-
tion, Singapore, and the University of Maine at Farmington, who have shared their passions,
skills, and knowledge with us. We appreciate the comments by Mel Christensen and her
commitment as a future educator. We greatly fully acknowledge the assistance from Guanglei
Chen. Deep thanks to Ann Davis and Kerry Rubadue for their support of this fifth edition.
We are especially grateful to our families, Les, Seth, Gaby, Jay, Amy, Dave, Dina, Ben,
and Marina. We appreciate your continued support and good humor.
This page intentionally left blank
Brief Contents

PART I Foundations of Assessment 1

Chapter 1 Understanding Assessment 3
Chapter 2 Response to Intervention 18
Chapter 3 Assessment Framework 35
Chapter 4 Involving Families 51

PART II Assessment Skills 71

Chapter 5 Reliability and Validity 73
Chapter 6 Developing Technical Skills 85
Chapter 7 Test Interpretation and Report Writing 103

PART III Behavior 127

Chapter 8 Observing, Interviewing, and Conferencing 129
Chapter 9 Behavior 163

PART IV Achievement 189

Chapter 10 Achievement: Overall Performance 191
Chapter 11 Reading 211
Chapter 12 Written Language 230
Chapter 13 Oral Language 248
Chapter 14 Mathematics 270
Chapter 15 Performance-Based, Authentic, and Portfolio Assessments 285

PART V Special Considerations 299

Chapter 16 Intelligence 301
Chapter 17 Young Children 315
Chapter 18 Youth in Transition 343

ix
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

PART I Foundations of Assessment 1

Chapter
1 Understanding Assessment 3
Overview 3
Assessment in the Classroom 4
Why Do Teachers Assess? 4
Response to Intervention 5
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act 5
Who Is Eligible for Special Education? 5
Multidisciplinary Teams 6
The Individualized Education Program 8
Special Considerations for Young Children 9
Transition Services 10
Procedures for Ensuring the Rights of Students and Families 10
Elementary and Secondary Education Act 11
Assessment Requirements 11
Alternative Assessments 13
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act 14
Professional Standards 15
Confidentiality 15
Responding to Diversity 15
Research-Based Practices 16
Summary 16
Questions for Reflection 17
References 17

Chapter
2 Response to Intervention 18
Overview 18
Introduction to Response to Intervention 18
Response to Intervention Basics 18
Universal Screening 19
High-Quality Evidence-Based Instruction 19
School–Parent Connections 19
Progress Monitoring 20
Multitiered Interventions 21
Responding to Diversity 25
Implementing RTI 26
Assessment of Student Performance 26
Curriculum-Based Measurement 27

xi
xii Contents

Reading 28
Written Language 28
Spelling 30
Mathematics 30
Behavior 31
Emerging Issues 33
Summary 33
Questions for Reflection 33
References 34

Chapter
3 Assessment Framework 35
Overview 35
Classroom-Based Assessment Cycle 35
Special Education Assessment Framework 38
Special Education: Assessment Questions, Purposes,
and Approaches 39
Assessment Questions 39
Assessment Purposes and Approaches 40
Responding to Diversity 44
Universal Design and Assessment Practices 46
Assessment of Assistive Technology Needs 46
Approaches to Assistive Technology Assessment 48
Summary 49
Questions for Reflection 49
References 49

Chapter
4 Involving Families 51
Overview 51
Understanding More About Families 52
Responding to Diversity 53
Aspirations 53
Assistance 55
Authority of the School 55
Child Rearing 55
Communication 55
Disability 55
Family Structure 56
Legal Status 56
Literacy and Language 56
Meetings and Support Groups 56
Parental Roles 56
Transient Status 57
 Contents xiii

Federal Legislation and the Role of Parents 57

Guaranteed Rights 57
The Assessment Process for Families of Young Children 57
Initial Questions and Decisions 58
Screening Questions and Decisions for Families 59
The Assessment Process for Families of Children and Youth 59
Addressing Parent Questions and Concerns 59
Referral and Decisions for the Team 60
Questions and Decisions in Determining Eligibility 60
Questions and Decisions in Planning Services 62
Questions and Decisions in Monitoring Services 62
Questions and Decisions in Evaluating Services 63
Techniques for Listening to and Understanding Parent
Perspectives 64
Interviews 65
Family Stories 67
Parent–Teacher Conferences 67
Summary 68
Questions for Reflection 69
References 69

PART II Assessment Skills 71

Chapter
5 Reliability and Validity 73
Overview 73
Reliability 73
Approach 1: Using Correlation Coefficients 74
Approach 2: Variances or Standard Deviations
of Measurement Errors 78
Approach 3: Item Response Theory (IRT) 79
Factors That Influence Reliability 79
Validity 79
Content Validity 80
Criterion-Related Validity 80
Construct Validity 81
Validity of Test Interpretations 82
Consequential Validity 82
Responding to Diversity: Fairness in Assessment 82
Equity 83
Nonbiased Assessment 83
Linguistic Diversity 83
Consideration of Adverse Consequences 83
Summary 84
Questions for Reflection 84
References 84
xiv Contents

Chapter
6 Developing Technical Skills 85
Overview 85
Standardized Tests 85
Standardization Sample 85
Norm-Referenced Tests 86
Criterion-Referenced Tests 86
Distinguishing Norm-Referenced Tests From Criterion-Referenced Tests 87
Scales of Measurement 87
Nominal Scale 87
Ordinal Scale 87
Interval Scale 88
Ratio Scale 88
Frequency Distribution 88
Normal Curve 89
Skewed Distributions 89
Measures of Central Tendency 89
Mean 89
Median 91
Mode 91
Standard Deviation 91
Types of Scores 91
Raw Scores 91
Percentage Scores 92
Derived Scores 92
Scores of Relative Standing 94
Basal and Ceiling Levels 96
Growth Scores 97
Standard Error of Measurement and Confidence Intervals 97
Standard Error of Measurement 97
Confidence Intervals 97
Scoring Guidelines 98
Completing the Test Record Form 98
Biographical Information 98
Chronological Age 98
Calculating Raw Scores 98
Transforming Raw Scores to Derived Scores 98
Graphing Scores 99
Interpreting Test Performance 99
Behavioral Observations 100
Observations of the Environment 100
Discussion of Results 100
How Should Assessment Approaches Be Evaluated? 101
Summary 102
Questions for Reflection 102
References 102
 Contents xv

Chapter
7 Test Interpretation and Report Writing 103
Overview 103
Interpreting Assessment Information 103
Introduction 103
Classroom Assessment 104
Observations 104
Standardized Assessments 105
Hypothesis Generation 107
Examiner Bias 108
Using Professional Knowledge 108
General Principles for Report Writing 109
Synthesizing Information 110
Writing the Report 114
Evaluating the Report 115
Types of Assessment Reports 115
Reports of Observations 116
Progress Reports 116
Individual Test Reports 119
Sharing Assessment Results With Others 122
Family Members 123
Students 123
National and Statewide Assessments 123
Summary 125
Questions for Reflection 125
References 125

PART III Behavior 127

Chapter
8 Observing, Interviewing, and Conferencing 129
Overview 129
Observations 129
Planning Observations 130
Observation Questions 131
Defining an Event or Behavior 131
Location 131
Documentation 131
Accuracy 132
Multiple Observations 132
Integration 132
Observing the Student 132
xvi Contents

Types of Observations 133

Anecdotal Record 134
Running Record 135
Event Recording 136
Duration Recording 138
Intensity Recording 139
Latency Recording 140
Interval Recording 140
Category Recording 141
Rating Scales 141
Checklists 144
Increasing Technical Skills in Conducting
Observations 144
Understanding More About Reliability 144
Errors of Omission 144
Errors of Commission 145
Errors of Transmission 145
Observer Drift 145
Reactivity 145
Understanding More About Validity 145
Developing Informal Norms 145
Observing the Classroom Environment 149
Physical Environment 149
Learning Environment 151
Social Environment 152
Interviews 158
Steps in Conducting Student Interviews 159
Questionnaires 159
Conferencing and Collaborating 160
Conferencing 160
Collaborating 161
Summary 161
Questions for Reflection 162
References 162

Chapter
9 Behavior 163
Overview 163
Adaptive Behavior 164
Supports 164
Standardized Instruments Evaluating Adaptive
Behavior 165
Adaptive Behavior Assessment System Second Edition 165
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition 166
Problem Behaviors 168
Responding to Diversity 169
 Contents xvii

Assessing Supportive Environments 170

Physical Environment 170
Learning Environment 170
Social Environment 171
Classroom Problem Behaviors Within an Intervention Context 171
Ecological Assessment 171
Assessment Questions, Purposes, and Approaches 174
Functional Behavioral Assessment 174
Standardized Instruments for Assessing Problem Behaviors 182
Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition 182
Burks’ Behavior Rating Scales, Second Edition (BBRS 2) 183
Child Behavior Checklist System (CBCL) 184
Conners Third Edition 186
Summary 187
Questions for Reflection 187
References 187

PART IV Achievement 189

Chapter
10 Achievement: Overall Performance 191
Overview 191
Responding to Diversity 191
Curriculum-Based Assessment 192
Developing a Curriculum-Based Assessment Instrument 193
Criterion-Referenced Tests 194
Teacher-Developed Criterion-Referenced Tests 194
Connecting Instruction With Assessment: Alternative
and Informal Assessment 195
Assessment Approaches 196
Probes 196
Error Analysis 197
Oral Descriptions 197
Written Descriptions 197
Checklists and Questionnaires 198
Interviews 198
Conferences 199
Digital Media, Such as Journals, Blogs, Tweets, Online
Communications 199
Performance-Based Assessment 199
Portfolios 199
Exhibitions 200
Self-Assessment 200
Peer Assessment 200
Observing the Student in Various Environments 201
xviii Contents

Standardized Instruments 201

Steps in the Development of a Standardized Achievement Test 201
Benefits 202
Disadvantages 202
Steps and Purposes of Standardized Achievement Testing 203
Screening 203
Determining Eligibility 203
Program Planning 203
Monitoring Progress 203
Program Evaluation 203
Group Tests 203
Benefits 204
Disadvantages 204
Individual Achievement Tests 204
Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition 204
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-III 205
Wide Range Achievement Test 4 206
Woodcock-Johnson Tests, Normative Update, Tests of Achievement 208
Summary 210
Questions for Reflection 210
References 210

Chapter
11 Reading 211
Overview 211
Assessment Principles 211
Connecting Assessment With Instruction 212
Progress Monitoring 212
Curriculum-Based Assessment 212
Curriculum-Based Measurement 212
Comparison of Progress-Monitoring Measures 216
Criterion-Referenced Assessment 216
Informal Assessment Approaches 216
Probes 216
Error Analysis 217
Cloze Procedures 217
Think-Alouds 217
Retelling 218
Oral Descriptions 218
Written Descriptions 218
Checklists and Questionnaires 219
Interviews 222
Conferences 222
Students’ Journals, Notebooks, and Blogs 222
Performance-Based Assessments 222
Portfolios 223
Exhibitions 223
Self-Assessment 224
Peer Assessment 224
 Contents xix

Standardized Instruments 225

Gray Oral Reading Tests–Fifth Edition 225
Test of Reading Comprehension–Fourth Edition 226
Woodcock Reading Mastery Test—Revised/Normative Update 226
Summary 228
Questions for Reflection 229
References 229

Chapter
12 Written Language 230
Overview 230
Connecting Assessment With Instruction 231
Curriculum-Based Measurement 232
Curriculum-Based Measurement of Written Language 232
Curriculum-Based Measurement of Spelling 233
Criterion-Referenced Assessment 233
Formal Measures for Monitoring Progress 234
Informal Approaches 234
Probes 234
Error Analysis 234
Oral Descriptions 235
Written Descriptions 236
Checklists and Questionnaires 236
Interviews 236
Conferences 236
Digital Media 239
Performance-Based Assessment 239
Self-Assessment 240
Peer Assessment 240
Scoring 241
Holistic Scoring 241
Analytic Scoring 243
Anchor Papers 244
Standardized Instruments 244
Oral and Written Language Scales, Second Edition (OWLS-II LC/OE and RC/WE) 244
Test of Written Language, Fourth Edition 245
Test of Written Spelling, Fifth Edition 247
Summary 247
Questions for Reflection 247
References 247

Chapter
13 Oral Language 248
Overview 248
Understanding Speech and Language Disorders 249
More About Speech Disorders 249
More About Language Disorders 249
xx Contents

Oral Language Assessment 249

Form 250
Content 251
Use 251
Assessment Questions, Purposes, and Approaches 252
Language Samples 253
Mean Length of Utterance 253
Language Probes 255
Curriculum-Based Measurement 256
Observing the Student Within the Environment 256
Physical Environment 256
Learning Environment 256
Social Environment 257
Standardized Tests of Oral Language 259
Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, Fifth Edition 259
Preschool Language Scale, Fifth Edition 263
Test of Adolescent and Adult Language, Fourth Edition 264
Concerns About Standardized Tests of Oral Language 265
Receptive Language 265
Expressive Language 266
Responding to Diversity 266
Students With Severe Communication Disorders 267
Augmentative or Alternative Communication (AAC) Systems 267
Assessment for AAC 267
Summary 268
Questions for Reflection 268
References 269

Chapter
14 Mathematics 270
Overview 270
Connecting Assessment With Instruction 271
Probes 271
Error Analysis 271
Oral Descriptions 273
Written Descriptions 273
Checklists and Questionnaires 273
Interviews 274
Conferences 274
Student Journals, Diaries, and Blogs 275
Self-Assessment 275
Peer Assessment 276
Criterion-Referenced Assessment 276
Curriculum-Based Measurement 276
Suggestions for Accommodations When Using CBMs
in Mathematics 278
Formal Measures for Monitoring Progress 278
 Contents xxi

Performance-Based Assessment 279

Portfolios 279
Exhibitions 280
Observing the Student Within the Classroom Environment 280
Physical Environment 280
Learning Environment 280
Social Environment 280
Standardized Instruments 281
KeyMath 3 Diagnostic Assessment 281
Test of Mathematical Abilities, Third Edition 282
Summary 283
Questions for Reflection 283
References 284

Chapter
15 Performance-Based, Authentic, and Portfolio
Assessments 285
Overview 285
Performance-Based Assessment 286
Authentic Assessment 287
Portfolio Assessment 288
Contents of a Portfolio 289
Organizing the Portfolio 289
Portfolios Support Students’ Learning 289
Using Technology 290
Exhibitions 290
Responding to Diversity 291
Developing Scoring Systems 292
Rubrics 292
Analytic Scoring 292
Holistic Scoring 294
Benchmarks 294
Ensuring Technical Adequacy 294
Reliability 294
Consistency and Stability 295
Consequential Validity 295
Fairness 296
Improving Reliability and Validity 296
Using Performance-Based, Authentic, and Portfolio
Assessment 296
Considerations About Using Performance-Based
Assessments 297
Summary 298
Questions for Reflection 298
References 298
xxii Contents

PART V Special Considerations 299

Chapter
16 Intelligence 299
Overview 301
Intelligence Tests as Samples of Behavior 301
Responding to Diversity 302
Standardized Instruments 302
Batería III Woodcock-Muñoz 302
Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence-II 303
Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude, Fourth Edition 304
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition 305
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Fifth Edition 306
Test of Nonverbal Intelligence, Fourth Edition 307
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition Integrated 308
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV Spanish) 312
Woodcock-Johnson III, Normative Update, Tests of Cognitive Ability 312
Summary 314
Questions for Reflection 314
References 314

Chapter
17 Young Children 315
Overview 315
Screening 316
Choosing Appropriate Standardized Screening Instruments 317
Standardized Screening Instruments 318
Planning the Screening Procedure 322
Limitations of Screening 324
Comprehensive Developmental Assessment 325
Arena Assessment 327
Standardized Assessments 327
Assessment, Evaluation, and Programming System for Infants and
Children, Second Edition 327
Battelle Developmental Inventory, Second Edition 329
Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development®, Third Edition 330
Carolina Curriculum for Preschoolers With Special Needs,
Second Edition 331
Considerations Regarding the Assessment of Young Children 334
Responding to Diversity 335
Linking Assessment With Classroom Activities 335
Teaching Strategies GOLD 336
The Work Sampling System®, Fifth Edition 337
Using Early Childhood State Standards 338
Working With Families 340
Transition and Assessment 340
 Contents xxiii

Summary 341
Questions for Reflection 341
References 342

Chapter
18 Youth in Transition 343
Overview 343
Legal Requirements 344
Transition Assessment 345
Purposes of Transition Assessment 345
Involving Families 346
Person-Centered Planning 346
Self-Determination Skills 347
Assessment Instruments 349
Job and Career Interests 349
Reading-Free Vocational Interest Inventory 2 349
Adaptive Behavior and Life Skills 351
Connecting Assessment With Instruction:
Performance-Based Assessment 351
Summary 352
Questions for Reflection 352
References 352

Glossary 353
Name Index 360
Subject Index 363
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 PART I
Foundations of Assessment

CHAPTER 1 Understanding Assessment

CHAPTER 2 Response to Intervention

CHAPTER 3 Assessment Framework

CHAPTER 4 Involving Families

This page intentionally left blank
1 Understanding Assessment

Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you
should be able to:
● Discuss the purposes of assessment
and some of the different assessment
approaches that teachers use today.
● Explain the general requirements for
assessment of students with disabili-
ties as mandated by federal laws.
● Discuss professional knowledge and
skills related to assessing students with
disabilities.

Overview
A teacher shares concerns with another teacher about a new student in the classroom. A
mother calls to discuss questions that were raised during a meeting about her child. Ques-
tions and concerns such as these are examples of typical occurrences in a school day. Teach-
ers and other professionals who work with students with disabilities not only raise questions
but also must work with others to respond to concerns and make decisions about students.
They must be able to observe, collect, record, and interpret information about students with
disabilities. As members of a school team, they plan, monitor, implement, and evaluate
individualized education programs (IEPs).
This chapter discusses U.S. federal laws that relate to the assessment of children and
youth with disabilities. Federal legislation has had profound effects on assessment practices
and the education of students with disabilities. Because this is an area that continues to
change, we will examine resources that regularly provide updated information.
Sections of this chapter begin themes that you will learn more about throughout this text:

• Each chapter contains an Overview, which discusses perspectives and conceptual

frameworks.
• Snapshots are intended to involve you with individual students and special educators to
deepen your understanding.
• Research-Based Practices describe content important for educators and other team mem-
bers to consider during the assessment process.
• Responding to Diversity considers issues of sensitivity and responsiveness to students
and the uniqueness of their families.
• Tests-at-a-Glance provide brief information about specific standardized assessment
instruments.
3
4 CHAPTER 1

Assessment in the Classroom

Why Do Teachers Assess?
Assessment is a global term for observing, gathering, recording, and interpreting informa-
tion to answer questions and make instructional decisions about students. Assessment is an
integral aspect of instruction. It enables educators to gather and interpret information about
students and to make decisions and provide information about what individual students can
and cannot do and about what they know and do not know. Assessments also help to deter-
mine individual students’ strengths and needs, assist in setting goals, and guide instruction.
Schoolwide assessments help administrators and school board members determine the suc-
cess of school programs and the progress of students. The assessment process is conducted
according to legal mandates and best professional practices.
Let’s look more closely at some of the reasons that educators use assessment in the class-
room. First, assessment guides classroom instruction. Teachers collect information about
what students already know and can do. They use a variety of informal assessments, such as
asking students to complete a written questionnaire or respond orally to questions or to share
ideas about what they know during a class discussion.
Second, assessment measures student progress toward achieving academic standards
and behavioral goals and objectives. Teachers gather assessment data by using both infor-
mal and formal assessments. For example, a teacher may develop an assessment for a lesson
or unit. Teachers often work individually with students to not only gather information
about what they can do but also to discuss with them how they arrived at specific answers
or selected good choices in managing behaviors. To learn more about how one primary
teacher uses this informal assessment to measure progress toward academic standards,
visit the Education Northwest site at http://educationnorthwest.org/common-core/
assessing-mathematical-understanding. As you explore this site, consider how the
teacher is collecting assessment information.
In addition to ongoing assessment, teachers also use end-of-year assessments to measure
student progress in meeting academic standards. These formal assessments, which may be
completed online, allow teachers to track individual student achievement as well as compare
student progress. Other types of assessments given at the end of the year involve specialized
tests for some students with disabilities. For example, a student who is learning to read and
write in Braille will take a test to assess his or her progress in Braille literacy.
Third, assessment provides information about individual student and group progress.
By analyzing the assessment results, educators can track student progress and achievement
trends of individuals or groups of students by grade or by school. When results indicate a lack
of progress, educators can identify the steps needed to reverse these trends.
Assessment is a major instructional tool in education today. The term assessment
approach describes the way information is collected for making an educational decision. In
addition to quizzes, tests, and exams, teachers use other assessment approaches such as
portfolios or presentations to provide regular feedback to students regarding their perfor-
mance and to give them opportunities to improve. Teachers connect instruction with assess-
ment and use this information to change, modify, and evaluate teaching and learning
activities.
Teachers also use assessment approaches to answer questions regarding student achieve-
ment, abilities, behavior, development, and skills. Is the student demonstrating expected
achievement levels? If not, what types of interventions does the student need? Are the
interventions effective, and is the student making progress? If not, is there a possibility that
the student has a disability? Should the student be referred for further assessment? By observ-
ing, collecting, and recording information, classroom teachers work with other educators
and school personnel to interpret the information, answer questions, and make decisions
about students.
 Understanding Assessment 5

Response to Intervention
Response to intervention (RTI) is a process of identifying students who are experiencing dif-
ficulties and providing specific interventions to address areas of concern before children fail.
This multistep process usually begins with the general education teacher, who implements
high-quality instruction in the classroom and monitors closely each student’s progress.
When a student experiences difficulty, the next step occurs. Here the classroom teacher or
content area specialist, such as a reading or behavior specialist, provides additional instruc-
tion, using one or more research-based interventions. These educators also monitor student
progress by collecting student performance data.
For many students, intervention will be successful. Other students may need additional
interventions and make progress in small steps or not at all. Educators will continue to collect
data while monitoring student performance regarding the interventions. When students do
not respond to these interventions, the students’ performance data provides documentation
and evidence that students may have significant learning or behavior problems, such as
specific learning disabilities, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or serious emotional
disturbance. In Chapter 2, you will read much more about the RTI process and the various
steps involved.
Thus, the process of identifying students who may be eligible for special education ser-
vices is often based on the student’s response to research-based interventions. Questions
about students with disabilities bring assessment to another level. Assessment in the field of
special education involves not only these general assessment aspects but legal aspects, too. Is
the student eligible for special education services? Federal and state laws specify assessment
requirements that must be followed during the prereferral, referral, and assessment processes.
The following section examines the federal mandates regarding assessment practices. These
mandates address how the assessment process should be conducted. Special educators and
other personnel working with students with disabilities must comply with these require-
ments and also use best professional practices.

Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act

Children and youth with disabilities have been able to receive special education services in
their local schools since 1974 when Federal Legislation (PL 94-142) was passed by Congress.
Since then, this legislation has been revised and reauthorized several times. In 2004, the reau-
thorization (PL 108-446) was known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004. Sometimes the acronym IDEA is written to include the
term improvement: IDEiA.
The revised law provides a new emphasis on improving results for students with disabili-
ties. IDEA specifies special education services for children and youth ages 3 through 21 and
early intervention services for infants and toddlers, birth through age 2. IDEA ensures that all
children and youth with disabilities, beginning at age 3, have available to them a free and
appropriate public education (FAPE) that emphasizes special education and related services
designed to meet their unique needs and prepare them for further education, employment,
and independent living (20 USC Sec. 602(d)(1)(A)).
IDEA includes mandated requirements relating to the assessment process that teachers
and test examiners must know and understand. These requirements form the legal basis for
identifying and providing services to children and youth with disabilities.

Who Is Eligible for Special Education?

To be eligible for special education services, students must meet the eligibility description of
one of the categories of disability identified in IDEA and listed in Figure 1.1. IDEA guarantees
6 CHAPTER 1

that children and youth with disabilities have the

Autism
right to special education services if their disability
Deaf-blindness adversely affects their educational performance and
Deafness if these special services would allow them to benefit
Developmental delay from the education program.
Emotional disturbance IDEA encourages schools to provide interven-
Hearing impairment tions, or targeted assistance, to students as soon as
Intellectual disability their academic or behavioral difficulties become
Multiple disabilities apparent. IDEA further suggests that educators col-
Orthopedic impairment lect information regarding intervention effective-
Other health impairment ness. Prior to this emphasis on early intervention,
Specific learning disability many students, were overidentified as having
Speech or language impairment learning disabilities. Thus, to address possible
Traumatic brain injury
overidentification of students, IDEA urges schools
Visual impairment (including blindness)
to identify students who are experiencing difficul-
ties as soon as possible and to provide effective
teaching strategies and positive behavioral inter-
FIGURE 1.1 ● Disabilities Related to
ventions. When the data indicate a student’s lack
Qualifying Children and Youth
of response to the various interventions imple-
for Special Education and
mented, the student is referred to a multidiscipli-
Related Services
nary team. Some of these students may have
Source: 20 USC Sec. 3(A). disabilities.

Multidisciplinary Teams
As members of a multidisciplinary team, teachers and other professionals who assess chil-
dren and youth suspected of having disabilities represent various disciplines, depending on
the needs of the student. For example, individuals may come from the fields of medicine,
occupational therapy, physical therapy, psychology, social work, speech and language
pathology, or therapeutic recreation in addition to general education and special education.
A student’s parent(s) also provides important information to the assessment process. This
multidisciplinary team, often referred to as an IEP team (IEP stands for Individualized Educa-
tion Program), is responsible for planning, developing, monitoring, and evaluating special-
ized instruction and related services for a student with a disability. This team may also be
known as the special services team or other term as defined by state regulations.
Team members use a variety of assessment tools and strategies to gather relevant func-
tional, developmental, and academic information, including information provided by the par-
ent. They select assessment and other evaluation materials in the language (such as English,
Spanish, Mandarin, or Thai) and form (such as print, Braille, or American Sign Language) most
likely to yield accurate information on what the child knows and can do academically, devel-
opmentally, and functionally. When the student’s IEP team meets, the team must include an
individual who can interpret the assessment results and instructional implication. As a result of
assessments, the multidisciplinary team determines whether the student has a disability.
Another function of the IEP team is to determine whether the child or youth needs
accommodations or modifications to be successfully involved and make progress in the
general curriculum and to achieve IEP goals. Accommodations are changes to the education
program and assessment procedures and materials that do not substantially alter the instruc-
tional level, the content of the curriculum, or the assessment criteria. An accommodation for
a writing assessment, for example, might consist of changes in the format of materials, such
as using a tablet or laptop rather than paper and pencil.
Accommodations also include changes to the classroom arrangement, scheduling, or
timing, for example, giving a student extra time to complete the assessment. On the other
hand, modifications refer to changes or adaptations made to the educational program or
assessment that alter the level, content, and/or assessment criteria. For example, a modification
 Understanding Assessment 7

to an assessment might include reading a condensed version of the paragraph or completing

half of the assessment items.
The purpose of making accommodations and modifications is to reduce the impact that
certain student characteristics, such as distractibility or short-term memory deficits, have on
test performance. Accommodations and modifications should respond to the needs of the
student, and test administrators should document and describe them in the testing report.
Although two students may have the same disability, such as a learning disability, the accom-
modations and modifications each student may need can differ.
When the IEP team determines that a student needs an accommodation or modification,
this is written into the student’s IEP. When a student receives accommodations or modifica-
tions during the instructional program, the student is also eligible to receive similar
accommodations or modifications during assessments. However, even when the IEP team rec-
ommends an accommodation or a modification, not all accommodations or modifications
are permitted on certain standardized assessments or on some state assessments. For example,
the publisher of an assessment test specifies in the examiner’s manual that using an accom-
modation or modification to the assessment may cause the results to be invalid. In the case of
statewide assessments, individual states usually develop a state list of acceptable accommoda-
tions allowable. Table 1.1 describes frequently used accommodations and modifications.

TABLE 1.1 ● Frequently Used Accommodations and Modifications

Type of
Accommodation or
Modification Example of Accommodations Examples of Modifications
Presentation mode • Test is administered individually rather than in a group. • Examiner uses prompts or cues.
• Examiner reads items out loud (except when student is tested
in reading).
• Student takes a computer-administered form of the test.
• Large-print forms are used.
• Braille form of the test is used.
• Test directions and items are signed.
• A specific examiner may be chosen who is able to develop (or
who already has) rapport with the student.

Location of the test • Test is administered in an area with reduced distractions.

administration • Test is administered while the student is using special furniture.
• Test is administered in a space that has special lighting.

Response mode • Teacher or helper marks the responses as indicated by the • Student is allowed to use a calcu-
student. lator for mathematics calculation.
• Student indicates responses on paper that has lines or a grid. • Examiner accepts key-word
• Student uses a communication device. responses instead of complete
• Time limits for responding are extended or modified. sentences required by the test.
• Student is allowed to use a spell
checker, specialized software, or
dictionary for writing test.

Test content • Number of items per page is reduced, but student completes all • Fewer test items are presented.
test items.
• Use of bilingual glossaries and dictionaries (for English-
language learners).

Test format • Test items are magnified. • Key words in the test directions
are highlighted or color-coded.
• Test items are reworded.
• Pictures or graphics are substi-
tuted for words.
8 CHAPTER 1

The Individualized Education Program

Each child or youth who receives services must have an IEP. An IEP team develops the written
IEP using the results of a comprehensive assessment. This document includes annual goals
based on academic standards or behavioral expectations that the student will meet. For stu-
dents who will be working toward alternative achievement standards and who will be taking
alternate assessments, the IEP includes short-term objectives, or benchmarks. Alternate assess-
ments, such as student portfolios with photographs and work that students have completed,
enable students with persistent academic problems and students with severe or significant dis-
abilities to participate in general large-scale assessments.
According to the federal legislation, the IEP team conducts a reevaluation not more
frequently than once a year, unless the parent and school personnel agree otherwise, and at
least once every 3 years, unless the parent and school personnel agree that a reevaluation is
unnecessary (20 USC Sec. 614(a)(2)). The team begins by reviewing existing assessment
information. Using the review and input from the parents, the team determines whether
additional assessment is needed. Figure 1.2 illustrates the assessment information required
on the IEP.

(1) A statement of the child’s present levels of academic for school personnel that will be provided for the
achievement and functional performance, including child—
how the child’s disability affects the child’s involve- (a) To advance appropriately toward attaining the
ment and progress in the general education curriculum. annual goals.
(a) For preschool children, as appropriate, how the (b) To be involved in and make progress in the gen-
disability affects the child’s participation in ap- eral education curriculum in accordance with
propriate activities. clause (1) and to participate in extracurricular
(b) For children with disabilities who take alternate and other nonacademic activities.
assessments aligned to alternate achievement (c) To be educated and participate with other chil-
standards, a description of benchmarks or short- dren with disabilities and nondisabled children
term objectives. in the activities described in this subparagraph.
(2) A statement of measurable annual goals, including (5) An explanation of the extent, if any, to which the
academic and functional goals, designed to— child will not participate with nondisabled children
(a) Meet the child’s needs that result from the in the regular class and in the activities described in
child’s disability to enable the child to be subclause.
involved in and make progress in the general (6) A statement of any individual appropriate accommo-
education curriculum. dations that are necessary to measure the academic
(b) Meet each of the child’s other educational needs achievement and functional performance of the
that result from the child’s disability. child on state- and district-wide assessments consist-
(3) A description of how the child’s progress toward ent with section 612, and if the IEP team determines
meeting the annual goals described in clause (2) that the child shall take an alternate assessment on a
will be measured and when periodic reports on the particular state- or district-wide assessment of student
progress the child is making toward meeting the an- achievement, a statement of why—
nual goals (such as through the use of quarterly or (a) The child cannot participate in the regular
other periodic reports, concurrent with the issuance assessment.
of report cards) will be provided. (b) The particular alternate assessment selected is
(4) A statement of the special education and related ser- appropriate for the child.
vices and supplementary aids and services, based on (7) The projected date for the beginning of the services
peer-reviewed research to the extent practicable, to be and modifications described in clause (4) and the an-
provided to the child, or on behalf of the child, and a ticipated frequency, location, and duration of those
statement of the program modifications or supports services and modifications.

FIGURE 1.2 ● Assessment Information Required in the IEP

Source: 20 USC Sec. 614(d)(1).
 Understanding Assessment 9

To help reduce paperwork, IDEA offers states an opportunity to develop multiyear

IEPs. This allows IEP teams to engage in long-term planning by developing an IEP, not to
exceed 3 years, which is designed to coincide with natural transition points for the stu-
dent. Schools must provide parents with informed consent and assurances that a multi-
year IEP is optional.

Special Considerations for Young Children

Over the years, teachers and professional organizations have voiced concerns over (1) the
potential detrimental effects of labeling a child at a young age, (2) the lack of adequate assess-
ment tools for young children, and (3) the belief that some of the disability categories, such
as intellectual disabilities, used with older children may not be appropriate (Figure 1.1). Thus,

SNAPSHOT
Samantha
Six-year-old Samantha and her family recently moved Samantha’s first-grade teacher, Linda Skillings, shared
to a new city where her mother enrolled Samantha in the her observations of classroom work. Linda felt that Saman-
local school and shared the following information about tha often experienced difficulty at the classroom math
her daughter with school personnel. Several months after center, such as writing numerals and using manipulatives.
Samantha was born, the pediatrician noticed a delay in her Although most of the students could complete this work
motor development and referred Samantha to a pediatric independently, Samantha usually needed extra support
neurologist, who diagnosed Samantha as having mild cer- from the teacher aide. Her teacher had recommended
ebral palsy. The family was referred to a regional program Samantha for more intensive math work with the math spe-
for early intervention, where the IFSP team determined that cialist; but even in a small group, she observed that Saman-
she was eligible for services because of her developmental tha had difficulty with tasks. The math specialist wondered
delay. The family received home-based services until she if these difficulties were affecting her level of attention,
was 3, when she transitioned to a community-based inclu- and John Xihu, the special educator, asked, “Do you think
sive preschool program. Samantha is mainly experiencing attention difficulties or
Recently, the parents took Samantha for a follow-up are the problems associated with understanding math con-
visit to the neurologist. The doctor discussed concerns with cepts?” As the team discussed these questions and others,
the parents about additional developmental delays that they realized that there was a need to collect more infor-
Samantha was experiencing. Upon being informed of this, mation about Samantha’s difficulties.
Samantha’s mother provided written consent to have her John volunteered to conduct several classroom obser-
records forwarded to the new school. vations during both large- and small-group math activities.
Shortly after Samantha was enrolled in her new He would observe and record the teacher dialogue as well as
school, the IEP team convened to discuss Samantha’s Samantha’s behaviors of attention and inattention. Because
records, including past assessment results and her current Samantha’s parents had already signed release forms for fur-
education program. The team members who were present ther assessment, John did not need to obtain parent permis-
included the building principal, Samantha’s first-grade sion before he could begin the observations. Linda suggested
teacher, the special education teacher, the occupational several days that would be convenient for John to make the
therapist, and Samantha’s parents. They recommended classroom observations, and then they identified a time the
additional assessments because they wanted further infor- following week to meet to discuss the assessment results.
mation about Samantha’s functioning before making any Because of the increased expectations of written lan-
educational decisions. guage in first grade, coupled with concerns regarding motor
delay, the occupational therapist agreed to see Samantha
Pause and consider for an initial evaluation of her fine motor skills. Once her
• What do you think was the team’s rationale behind evaluation was complete, the occupational therapist would
recommending additional assessments? examine the results and write up an assessment report. She
would make arrangements to share this with Samantha’s
• Considering assessment, what would be your role
parents and then present the findings to the team.
as a special educator?
10 CHAPTER 1

all children from birth through 2 years receive ser-

vices under the eligibility term developmental
Transition services means a coordinated set of activities
for a child with a disability that— delay. Although young children vary greatly in their
rate of development, this term reflects a significant
• Is designed to be within a results-oriented proc- delay in one or more areas of development, including
ess that is focused on improving the academic and physical, cognitive, communication, social or emo-
functional achievement of the child with a disability
tional, or adaptive development.
to facilitate the child’s movement from school to
Eligibility for early intervention services is deter-
postschool activities, including postsecondary educa-
mined by an early childhood multidisciplinary
tion, vocational education, integrated employment
team (ECT). The ECT includes parents, the family
(including supported employment), continuing and
adult education, adult services, independent living, service coordinator, and team members from various
or community participation; disciplines. This team assesses and develops an indi-
• Is based on the individual child’s needs, taking into ac- vidualized family service plan (IFSP) for children
count the child’s strengths, preferences, and interests; age birth through 2 years and their families. Similar
and to the IEP team, the ECT also monitors and evaluates
• Includes instruction; related services; community ex- the IFSP. Compared to an IEP, the IFSP also includes
periences; the development of employment and other information about the child’s level of functioning.
postschool adult living objectives; and, when appro- However the outcomes and services focus on the
priate, acquisition of daily living skills and functional child and needs of the family as they relate to the
vocational evaluation. child’s development.

FIGURE 1.3 ● Definition of Transition

Services
Transition Services
When a student with a disability reaches age 16, or
Source: 20 USC Sec. 602(34).
earlier if the IEP team determines the need to make
decisions about the student’s future plans, prepara-
tion for transition begins. The IEP team discusses and begins planning the transition ser-
vices (Figure 1.3) that the student will need during the transition to postsecondary education,
employment, and/or community living. Transition services and assessment are further
described in Chapter 18. Transition needs are based on the individual student, taking into
account the student’s preferences and interests. Beginning no later than the first IEP that is in
effect when the student is 16, the team writes a description of the need(s) for transition ser-
vices. From this point forward, the IEP must include

• Appropriate measurable postsecondary goals based on age-appropriate transition assess-

ments related to training, education, employment and independent living skills, where
appropriate
• Transition services needed to assist the student in reaching those goals, including
courses of study
• Beginning not later than 1 year before the student reaches the age of majority under
state law, a statement that the student has been informed of the student’s rights under
this title, if any, that will transfer to the student on reaching the age of majority under
Section 615(m)

Procedures for Ensuring the Rights of Students and Families

IDEA specifies procedures that ensure the protection of parents’ and children’s rights during
the assessment process and the delivery of services. These procedures, called due process
requirements, specify that:

• Parents must receive written notice whenever there is a proposal to initiate or change
the identification, evaluation, or educational placement of their child.
 Understanding Assessment 11

• Parents have the right to review their child’s records regarding the assessment and edu-
cational placement.
• Parents may obtain an independent evaluation of their child by a qualified examiner
who is not employed by the school. The evaluation is at no cost to the parent and is paid
for by the public school.
• Due process also ensures that parents, schools, or agencies have a right to an impartial
hearing conducted by a hearing officer when disagreements occur. A hearing can be
requested by either a parent or a school district.

IDEA requires the school to obtain informed written consent from the parent before his
or her child is assessed. Informed consent is a process that involves (1) presenting informa-
tion so that it can be easily understood, (2) providing alternatives, (3) identifying risks and
benefits, and (4) accepting or consenting to the information proposed. Figure 1.4 illustrates a
school district form for obtaining parent consent. Informed consent is also required before
the team develops a comprehensive multiyear IEP. The only exceptions to these require-
ments are if the school can demonstrate that it has taken reasonable measures to obtain par-
ent consent and the student’s parent failed to respond, if the parental rights have been
terminated, or if the whereabouts of the parents are unknown.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act

Originally passed in 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the nation’s general
education law, continues to be reauthorized by Congress with the goal of improving aca-
demic performance for all students. In 2001, the reauthorization of this act, known as No
Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, stressed accountability through scientifically based
research practices and regular and ongoing assessment of student progress. Updates regard-
ing changes in NCLB Act can be checked at the U.S. Department of Education Web site: ed.
gov (Search for “No Child Left Behind”).
Led by the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and the Council of
Chief State School Officers, teachers, administrators, and content experts developed Common
Core State Standards. Updates can be checked at http://www.nga.org/cms/center and http://
www.ccsso.org/. Within each academic area, these standards describe what students should
know and be able to do at each grade level. Assessments, aligned with the Common Core, pro-
vide valuable information to educators regarding student progress and instruction. Typically,
assessments are Web based and allow educators to query the assessment data to determine the
achievement trend of a specific student or a group of students. This use of assessment data is
referred to as data-driven decision making and can be defined as a process that involves system-
atically collecting and analyzing data to guide practices that will improve student progress and
achievement. When assessment data indicates that one or more students are experiencing dif-
ficulties, educators modify instruction or provide supplemental instruction.

Assessment Requirements
The NCLB Act overlapped assessment activities in some states with additional requirements.
These requirements specified that schools were required to assess student achievement annually
in reading/language arts and math for students in grades 3 through 8 and at least once during
grades 10 through 12. Science achievement must be assessed at least once in grades 3 through 5, 6
through 9, and 10 through 12. Assessments must be aligned with state content and achievement
standards. Students with disabilities must have reasonable accommodations, when appropriate.
When the IEP is developed, the team identifies how the student will be assessed. Most
students with disabilities participate in the annual assessment, or they take the regular assess-
ment with accommodations. When the IEP team determines that a student with a disability
12 CHAPTER 1

Point Street School District

CONSENT TO CONDUCT INDIVIDUAL ASSESSMENT(S)

Name: Loren Sinkinson Date of Birth: 2/21/xx

School: Point Street Grade: 7

Date: September 12, xxxx

The following is a description of the methods to be used to evaluate your child. You will be notified and given the oppor-
tunity to review and obtain copies of evaluation summaries or other reports to be discussed at the multidisciplinary team
meeting. At this meeting, we will explain the results of the evaluation and discuss its significance to your child’s educa-
tion program. If you have any questions about these procedures, please call the special education director at 111-1111,
and we will discuss them with you.

Description of Evaluation
 1. Academic testing is designed to determine what the student’s academic progress is within specific academic areas.
The student’s achievement will be compared to the achievement of students in this school and students throughout the
country. Commonly used tests include Wechsler Individual Achievement Test—Third Edition, Woodcock-Johnson Test
of Achievement-III NU, and curriculum-based assessments. Other: _________________________________

 2. Intellectual testing involves the individual administration of intelligence tests. These tests are designed to measure
different types of abilities, such as what the student can do. Commonly used tests include Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children IV (WISC- IV) and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition. Other: ____________________

 3. Observation is designed to assist the team in relating test data to the student’s classroom performance in academic,
social, and behavioral areas as compared to others in the classroom.

 4. Speech/language testing is designed to determine the student’s communication skills in articulation, voice,
fluency, expressive language, and receptive language. Commonly used tests include Clinical Evaluations of Language
Fundamentals-5, Goldman Fristoe Test of Articulation-2, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test IV, and the Oral and
Written Language Assessment II. Other: __________________________________

 5. Psychological evaluation is designed to assess cognitive, personality, and/or behavioral function. Commonly
used evaluation methods include parent and child interviews, personality inventories, and projective tests.
Other: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________

 6. Additional assessments are designed to collect essential information on health, social, or developmental history;
behavior (may be completed by an interview with the parents, school personnel, or the child); or sensory assessments
in vision or hearing. Commonly used instruments include Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale II (Vineland-II) or the
Adaptive Behavior Assessment System-II (ABAS-II). Other: _________________________________________________________

I understand the nature of, and the reasons for, the evaluations checked above as well as the statement of procedural
safeguards attached to this consent form. I further understand the additional testing areas not indicated on this form will
require prior written notice before administration.

A withdrawal of parental consent after the initial evaluation or initial placement in special education shall be considered
a request to change the student’s program and placement. As such, the IEP Team shall convene and consider the parent’s
request. If the IEP Team disagrees with the parent’s request, Point Street School District may use the mediation process or
initiate a hearing to override the parent’s withdrawal of consent.

I do give consent for such evaluations: Janet Sinkinson

Parent Signature
September 17, xxxx
Date

FIGURE 1.4 ● Point Street School District Form: Consent to Conduct Individual Assessment(s)
 Understanding Assessment 13

SNAPSHOT
Tad Farnsworth, Special Educator
Tad Farnsworth is a special educator with dual certification he would be coteaching with one of the regular education
in special education and mathematics at Highlands Middle teachers in the seventh-grade math classroom. He would
School. As a member of the seventh-grade team, he meets work closely with his colleague in preassessing student
weekly with the three seventh-grade mathematics teach- knowledge, planning instruction, and monitoring student
ers to discuss student progress and plan instruction. Several progress. He also would provide assistance to Sal and other
students have IEPs, including Sal Springer, a 12-year-old, who students with IEPs in the classroom. As a result of this collab-
has a learning disability. Last year, Tad Farnsworth, provided oration, Tad would know the material and the math content
additional special education instruction in the resource that would be covered. He could prepare outlines or graphic
room to Sal and the other students with learning disabilities. organizers that would help not only Sal but other students as
They finished the year working on using tables and graphs to well. If he observed that Sal (or other students) experienced
represent relationships and to communicate information to difficulty with new math vocabulary, he could prepare addi-
supplement the ongoing instruction in this area in the regu- tional resources and provide additional small-group instruc-
lar classroom. tion when needed. He would work closely with his coteacher
In September, when the IEP team met for Sal’s annual in assessing student learning or a regular basis. He could offer
review, they discussed his progress last year and the contin- to prepare quizzes that were directly linked to classroom
uing needs for this year. His parents provided their input and instruction. He could assist in analyzing the results and iden-
observations, too. The team decided that Sal would partici- tify specific problem areas based on the assessment data.
pate in the regular math class with additional support from Tad’s thoughts returned to the meeting as the IEP
the special educator, within the math classroom. team discussed the Common Core assessments that would
be administered this year and whether Sal would need
Pause and consider: accommodations to participate in these assessments. The
• What do you think was the rationale behind this team agreed that Sal should take the grade-level assess-
decision of recommending regular classroom math- ments with accommodations. His IEP includes the following
ematics with support from the special educator? description of accommodations that Sal needs for assess-
ments. “Sal will take the District Assessment in a quiet room
• How would providing instruction in the regular
and will be allowed two additional breaks beyond those
classroom change your role as a special educator in
allowed for other students.”
planning instruction? In assessing student progress?

As Tad listened to the team recommendations, he was Pause and consider:

not surprised with the recommendation to return Sal to the • Using Table 1.1, review the types of accommoda-
regular classroom to receive math instruction. Sal’s math tions for assessments. Knowing that Sal has a learn-
achievement had continued to improve the previous year, ing disability, what other accommodations might
and the school was working to ensure that all students with the team want to consider?
disabilities had access to the general education curriculum. • After making your decision, review the research on
Tad also thought about how his role would be changing the Web to see if you can locate information re-
this year. He would still be a member of the seventh-grade garding the effectiveness of your accommodations.
team, but rather than providing separate math instruction,

is unable to participate in the state- and districtwide assessments, the student must take an
alternate assessment.

Alternate Assessments
Alternate assessments are based on modified achievement standards for students with per-
sistent academic disabilities. These students are not likely to reach grade-level achievement
standards at the same pace as students without disabilities because of their disability. The
Elementary and Secondary Education Act caps the number of students with disabilities who
can take these alternate assessments at 2 percent of the total student population. For students
with significant intellectual disabilities, states use alternate assessments for alternative
14 CHAPTER 1

Point Street School District

IEP TEAM DECISION FORM FOR ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT

Name: Keith Parker Date of Birth: 5/01/xx

School: Point Street Teacher: Ms. Bryant Age: 9

Date: September 12, xxxx

The IEP team for Keith Parker has determined that he should participate in the state alternative assessment for
students with disabilities because:

✓ His present level of functioning significantly affects his participation and completion of the general education
curriculum.
✓ His specially designed instruction focuses on extended curriculum standards.
✓ His difficulty is primarily the result of his disability and not related to any of the following:
 Excessive absence from school
 Social factors
 Cultural factors
 Environmental factors

FIGURE 1.5 ● Point Street School Alternate Assessment Documentation Form

achievement standards. Students with significant intellectual disabilities who use alternate
assessments cannot equal more than an additional 1 percent of the total school population.
The IEP team makes decisions on the abilities and progress of each individual stu-
dent. A student may take a grade-level assessment in mathematics, for example, yet need
to take an alternate assessment in reading. The decisions made by the IEP team must be
based on individual student needs, not the type of disability or the setting where the stu-
dent receives special education services. Each year, the IEP team reviews assessment and
accommodation options. If the student takes an alternate assessment, the IEP must iden-
tify the alternate assessment and include a statement describing why the student cannot
participate in the regular assessment (with appropriate accommodations). Depending on
state requirements, the IEP team must document the alternate assessment decision-
making process (Figure 1.5).
For students with disabilities, providing alternate assessment options based on modified
achievement standards allows students to demonstrate their achievement. However, some
educators worry that students who do not need them may be given alternate assessments
based on modified achievement standards. Furthermore, students who are not held to the
same high grade-level achievement standards may become part of a cycle of low expectations.
What do you think?

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act

The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (PL 93-380), commonly referred
to as the Buckley amendment, states that no educational agency may release student infor-
mation without written consent from the student’s parents. This consent specifies which
records to release, the reasons for such release, and to whom. The agency should then send a
copy of the released records to the student’s parents.
FERPA allows families and students over 18 years of age access to and the right to
inspect any of their records from any education institution, including preschool, elementary
 Understanding Assessment 15

and secondary schools, community colleges, and colleges and universities that accept fed-
eral money. Parents also have the right to challenge and correct any information contained
in these records. Professionals will want to ensure that they file only materials relevant to
the student in the student’s folder. Irrelevant information about the personal lives of
families or information that is at best subjective and impressionistic has no place in a
family’s record.
In 2011, the U.S. Department of Education published the final amendments to the regu-
lations for implementing the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act. The Federal Register
notice can be accessed at federalregister.gov/a/2011-30683.

Professional Standards
Special educators not only hold high standards for their students but also adhere to high pro-
fessional standards for themselves. For teachers entering the field of special education, the
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) sped.org developed a set of 4 professional standards
and related elements: the CEC’s Initial Preparation Standards for Special Educators (NCATE
approved 2012). Standard 1 focuses specifically on assessment knowledge and skills. Many
colleges and universities expect teacher candidates to be able to demonstrate their work
toward the CEC Professional Standards. Special educators who conduct assessments should
be able to discuss and demonstrate these professional standards.
Other organizations such as the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support
Consortium (InTASC) http://www.ccsso.org/resources/programs/interstate_teacher_
assessment_consortium_(intasc).html also have released standards for new teachers. The
InTASC standards address what beginning general education teachers and special educa-
tion teachers need to know and be able to do when teaching students with disabilities.
In addition to demonstrating knowledge and skill standards, special educators develop a
high level of competence and integrity as they engage in professional activities. All individu-
als who administer tests should have the training and experience necessary and should fol-
low professional standards and ethical procedures. They should not attempt to evaluate
students whose age, disability, linguistic, or cultural backgrounds are outside the range of
their academic training or supervised experience. Special educators use objective professional
judgment and demonstrate ethical practices.

Confidentiality
Professionals who are involved with the gathering of information about a student have both a
legal and an ethical responsibility to maintain the information and use it appropriately. These
individuals need to agree that the shared information is for the purposes of enabling the fam-
ily and assisting the student through individualized educational services. Information about a
particular student should be discussed only with those professionals who have a legitimate
interest in the information and with whom the parent has consented to share information.

Responding to Diversity
In addition to assessment practices, CEC’s Initial Preparation Standards for Special Educators
(NCATE approved 2012) address becoming aware of and understanding one’s own diversity
and the diversity of others. For example, Standard 1, Foundations, lists as one of the key ele-
ments of knowledge:

• Beginning special education professionals understand how language, culture, and family back-
ground influence the learning of individuals with exceptionalities. (sped.org, p. 2)
16 CHAPTER 1

In the past many students with diverse backgrounds were placed in separate programs
and classrooms, away from the general education classroom. In many cases, individual stu-
dents did not have disabilities. School districts were sued when these practices came to light,
and some of these court cases went as far as the U.S. Supreme Court. Knowing the history of
the discipline of education helps us be aware of the injustices of these historical practices so
that these mistakes will not be repeated. For example, in the past standardized test items were
often biased in favor of the majority. Today, test developers must ensure that test times are
not biased toward any one group of students. You can learn more about these decisions and
others at the Supreme Court supremecourt.gov/default.aspx Use the Supreme Court Web
site search bar to locate special education decisions.
During your studies, you will learn more about responding to diversity and developing a
sensitivity and openness to learning. Sensitivity involves concern and respect for others; it
begins by learning about yourself, your beliefs, and your family heritage. Sensitivity grows by
meeting other people, listening to who they are, and discovering their traditions, beliefs, and
values. Sensitivity deepens over time through working with families, acknowledging and
appreciating their special strengths and unique qualities.

Research-Based Practices
IDEA describes the use of scientifically based research practices with students with disabili-
ties, including early identification and referral and prereferral procedures. In addition, IDEA
describes the use of research-based interventions, curricula, and practices. Researchers have
contributed and advanced knowledge on teaching, learning, and assessing students with spe-
cial needs. Sometimes professionals refer to scientifically based research practices as evidence-
based practices. Whichever term you use describes best practice, providing educators with
assurance of the effectiveness of what they do.
When considering evidence-based practices, educators must consider effective practices
that are relevant to today’s students, who bring an array of experiences to the classroom. For
example, one student may be homeless and living in a community shelter with few materials
for completing class projects; another student, who is learning English as a second language,
must spend time after school translating for family members who wish to make doctors’
appointments, read a bus schedule, or purchase groceries.
Finding more about research-based practices can involve a search of your university
library databases, such as ERIC or Academic Search Premier. Many Web sites also maintain
information on research-based practices. You might begin with one of the following:

• What Works Clearinghouse (http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/) identifies current research

studies on effective practices and intervention.
• ERIC/OSEP Special Project (http://www.hoagiesgifted.org/eric/osep-sp.html) dis-
seminates federally funded special education research at this Web site.
• National Center for Research on Evaluation, Assessment, and Student Testing (http://
www.cse.ucla.edu/products.html) focuses on the development of scientifically based
assessment approaches.

Summary
● Teachers use assessments to answer many types of ques- student making progress? If not, is there a possibility
tions: Is the student demonstrating expected achieve- that the student has a disability? Should the student be
ment levels? If not, what types of interventions does the referred for further assessment? Is the student eligible for
student need? Are the interventions effective, and is the special education services?
 Understanding Assessment 17

● IEP teams use assessment to answer many questions dren’s rights. These procedures are called due process
about a student suspected of having a disability, to plan, requirements.
and to monitor the student’s program. IDEA requires ● The Elementary and Secondary Education Act, also
specific assessment information in the IEP, including known as No Child Left Behind Act, requires schools to
the student’s present level of academic achievement assess all students on a periodic basis. When the IEP team
and functional performance; a statement of measur- determines that a student with a disability is unable to
able annual goals and a description of how the student’s participate in the state- and districtwide assessments, the
progress toward meeting the annual goals will be meas- student must take an alternate assessment.
ured; and accommodations, modifications, and supports
● The Council for Exceptional Children’s Professional
necessary to attain the annual goals and measure the
Standards for Initial Teacher Certification provides guid-
academic achievement and functional performance
ance regarding the knowledge and skills that special edu-
● During the assessment process, IDEA specifies proce- cators need to be able to demonstrate. Of the 10 Standards,
dures that ensure the protection of parents’ and chil- Standard 8 focuses on assessment knowledge and skills.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION

1. Make a list of all the new terms in this chapter. Write 4. Check with your state department of education about
definitions for each term using your own words. what accommodations for students with disabilities
2. State departments of education maintain extensive are permitted for state- and districtwide assessments.
Web sites. Locate your state department and explore What types of alternate assessments allow students
resources related to special education and assessment with disabilities to demonstrate their achievement?
practices. Share your findings with your classmates. 5. FERPA applies to any student who attends a school
3. List what has been helpful to you in developing sensi- that receives federal funds. How do these regulations
tivity toward others, and identify the ways that have apply to your college or university?
been most effective. Share your list, and discuss your
findings with the class.

REFERENCES
Council for Exceptional Children. (2012). Initial CEC prepa- Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004.
ration standards for special educators (NCATE approved (2004). (20 USC).
2012). Retrieved from http://www.cec.sped.org/Standards/
Special-Educator-Professional-Preparation/CEC-Initial-and-
Advanced-Preparation-Standards?sc_lang=en
2 Response to Intervention

Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you
should be able to:
● Describe the essential components of
response to intervention (RTI).
● Compare and contrast the different
tiers of intervention.
● Discuss why teachers use RTI in the
classroom.
● Describe the characteristics of
curriculum-based measurement (CBM)
and how educators use CBMs to
monitor student progress.
● Discuss emerging issues with RTI.

Overview
Classroom teachers are usually the first to observe when a student is having problems. Based
on their knowledge and expectations of what children or youth in their classrooms should
know and be able to do, these educators can identify students before they get too far behind.
Classroom teachers often can be successful in increasing student achievement, reducing
behavior problems, and preserving student self-esteem when they reach students early and
begin an intervention process.
In classrooms today, educators know that response to intervention (RTI) assists children
and youth who are experiencing difficulties in reading, writing, and/or mathematics or are
displaying inappropriate behaviors. This chapter begins by examining the rationale for using
an RTI process and typical schoolwide efforts that take place during the year. Next, we look at
the essential components within the general education classroom, including high-quality
classrooms, tiered instruction, family involvement, and school-based teams. We examine
why and how teachers use RTI in different areas of the curriculum or to support positive stu-
dent behaviors and how this system interfaces with special education services. Last, we
address emerging issues in the field.

Introduction to Response to Intervention

Response to Intervention Basics
Response to Intervention Basics (RTI) is an intervention process that is aimed at improving
educational outcomes for all students. This systematic process for teaching and assessing

18
 Response to Intervention 19

students consists of ongoing data collection, documenting, and monitoring of student perfor-
mance. Educators examine the data and use the results in planning and assessing instruction.
When assessment data indicates that a student is not making progress, educators adjust instruc-
tion using evidence-based practices. By improving the quality of instruction based on monitor-
ing of student progress, RTI can reduce the number of inappropriate referrals to special education
while improving the quality of instruction for diverse learners in the general education class-
room. Thus, RTI can be conceptualized as a general education initiative with direct implications
for children with disabilities (Griffiths, Parson, Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Tilly, 2007).

Universal Screening
Today, many states have districtwide processes that may be known under a different term,
such as Ohio’s Intervention-Based Assessment Model, Pennsylvania’s Instructional Support
Teams, or Minneapolis Public Schools’ Problem-Solving Model. As a districtwide process, RTI
incorporates universal screening, a procedure that occurs two or three times during the year
to identify students who are experiencing difficulties with age-appropriate skills. In elemen-
tary school, universal screening often focuses on literacy and mathematics. For students in
middle and secondary school, universal screening also includes information that predicts
poor adjustment, difficulties with transitions, and dropping out of school. To see examples of
universal screening, visit the National Center on Response to Intervention at rti4success.
org/essential-components-rti/universal-screening.
Universal screening provides school personnel with a snapshot of information about
each student on a periodic basis. This ongoing process provides early identification for stu-
dents who are at risk. When a student is identified, the general classroom teacher may make
instructional adjustments or refer the student for more intensive instruction.

High-Quality Evidence-Based Instruction

In the general education classroom, teachers provide high-quality instruction for all students
and make changes to the classroom environment to improve overall student performance.
For example, a teacher considers various ways to arrange the classroom to encourage small-
group work or reflects on the assignment of students to small groups that would best pro-
mote learning. In implementing RTI, classroom teachers not only work to create positive
classroom environments and ensure that all students benefit from instruction, but they also
monitor students’ progress.
Teachers use only interventions that have a strong research base in terms of effective-
ness. Studies show that RTI makes a real difference for many children and youth (Fuchs,
Fuchs, & Compton, 2012; Greenwood et al., 2011; Mahdavi & Beebe-Frankenberger, 2009).
The many students who succeed through RTI often reduce the number of referrals for special
education services.
Selecting research-based interventions involves identifying information that describes the
materials, the frequency and duration of the instruction, and how performance will be moni-
tored. Implementing the intervention involves accurately following the specific procedures that
the intervention requires for successful service delivery. Educators want to ensure intervention
fidelity. Intervention fidelity, or treatment fidelity, means that the procedures and process are
carried out consistent with how they were designed and that they are delivered consistently to
all students over time. Excellent resources for information about research-based intervention
can be found at the Web sites of What Works Clearing House (ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/) and RTI
Action Network (http://www.rtinetwork.org/Learn/Research/ar/ResearchReview).

School–Parent Connections
Teachers communicate regularly with parents through teacher conferences, weekly e-mails,
or other ways to let parents know how their child is progressing. When a student is
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