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LONDON MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY LECTURE NOTE SERIES
Managing Editor: Professor M. Reid, Mathematics Institute,
University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom

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312 Foundations of computational mathematics, Minneapolis 2002, F. CUCKER et al (eds)

313 Transcendental aspects of algebraic cycles, S. MÜLLER-STACH & C. PETERS (eds)
314 Spectral generalizations of line graphs, D. CVETKOVIC, P. ROWLINSON & S. SIMIC
315 Structured ring spectra, A. BAKER & B. RICHTER (eds)
316 Linear logic in computer science, T. EHRHARD, P. RUET, J.-Y. GIRARD & P. SCOTT (eds)
317 Advances in elliptic curve cryptography, I.F. BLAKE, G. SEROUSSI & N.P. SMART (eds)
318 Perturbation of the boundary in boundary-value problems of partial differential equations, D. HENRY
319 Double affine Hecke algebras, I. CHEREDNIK
320 L-functions and Galois representations, D. BURNS, K. BUZZARD & J. NEKOVÁŘ (eds)
321 Surveys in modern mathematics, V. PRASOLOV & Y. ILYASHENKO (eds)
322 Recent perspectives in random matrix theory and number theory, F. MEZZADRI & N.C. SNAITH (eds)
323 Poisson geometry, deformation quantisation and group representations, S. GUTT et al (eds)
324 Singularities and computer algebra, C. LOSSEN & G. PFISTER (eds)
325 Lectures on the Ricci flow, P. TOPPING
326 Modular representations of finite groups of Lie type, J.E. HUMPHREYS
327 Surveys in combinatorics 2005, B.S. WEBB (ed)
328 Fundamentals of hyperbolic manifolds, R. CANARY, D. EPSTEIN & A. MARDEN (eds)
329 Spaces of Kleinian groups, Y. MINSKY, M. SAKUMA & C. SERIES (eds)
330 Noncommutative localization in algebra and topology, A. RANICKI (ed)
331 Foundations of computational mathematics, Santander 2005, L.M PARDO, A. PINKUS, E. SÜLI &
M.J. TODD (eds)
332 Handbook of tilting theory, L. ANGELERI HÜGEL, D. HAPPEL & H. KRAUSE (eds)
333 Synthetic differential geometry (2nd Edition), A. KOCK
334 The Navier–Stokes equations, N. RILEY & P. DRAZIN
335 Lectures on the combinatorics of free probability, A. NICA & R. SPEICHER
336 Integral closure of ideals, rings, and modules, I. SWANSON & C. HUNEKE
337 Methods in Banach space theory, J.M.F. CASTILLO & W.B. JOHNSON (eds)
338 Surveys in geometry and number theory, N. YOUNG (ed)
339 Groups St Andrews 2005 I, C.M. CAMPBELL, M.R. QUICK, E.F. ROBERTSON & G.C. SMITH (eds)
340 Groups St Andrews 2005 II, C.M. CAMPBELL, M.R. QUICK, E.F. ROBERTSON & G.C. SMITH (eds)
341 Ranks of elliptic curves and random matrix theory, J.B. CONREY, D.W. FARMER, F. MEZZADRI &
N.C. SNAITH (eds)
342 Elliptic cohomology, H.R. MILLER & D.C. RAVENEL (eds)
343 Algebraic cycles and motives I, J. NAGEL & C. PETERS (eds)
344 Algebraic cycles and motives II, J. NAGEL & C. PETERS (eds)
345 Algebraic and analytic geometry, A. NEEMAN
346 Surveys in combinatorics 2007, A. HILTON & J. TALBOT (eds)
347 Surveys in contemporary mathematics, N. YOUNG & Y. CHOI (eds)
348 Transcendental dynamics and complex analysis, P.J. RIPPON & G.M. STALLARD (eds)
349 Model theory with applications to algebra and analysis I, Z. CHATZIDAKIS, D. MACPHERSON, A. PILLAY
& A. WILKIE (eds)
350 Model theory with applications to algebra and analysis II, Z. CHATZIDAKIS, D. MACPHERSON,
A. PILLAY & A. WILKIE (eds)
351 Finite von Neumann algebras and masas, A.M. SINCLAIR & R.R. SMITH
352 Number theory and polynomials, J. MCKEE & C. SMYTH (eds)
353 Trends in stochastic analysis, J. BLATH, P. MÖRTERS & M. SCHEUTZOW (eds)
354 Groups and analysis, K. TENT (ed)
355 Non-equilibrium statistical mechanics and turbulence, J. CARDY, G. FALKOVICH & K. GAWEDZKI
356 Elliptic curves and big Galois representations, D. DELBOURGO
357 Algebraic theory of differential equations, M.A.H. MACCALLUM & A.V. MIKHAILOV (eds)
358 Geometric and cohomological methods in group theory, M.R. BRIDSON, P.H. KROPHOLLER &
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359 Moduli spaces and vector bundles, L. BRAMBILA-PAZ, S.B. BRADLOW, O. GARCÍA-PRADA &
S. RAMANAN (eds)
360 Zariski geometries, B. ZILBER
361 Words: Notes on verbal width in groups, D. SEGAL
362 Differential tensor algebras and their module categories, R. BAUTISTA, L. SALMERÓN & R. ZUAZUA
363 Foundations of computational mathematics, Hong Kong 2008, F. CUCKER, A. PINKUS & M.J. TODD (eds)
364 Partial differential equations and fluid mechanics, J.C. ROBINSON & J.L. RODRIGO (eds)
365 Surveys in combinatorics 2009, S. HUCZYNSKA, J.D. MITCHELL & C.M. RONEY-DOUGAL (eds)
366 Highly oscillatory problems, B. ENGQUIST, A. FOKAS, E. HAIRER & A. ISERLES (eds)
367 Random matrices: High dimensional phenomena, G. BLOWER
368 Geometry of Riemann surfaces, F.P. GARDINER, G. GONZÁLEZ-DIEZ & C. KOUROUNIOTIS (eds)
369 Epidemics and rumours in complex networks, M. DRAIEF & L. MASSOULIÉ
370 Theory of p-adic distributions, S. ALBEVERIO, A.YU. KHRENNIKOV & V.M. SHELKOVICH
371 Conformal fractals, F. PRZYTYCKI & M. URBANSKI
372 Moonshine: The first quarter century and beyond, J. LEPOWSKY, J. MCKAY & M.P. TUITE (eds)
373 Smoothness, regularity and complete intersection, J. MAJADAS & A. G. RODICIO
374 Geometric analysis of hyperbolic differential equations: An introduction, S. ALINHAC
375 Triangulated categories, T. HOLM, P. JØRGENSEN & R. ROUQUIER (eds)
376 Permutation patterns, S. LINTON, N. RUŠKUC & V. VATTER (eds)
377 An introduction to Galois cohomology and its applications, G. BERHUY
378 Probability and mathematical genetics, N. H. BINGHAM & C. M. GOLDIE (eds)
379 Finite and algorithmic model theory, J. ESPARZA, C. MICHAUX & C. STEINHORN (eds)
380 Real and complex singularities, M. MANOEL, M.C. ROMERO FUSTER & C.T.C WALL (eds)
381 Symmetries and integrability of difference equations, D. LEVI, P. OLVER, Z. THOMOVA &
P. WINTERNITZ (eds)
382 Forcing with random variables and proof complexity, J. KRAJÍČEK
383 Motivic integration and its interactions with model theory and non-Archimedean geometry I, R. CLUCKERS,
J. NICAISE & J. SEBAG (eds)
384 Motivic integration and its interactions with model theory and non-Archimedean geometry II, R. CLUCKERS,
J. NICAISE & J. SEBAG (eds)
385 Entropy of hidden Markov processes and connections to dynamical systems, B. MARCUS, K. PETERSEN &
T. WEISSMAN (eds)
386 Independence-friendly logic, A.L. MANN, G. SANDU & M. SEVENSTER
387 Groups St Andrews 2009 in Bath I, C.M. CAMPBELL et al (eds)
388 Groups St Andrews 2009 in Bath II, C.M. CAMPBELL et al (eds)
389 Random fields on the sphere, D. MARINUCCI & G. PECCATI
390 Localization in periodic potentials, D.E. PELINOVSKY
391 Fusion systems in algebra and topology, M. ASCHBACHER, R. KESSAR & B. OLIVER
392 Surveys in combinatorics 2011, R. CHAPMAN (ed)
393 Non-abelian fundamental groups and Iwasawa theory, J. COATES et al (eds)
394 Variational problems in differential geometry, R. BIELAWSKI, K. HOUSTON & M. SPEIGHT (eds)
395 How groups grow, A. MANN
396 Arithmetic differential operators over the p-adic integers, C.C. RALPH & S.R. SIMANCA
397 Hyperbolic geometry and applications in quantum chaos and cosmology, J. BOLTE & F. STEINER (eds)
398 Mathematical models in contact mechanics, M. SOFONEA & A. MATEI
399 Circuit double cover of graphs, C.-Q. ZHANG
400 Dense sphere packings: a blueprint for formal proofs, T. HALES
401 A double Hall algebra approach to affine quantum Schur–Weyl theory, B. DENG, J. DU & Q. FU
402 Mathematical aspects of fluid mechanics, J.C. ROBINSON, J.L. RODRIGO & W. SADOWSKI (eds)
403 Foundations of computational mathematics, Budapest 2011, F. CUCKER, T. KRICK, A. PINKUS &
A. SZANTO (eds)
404 Operator methods for boundary value problems, S. HASSI, H.S.V. DE SNOO & F.H. SZAFRANIEC (eds)
405 Torsors, étale homotopy and applications to rational points, A.N. SKOROBOGATOV (ed)
406 Appalachian set theory, J. CUMMINGS & E. SCHIMMERLING (eds)
407 The maximal subgroups of the low-dimensional finite classical groups, J.N. BRAY, D.F. HOLT &
C.M. RONEY-DOUGAL
408 Complexity science: the Warwick master’s course, R. BALL, V. KOLOKOLTSOV & R.S. MACKAY (eds)
409 Surveys in combinatorics 2013, S.R. BLACKBURN, S. GERKE & M. WILDON (eds)
410 Representation theory and harmonic analysis of wreath products of finite groups,
T. CECCHERINI-SILBERSTEIN, F. SCARABOTTI & F. TOLLI
411 Moduli spaces, L. BRAMBILA-PAZ, O. GARCÍA-PRADA, P. NEWSTEAD & R.P. THOMAS (eds)
412 Automorphisms and equivalence relations in topological dynamics, D.B. ELLIS & R. ELLIS
413 Optimal transportation, Y. OLLIVIER, H. PAJOT & C. VILLANI (eds)
414 Automorphic forms and Galois representations I, F. DIAMOND, P.L. KASSAEI & M. KIM (eds)
415 Automorphic forms and Galois representations II, F. DIAMOND, P.L. KASSAEI & M. KIM (eds)
416 Reversibility in dynamics and group theory, A.G. O’FARRELL & I. SHORT
417 Recent advances in algebraic geometry, C.D. HACON, M. MUSTAŢĂ & M. POPA (eds)
418 The Bloch–Kato conjecture for the Riemann zeta function, J. COATES, A. RAGHURAM, A. SAIKIA &
R. SUJATHA (eds)
419 The Cauchy problem for non-Lipschitz semi-linear parabolic partial differential equations, J.C. MEYER &
D.J. NEEDHAM
420 Arithmetic and geometry, L. DIEULEFAIT et al (eds)
421 O-minimality and Diophantine geometry, G.O. JONES & A.J. WILKIE (eds)
422 Groups St Andrews 2013, C.M. CAMPBELL et al (eds)
423 Inequalities for graph eigenvalues, Z. STANIĆ
424 Surveys in combinatorics 2015, A. CZUMAJ et al (eds)
425 Geometry, topology and dynamics in negative curvature, C.S. ARAVINDA, F.T. FARRELL &
J.-F. LAFONT (eds)
426 Lectures on the theory of water waves, T. BRIDGES, M. GROVES & D. NICHOLLS (eds)
427 Recent advances in Hodge theory, M. KERR & G. PEARLSTEIN (eds)
428 Geometry in a Fréchet context, C. T. J. DODSON, G. GALANIS & E. VASSILIOU
429 Sheaves and functions modulo p, L. TAELMAN
430 Recent progress in the theory of the Euler and Navier-Stokes equations, J.C. ROBINSON, J.L. RODRIGO,
W. SADOWSKI & A. VIDAL-LÓPEZ (eds)
431 Harmonic and subharmonic function theory on the real hyperbolic ball, M. STOLL
432 Topics in graph automorphisms and reconstruction (2nd Edition), J. LAURI & R SCAPELLATO
433 Regular and irregular holonomic D-modules, M. KASHIWARA & P. SCHAPIRA
434 Analytic semigroups and semilinear initial boundary value problems (2nd Edition), K. TAIRA
435 Graded rings and graded Grothendieck groups, R. HAZRAT
London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series: 435

Graded Rings and Graded

Grothendieck Groups

RO O Z B E H H A Z R AT
Western Sydney University
 University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781316619582
© Roozbeh Hazrat 2016
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2016
Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Names: Hazrat, Roozbeh, 1971–
Title: Graded rings and graded Grothendieck groups / Roozbeh Hazrat,
University of Western Sydney.
Description: Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2016. | Series: London
Mathematical Society lecture note series ; 435 | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016010216 | ISBN 9781316619582 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Grothendieck groups. | Graded rings. | Rings (Algebra)
Classification: LCC QA251.5 .H39 2016 | DDC 512/.4–dc23 LC record available
at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016010216
ISBN 978-1-316-61958-2 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

Introduction page 1
1 Graded rings and graded modules 5
1.1 Graded rings 6
1.1.1 Basic definitions and examples 6
1.1.2 Partitioning graded rings 10
1.1.3 Strongly graded rings 14
1.1.4 Crossed products 16
1.1.5 Graded ideals 20
1.1.6 Graded prime and maximal ideals 22
1.1.7 Graded simple rings 23
1.1.8 Graded local rings 25
1.1.9 Graded von Neumann regular rings 26
1.2 Graded modules 28
1.2.1 Basic definitions 28
1.2.2 Shift of modules 28
1.2.3 The Hom groups and category of graded modules 30
1.2.4 Graded free modules 33
1.2.5 Graded bimodules 34
1.2.6 Tensor product of graded modules 35
1.2.7 Forgetting the grading 36
1.2.8 Partitioning graded modules 37
1.2.9 Graded projective modules 41
1.2.10 Graded divisible modules 47
1.3 Grading on matrices 49
1.3.1 Graded calculus on matrices 50
1.3.2 Homogeneous idempotents calculus 58
1.3.3 Graded matrix units 59

v
vi Contents

1.3.4 Mixed shift 60

1.4 Graded division rings 64
1.4.1 The zero component ring of graded simple ring 71
1.5 Strongly graded rings and Dade’s theorem 72
1.5.1 Invertible components of strongly graded rings 78
1.6 Grading on graph algebras 79
1.6.1 Grading on free rings 79
1.6.2 Corner skew Laurent polynomial rings 81
1.6.3 Graphs 84
1.6.4 Leavitt path algebras 85
1.7 The graded IBN and graded type 94
1.8 The graded stable rank 96
1.9 Graded rings with involution 100
2 Graded Morita theory 104
2.1 First instance of the graded Morita equivalence 105
2.2 Graded generators 109
2.3 General graded Morita equivalence 111
3 Graded Grothendieck groups 122
gr
3.1 The graded Grothendieck group K0 124
3.1.1 Group completions 124
gr
3.1.2 K0 -groups 126
gr
3.1.3 K0 of strongly graded rings 128
3.1.4 The reduced graded Grothendieck group 
gr
K0 130
gr
3.1.5 K0 as a Z[Γ]-algebra 132
gr
3.2 K0 from idempotents 132
3.2.1 Stability of idempotents 137
3.2.2 Action of Γ on idempotents 137
gr
3.2.3 K0 is a continuous functor 138
3.2.4 The Hattori–Stallings (Chern) trace map 139
gr
3.3 K0 of graded ∗-rings 141
gr
3.4 Relative K0 -groups 142
gr
3.5 K0 of nonunital rings 145
3.5.1 Graded inner automorphims 148
gr
3.6 K0 is a pre-ordered module 149
3.6.1 Γ-pre-ordered modules 149
gr
3.7 K0 of graded division rings 152
gr
3.8 K0 of graded local rings 158
gr
3.9 K0 of Leavitt path algebras 160
3.9.1 K0 of Leavitt path algebras 161
 Contents vii
gr
3.9.2 Action of Z on K0 of Leavitt path algebras 163
gr
3.9.3 K0 of a Leavitt path algebra via its 0-
component ring 164
gr
3.10 G0 of graded rings 168
gr
3.10.1 G0 of graded Artinian rings 169
gr
3.11 Symbolic dynamics and K0 172
gr
3.12 K1 -theory 177
4 Graded Picard groups 180
4.1 Picgr of a graded commutative ring 181
4.2 Picgr of a graded noncommutative ring 184
gr
5 Graded ultramatricial algebras, classification via K0 192
5.1 Graded matricial algebras 193
gr
5.2 Graded ultramatricial algebras, classification via K0 198
6 Graded versus nongraded (higher) K-theory 205
gr
6.1 K∗ of positively graded rings 206
6.2 The fundamental theorem of K-theory 214
6.2.1 Quillen’s K-theory of exact categories 214
6.2.2 Base change and transfer functors 215
6.2.3 A localisation exact sequence for graded rings 216
6.2.4 The fundamental theorem 217
gr
6.3 Relating K∗ (A) to K∗ (A0 ) 222
gr
6.4 Relating K∗ (A) to K∗ (A) 223
References 227
Index 232
 Introduction

A bird’s eye view of the theory of graded modules over a graded ring might
give the impression that it is nothing but ordinary module theory with all its
statements decorated with the adjective “graded”. Once the grading is consid-
ered to be trivial, the graded theory reduces to the usual module theory. From
this perspective, the theory of graded modules can be considered as an exten-
sion of module theory. However, this simplistic overview might conceal the
point that graded modules come equipped with a shift, thanks to the possibility
of partitioning the structures and then rearranging the partitions. This adds an
extra layer of structure (and complexity) to the theory. This monograph focuses
gr
on the theory of the graded Grothendieck group K0 , that provides a sparkling
illustration of this idea. Whereas the usual K0 is an abelian group, the shift
gr
provides K0 with a natural structure of a Z[Γ]-module, where Γ is the group
used for the grading and Z[Γ] its group ring. As we will see throughout this
book, this extra structure carries substantial information about the graded ring.
Let Γ and Δ be abelian groups and f : Γ → Δ a group homomorphism.
Then for any Γ-graded ring A, one can consider a natural Δ-grading on A
(see §1.1.2); in the same way, any Γ-graded A-module can be viewed as a Δ-
graded A-module. These operations induce functors

U f : GrΓ -A −→ GrΔ -A,

(−)Ω : GrΓ -A −→ GrΩ -AΩ ,

(see §1.2.8), where GrΓ -A is the category of Γ-graded right A-modules, GrΔ -A
that of Δ-graded right A-modules, and GrΩ -A the category of Ω-graded right
AΩ -module with Ω = ker( f ).
One aim of the theory of graded rings is to investigate the ways in which
these categories relate to one another, and which properties of one category
can be lifted to another. In particular, in the two extreme cases when the group

1
2 Introduction

Δ = 0 or f : Γ → Δ is the identity, we obtain the forgetful functors

U : GrΓ -A −→ Mod-A,
(−)0 : GrΓ -A −→ Mod-A0 .

The category PgrΓ-A of graded finitely generated projective A-modules is

an exact category. Thus Quillen’s K-theory machinery [81] defines graded K-
groups
 
Ki (A) := Ki PgrΓ-A ,
gr

for i ∈ N. On the other hand, the shift operation on modules induces a functor
on GrΓ -A that is an auto-equivalence (§1.2.2), so that these K-groups also carry
a Γ-module structure. One can treat the groups Ki (A) and Ki (A0 ) in a similar
way. Quillen’s K-theory machinery allows us to establish relations between
these K-groups. In particular:
gr
Relating K∗ (A) to K∗ (A) for a positively graded rings §6.1. For a Z-graded
ring with the positive support, there is a Z[x, x−1 ]-module isomor-
phism,
Ki (A)  Ki (A0 ) ⊗Z Z[x, x−1 ].
gr

gr
Relating K∗ (A) to K∗ (A0 ) for graded Noetherian regular rings §6.3. Con-
sider the full subcategory Gr0 -A of Gr-A, of all graded modules M
as objects such that M0 = 0. This is a Serre subcategory of Gr-A.
One can show that Gr-A/ Gr0 -A  Mod-A0 . If A is a (right) regular
Noetherian ring, the quotient category identity above holds for the
corresponding graded finitely generated modules, i.e., gr-A/ gr0 -A 
mod-A0 and the localisation theorem gives a long exact sequence of
abelian groups,
δ gr
· · · −→ Kn+1 (A0 ) −→ Kn (gr0 -A) −→ Kn (A) −→ Kn (A0 ) −→ · · · .

gr
Relating K∗ (A) to K∗ (A) for graded Noetherian regular rings §6.4. For
a Z-graded ring A which is right regular Noetherian, there is a long
exact sequence of abelian groups

gr i gr U
· · · −→ Kn+1 (A) −→ Kn (A) −→ Kn (A) −→ Kn (A) −→ · · · .
gr
The main emphasis of this book is on the group K0 as a powerful invariant in
the classification problems. This group is equipped with the extra structure of
the action of the grade group induced by the shift. In many important examples,
 Introduction 3

in fact this shift is all the difference between the graded Grothendieck group
and the usual Grothendieck group, i.e.,
gr
K0 (A)/[P] − [P(1)]  K0 (A),
where P is a graded projective A-module and P(1) is the shifted module (Chap-
ter 6, see Corollary 6.4.2).
The motivation to write this book came from recent activities that adopt the
graded Grothendieck group as an invariant to classify the Leavitt path alge-
bras [47, 48, 79]. Surprisingly, not much is recorded about the graded ver-
sion of the Grothendieck group in the literature, despite the fact that K0 has
been used on many occasions as a crucial invariant, and there is a substan-
tial amount of information about the graded version of other invariants such
as (co)homology groups, Brauer groups, etc. The other surge of interest in
this group stems from the recent activities on the (graded) representation the-
ory of Hecke algebras. In particular for a quiver Hecke algebra, its graded
Grothendieck group is closely related to its corresponding quantised envelop-
ing algebra. For this line of research see the survey [54].
This book tries to fill this gap, by systematically developing the theory of
graded Grothendieck groups. In order to do this, we have to carry over and
work out the details of known results in the nongraded case to the graded set-
ting, and gather together important results on the graded theory scattered in
research papers.
The group K0 has been successfully used in operator theory to classify cer-
tain classes of C ∗ -algebras. Building on work of Bratteli, Elliott in [36] used
the pointed ordered K0 -groups (called dimension groups) as a complete in-
variant for AF C ∗ -algebras. Another cornerstone of using K-groups for the
classifications of a wider range of C ∗ -algebras was the work of Kirchberg and
Phillips [80], who showed that K0 and K1 -groups together are a complete in-
variant for a certain type of C ∗ -algebras. The Grothendieck group considered
as a module induced by a group action was used by Handelman and Ross-
mann [45] to give a complete invariant for the class of direct limits of finite di-
mensional, representable dynamical systems. Krieger [56] introduced (past) di-
mension groups as a complete invariant for the shift equivalence of topological
Markov chains (shift of finite types) in symbolic dynamics. Surprisingly, we
will see that Krieger’s groups are naturally expressed by graded Grothendieck
groups (§3.11).
We develop the theory for rings graded by abelian groups rather than ar-
bitrary groups for two reasons, although most of the results could be carried
over to nonabelian grade groups. One reason is that using the abelian grad-
ing makes the presentation and proofs much more transparent. In addition, in
4 Introduction

most applications of graded K-theory, the ring has an abelian grading (often a
Z-grading).
In Chapter 1 we study the basic theory of graded rings. Chapter 2 con-
gr
centrates on graded Morita theory. In Chapter 3 we compute K0 for certain
graded rings, such as graded local rings and (Leavitt) path algebras. We study
gr
the pre-ordering available on K0 and determine the action of Γ on this group.
Chapter 4 studies graded Picard groups and in Chapter 5 we prove that for
the so-called graded ultramatricial algebras, the graded Grothendieck group is
a complete invariant. Finally, in Chapter 6, we explore the relations between
gr
(higher) Kn and Kn , for the class of Z-graded rings. We describe a general-
isation of the Quillen and van den Bergh theorems. The latter theorem uses
the techniques employed in the proof of the fundamental theorem of K-theory,
where the graded K-theory appears. For this reason we present a proof of the
fundamental theorem in this chapter.

Conventions Throughout this book, unless it is explicitly stated, all rings have
identities, homomorphisms preserve the identity and all modules are unitary.
Moreover, all modules are considered right modules. For a ring A, the category
of right A-modules is denoted by Mod-A. A full subcategory of Mod-A con-
sisted of all finitely generated A-modules is denoted by mod-A. By Pr-A we
denote the category of finitely
 generated projective
 A-modules.
For a set Γ, we write Γ Z or ZΓ to mean γ∈Γ Zγ , where Zγ = Z for each
γ ∈ Γ. We denote the cyclic group Z/nZ with n elements by Zn .

Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge Australian Research Council

grants DP150101598 and DP160101481. Part of this work was done at the
University of Bielefeld, where the author was a Humboldt Fellow.
I learned about the graded techniques in algebra from Adrian Wadsworth.
Judith Millar worked with me to study the graded K-theory of Azumaya alge-
bras. Gene Abrams was a source of encouragement that the graded techniques
would be fruitful in the study of Leavitt path algebras. Andrew Mathas told
me how graded Grothendieck groups are relevant in representation theory and
pointed me to the relevant literature. The discussions with Zuhong Zhang, who
kindly invited me to the Beijing Institute of Technology in July 2013 and 2014,
helped to improve the presentation. To all of them, I am grateful.
 1
Graded rings and graded modules

Graded rings appear in many circumstances, both in elementary and advanced

areas. Here are two examples.

1 In elementary school when we distribute 10 apples giving 2 apples to each

person, we have

10 Apples : 2 Apples = 5 People.

The psychological problem caused to many kids as to exactly how the word
“People” appears in the equation can be overcome by correcting it to

10 Apples : 2 Apples / People = 5 People.

This shows that already at the level of elementary school arithmetic, children
work in a much more sophisticated structure, i.e., the graded ring

Z[x1±1 , . . . , xn±1 ]

of Laurent polynomial rings! (see the interesting book of Borovik [23, §4.7]
on this).

2 If A is a commutative ring generated by a finite number of elements of degree

1, then by the celebrated work of Serre [85], the category of quasicoherent
sheaves on the scheme is equivalent to QGr-A  Gr-A/ Fdim-A, where Gr-A
is the category of graded modules over A and Fdim-A is the Serre subcate-
gory of (direct limits of) finite dimensional submodules. In particular when
A = K[x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ], where K is a field, then QCoh-Pn is equivalent to
QGr-A[x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ] (see [85, 9, 79] for more precise statements and rela-
tions with noncommutative algebraic geometry).

This book treats graded rings and the category of graded modules over a

5
6 Graded rings and graded modules

graded ring. This category is an abelian category (in fact a Grothendieck cate-
gory). Many of the classical invariants constructed for the category of modules
can be constructed, mutatis mutandis, starting from the category of graded
modules. The general viewpoint of this book is that, once a ring has a natu-
ral graded structure, graded invariants capture more information than the non-
graded counterparts.
In this chapter we give a concise introduction to the theory of graded rings.
We introduce grading on matrices, study graded division rings and introduce
gradings on graph algebras that will be the source of many interesting exam-
ples.

1.1 Graded rings

1.1.1 Basic definitions and examples

A ring A is called a Γ-graded ring, or simply a graded ring, if A = γ∈Γ Aγ ,
where Γ is an (abelian) group, each Aγ is an additive subgroup of A and Aγ Aδ ⊆
Aγ+δ for all γ, δ ∈ Γ.
If A is an algebra over a field K, then A is called a graded algebra if A is a
graded ring and for any γ ∈ Γ, Aγ is a K-vector subspace.

The set Ah = γ∈Γ Aγ is called the set of homogeneous elements of A. The
additive group Aγ is called the γ-component of A and the nonzero elements of
Aγ are called homogeneous of degree γ. We write deg(a) = γ if a ∈ Aγ \{0}. We
call the set
 
ΓA = γ ∈ Γ | Aγ  0

the support of A. We say the Γ-graded ring A has a trivial grading, or A is

concentrated in degree zero, if the support of A is the trivial group, i.e., A0 = A
and Aγ = 0 for γ ∈ Γ\{0}.
For Γ-graded rings A and B, a Γ-graded ring homomorphism f : A → B is
a ring homomorphism such that f (Aγ ) ⊆ Bγ for all γ ∈ Γ. A graded homo-
morphism f is called a graded isomorphism if f is bijective and, when such a
graded isomorphism exists, we write A gr B. Notice that if f is a graded ring
homomorphism which is bijective, then its inverse f −1 is also a graded ring
homomorphism.
If A is a graded ring and R is a commutative graded ring, then A is called
a graded R-algebra if A is an R-algebra and the associated algebra homomor-
phism φ : R → A is a graded homomorphism. When R is a field concentrated
in degree zero, we retrieve the definition of a graded algebra above.
 1.1 Graded rings 7

Proposition 1.1.1 Let A = γ∈Γ Aγ be a Γ-graded ring. Then

(1) 1A is homogeneous of degree 0;

(2) A0 is a subring of A;
(3) each Aγ is an A0 -bimodule;
(4) for an invertible element a ∈ Aγ , its inverse a−1 is homogeneous of degree
−γ, i.e., a−1 ∈ A−γ .
Proof (1) Suppose 1A = γ∈Γ aγ for aγ ∈ Aγ . Let b ∈ Aδ , δ ∈ Γ, be an
arbitrary nonzero homogeneous element. Then b = b1A = γ∈Γ baγ , where
baγ ∈ Aδ+γ for all γ ∈ Γ. Since the decomposition is unique, baγ = 0 for all
γ ∈ Γ with γ  0. But as b was an arbitrary homogeneous element, it follows
that baγ = 0 for all b ∈ A (not necessarily homogeneous), and in particular
1A aγ = aγ = 0 if γ  0. Thus 1A = a0 ∈ A0 .
(2) This follows since A0 is an additive subgroup of A with A0 A0 ⊆ A0 and
1 ∈ A0 .
(3) This is immediate.
(4) Let b = δ∈Γ bδ , with deg(bδ ) = δ, be the inverse of a ∈ Aγ , so that
1 = ab = δ∈Γ abδ , where abδ ∈ Aγ+δ . By (1), since 1 is homogeneous of
degree 0 and the decomposition is unique, it follows that abδ = 0 for all δ  −γ.
Since a is invertible, b−γ  0, so b = b−γ ∈ A−γ as required. 
The ring A0 is called the 0-component ring of A and plays a crucial role in
the theory of graded rings. The proof of Proposition 1.1.1(4), in fact, shows
that if a ∈ Aγ has a left (or right) inverse then that inverse is in A−γ . In The-
orem 1.6.9, we characterise Z-graded rings such that A1 has a left (or right)
invertible element.
Example 1.1.2 Group rings
For a group Γ, the group ring Z[Γ] has a natural Γ-grading
Z[Γ] = Z[Γ]γ , where Z[Γ]γ = Zγ.
γ∈Γ

In §1.1.4, we construct crossed products which are graded rings and are gen-
eralisations of group rings and skew groups rings. A group ring has a natural
involution which makes it an involutary graded ring (see §1.9).
In several applications (such as K-theory of rings, Chapter 6) we deal with
Z-graded rings with support in N, the so called positively graded rings.
Example 1.1.3 Tensor algebras as positively graded rings
Let A be a commutative ring and M be an A-module. Denote by T n (M),
8 Graded rings and graded modules

n ≥ 1, the tensor product of n copies of M over A. Set T 0 (M) = A. Then the

natural A-module isomorphism T n (M) ⊗A T m (M) → T n+m (M), induces a ring
structure on
T (M) := T n (M).
n∈N

The A-algebra T (M) is called the tensor algebra of M. Setting

T (M)n := T n (M)
makes T (M) a Z-graded ring with support N. From the definition, we have
T (M)0 = A.
If M is a free A-module, then T (M) is a free algebra over A, generated by
a basis of M. Thus free rings are Z-graded rings with the generators being
homogeneous elements of degree 1. We will systematically study the grading
of free rings in §1.6.1.
Example 1.1.4 Formal matrix rings as graded rings
Let R and S be rings, M a R−S-bimodule and N a S −R-bimodule. Consider
the set

r m 
T :=  r ∈ R, s ∈ S , m ∈ M, n ∈ N .
n s
Suppose that there are bimodule homomorphisms φ : M ⊗S N → R and
ψ : N ⊗R M → S such that (mn)m = m(nm ), where we denote φ(m, n) =
mn and ψ(n, m) = nm. One can then check that T with matrix addition and
multiplication forms a ring with an identity. The ring T is called the formal
matrix ring and denoted also by
R M
T= .
N S
For example, the Morita ring of a module is a formal matrix ring (see §2.3
and (2.6)).
Considering
R 0 0 M
T0 = , T1 = ,
0 S N 0
it is easy to check that T becomes a Z2 -graded ring. In the cases that the images
of φ and ψ are zero, these rings have been extensively studied (see [57] and
references therein).
When N = 0, the ring T is called a formal triangular matrix ring. In this
case there is no need to consider the homomorphisms φ and ψ. Setting further
T i = 0 for i  0, 1 makes T also a Z-graded ring.
 1.1 Graded rings 9

One specific example of such a grading on (subrings of) formal triangular

matrix rings is used in representation theory. Recall that for a field K, a finite
dimensional K-algebra R is called Frobenius algebra if R  R∗ as right R-
modules, where R∗ := HomK (R, K). Note that R∗ has a natural R-bimodule
structure.
Starting from a finite dimensional K-algebra R, one constructs the trivial ex-
 ∗algebra and has a natural Z-graded structure
tension of R which is a Frobenius
as follows. Consider A := R R , with addition defined component-wise and
multiplication defined as
(r1 , q1 )(r2 , q2 ) = (r1 r2 , r1 q1 + q2 r2 ),
where r1 , r2 ∈ R and q1 , q2 ∈ R∗ . Clearly A is a Frobenius algebra with identity
(1, 0). Moreover, setting
A0 = R ⊕ 0,
A1 = 0 ⊕ R∗ ,
Ai = 0, otherwise,
makes A into a Z-graded ring with support {0, 1}. In fact this ring is a subring
of the formal triangular matrix ring
R R∗
T0 = ,
0 R

a q
consisting of elements .
0 a
These rings appear in representation theory (see [46, §2.2]). The graded ver-
sion of this contraction is carried out in Example 1.2.9.
Example 1.1.5 The graded ring A as A0 -module
Let A be a Γ-graded ring. Then A can be considered as an A0 -bimodule. In
many cases A is a projective A0 -module, for example in the case of group rings
(Example 1.1.2) or when A is a strongly graded ring (see §1.1.3 and Theo-
rem 1.5.12). Here is an example that this is not the case in general. Consider
the formal matrix ring T
R M
T= ,
0 0
where M is a left R-module which is not a projective R-module. Then by Ex-
ample 1.1.4, T is a Z-graded ring with T 0 = R and T 1 = M. Now T as a
T 0 -module is R ⊕ M as an R-module. Since M is not projective, R ⊕ M is not a
projective R-module. We also get that T 1 is not a projective T 0 -module.
10 Graded rings and graded modules

1.1.2 Partitioning graded rings

Let A be a Γ-graded ring and f : Γ → Δ be a group homomorphism.
 Then one
can assign a natural Δ-graded structure to A as follows: A = δ∈Δ A δ , where
⎧
⎪
⎪ −1
⎨ γ∈ f −1 (δ) Aγ if f (δ)  ∅;
Aδ = ⎪
⎪
⎩0 otherwise.
In particular, for a subgroup Ω of Γ we have the following constructions.

Subgroup grading The ring AΩ := ω∈Ω Aω forms a Ω-graded ring. In par-
ticular, A0 corresponds to the trivial subgroup of Γ.
Quotient grading Considering

A= AΩ+α ,
Ω+α∈Γ/Ω

where
AΩ+α := Aω+α ,
ω∈Ω

makes A a Γ/Ω-graded ring. (Note that if Γ is not abelian, then for

this construction, Ω needs to be a normal subgroup.) Notice that with
this grading, A0 = AΩ . If ΓA ⊆ Ω, then A, considered as a Γ/Ω-graded
ring, is concentrated in degree zero.
This construction induces a forgetful functor (or with other inter-
pretations, a block, or a coarsening functor) from the category of Γ-
graded rings RΓ to the category of Γ/Ω-graded rings RΓ/Ω , i.e.,

U : RΓ → RΓ/Ω .

If Ω = Γ, this gives the obvious forgetful functor from the category

of Γ-graded rings to the category of rings. We give a specific example
of this construction in Example 1.1.8 and others in Examples 1.1.20
and 1.6.1.

Example 1.1.6 Tensor product of graded rings

Let A be a Γ-graded and B a Ω-graded ring. Then A ⊗Z B has a natural Γ × Ω-
graded ring structure as follows. Since Aγ and Bω , γ ∈ Γ, ω ∈ Ω, are Z-modules
then A ⊗Z B can be decomposed as a direct sum

A ⊗Z B = Aγ ⊗ Bω
(γ,ω)∈Γ×Ω

(to be precise, Aγ ⊗ Bω is the image of Aγ ⊗Z Bω in A ⊗Z B).

 1.1 Graded rings 11

Now, if Ω = Γ and

f : Γ × Γ −→ Γ,
(γ1 , γ2 ) −→ γ1 + γ2 ,

then we get a natural Γ-graded structure on A ⊗Z B. Namely,

A ⊗Z B = (A ⊗ B)γ ,
γ∈Γ

where
 
(A ⊗ B)γ = ai ⊗ bi | ai ∈ Ah , bi ∈ Bh , deg(ai ) + deg(bi ) = γ .
i

We give specific examples of this construction in Example 1.1.7. One can re-
place Z by a field K, if A and B are K-algebras and Aγ , Bγ are K-modules.

Example 1.1.7 Let A be a ring with identity and Γ be a group. We consider

A as a Γ-graded ring concentrated in degree zero. Then, by Example 1.1.6,

A[Γ]  A ⊗Z Z[Γ]

has a Γ-graded structure, i.e., A[Γ] = γ∈Γ Aγ. If A itself is a (nontrivial) Γ-

graded ring A = γ∈Γ Aγ , then by Example 1.1.6, A[Γ] has also a Γ-grading
 γ γ

A[Γ] = γ∈Γ A , where A = γ=ζ+ζ Aζ ζ . (1.1)

A specific example is when A is a positively graded Z-graded ring. Then

A[x]  A ⊗ Z[x] is a Z-graded ring with support N, where

A[x]n = Ai x j .
i+ j=n

This graded ring will be used in §6.2.4 when we prove the fundamental the-
orem of K-theory. Such constructions are systematically studied in [72] (see
also [75, §6]).

Example 1.1.8 Let A be a Γ × Γ-graded ring. Define a Γ-grading on A as

follows. For γ ∈ Γ, set

Aγ = Aγ−α,α .
α∈Γ

It is easy to see that A = γ∈Γ Aγ is a Γ-graded ring. When A is Z × Z-graded,
then the Z-grading on A is obtained from considering all the homogeneous
components on a diagonal together, as Figure 1.1 shows.
12 Graded rings and graded modules
y

A−2,3 A−1,3 A0,3 A1,3

3

A−2,2 A−1,2 A0,2 A1,2 A2,2

2

A−2,1 A−1,1 A0,1 A1,1 A2,1 A3,1

1

A−1,0 A0,0 A1,0 A2,0 A3,0 A4,0

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
A0,−1 A1,−1 A2,−1 A3,−1
−1

A1,−2 A2,−2 A3,−2

−2
A−1 A0 A1 A2

−3

Figure 1.1

In fact this example follows from the general construction given in §1.1.2.
Consider the homomorphism Γ × Γ → Γ, (α, β) → α + β. Let Ω be the kernel of
this map. Clearly (Γ × Γ)/Ω  Γ. One can check that the (Γ × Γ)/Ω-graded ring
A gives the graded ring constructed in this example (see also Remark 1.1.26).

Example 1.1.9 The direct limit of graded rings

Let Ai , i ∈ I, be a direct system of Γ-graded rings, i.e., I is a directed partially
ordered set and for i ≤ j there is a graded homomorphism φi j : Ai → A j
which is compatible with the ordering. Then A := lim Ai is a Γ-graded ring
−−→
with homogeneous components Aα = lim Aiα . For a detailed construction of
−−→
such direct limits see [24, II, §11.3, Remark 3].
As an example, the ring A = Z[xi | i ∈ N], where A = lim Z[x1 , . . . , xi ],
−−→i∈N
with deg(xi ) = 1 is a Z-graded ring with support N. We give another specific
example of this construction in Example 1.1.10.
We will study in detail one type of these graded rings, i.e., graded ultra-
matricial algebras (Chapter 5, Definition 5.2.1) and will show that the graded
Grothendieck group (Chapter 3) classifies these graded rings completely.
 
Example 1.1.10 Let A = γ∈Γ Aγ and B = Bγ be Γ-graded rings.
γ∈Γ 
Then A × B has a natural grading given by A × B = γ∈Γ (A × B)γ where
(A × B)γ = Aγ × Bγ .
 1.1 Graded rings 13

Example 1.1.11 Localisation of graded rings

Let S be a central multiplicative closed subset of the Γ-graded ring A, con-
sisting of homogeneous elements. Then S −1 A has a natural Γ-graded structure.
Namely, for a ∈ Ah , define deg(a/s) = deg(a) − deg(s) and for γ ∈ Γ,
 
(S −1 A)γ = a/s | a ∈ Ah , deg(a/s) = γ .
It is easy to see that this is well-defined and makes S −1 A a Γ-graded ring.
Many rings have a “canonical” graded structure, among them are crossed
products (group rings, skew group rings, twisted group rings), edge algebras,
path algebras, incidence rings, etc. (see [53] for a review of these ring con-
structions). We will study some of these rings in this book.
Remark 1.1.12 Rings graded by a category
The use of groupoids as a suitable language for structures whose operations
are partially defined has now been firmly recognised. There is a generalised
notion of groupoid graded rings as follows. Recall that a groupoid is a small
category with the property that all morphisms are isomorphisms. As an exam-
ple, let G be a group and I a nonempty set. The set I × G × I, considered as
morphisms, forms a groupoid where the composition is defined by
(i, g, j)( j, h, k) = (i, gh, k).
One can show that this forms a connected groupoid and any connected groupoid
is of this form ([62, Ch. 3.3, Prop. 6]). If I = {1, . . . , n}, we denote I × G × I by
n × G × n.
Let Γ be a groupoid and A be a ring. A is called a Γ-groupoid graded ring
if A = γ∈Γ Aγ , where γ is a morphism of Γ, each Aγ is an additive subgroup
of A and Aγ Aδ ⊆ Aγδ if the morphism γδ is defined and Aγ Aδ = 0 otherwise.
For a group Γ, considering it as a category with one element and Γ as the set
of morphisms, we recover the Γ-group graded ring A (see Example 2.3.1 for an
example of a groupoid graded ring).
One can develop the theory of groupoid graded rings in parallel and similarly
to the group graded rings. See [65, 66] for this approach. Since adjoining a zero
to a groupoid gives a semigroup, a groupoid graded ring is a special case of
rings graded by semigroups (see Remark 1.1.13). For a general notion of a ring
graded by a category see [1, §2], where it is shown that the category of graded
modules (graded by a category) is a Grothendieck category.
14 Graded rings and graded modules

Remark 1.1.13 Rings graded by a semigroup

In the definition of a graded ring (§1.1.1), one can replace the group grad-
ing with a semigroup. With this setting, the tensor algebras of Example 1.1.3
are N-graded rings. A number of results on group graded rings can also be es-
tablished in the more general setting of rings graded by cancellative monoids
or semigroups (see for example [24, II, §11]). However, in this book we only
consider group graded rings.

Remark 1.1.14 Graded rings without identity

For a ring without identity, one defines the concept of the graded ring exactly
as when the ring has an identity. The concept of the strongly graded ring is
defined similarly. In several occasions in this book we construct graded rings
without an identity. For example, Leavitt path algebras arising from infinite
graphs are graded rings without an identity, §1.6.4. See also §1.6.1, the graded
free rings. The unitisation of a (nonunital) graded ring has a canonical grading.
This is studied in relation with graded K0 of nonunital rings in §3.5 (see (3.25)).

1.1.3 Strongly graded rings

Let A be a Γ-graded ring. By Proposition 1.1.1, 1 ∈ A0 . This implies A0 Aγ = Aγ
and Aγ A0 = Aγ for any γ ∈ Γ. If these equalities hold for any two arbitrary
 of Γ, we call the ring a strongly graded ring. Namely, a Γ-graded ring
elements
A= γ∈Γ Aγ is called a strongly graded ring if Aγ Aδ = Aγ+δ for all γ, δ ∈ Γ.
A graded ring A is called crossed product if there is an invertible element in
every homogeneous component Aγ of A; that is, A∗ ∩ Aγ  ∅ for all γ ∈ Γ,
where A∗ is the group of all invertible elements of A. We define the support of
invertible homogeneous elements of A as

Γ∗A = { γ ∈ Γ | A∗γ  ∅ }, (1.2)

where A∗γ := A∗ ∩ Aγ . It is easy to see that Γ∗A is a group and Γ∗A ⊆ ΓA (see
Proposition 1.1.1(4)). Clearly A is a crossed product if and only if Γ∗A = Γ.

Proposition 1.1.15 Let A = γ∈Γ Aγ be a Γ-graded ring. Then

(1) A is strongly graded if and only if 1 ∈ Aγ A−γ for any γ ∈ Γ;

(2) if A is strongly graded then the support of A is Γ;
(3) any crossed product ring is strongly graded;
(4) if f : A → B is a graded homomorphism of graded rings, then B is strongly
graded (resp. crossed product) if A is so.
 1.1 Graded rings 15

Proof (1) If A is strongly graded, then 1 ∈ A0 = Aγ A−γ for any γ ∈ Γ. For the
converse, the assumption 1 ∈ Aγ A−γ implies that A0 = Aγ A−γ for any γ ∈ Γ.
Then for σ, δ ∈ Γ,
Aσ+δ = A0 Aσ+δ = (Aσ A−σ )Aσ+δ = Aσ (A−σ Aσ+δ ) ⊆ Aσ Aδ ⊆ Aσ+δ ,
proving Aσδ = Aσ Aδ , so A is strongly graded.
(2) By (1), 1 ∈ Aγ A−γ for any γ ∈ Γ. This implies Aγ  0 for any γ,
i.e., ΓA = Γ.
(3) Let A be a crossed product ring. By definition, for γ ∈ Γ, there exists
a ∈ A∗ ∩ Aγ . So a−1 ∈ A−γ by Proposition 1.1.1(4) and 1 = aa−1 ∈ Aγ A−γ .
Thus A is strongly graded by (1).
(4) Suppose A is strongly graded. By (1), 1 ∈ Aγ A−γ for any γ ∈ Γ. Thus
1 ∈ f (Aγ ) f (A−γ ) ⊆ Bγ B−γ .
Again (1) implies B is strongly graded. The case of the crossed product follows
easily from the definition. 
The converse of (3) in Proposition 1.1.15 does not hold. One can prove that
if A is strongly graded and A0 is a local ring, then A is a crossed product
algebra (see [75, Theorem 3.3.1]). In §1.6 we give examples of a strongly
graded algebra A such that A is crossed product but A0 is not a local ring. We
also give an example of a strongly Z-graded ring A such that A0 is not local
and A is not crossed product (Example 1.6.22). Using graph algebras we will
produce large classes of strongly graded rings which are not crossed product
(see Theorems 1.6.15 and 1.6.16).
If Γ is a finitely generated group, generated by the set {γ1 , . . . , γn }, then (1)
in Proposition 1.1.15 can be simplified to the following: A is strongly graded
if and only if 1 ∈ Aγi A−γi and 1 ∈ A−γi Aγi , where 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Thus if Γ = Z,
in order for A to be strongly graded, we only need to have 1 ∈ A1 A−1 and
1 ∈ A−1 A1 . This will be used, for example, in Proposition 1.6.6 to show that
certain corner skew Laurent polynomial rings (§1.6.2) are strongly graded.
Example 1.1.16 Constructing strongly graded rings via tensor products
Let A and B be Γ-graded rings. Then by Example 1.1.6, A ⊗Z B is a Γ-graded
ring. If one of the rings is strongly graded (resp. crossed product) then A ⊗Z B
is so. Indeed, suppose A is strongly graded (resp. crossed product). Then the
claim follows from Proposition 1.1.15(4) and the graded homomorphism A →
A ⊗Z B, a → a ⊗ 1.
As a specific case, suppose A is a Z-graded ring. Then
A[x, x−1 ] = A ⊗ Z[x, x−1 ]
16 Graded rings and graded modules

is a strongly graded ring. Notice that with this grading, A[x, x−1 ]0  A.
Example 1.1.17 Strongly graded as a Γ/Ω-graded ring
Let A be a Γ-graded ring. Using Proposition 1.1.15, it is easy to see that if A
is a strongly Γ-graded ring, then it is also a strongly Γ/Ω-graded ring, where Ω
is a subgroup of Γ. However the strongly gradedness is not a “closed” property,
i.e, if A is a strongly Γ/Ω-graded ring and AΩ is a strongly Ω-graded ring, it
does not follow that A is strongly Γ-graded.

1.1.4 Crossed products

Natural examples of strongly graded rings are crossed product algebras (see
Proposition 1.1.15(3)). They cover, as special cases, the skew group rings and
twisted groups rings. We briefly describe the construction here.
Let A be a ring, Γ a group (as usual we use the additive notation), and let
φ : Γ → Aut(A) and ψ : Γ × Γ → A∗ be maps such that for any α, β, γ ∈ Γ and
a ∈ A,
(i) α (β a) = ψ(α, β) α+β a ψ(α, β)−1 ,
(ii) ψ(α, β)ψ(α + β, γ) = α ψ(β, γ) ψ(α, β + γ),
(iii) ψ(α, 0) = ψ(0, α) = 1
Here for α ∈ Γ and a ∈ A, φ(α)(a) is denoted by α a. The map ψ is called a
2-cocycle map. Denote by Aφψ [Γ] the free left A-module with the basis Γ, and
define the multiplication by
(aα)(bβ) = a α b ψ(α, β)(α + β). (1.3)
One can show that with this multiplication, Aφψ [Γ] is a Γ-graded ring with
homogeneous components Aγ, γ ∈ Γ. In fact γ ∈ Aγ is invertible, so Aφψ [Γ] is
a crossed product algebra [75, Proposition 1.4.1].
On the other hand, any crossed product algebra is of this form (see [75,
§1.4]): for any γ ∈ Γ choose uγ ∈ A∗ ∩ Aγ and define φ : Γ → Aut(A0 ) by
φ(γ)(a) = uγ au−1
γ for γ ∈ Γ and a ∈ A0 . Moreover, define the cocycle map

ψ : Γ × Γ −→ A∗0 ,
(ζ, η) −→ uζ uη u−1
ζ+η .

Then

A = A0 φψ [Γ] = γ∈Γ A0 γ,

with multiplication
(aζ)(bη) = aζ bψ(ζ, η)(ζ + η),
 1.1 Graded rings 17

where ζ b is defined as φ(ζ)(b).

Note that when Γ is cyclic, one can choose ui = ui1 for u1 ∈ A∗ ∩ A1 and thus
the cocycle map ψ is trivial, φ is a homomorphism and the crossed product is
a skew group ring. In fact, if Γ = Z, then the skew group ring becomes the
so-called skew Laurent polynomial ring, denoted by A0 [x, x−1 , φ]. Moreover, if
u1 is in the centre of A, then φ is the identity map and the crossed product ring
reduces to the group ring A0 [Γ]. A variant of this construction, namely corner
skew polynomial rings, is studied in §1.6.2.
Skew group rings If ψ : Γ × Γ → A∗ is a trivial map, i.e., ψ(α, β) = 1
for all α, β ∈ Γ, then Conditions (ii) and (iii) trivially hold, and Condition (i)
reduces to α (β a) = α+β a which means that φ : Γ → Aut(A) becomes a group
homomorphism. In this case Aφψ [Γ], denoted by A φ Γ, is a skew group ring
with multiplication
(aα)(bβ) = a α b (α + β). (1.4)

Twisted group ring If φ : Γ → Aut(A) is trivial, i.e., φ(α) = 1A for all

α ∈ Γ, then Condition (i) implies that ψ(α, β) ∈ C(A) ∩ A∗ for any α, β ∈ Γ.
Here C(A) stands for the centre of the ring A. In this case Aφψ [Γ], denoted by
Aψ [Γ], is a twisted group ring with multiplication

(aα)(bβ) = abψ(α, β)(α + β). (1.5)

A well-known theorem in the theory of central simple algebras states that

if D is a central simple F-algebra with a maximal subfield L such that L/F is
a Galois extension and [A : F] = [L : F]2 , then D is a crossed product, with
Γ = Gal(L/F) and A = L (see [35, §12, Theorem 1]).
Some of the graded rings we treat in this book are of the form K[x, x−1 ],
where K is a field. This is an example of a graded field.
A Γ-graded ring A = γ∈Γ Aγ is called a graded division ring if every
nonzero homogeneous element has a multiplicative inverse. If A is also a com-
mutative ring, then A is called a graded field.
Let A be a Γ-graded division ring. It follows from Proposition 1.1.1(4) that
ΓA is a group, so we can write A = γ∈ΓA Aγ . Then, as a ΓA -graded ring, A is
a crossed product and it follows from Proposition 1.1.15(3) that A is strongly
ΓA -graded. Note that if ΓA  Γ, then A is not strongly Γ-graded. Also note that
if A is a graded division ring, then A0 is a division ring.

Remark 1.1.18 Graded division rings and division rings which are graded
Note that a graded division ring and a division ring which is graded are
different. By definition, A is a graded division ring if and only if Ah \{0} is
a group. A simple example is the Laurent polynomial ring D[x, x−1 ], where
18 Graded rings and graded modules

D is a division ring (Example 1.1.19). Other examples show that a graded

division ring does not need to be a domain (Example 1.1.21). However, if the
grade group is totally ordered, then a domain which is also graded has to be
concentrated in degree zero. Thus a division
 ring which is graded by a totally
ordered grade group Γ is of the form A = γ∈Γ Aγ , where A0 is a division ring
and Aγ = 0 for γ  0. This will not be the case if Γ is not totally ordered (see
Example 1.1.20).

In the following we give some concrete examples of graded division rings.

Example 1.1.19 The Veronese subring


Let A = γ∈Γ Aγ be a Γ-graded ring, where Γ is a torsion-free group. For

n ∈ Z\{0}, the nth-Veronese subring of A is defined as A =(n)
γ∈Γ Anγ . This
is a Γ-graded ring with A(n) γ = Anγ . It is easy to see that the support of A
(n)
is
Γ if the support of A is Γ. Note also that if A is strongly graded, so is A(n) .
Clearly A(1) = A and A(−1) is the graded ring with the components “flipped”,
i.e., A(−1)
γ = A−γ . For the case of A(−1) we don’t need to require the grade group
to be torsion-free.
Let D be a division ring and let A = D[x, x−1 ] be the Laurent polynomial
 i∈Z ai x , where ai ∈ D.
i
ring. The elements of A consist of finite sums Then
A is a Z-graded division ring with A = A
i∈Z i , where A i = {ax i
| a ∈
n −n
D}. Consider the nth-Veronese subring A which is the ring D[x , x ]. The
(n)

elements of A(n) consist of finite sums  i∈Z ai x , where ai ∈ D. Then A

in (n)

is a Z-graded division ring, with A = (n)

i∈Z Ain . Here both A and A
(n)
are
strongly graded rings.
There is also another way to consider the Z-graded ring B = D[xn , x−n ]
such that it becomes a graded subring of A = D[x, x−1 ]. Namely, we define
B= i∈Z Bi , where Bi = Dx if i ∈ nZ and Bi = 0 otherwise. This way B is a
i

graded division ring and a graded subring of A. The support of B is clearly the
subgroup nZ of Z. With this definition, B is not strongly graded.

Example 1.1.20 Different gradings on a graded division ring

Let H = R⊕Ri⊕R j⊕Rk be the real quaternion algebra, with multiplication
defined by i2 = −1, j2 = −1 and i j = − ji = k. It is known that H is a
noncommutative division ring with centre R. We give H two different graded
division ring structures, with grade groups Z2 × Z2 and Z2 respectively as
follows.

Z2 × Z2 -grading Let H = R(0,0) ⊕ R(1,0) ⊕ R(0,1) ⊕ R(1,1) , where

R(0,0) = R, R(1,0) = Ri, R(0,1) = R j, R(1,1) = Rk.

 1.1 Graded rings 19

It is routine to check that H forms a strongly Z2 × Z2 -graded division

ring.
Z2 -grading Let H = C0 ⊕C1 , where C0 = R⊕Ri and C1 = C j = R j⊕Rk. One
can check that C0 C0 = C0 , C0 C1 = C1 C0 = C1 and C1 C1 = C0 . This
makes H a strongly Z2 -graded division ring. Note that this grading on
H can be obtained from the first part by considering the quotient grade
group Z2 × Z2 /0 × Z2 (§1.1.2). Quaternion algebras are examples of
Clifford algebras (see Example 1.1.24).
The following generalises the above example of quaternions as a Z2 × Z2 -
graded ring.
Example 1.1.21 Symbol algebras
Let F be a field, ξ be a primitive nth root of unity and let a, b ∈ F ∗ . Let
n−1 n−1
A= F xi y j
i=0 j=0

be the F-algebra generated by the elements x and y, which are subject to the
relations xn = a, yn = b and xy = ξyx. By [35, Theorem 11.1], A is an n2 -
dimensional central simple algebra over F. We will show that A forms a graded
division ring. Clearly A can be written as a direct sum
A= A(i, j) , where A(i, j) = F xi y j
(i, j)∈Zn ⊕Zn

and each A(i, j) is an additive subgroup of A. Using the fact that ξ−k j xk y j = y j xk
for each j, k, with 0 ≤ j, k ≤ n − 1, we can show that
A(i, j) A(k,l) ⊆ A([i+k],[ j+l]) ,
for i, j, k, l ∈ Zn . A nonzero homogeneous element f xi y j ∈ A(i, j) has an inverse
f −1 a−1 b−1 ξ−i j xn−i yn− j ,
proving A is a graded division ring. Clearly the support of A is Zn × Zn , so A
is strongly Zn × Zn -graded.
These examples can also be obtained from graded free rings (see Exam-
ple 1.6.3).
Example 1.1.22 A good counter-example
In the theory of graded rings, in many instances it has been established that if
the grade group Γ is finite (or in some cases, finitely generated), then a graded
property implies the corresponding nongraded property of the ring (i.e., the
20 Graded rings and graded modules

property is preserved under the forgetful functor). For example, one can prove
that if a Z-graded ring is graded Artinian (Noetherian), then the ring is Ar-
tinian (Noetherian). One good example which provides counter-examples to
such phenomena is the following graded field.
Let K be a field and A = K[x1±1 , x2±1 , x3±1 , . . . ] a Laurent polynomial ring
in
countably many variables. This ring is a graded field with its “canonical”
∞ Z-grading and thus it is graded Artinian and Noetherian. However, A is
not Noetherian.

1.1.5 Graded ideals

Let A be a Γ-graded ring. A two-sided ideal I of A is called a graded ideal (or
homogeneous ideal) if
I= (I ∩ Aγ ). (1.6)
γ∈Γ

Thus I is a graded ideal if and only if for any x ∈ I, x = xi , where xi ∈ Ah ,

implies that xi ∈ I.
The notions of a graded subring, a graded left and a graded right ideal are
defined similarly.
Let I be a graded ideal of A. Then the quotient ring A/I forms a graded ring,
with
A/I = (A/I)γ , where (A/I)γ = (Aγ + I)/I. (1.7)
γ∈Γ

With this grading (A/I)0  A0 /I0 , where I0 = A0 ∩ I. From (1.6) it follows

that an ideal I of A is a graded ideal if and only if I is generated as a two-
sided ideal of A by homogeneous elements. Also, for a two-sided ideal I of A,
if (1.7) induces a grading on A/I, then I has to be a graded ideal. By Propo-
sition 1.1.15(4), if A is strongly graded or a crossed product, so is the graded
quotient ring A/I.
Example 1.1.23 Symmetric and exterior algebras as Z-graded rings
Recall from Example 1.1.3 that for a commutative ring A and an A-module
M, the tensor algebra T (M) is a Z-graded ring with support N. The symmetric
algebra S (M) is defined as the quotient of T (M) by the ideal generated by
elements x ⊗ y − y ⊗ x, x, y ∈ M. Since these elements are homogeneous of
degree two, S (M) is a Z-graded commutative ring.

Similarly, the exterior algebra of M, denoted by M, is defined as the quo-
tient of T (M) by the ideal generated by homogeneous elements x ⊗ x, x ∈ M.

So M is a Z-graded ring.
 1.1 Graded rings 21

Let I be a two-sided ideal of a Γ-graded ring A generated by a subset {ai } of

not necessarily homogeneous elements of A. If Ω is a subgroup of Γ such that
{ai } are homogeneous elements in Γ/Ω-graded ring A (see §1.1.2), then clearly
I is a Γ/Ω-graded ideal and consequently A/I is a Γ/Ω-graded ring.

Example 1.1.24 Clifford algebras as Z2 -graded rings

Let V be a F-vector space and q : V → F be a quadratic form with its
associated nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form B : V × V → F.
The Clifford algebra associated with (V, q) is defined as

Cl(V, q) := T (V)/v ⊗ v + q(v).

Considering T (V) as a Z/2Z-graded ring (see §1.1.2), the elements v ⊗ v −

q(v) are homogeneous of degree zero. This induces a Z2 -graded structure on
Cl(V, q). Identifying V with its image in the Clifford algebra Cl(V, q), V lies in
the odd part of the Clifford algebra, i.e., V ⊂ Cl(V, q)1 .
If char(F)  2, as B is nondegenerate, there exist x, y ∈ V such that B(x, y) =
1/2, and thus

xy + yx = 2B(x, y) = 1 ∈ Cl(V, q)1 Cl(V, q)1 .

Similarly, if char(F) = 2, there exist x, y ∈ V such that B(x, y) = 1, so

xy + yx = B(x, y) = 1 ∈ Cl(V, q)1 Cl(V, q)1 .

It follows from Proposition 1.1.15 that Clifford algebras are strongly Z2 -

graded rings.

Recall that for Γ-graded rings A and B, a Γ-graded ring homomorphism f :

A → B is a ring homomorphism such that f (Aγ ) ⊆ Bγ for all γ ∈ Γ. It can easily
be shown that ker( f ) is a graded ideal of A and im( f ) is a graded subring of B.
It is also easy to see that f is injective (surjective/bijective) if and only if for
any γ ∈ Γ, the restriction of f on Aγ is injective (surjective/bijective).
Note that if Γ is an abelian group, then the centre of a graded ring A, C(A), is
a graded subring of A. More generally, the centraliser of a set of homogeneous
elements is a graded subring.

Example 1.1.25 The centre of the graded ring

If a group Γ is not abelian, then the centre of a Γ-graded ring may not be a
graded subring. For example, let Γ = S 3 = {e, a, b, c, d, f } be the symmetric
group of order 3, where

a = (23), b = (13), c = (12), d = (123), f = (132).

22 Graded rings and graded modules

Let A be a ring, and consider the group ring R = A[Γ], which is a Γ-graded ring
by Example 1.1.2. Let x = 1d + 1 f ∈ R, where 1 = 1A , and we note that x is not
homogeneous in R. Then x ∈ Z(R), but the homogeneous components of x are
not in the centre of R. As xis expressed uniquely as the sum of homogeneous
components, we have x  γ∈Γ (Z(R) ∩ Rγ ).
This example can be generalised by taking a nonabelian finite group Γ with
a subgroup Ω which is normal and noncentral. Let A be a ring and consider the
group ring R = A[Γ] as above. Then x = ω∈Ω 1ω is in the centre of R, but the
homogeneous components of x are not all in the centre of R.

Remark 1.1.26 Let Γ and Λ be two groups. Let A be a Γ-graded ring and B be
a Λ-graded ring. Suppose f : A → B is a ring homomorphism and g : Γ → Λ a
group homomorphism such that for any γ ∈ Γ, f (Aγ ) ⊆ Bg(γ) . Then f is called
a Γ−Λ-graded homomorphism. In the case Γ = Λ and g = id, we recover the
usual definition of a Γ-graded homomorphism. For example, if Ω is a subgroup
of Γ, then the identity map 1A : A → A is a Γ−Γ/Ω-graded homomorphism,
where A is considered as Γ and Γ/Ω-graded rings, respectively (see §1.1.2).
Throughout this book, we fix a given group Γ and we work with the Γ-
graded category and all our considerations are within this category. (See Re-
mark 2.3.14 for references to literature where mixed grading is studied.)

1.1.6 Graded prime and maximal ideals

A graded ideal P of Γ-graded ring A is called a graded prime ideal of A if
P  A and for any two graded ideals I, J, I J ⊆ P, implies I ⊆ P or J ⊆ P. If
A is commutative, we obtain the familiar formulation that P is a graded prime
ideal if and only if for x, y ∈ Ah , xy ∈ P implies that x ∈ P or y ∈ P. Note that
a graded prime ideal is not necessarily a prime ideal.
A graded ideal P is called a graded semiprime ideal if for any graded ideal I
in A, I 2 ⊆ P, implies I ⊆ P. A graded ring A is called a graded prime (graded
semiprime) ring if the zero ideal is a graded prime (graded semiprime) ideal.
A graded maximal ideal of a Γ-graded ring A is defined to be a proper graded
ideal of A which is maximal among the set of proper graded ideals of A. Using
Zorn’s lemma, one can show that graded maximal ideals exist, and it is not
difficult to show that a graded maximal ideal is a graded prime. For a graded
commutative ring, a graded ideal is maximal if and only if its quotient ring is a
graded field. There are similar notions of graded maximal left and right ideals.
Parallel to the nongraded setting, for a Γ-graded ring A, the graded Jacobson
radical, J gr (A), is defined as the intersection of all graded left maximal ideals
of A. This coincides with the intersection of all graded right maximal ideals and
 1.1 Graded rings 23

so J gr (A) is a two-sided ideal (see [75, Proposition 2.9.1]). We denote by J(A)

the usual Jacobson radical. It is a theorem of G. Bergman that for a Z-graded
ring A, J(A) is a graded ideal and J(A) ⊆ J gr (A) (see [19]).

1.1.7 Graded simple rings

A nonzero graded ring A is said to be graded simple if the only graded two-
sided ideals of A are {0} and A. The structure of graded simple Artinian rings
are known (see Remark 1.4.8). Following [52] we prove that a graded ring A
is simple if and only if A is graded simple and C(A), the centre of A, is a field.
For a Γ-graded ring A, recall the support ΓA of A, from §1.1.1. For a ∈ A,
writing a = γ∈Γ aγ where aγ ∈ Ah , define the support of a to be
 
Γa = γ | aγ  0 .
We also need the notion of minimal support. A finite set X of Γ is called a
minimal support with respect to an ideal I if X = Γa for 0  a ∈ I and there is
no b ∈ I such that b  0 and Γb  Γa .
We start with a lemma.
Lemma 1.1.27 Let A be a Γ-graded simple ring and I an ideal of A. Let
0  a ∈ I with Γa = {γ1 , . . . , γn }. Then for any α ∈ ΓA , there is a 0  b ∈ I with
Γb ⊆ {γ1 − γn + α, . . . , γn − γn + α}.
Proof Let 0  x ∈ Aα , where α ∈ ΓA and 0  a ∈ I with Γa = {γ1 , . . . , γn }.
Write a = ni=1 aγi , where deg(aγi ) = γi . Since A is graded simple,

x= rl aγn sl , (1.8)
l

where rl , sl ∈ A . Thus there are rk , sk ∈ Ah such that rk aγn sk  0 which implies

h

that b := rk ask ∈ I is not zero. Comparing the degrees in Equation (1.8), it

follows that α = deg(rk ) + deg(sk ) + γn , or deg(rk ) + deg(sk ) = α − γn . So
Γb ⊆ Γa + deg(rk ) + deg(sk ) = { γ1 − γn + α, . . . , γn − γn + α }. 
Theorem 1.1.28 Let A be a Γ-graded ring. Then A is a simple ring if and only
if A is a graded simple ring and C(A) is a field.
Proof One direction is straightforward.
Suppose A is graded simple and C(A) is a field. We will show that A is a
simple ring. Suppose I is a nontrivial ideal of A and 0  a ∈ I with Γa a
minimal support with respect to I. For any x ∈ Ah , with deg(x) = α and γ ∈ Γa ,
we have
Γaxaγ −aγ xa  Γa + (γ + α). (1.9)
24 Graded rings and graded modules

Set b = axaγ − aγ xa ∈ I. Suppose b  0. By (1.9),

Γb  { γ1 + γ + α, . . . , γn + γ + α }.

Applying Lemma 1.1.27 with, say, γn + γ + α ∈ Γb and γn ∈ ΓA , we obtain a

0  c ∈ I such that

Γc ⊆ Γb + (γn − γn − γ − α)  Γa .

This is, however, a contradiction as Γa was a minimal support. Thus b = 0,

i.e., axaγ = aγ xa. It follows that for any γi ∈ Γa

aγi xaγ = aγ xaγi . (1.10)

Consider the R-bimodule map

φ : R = aγi  −→ aγ j  = R,
 
rl aγi sl −→ rl aγ j sl .
l l

To show that φ is well-defined, since φ(t + s) = φ(t) + φ(s), it is enough to show

that if t = 0 then φ(t) = 0, where t ∈ aγi . Suppose l rl aγi sl = 0. Then for
any x ∈ Ah , using (1.10) we have
     
0 = aγ j x rl aγi sl = aγ j xrl aγi sl = aγi xrl aγ j sl = aγi x rl aγ j sl .
l l l l

Since A is graded simple, aγi  = 1. It follows that l rl aγ j sl = 0. Thus φ is

well-defined, injective and also clearly surjective. Then aγ j = φ(aγi ) = aγi φ(1).
But φ(1) ∈ C(A). Thus a = j aγ j = aγi c where c ∈ C(A). But C(A) is a field,
so aγi = ac−1 ∈ I. Again, since R is graded simple, it follows that I = R. This
finishes the proof. 

Remark 1.1.29 If the grade group is not abelian, in order for Theorem 1.1.28
to be valid, the grade group should be hyper-central; A hyper-central group is
a group such that any nontrivial quotient has a nontrivial centre. If A is strongly
graded, and the grade group is torsion-free hyper-central, then A is simple if
and only if A is graded simple and C(A) ⊆ A0 (see [52]).

Remark 1.1.30 Graded simplicity implying simplicity

There are other cases that the graded simplicity of a ring implies that the
ring itself is simple. For example, if a ring is graded by an ordered group (such
as Z), and has a finite support, then graded simplicity implies the simplicity of
the ring [10, Theorem 3].
 1.1 Graded rings 25

1.1.8 Graded local rings

Recall that a ring is a local ring if the set of noninvertible elements form a
two-sided ideal. When A is a commutative ring, then A is local if and only if A
has a unique maximal ideal.
A Γ-graded ring A is called a graded local ring if the two-sided ideal M
generate by noninvertible homogeneous elements is a proper ideal. One can
easily observe that the graded ideal M is the unique graded maximal left, right,
and graded two-sided ideal of A. When A is a graded commutative ring, then
A is graded local if and only if A has a unique graded maximal ideal.
If A is a graded local ring, then the graded ring A/M is a graded division
ring. One can further show that A0 is a local ring with the unique maximal
ideal A0 ∩ M. In fact we have the following proposition.

Proposition 1.1.31 Let A be a Γ-graded ring. Then A is a graded local ring

if and only if A0 is a local ring.

Proof Suppose A is a graded local ring. Then by definition, the two-sided

ideal M generated by noninvertible homogeneous elements is a proper ideal.
Consider m = A0 ∩ M which is a proper ideal of A0 . Suppose x ∈ A0 \m. Then
x is a homogeneous element which is not in M. Thus x has to be invertible in
A and consequently in A0 . This shows that A0 is a local ring with the unique
maximal ideal m.
Conversely, suppose A0 is a local ring. We first show that any left or right
invertible homogeneous element is a two-sided invertible element. Let a be a
left invertible homogeneous element. Then there is a homogeneous element b
such that ba = 1. If ab is not right invertible, then ab ∈ m, where m is the
unique maximal ideal of the local ring A0 . Thus 1 − ab  m which implies that
1 − ab is invertible. But (1 − ab)a = a − aba = a − a = 0, and since 1 − ab
is invertible, we get a = 0 which is a contradiction to the fact that a has a left
inverse. Thus a has a right inverse and so is invertible. A similar argument can
be written for right invertible elements. Now let M be the ideal generated by
all noninvertible homogeneous elements of A. We will show that M is proper,
and thus A is a graded local ring. Suppose M is not proper. Thus 1 = i ri ai si ,
where ai are noninvertible homogeneous elements and ri , si are homogeneous
elements such that deg(ri ai si ) = 0. If ri ai si is invertible for some i, using the
fact that right and left invertibles are invertibles, it follows that ai is invertible,
which is a contradiction. Thus ri ai si , for all i, are homogeneous elements of
degree zero and not invertible. So they are all in m. This implies that 1 ∈ m,
which is a contradiction. Thus M is a proper ideal of A. 
26 Graded rings and graded modules

For more on graded local rings (graded by a cancellative monoid) see [64].
In §3.8 we determine the graded Grothendieck group of these rings.

1.1.9 Graded von Neumann regular rings

The von Neumann regular rings constitute an important class of rings. A unital
ring A is von Neumann regular if for any a ∈ A, we have a ∈ aAa. There are
several equivalent module theoretical definitions, such as A is von Neumann
regular if and only if any module over A is flat. This gives a comparison with
the class of division rings and semisimple rings. A ring is a division ring if and
only if any module is free. A semisimple ring is characterised by the property
that any module is projective. Goodearl’s book [40] is devoted to the class of
von Neumann regular rings. The definition extends to a nonunital ring in an
obvious manner.
If a ring has a graded structure, one defines the graded version of regularity
in a natural way: the graded ring A is called graded von Neumann regular if for
any homogeneous element a ∈ A we have a ∈ aAa. This means, for any homo-
geneous element a ∈ A, one can find a homogeneous element b ∈ A such that
a = aba. As an example, a direct sum of graded division rings is a graded von
Neumann regular ring. Many of the module theoretic properties established
for von Neumann regular rings can be extended to the graded setting; for ex-
ample, A is graded regular if and only if any graded module is (graded) flat.
We refer the reader to [74, C, I.5] for a treatment of such rings and [11, §2.2]
for a concise survey. Several of the graded rings we construct in this book are
graded von Neumann regular, such as Leavitt path algebras (Corollary 1.6.17)
and corner skew Laurent series (Proposition 1.6.8).
In this section, we briefly give some of the properties of graded von Neu-
mann regular rings. The following proposition is the graded version of [40,
Theorem 1.1] which has a similar proof.

Proposition 1.1.32 Let A be a Γ-graded ring. The following statements are

equivalent:

(1) A is a graded von Neumann regular ring;

(2) any finitely generated right (left) graded ideal of A is generated by a ho-
mogeneous idempotent.

Proof (1) ⇒ (2) First we show that any principal graded ideal is generated by
a homogeneous idempotent. So consider the principal ideal xA, where x ∈ Ah .
By the assumption, there is y ∈ Ah such that xyx = x. This immediately implies
xA = xyA. Now note that xy is homogeneous idempotent.
 1.1 Graded rings 27

Next we will prove the claim for graded ideals generated by two elements.
The general case follows by an easy induction. So let xA + yA be a graded ideal
generated by two homogeneous elements x, y. By the previous paragraph, xA =
eA for a homogeneous idempotent e. Note that y−ey ∈ Ah and y−ey ∈ xA+yA.
Thus
xA + yA = eA + (y − ey)A. (1.11)

Again, the previous paragraph gives us a homogeneous idempotent f such that

(y − ey)A = f A. Let g = f − f e ∈ A0 . Notice that e f = 0, which implies that
e and g are orthogonal idempotents. Moreover, f g = g and g f = f . It then
follows that gA = f A = (y − ey)A. Now from (1.11) we get

xA + yA = eA + gA = (e + g)A.

(2) ⇒ (1) Let x ∈ Ah . Then xA = eA for some homogeneous idempotent e.

Thus x = ea and e = xy for some a, y ∈ Ah . Then x = ea = eea = ex = xyx. 

Proposition 1.1.33 Let A be a Γ-graded von Neumann regular ring. Then

(1) any graded right (left) ideal of A is idempotent;

(2) any graded ideal is graded semiprime;
(3) any finitely generated right (left) graded ideal of A is a projective module.

Moreover, if A is a Z-graded regular ring then

(4) J(A) = J gr (A) = 0.

Proof The proofs of (1)–(3) are similar to the nongraded case [40, Corol-
lary 1.2]. We provide the easy proofs here.
(1) Let I be a graded right ideal. For any homogeneous element x ∈ I there
is y ∈ Ah such that x = xyx. Thus x = (xy)x ∈ I 2 . It follows that I 2 = I.
(2) This follows immediately from (1).
(3) By Proposition 1.1.32, any finitely generated right ideal is generated by
a homogeneous idempotent. However, this latter ideal is a direct summand of
the ring, and so is a projective module.
(4) By Bergman’s observation, for a Z-graded ring A, J(A) is a graded ideal
and J(A) ⊆ J gr (A) (see [19]). By Proposition 1.1.32, J gr (A) contains an idem-
potent, which then forces J gr (A) = 0. 

If the graded ring A is strongly graded then one can show that there is a
one-to-one correspondence between the right ideals of A0 and the graded right
ideals of A (similarly for the left ideals) (see Remark 1.5.6). This is always the
case for the graded regular rings as the following proposition shows.
28 Graded rings and graded modules

Proposition 1.1.34 Let A be a Γ-graded von Neumann regular ring. Then

there is a one-to-one correspondence between the right (left) ideals of A0 and
the graded right (left) ideals of A.

Proof Consider the following correspondences between the graded right ide-
als of A and the right ideals of A0 . For a graded right ideal I of A assign I0 in
A0 and for a right ideal J in A0 assign the graded right ideal JA in A. Note that
(JA)0 = J. We show that I0 A = I. It is enough to show that any homogeneous
element a of I belongs to I0 A. Since A is graded regular, axa = a for some
x ∈ Ah . But ax ∈ I0 and thus a = axa ∈ I0 A. A similar proof gives the left ideal
correspondence. 

In Theorem 1.2.20 we give yet another characterisation of graded von Neu-

mann regular rings based on the concept of divisible modules.
Later, in Corollary 1.5.10, we show that if A is a strongly graded ring, then
A is graded von Neumann regular if and only if A0 is a von Neumann regular
ring. The proof uses the equivalence of suitable categories over the rings A and
A0 . An element-wise proof of this fact can also be found in [96, Theorem 3].

1.2 Graded modules

1.2.1 Basic definitions
Let A be a Γ-graded ring. A graded right A-module 
M is defined to be a right
A-module M with a direct sum decomposition M = γ∈Γ Mγ , where each Mγ
is an additive subgroup of M such that Mλ Aγ ⊆ Mλ+γ for all γ, λ ∈ Γ.
For Γ-graded right A-modules M and N, a Γ-graded module homomorphism
f : M → N is a module homomorphism such that f (Mγ ) ⊆ Nγ for all γ ∈ Γ.
A graded homomorphism f is called a graded module isomorphism if f is
bijective and, when such a graded isomorphism exists, we write M gr N.
Notice that if f is a graded module homomorphism which is bijective, then its
inverse f −1 is also a graded module homomorphism.

1.2.2 Shift of modules

Let M be a graded right A-module. For δ ∈ Γ, we define the δ-suspended or
δ-shifted graded right A-module M(δ) as

M(δ) = M(δ)γ , where M(δ)γ = Mδ+γ .

γ∈Γ
 1.2 Graded modules 29

This shift plays a pivotal role in the theory of graded rings. For example, if M
is a Z-graded A-module, then the following table shows how the shift like “the
tick of the clock” moves the homogeneous components of M to the left.

degrees -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
M M−1 M0 M1 M2
M(1) M−1 M0 M1 M2
M(2) M−1 M0 M1 M2

Let M be a Γ-graded right A-module. A submodule N of M is called a graded

submodule if
N= (N ∩ Mγ ).
γ∈Γ

Example 1.2.1 aA as a graded ideal and a graded module

Let A be a Γ-graded ring and a ∈ A a homogeneous element of degree α.
Then aA is a graded right A-module with γ ∈ Γ homogeneous component
defined as
(aA)γ := aAγ−α ⊆ Aγ .

With this grading aA is a graded submodule (and graded right ideal) of A. Thus
for β ∈ Γ, a is a homogenous element of the graded A-module aA(β) of degree
α−β. This will be used throughout the book, for example in Proposition 1.2.19.
However, note that defining the grading on aA as

(aA)γ := aAγ ⊆ Aγ+α

makes aA a graded submodule of A(α), which is the image of the graded ho-
momorphism A → A(α), r → ar.

There are similar notions of graded left and graded bi-submodules (§1.2.5).
When N is a graded submodule of M, the factor module M/N forms a graded
A-module, with

M/N = (M/N)γ , where (M/N)γ = (Mγ + N)/N. (1.12)

γ∈Γ

Example 1.2.2 Let A be a Γ-graded ring. Define a grading on the matrix

ring Mn (A) as follows. For α ∈ Γ, Mn (A)α = Mn (Aα ) (for a general theory of
grading on matrix rings see §1.3). Let eii ∈ Mn (A), 1 ≤ i ≤ n, be a matrix unit,
30 Graded rings and graded modules

i.e., a matrix with 1 in the (i, i) position and zero everywhere else, and consider
eii Mn (A). By Example 1.2.1, eii Mn (A) is a graded right Mn (A)-module and
n
eii Mn (A) = Mn (A).
i=1

This shows that the graded module eii Mn (A) is a projective module. This is an
example of a graded projective module (see §1.2.9).
Example 1.2.3 Let A be a commutative ring. Consider the matrix ring Mn (A)
as a Z-graded ring concentrated in degree zero. Moreover, consider Mn (A) as a
graded Mn (A)-module with the grading defined as follows: Mn (A)i = eii Mn (A)
for 1 ≤ i ≤ n and zero otherwise. Note that all nonzero homogeneous elements
of this module are zero-divisors, and thus can’t constitute a linear independent
set. We will use this example to show that a free module which is graded is not
necessarily a graded free module (§1.2.4).
Example 1.2.4 Modules with no shift
It is easy to construct modules whose shifts don’t produce new (nonisomor-
phic) graded modules. Let M be a graded A-module and consider
N= M(γ).
γ∈Γ

We show that N gr N(α) for any α ∈ Γ. Define the map fα : N → N(α) on
homogeneous components as follows and extend it to N,
Nβ = Mγ+β −→ Mγ+α+β = N(α)β
γ∈Γ γ∈Γ

{mγ } −→ {mγ },
where mγ = mγ+α (i.e., shift the sequence α “steps”). It is routine to see that this
gives a graded A-module homomorphism with inverse homomorphism f−α . For
another example, see Corollary 1.3.18.

1.2.3 The Hom groups and the category of graded modules

For graded right A-modules M and N, a graded A-module homomorphism of
degree δ is an A-module homomorphism f : M → N, such that
f (Mγ ) ⊆ Nγ+δ
for any γ ∈ Γ. Let HomA (M, N)δ denote the subgroup of HomA (M, N) consist-
ing of all graded A-module homomorphisms of degree δ, i.e.,
HomA (M, N)δ = { f ∈ HomA (M, N) | f (Mγ ) ⊆ Nγ+δ , γ ∈ Γ}. (1.13)
 1.2 Graded modules 31

For graded A-modules, M, N and P, under the composition of functions, we

then have
HomA (N, P)γ × HomA (M, N)δ −→ Hom(M, P)γ+δ . (1.14)
Clearly a graded module homomorphism defined in §1.2.1 is a graded ho-
momorphism of degree 0.
By Gr-A (or GrΓ -A to emphasise the grade group of A), we denote a cate-
gory that consists of Γ-graded right A-modules as objects and graded homo-
morphisms as the morphisms. Similarly, A-Gr denotes the category of graded
left A-modules. Thus
HomGr-A (M, N) = HomA (M, N)0 .
Moreover, for α ∈ Γ, as a set of functions, one can write
   
HomGr-A M(−α), N = HomGr-A M, N(α) = HomA (M, N)α . (1.15)
A full subcategory of Gr-A consisted of all graded finitely generated A-
modules is denoted by gr-A.
For α ∈ Γ, the α-suspension functor or shift functor

Tα : Gr-A −→ Gr-A, (1.16)

M −→ M(α),
is an isomorphism with the property Tα Tβ = Tα+β , where α, β ∈ Γ.
Remark 1.2.5 Let A be a Γ-graded ring and Ω be a subgroup of Γ such that
ΓA ⊆ Ω ⊆ Γ. Then the ring A can be considered naturally as a Ω-graded
ring. Similarly, if A, B are Γ-graded rings and f : A → B is a Γ-graded homo-
morphism and ΓA , ΓB ⊆ Ω ⊆ Γ, then the homomorphism f can be naturally
considered as a Ω-graded homomorphism. In this case, to make a distinction,
we write GrΓ -A for the category of Γ-graded A-modules and GrΩ -A for the
category of Ω-graded A-modules.
Theorem 1.2.6 For graded right A-modules M and N, such that M is finitely
generated, the abelian group HomA (M, N) has a natural decomposition
HomA (M, N) = HomA (M, N)γ . (1.17)
γ∈Γ

Moreover, the endomorphism ring HomA (M, M) is Γ-graded.

Proof Let f ∈ HomA (M, N) and λ ∈ Γ. Define a map fλ : M → N as follows:
for m ∈ M,

fλ (m) = f (mγ−λ )γ , (1.18)
γ∈Γ
32 Graded rings and graded modules

where m = γ∈Γ mγ . One can check that fλ ∈ HomA (M, N).

Now let m ∈ Mα , α ∈ Γ. Then (1.18) reduces to
fλ (m) = f (m)α+λ ⊆ Mα+λ .
This shows that fλ ∈ HomA (M, N)λ . Moreover, fλ (m) is zero for all but a finite
number of λ ∈ Γ and
 
fλ (m) = f (m)α+λ = f (m).
λ λ

Now since M is finitely generated, there are a finite number of homogeneous

elements which generate any element m ∈ M. The above argument shows that
only a finite number of the fλ (m) are nonzero and f = λ fλ . This in turn
shows that

HomA (M, N) = HomA (M, N)γ .
γ∈Γ

Finally, it is easy to see that HomA (M, N)γ , γ ∈ Γ constitutes a direct sum.
For the second part, replacing N by M in (1.17), we get
HomA (M, M) = HomA (M, M)γ .
γ∈Γ

Moreover, by (1.14) if f ∈ HomA (M, M)γ and g ∈ HomA (M, M)λ then
f g ∈ HomA (M, M)γ+λ .
This shows that when M is finitely generated HomA (M, M) is a Γ-graded ring.

Let M be a graded finitely generated right A-module. Then the usual dual of
M, i.e., M ∗ = HomA (M, A), is a left A-module. Moreover, using Theorem 1.2.6,
one can check that M ∗ is a graded left A-module. Since
HomA (M, N)(α) = HomA (M(−α), N) = HomA (M, N(α)),
we have
M(α)∗ = M ∗ (−α). (1.19)
This should also make sense: the dual of “pushing forward” M by α, is the
same as “pulling back” the dual M ∗ by α.
Note that although HomA (M, N) is defined in the category Mod-A, the graded
structures of M and N are intrinsic in the grading defined on HomA (M, N).
Thus if M is isomorphic to N as a nongraded A-module, then EndA (M) is not
necessarily graded isomorphic to EndA (N). However if M gr N(α), α ∈ Γ,
then one can observe that EndA (M) gr EndA (N) as graded rings.
 1.2 Graded modules 33

When M is a free module, HomA (M, M) can be represented as a matrix ring

over A. Next we define graded free modules. In §1.3 we will see that if M is
a graded free module, the graded ring HomA (M, M) can be represented as a
matrix ring over A with a very concrete grading.

Example 1.2.7 The Veronese submodule

For a Γ-graded ring A, recall the construction of nth-Veronese subring

A(n) = Anγ
γ∈Γ

(Example 1.1.19). In a similar fashion, for a graded A-module M and n ∈ Z,

define the nth-Veronese module of M as

M (n) = Mnγ .
γ∈Γ

This is a Γ-graded A(n) -module. Clearly there is a natural “forgetful” functor

U : Gr-A −→ Gr-A(n) ,

which commutes with suspension functors as follows Tα U = UTnα , i.e.,

M (n) (α) = M(nα)(n) ,

for α ∈ Γ and n ∈ Z (see §1.2.7 for more on forgetful functors).

1.2.4 Graded free modules

A Γ-graded (right) A-module F is called a graded free A-module if F is a free
right A-module with a homogeneous base. Clearly a graded free module is a
free module but the converse is not correct, i.e., a free module which is graded
is not necessarily a graded free module. As an example, for A = R[x] consid-
ered as a Z-graded ring, A ⊕ A(1) is not a graded free A ⊕ A-module, whereas
A ⊕ A is a free A ⊕ A-module (see also Example 1.2.3). The definition of free
given here is consistent with the categorical definition of free objects over a set
of homogeneous elements in the category
 of graded modules ([50, I, §7]).
Consider a Γ-graded A-module i∈I A(δ i ), where I is an indexing set and
δi ∈ Γ. Note that for each i ∈ I, the element ei of the standard basis (i.e., 1 in
the ith component and  zero elsewhere) is homogeneous of degree −δi . The set
{ei }i∈I forms a base for i∈I A(δi ), which by definition makes this a graded free
A-module. On the other hand, a graded free A-module F with  a homogeneous
base {bi }i∈I , where deg(bi ) = −δi is graded isomorphic to i∈I A(δi ). Indeed
34 Graded rings and graded modules

one can easily observe that the map induced by

ϕ: A(δi ) −→ F (1.20)
i∈I
ei −→ bi
is a graded A-module isomorphism.
If the indexing set I is finite, say I = {1, . . . , n}, then
A(δi ) = A(δ1 ) ⊕ · · · ⊕ A(δn ),
i∈I

is also denoted by An (δ1 , . . . , δn ) or An (δ), where δ = (δ1 , . . . , δn ).

In §1.3.4, we consider the situation when the graded free right A-modules
An (δ) and Am (α), where δ = (δ1 , . . . , δn ) and α = (α1 , . . . , αm ), are isomorphic.
In §1.7, we will also consider the concept of graded rings with the graded
invariant basis numbers.

1.2.5 Graded bimodules

The notion of graded left A-modules is developed similarly. The category of
graded left A-modules with graded homomorphisms is denoted by A-Gr. In a
similar manner for Γ-graded rings A and B, we can consider the graded
 A− B-
bimodule M. That is, M is a A−B-bimodule and additionally M = γ∈Γ Mγ is
a graded left A-module and a graded right B-module, i.e.,
Aα Mγ Bβ ⊆ Mα+γ+β ,
where α, γ, β ∈ Γ. The category of graded A-bimodules is denoted by Gr-A-Gr.

Remark 1.2.8 Shift of nonabelian group graded modules

If the grade group Γ is not abelian, then in order that the shift of components
matches, for a graded left A-module M one needs to define
M(δ)γ = Mγδ ,
whereas for the graded right M-module A, shift is defined by
M(δ)γ = Mδγ .
With these definitions, for Tα , Tβ : Gr-A → Gr-A, we have Tα Tβ = Tβα ,
whereas for Tα , Tβ : A-Gr → A-Gr, we have Tα Tβ = Tαβ . For this reason,
in the nonabelian grade group setting, several books choose to work with the
graded left modules as opposed to the graded right modules we have adopted
in this book.
 1.2 Graded modules 35

1.2.6 Tensor product of graded modules

Let A be a Γ-graded ring and Mi , i ∈ I, be a direct system of Γ-graded A-
modules, i.e., I is a directed partially ordered set and for i ≤ j, there is a graded
A-homomorphism φi j : Mi → M j which is compatible with the ordering.
Then M := lim Mi is a Γ-graded A-module with homogeneous components
−−→
Mα = lim Miα (see Example 1.1.9 for the similar construction for rings).
−−→ 
In particular, let {Mi | i ∈ I} be Γ-graded
 right A-modules.
 Then i∈I Mi has
a natural graded A-module given by ( i∈I Mi )α = i∈I Miα , α ∈ Γ.
Let M be a graded right A-module and N be a graded left A-module. We
will observe that the tensor product M ⊗A N has a natural Γ-graded Z-module
structure. Since each of Mγ , γ ∈ Γ, is a right A0 -module and similarly Nγ ,
γ ∈ Γ, is a left A0 -module, then M ⊗A0 N can be decomposed as a direct sum

M ⊗ A0 N = (M ⊗ N)γ ,
γ∈Γ

where
 
(M ⊗ N)γ = mi ⊗ ni | mi ∈ M h , ni ∈ N h , deg(mi ) + deg(ni ) = γ .
i

Now note that M ⊗A N  (M ⊗A0 N)/J, where J is a subgroup of M ⊗A0 N

generated by the homogeneous elements

{ma ⊗ n − m ⊗ an | m ∈ M h , n ∈ N h , a ∈ Ah }.

This shows that M ⊗A N is also a graded module. It is easy to check that, for
example, if N is a graded A-bimodule, then M ⊗A N is a graded right A-module.
It follows from the definition that

M ⊗ N(α) = M(α) ⊗ N = (M ⊗ N)(α). (1.21)

Observe that for a graded right A-module M, the map

M ⊗A A(α) −→ M(α), (1.22)

m ⊗ a −→ ma,

is a graded isomorphism. In particular, for any α, β ∈ Γ, there is a graded

A-bimodule isomorphism

A(α) ⊗A A(β) gr A(α + β). (1.23)

Example 1.2.9 Graded formal matrix rings

The construction of formal matrix rings (Example 1.1.4) can be carried over
36 Graded rings and graded modules

to the graded setting as follows. Let R and S be Γ-graded rings, M be a graded

R−S-bimodule and N be a graded S−R-bimodule. Suppose that there are graded
bimodule homomorphisms φ : M ⊗S N → R and ψ : N ⊗R M → S such that
(mn)m = n(nm ), where we denote φ(m, n) = mn and ψ(n, m) = nm. Consider
the ring
R M
T= ,
N S
and define, for any γ ∈ Γ,
Rγ Mγ
Tγ = .
Nγ Sγ
One checks that T is a Γ-graded ring, called a graded formal matrix ring. One
specific type of such rings is a Morita ring which appears in graded Morita
theory (§2.3).

1.2.7 Forgetting the grading

Most forgetful functors in algebra tend to have left adjoints, which have a
“free” construction. One such example is the forgetful functor from the cat-
egory of abelian groups to abelian monoids that we will study in Chapter 3 in
relation to Grothendieck groups. However, some of the forgetful functors in
the graded setting naturally have right adjoints, as we will see below.
Consider the forgetful functor

U : Gr-A −→ Mod-A, (1.24)

which simply assigns to any graded module M in Gr-A its underlying module
M in Mod-A, ignoring the grading. Similarly, the graded homomorphisms are
sent to the same homomorphisms, disregarding their graded compatibilities.
There is a functor F : Mod-A → Gr-A which is a right adjoint to U. The
construction
is as follows: let M be an A-module. Consider the abelian group
F(M) := γ∈Γ Mγ , where Mγ is a copy of M. Moreover, for a ∈ Aα and
m ∈ Mγ define m.a = ma ∈ Mα+γ . This defines a graded A-module structure
on F(M) and makes F an exact functor from Mod-A to Gr-A. One can prove
that for any M ∈ Gr-A and N ∈ Mod-A, we have a bijective map
  φ  
HomMod-A U(M), N −→ HomGr-A M, F(N) ,
f −→ φ f ,

where φ f (mα ) = f (mα ) ∈ Nα .

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
SEQUEL TO “MY QUEEN”
“When and where shall I earliest meet her,” etc.

Yes, but the years run circling fleeter,

Ever they pass me—I watch, I wait—
Ever I dream, and awake to meet her;
She cometh never, or comes too late.

Should I press on? for the day grows shorter—

Ought I to linger? the far end nears;
Ever ahead have I looked, and sought her
On the bright sky-line of the gathering years.

Now that the shadows are eastward sloping,

As I screen mine eyes from the slanting sun,
Cometh a thought—It is past all hoping,
Look not ahead, she is missed and gone.

Here on the ridge of my upward travel,

Ere the life-line dips to the darkening vales,
Sadly I turn, and would fain unravel
The entangled maze of a search that fails.

When and where have I seen and passed her?

What are the words I forgot to say?
Should we have met had a boat rowed faster?
Should we have loved, had I stayed that day?

Was it her face that I saw, and started,

Gliding away in a train that crossed?
Was it her form that I once, faint-hearted,
Followed awhile in a crowd and lost?

Was it there she lived, when the train went sweeping

Under the moon through the landscape hushed?
Somebody called me, I woke from sleeping,
Saw but a hamlet—and on we rushed.
Listen and linger—She yet may find me
In the last faint flush of the waning light—
Never a step on the path behind me;
I must journey alone, to the lonely night.

But is there somewhere on earth, I wonder,

A fading figure, with eyes that wait,
Who says, as she stands in the distance yonder,
“He cometh never, or comes too late?”

Sir Alfred Lyall.

Too late for love, too late for joy,
Too late, too late!
You loitered on the road too long,
You trifled at the gate:
The enchanted dove upon her branch
Died without a mate;
The enchanted princess in her tower
Slept, died, behind the grate;
Her heart was starving all this while
You made it wait.

Ten years ago, five years ago,

One year ago,
Even then you had arrived in time,
Though somewhat slow;
Then you had known her living face
Which now you cannot know:
The frozen fountain would have leaped,
The buds gone on to blow,
The warm south wind would have awaked
To melt the snow.

Christina Rossetti (The Prince’s Progress).

 Where waitest thou,
Lady I am to love? Thou comest not!
Thou knowest of my sad and lonely lot;
I looked for thee ere now!...

Where art thou, sweet?

I long for thee, as thirsty lips for streams!
Oh, gentle promised Angel of my dreams,
Why do we never meet?

Thou art as I,—

Thy soul doth wait for mine, as mine for thee;
We cannot live apart; must meeting be
Never before we die ...?

Sir Edwin Arnold (À Ma Future).

Mild is the parting year, and sweet

The odour of the falling spray;
Life passes on more rudely fleet,
And balmless is its closing day.

I wait its close, I court its gloom,

But mourn that never must there fall
Or on my breast or on my tomb
The tear that would have sooth’d it all.

W. S. Landor.
 The devil has made the stuff of our life and God makes the hem.
Victor Hugo (By the King’s Command).

I think, I said, I can make it plain that there are at least six
personalities distinctly to be recognized as taking part in a dialogue
between John and Thomas.
Three Johns: The real John—known only to his Maker. John’s
ideal John—never the real one, and often very unlike him.
Thomas’s ideal John—never the real John, nor John’s John,
but often very unlike either.
Three Thomases: The real Thomas. Thomas’s ideal Thomas.
John’s ideal Thomas.
Only one of the three Johns is taxed; only one can be weighed on
a platform balance; but the other two are just as important in the
conversation. Let us suppose the real John to be old, dull, and ill-
looking. But as the Higher Powers have not conferred on men the
gift of seeing themselves in the true light, John very possibly
conceives himself to be youthful, witty, and fascinating, and talks
from the point of view of this ideal. Thomas, again, believes him to
be an artful rogue, we will say; therefore he is, so far as Thomas’s
attitude in the conversation is concerned, an artful rogue, though
really simple and stupid. The same conditions apply to the three
Thomases. It follows that, until a man can be found who knows
himself as his Maker knows him, or who sees himself as others see
him, there must be at least six persons engaged in every dialogue
between two. Of these the least important, philosophically speaking,
is the one that we have called the real person. No wonder two
disputants often get angry, when there are six of them talking and
listening all at the same time.
(A very unphilosophical application of the above remarks was
made by a young fellow, answering to the name of John, who sits
near me at table. A certain basket of peaches, a rare vegetable little
known to boarding-houses, was on its way to me via this unlettered
Johannes. He appropriated the three that remained in the basket,
remarking that there was just one apiece for him. I convinced him
that his practical inference was hasty and illogical, but in the
meantime he had eaten the peaches.)
O. W. Holmes (Autocrat of the Breakfast Table).

When aweary of your mirth,

From full hearts still unsatisfied ye sigh,
And, feeling kindly unto all the earth,
Grudge every minute as it passes by,
Made the more mindful that the sweet days die—
Remember me a little then, I pray,
The idle singer of an empty day.

W. Morris (The Earthly Paradise).

A HYMN TO GOD THE FATHER.

 Wilt Thou forgive that sin where I begun,
Which was my sin, though it were done before?
Wilt Thou forgive that sin, through which I run,
And do run still, though still I do deplore?—
When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done;
For I have more.

Wilt Thou forgive that sin which I have won

Others to sin, and made my sins their door?
Wilt Thou forgive that sin which I did shun
A year or two, but wallowed in a score?—
When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done;
For I have more.

I have a sin of fear, that when I’ve spun

My last thread, I shall perish on the shore;
But swear by Thyself, that at my death Thy Son
Shall shine, as He Shines now and heretofore;
And having done that, Thou hast done:
I fear no more.

John Donne (1573-1631).

In line (1) the reference is to the old doctrine that the guilt of Adam and Eve’s
“original sin” tainted all generations of man; (3) “run,” ran; (8) his sin—the
example he has set—is the door which opened to others the way of sin.
In this fine poem there are puns. In the last verse one pun is on the words
“Son” and “Sun,” Christ being the “Sun of righteousness who arises with healing in
his wings” (Malachi iv, 2). Also in the fifth, eleventh, and seventeenth lines, the
play is on the last word “done” and the poet’s name Donne, which was
pronounced dun.[17] (It was occasionally written Dun, Dunne, or Done: see
Grierson’s Poems of John Donne, Vol. II, pp. lvii, lxxvii, lxxxvii, 8 and 12.
Contrariwise, the adjective “dun,” dull-brown, was spelt donne in the poet’s time.)
We are accustomed only to the jocular use of puns, but here there is a serious
intention to give two meanings to one expression. Such a use of puns was one of
the “quaint conceits” of that period of our literature, and it is found also in serious
Persian poetry.

Very likely female pelicans like so to bleed under the selfish little
beaks of their young ones: it is certain that women do. There must
be some sort of pleasure, which we men don’t understand, which
accompanies the pain of being scarified.
Thackeray (Pendennis).

The golden moments in the stream of life rush past us, and we
see nothing but sand; the angels come to visit us, and we only know
them when they are gone.
George Eliot (Felix Holt).

LET IT BE THERE.
 Not there, not there!
Not in that nook, that ye deem so fair;—
Little reck I of the bright, blue sky,
And the stream that floweth so murmuringly,
And the bending boughs, and the breezy air—
Not there, good friends, not there!

In the city churchyard, where the grass

Groweth rank and black, and where never a ray
Of that self-same sun doth find its way
Through the heaped-up houses’ serried mass—
Where the only sounds are the voice of the throng,
And the clatter of wheels as they rush along—
Or the plash of the rain, or the wind’s hoarse cry,
Or the busy tramp of the passer-by,
Or the toll of the bell on the heavy air—
Good friends, let it be there!

I am old, my friends—I am very old—

Fourscore and five—and bitter cold
Were that air on the hill-side far away;
Eighty full years, content, I trow,
Have I lived in the home where ye see me now,
And trod those dark streets day by day,
Till my soul doth love them; I love them all,
Each battered pavement, and blackened wall,
Each court and corner. Good sooth! to me
They are all comely and fair to see—
They have old faces—each one doth tell
A tale of its own, that doth like me well,
Sad or merry, as it may be,
From the quaint old book of my history.
And, friends, when this weary pain is past,
Fain would I lay me to rest at last
In their very midst; full sure am I,
How dark soever be earth and sky
 How dark soever be earth and sky,
I shall sleep softly—I shall know
That the things I loved so here below
Are about me still—so never care
That my last home looketh all bleak and bare—
Good friends, let it be there!

Thomas Westwood (1814-1888).

Every man hath his gift, one a cup of wine, another heart’s blood.
Hafiz.

Some poets sing of wine or sensuous enjoyment, but Hafiz pours out his heart’s
blood in song. Presumably wine and blood are contrasted because of their similar
appearance.

The devil could drive woman out of Paradise; but the devil himself
cannot drive the Paradise out of a woman.
G. MacDonald (Robert Falconer).

THE PULLEY
 When God at first made man,
Having a glass of blessings standing by,
“Let us,” said He, “pour on him all we can;
Let the world’s riches, which dispersed lie,
Contract into a span.”

So strength first made a way,

Then beauty flowed, then wisdom, honour, pleasure;
When almost all was out, God made a stay,
Perceiving that, alone of all His treasure,
Rest in the bottom lay.

“For if I should,” said He,

“Bestow this jewel also on My creature,
He would adore My gifts instead of Me,
And rest in Nature, not the God of Nature:
So both should losers be.

“Yet let him keep the rest,

But keep them with repining restlessness;
Let him be rich and weary, that at least,
If goodness lead him not, yet weariness
May toss him to My breast.”

George Herbert (1593-1633).

“The Pulley” because by the desire for rest after toil and tribulation God draws
man up to Himself.

(Darwin’s Origin of Species was published in November, 1859.) At

the Oxford meeting of the British Association in 1860 Huxley had on
Thursday, June 28, directly contradicted Professor Owen’s statement
that a gorilla’s brain differed more from a man’s than it did from the
brain of the lowest of the Quadrumana (apes, monkeys, and
lemurs). He was thus marked out as the champion of evolution. On
the Saturday, although the public were not admitted, the members
crowded the room to suffocation, anxious to hear the brilliant
controversialist, Bishop Wilberforce, take part in the debate. An
unimportant paper was read bearing upon Darwinism, and a
discussion followed. The Bishop, inspired by Owen, began his
speech. He spoke in dulcet tones, persuasive manner, and with well-
turned periods, but ridiculing Darwin badly and Huxley savagely. “In
a light, scoffing tone, florid and fluent, he assured us there was
nothing in the idea of evolution: rock-pigeons were what rock-
pigeons had always been. Then, turning to Huxley, with a smiling
insolence, he begged to know, was it through his grandfather or his
grandmother that he claimed his descent from a monkey.”
As he said this, Huxley turned to his neighbour and said, “The
Lord hath delivered him into mine hands!” On rising to speak, he
first gave a forcible and eloquent reply to the scientific part of the
Bishop’s argument. Then “he stood before us and spoke those
tremendous words—words, which no one seems sure of now, nor, I
think, could remember just after they were spoken, for their
meaning took away our breath, though it left us in no doubt as to
what it was. “He was not ashamed to have a monkey for his
ancestor: but he would be ashamed to be connected with a man
who used great gifts to obscure the truth.” No one doubted his
meaning, and the effect was tremendous. One lady fainted and had
to be carried out; I, for one, jumped out of my seat.” (Macmillan’s,
1898.) There is no verbatim report of this incident, but the varying
accounts agree in outline.
(Extracted from Life of Huxley.)

One object of this book is to bring back the memories of the seventy-eighties—
and of overwhelming interest at the time was the alleged conflict between religion
and science. Through Darwin’s great discovery and Herbert Spencer’s world-wide
extension of the evolution theory, so much was found covered by law that men
were blinded to the fact that the essential question of causality, lying behind all
law, was still untouched.
The important and thrilling incident referred to above took place in 1860, when I
was two years old, but it was still an absorbing topic thirteen or fourteen years
later, and is one of my most vivid recollections.
Wilberforce (1805-1873) was a great Churchman and, indeed, has been said to
be the greatest prelate of his age, although his nickname “Soapy Sam” led to a
popular depreciation of his merits. (This epithet originally meant that he was
evasive on certain questions, but it took a further meaning from his persuasive
eloquence.) In this instance he meddled with a subject of which he was ignorant.
Owen, who instigated him to make this attack on Darwin and Huxley had at first
welcomed the theory of evolution, but quailed before the orthodox indignation
against the necessary extension of that theory to the origin of man. Huxley (1825-
1895) was thirty-five years of age when he thus showed himself a strong debater
and a power in the scientific world.

On tracing the line of life backwards, we see it approaching more

and more to what we call the purely physical condition. We come at
length to those organisms which I have compared to drops of oil
suspended in a mixture of alcohol and water. We reach the
protogenes of Haeckel, in which we have “a type distinguishable
from a fragment of albumen only by its finely granular character.”
Can we pause here? We break a magnet and find two poles in each
of its fragments. We continue the process of breaking; but however
small the parts, each carries with it, though enfeebled, the polarity
of the whole. And when we can break no longer, we prolong the
intellectual vision to the polar molecules. Are we not urged to do
something similar in the case of life?... Believing, as I do, in the
continuity of nature, I cannot stop abruptly where our microscopes
cease to be of use. Here the vision of the mind authoritatively
supplements the vision of the eye. By a necessity engendered and
justified by science I cross the boundary of the experimental
evidence, and discern in that Matter which we, in our ignorance of
its latent powers, and notwithstanding our professed reverence for
its Creator, have hitherto covered with opprobrium, the promise and
potency of all terrestrial Life.
(Referring to the question of inquiring into the mystery of our
origin). Here, however, I touch a theme too great for me to handle,
but which will assuredly be handled by the loftiest minds, when you
and I, like streaks of morning cloud, shall have melted into the
infinite azure of the past.
John Tyndall.

The italics are mine.

As in the preceding quotation the subject is the alleged conflict between religion
and science, which occupied so large a space in our life and thought in the
seventies and eighties. The above are the two passages from Tyndall’s presidential
address at the Belfast meeting of the British Association in 1874, which caused an
immense sensation. The Belfast Address, like Huxley’s smashing reply to Bishop
Wilberforce, was useful in showing that all scientific questions must be considered
with an open mind, free of theological bias, and also in adding testimony to the
importance and value of Darwin’s investigation. Although fifteen years had passed
since The Origin of Species was published, this was still necessary. (At that very
time Professor McCoy, afterwards Sir Frederick McCoy, F.R.S., when lecturing at the
Melbourne University to his students, of whom I was one, was still making inane
jokes about evolution and our monkey cousins.)
But, while the world was in ferment over the question of man’s alleged kinship
with the monkey, there came the further startling fact that the President of the
British Association also proclaimed his belief in materialism and, inferentially, that
there was no life after death. Englishmen had not before realized how widely
materialism had spread through England and Europe. I do not think it is an
exaggeration to say that a majority at least of the leading thinkers had become
materialists.
In travelling outside science into metaphysics, Tyndall betrayed a lamentable
ignorance of the latter—a parallel case to that of Bishop Wilberforce when he
attempted to meddle with science. Martineau, referring to the first quotation
above, wrote: “There is no magic in the superlatively little to draw from the
universe its last secret. Size is but relative, magnified or dwindled by a glass,
variable with the organ of perception: to one being, the speck which only the
microscope can show us may be a universe; to another, the solar system but a
molecule; and in the passing from the latter to the former you reach no end of
search or beginning of things. You merely substitute a miniature of nature for its
life-size without at all showing whence the features arise.”

THE NEW GOSPEL

 HAECKELIUS loquitur:
The ages have passed and come with the beat of a measureless
tread
And piled up their palace-dome on the dust of the ageless dead,
Since the atom of life first glowed in the breast of eternal time,
And shaped for itself its abode in the womb of the shapeless
slime;
And the years matured its form with slow, unwearying toil.
Moulded by sun and storm, and rich with the centuries’ spoil,
Till the face of the earth was fair, and life grew up into mind,
And breathed its earliest prayer to its god in the dawn or wind,
And called itself by the name of man, the master and lord,
Who conquers the strength of flame and tempers the spear and
sword;
For the world grows wiser by war, and death is the law of life,
The lowermost rock in the scar is red with the stains of strife.
Burst thro’ the bounds of sight, and measure the least of things,
Plummet the infinite and make to thy fancy wings;
From crystal, and coral, and weed, up to man in his noblest
race,
The weaker shall fail in his need, and the stronger shall hold his
place!

RENANUS loquitur:
Ah! leave me yet a little while, to watch
The golden glory of the dying day,
Till all the purple mountains gleam and catch
The last faint light that slowly steals away.

Too soon the night is on us; aye, too soon

We know the cloud is born of blinding mist:
The throne, whereon the gods sate crowned at noon
With ruby rays and liquid amethyst,

Is but a vapour, dim and grey, a streak

 s but a apou , d a d g ey, a st ea
Of hollow rain that freezes in its fall,
A dull, cold shape that settles on the peak,
Icy and stifling as a dead man’s pall.

The world’s old faith is fairest in its death,

For death is fairer oftentimes than life;
No vulgar passion quivers in the breath:
The dead forget their weariness and strife.

Say not that death is even as decay,

A hideous charnel choked with rotting dust;
The cold white lips are beautiful as spray
Cast on an iceberg by the northern gust.

The memories of the past are diadem’d

About the brow and folded on the eyes;
The weary lids beneath are bent and gemm’d
With charmèd dreams and mystic reveries.

Once more she sits in her imperial chair,

And kings and Cæsars kneel before her feet,
And clouds of incense fill the heavy air,
And shouts of homage echo thro’ the street.

Or yet, again, she stretches forth the hand,

And men are done to death at her desire;
The smoke of burning cities dims the land,
And limbs are torn or shrivelled in the fire.

Once more the scene is shifted, and the gleam

Of eastern suns about her brow is curled;
Once more she roams a maiden by the stream,
Despised of men, the Magdalen of the world.

So scene on scene floats lightly, as a haze

That comes and goes with sudden gust and lull:
Limned with the sunset hues of other days,
 They are but dreams; yet dreams are beautiful.

Archibald Henry Sayce (Academy, Dec. 5, 1885).

As in the two preceding quotations, the subject is the supposed conflict of

religion and science. Haeckel (born 1834, recently dead) was the most ruthless of
all the biologists in accounting for evolution and all progress by a struggle for
existence. Renan (1823-1892), the French writer, whose love of Christianity
survived his belief in it, speaks of the passing away of the old faith as “the golden
glory of the dying day,” and says that in its death it will be more beautiful than in
its life, when it led to passion, persecution and war. The penultimate verse refers
to the time when temporal power was removed from the church, and she reverted
to the humility, and also the beauty, of primitive Christianity when it came in its
morning glory from the East.
The fact that these fine verses are by the great philologist and archæologist,
Professor Sayce, who has not publicly appeared in the rôle of a poet, adds greatly
to their interest. The few verses he has published have mostly appeared over the
initials “A.H.S.” in the old Academy (the present periodical is a different concern),
and he was not known to the public as the author.
Anything about Professor Sayce must be interesting to the reader, and I,
therefore, need not apologize for mentioning the following incidents, which, I
imagine, are known only among his friends. In 1870, during the Franco-German
War, Mr. Sayce was ordered to be shot at Nantes as a German spy, and only
escaped “by the skin of his teeth.” It was just before Gambetta had flown in his
balloon out of Paris, and there was no recognized Government in the country.
Nantes was full of fugitives, and bands of Uhlans were in the neighbourhood. Mr.
Sayce was arrested when walking round the old citadel examining its walls—not
realizing that it was occupied by French troops. Fortunately, some ladies of the
garrison came in during his examination to see the interesting young prisoner and,
after Mr. Sayce had been placed against the wall and a soldier told off to shoot
him, they prevailed upon the Commandant to give him a second examination,
which ended in his acquittal.
Mr. Sayce was also among the Carlists in the Carlist war of 1873, and was
present at some of the so-called battles which, he says, were dangerous only to
the onlookers. He also once had a pitched battle with Bedouins in Syria.
Professor Sayce (he became Professor in 1876) has also the proud distinction of
being the only person known to have survived the bite of the Egyptian cerastes
asp, which is supposed to have killed Cleopatra. He accidentally trod on the reptile
in the desert some three or four miles north of Assouan and was bitten in the leg.
Luckily, he happened to be just outside the dahabieh in which he was travelling
with three Oxford friends, one of them the late Master of Balliol. The cook had a
small pair of red-hot tongs, with which he had been preparing lunch, and
Professor Sayce was able to burn the bitten leg down to the bone within two
minutes after the accident; thus saving his life at the expense of a few weeks’
lameness.

But hark! a sound is stealing on my ear—

A soft and silvery sound—I know it well.
Its tinkling tells me that a time is near
Precious to me—it is the Dinner Bell.
O blessed Bell! Thou bringest beef and beer,
Thou bringest good things more than tongue may tell:
Seared is, of course, my heart—but unsubdued
Is, and shall be, my appetite for food.

I go. Untaught and feeble is my pen;

But on one statement I may safely venture:
That few of our most highly gifted men
Have more appreciation of the trencher.
I go. One pound of British beef, and then
What Mr. Swiveller called a “modest quencher”;
That, “home-returning,” I may “soothly say,”
“Fate cannot touch me: I have dined to-day.”

C. S. Calverley (Beer).

These are the two last verses of a parody on Byron. In each of the last three
lines there is a literary reference. The first, of course, is to the happy-go-lucky Dick
Swiveller of Dickens’s Old Curiosity Shop.
The next reference is to the amusing story about Sir Walter Scott that became
known about the time Calverley was writing (1862). Scott, in his description of
Melrose Abbey by moonlight (“Lay of the Last Minstrel”) says:
 If thou wouldst view fair Melrose aright,
Go visit it by the pale moonlight;
For the gay beams of lightsome day
Gild, but to flout, the ruins grey....

Yet there can be no doubt that he himself had never seen the Abbey by
moonlight! He further tells his readers that they can

Home returning, soothly swear

Was never scene so sad and fair.

They, having seen it, can “soothly” (i.e., truthfully) swear to its beauty, which was
more than he himself could!
Calverley’s last line is from Sydney Smith’s “Recipe for a Salad”:

Oh, herbaceous treat!

’Twould tempt the dying anchorite to eat;
Back to the world he’d turn his fleeting soul,
And plunge his fingers in the salad bowl;
Serenely full the epicure would say,
“Fate cannot harm me—I have dined to-day.”

This again is an adaptation of Dryden’s “Imitation of Horace” (Book III, Ode 29):

Happy the man, and happy he alone,

He who can call to-day his own;
He who, secure within, can say,
To-morrow, do thy worst, for I have liv’d to-day.
We may live without poetry, music and art;
We may live without conscience, and live without heart:
We may live without friends; we may live without books;
But civilized man can not live without cooks.

He may live without books—what is knowledge but grieving?

He may live without hope—what is hope but deceiving?
He may live without love—what is passion but pining?
But where is the man that can live without dining?

Earl of Lytton, “Owen Meredith” (1831-1891) (Lucile).

“A loaf of bread,” the Walrus said,

“Is what we chiefly need:
Pepper and vinegar besides
Are very good indeed—
Now if you’re ready, Oysters dear,
We can begin to feed.”

Lewis Carroll (The Walrus and the Carpenter).

That all-softening, overpowering knell,

The tocsin of the soul—the dinner bell.

Byron (Don Juan).

 First of the first,
Such I pronounce Pompilia, then as now
Perfect in whiteness: stoop thou down, my child..
My rose, I gather for the breast of God..
And surely not so very much apart,
Need I place thee, my warrior-priest..
In thought, word and deed,
How throughout all thy warfare thou wast pure,
I find it easy to believe: and if
At any fateful moment of the strange
Adventure, the strong passion of that strait,
Fear and surprise may have revealed too much,—
As when a thundrous midnight, with black air
That burns, rain-drops that blister, breaks a spell,
Draws out the excessive virtue of some sheathed
Shut unsuspected flower that hoards and hides
Immensity of sweetness,—so, perchance,
Might the surprise and fear release too much
The perfect beauty of the body and soul
Thou savedst in thy passion for God’s sake,
He who is Pity. Was the trial sore?
Temptation sharp? Thank God a second time!
Why comes temptation but for man to meet
And master and make crouch beneath his feet,
And so be pedestaled in triumph?

R. Browning (The Ring and the Book, X).

A young handsome priest, who had led a gay life, was moved by pure motives
to rescue a beautiful young wife from a dreadful husband, and he travelled with
her for three days to Rome. The husband was following with an armed band, the
priest was risking disgrace, and the girl was risking death. The mutual danger
would in itself tend to draw the fugitives too closely together; but also the girl had
shown herself doubly lovable, for the strain and stress had revealed in her a very
beautiful nature—just as a midnight thunder-storm opens and draws rich scent
from

Some sheathed
Shut unsuspected flower that hoards and hides
Immensity of sweetness.

Coleridge has a similar illustration, “Quarrels of anger ending in tears are

favourable to love in its spring tide, as plants are found to grow very rapidly after
a thunderstorm with rain”—(Allsop’s Letters, etc., of Coleridge). Coleridge died in
1834, and “The Ring and the Book” was published in 1868-9: it is curious that
both poets should have been impressed with a fact that appears to have been only
recently recognized. In the seventies Lemström proved that plants thrive under
electricity; but I think it is only a few years ago that in some agricultural
experiments in Germany it was found that electricity was of no benefit to the crops
without rain or other moisture.
The quotation is from the fine judgment which the Pope delivers.

He had been eight years upon a project for extracting sun-beams

out of cucumbers, which were to be put in phials hermetically sealed
and let out to warm the air in raw, inclement summers.
Swift (Gulliver’s Travels).

A child of our grandmother Eve, a female, or, for thy more sweet
understanding, a woman.
(Love’s Labour Lost, I, 1.)
 The whole World was made for man, but the twelfth part of man
for woman: Man is the whole World, and the Breath of God; Woman
the rib and crooked piece of man.
Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) (Religio Medici).

Give me but what this ribband bound,

Take all the rest the sun goes round!

Edmund Waller (1606-1687) (On a Girdle).

A woman is the most inconsistent compound of obstinacy and self-

sacrifice that I am acquainted with.
J. P. F. Richter (Flower, Fruit and Thorn Pieces).

If she be made of white and red

Her faults will ne’er be known.

(Love’s Labour Lost, I, 2).

God made the world in six days, and then he rested. He then
made man and rested again. He then made woman and, since then,
neither man, woman, nor anything else has rested.
 Author not traced.

Thou art my life, my love, my heart,

The very eyes of me.

Robert Herrick (To Anthea).

As perchance carvers do not faces make,

But that away, which hid them there, do take:
Let crosses so take what hid Christ in thee,
And be his Image, or not his, but He.

John Donne (The Cross).

As sculptors chisel away the marble that hides the statue within, so let “crosses”
or afflictions remove the impurities which hide the Christ in us, so that we shall
become His image, or not His image, but Himself.

What is experience? A little cottage made with the débris of those

palaces of gold and marble which we call our illusions.
Author not traced.
 He has outsoared the shadow of our night;
Envy and calumny and hate and pain,
And that unrest which men miscall delight,
Can touch him not and torture not again;
From the contagion of the world’s slow stain.
He is secure, and now can never mourn
A heart grown cold, a head grown gray in vain;
Nor, when the spirit’s self has ceased to burn,
With sparkless ashes load an unlamented urn.

Shelley (Adonaïs, an Elegy on Keats, XL).

This verse is engraved on Shelley’s own monument in the Priory Church at

Christchurch, Hampshire.

A loose, slack, not well-dressed youth met Mr. Green and myself in
a lane near Highgate. Green knew him and spoke. It was Keats. He
was introduced to me, and stayed a minute or so. After he had left
us a little way, he came back and said, “Let me carry away the
memory, Coleridge, of having pressed your hand!” “There is death in
that hand,” I said to Green, when Keats was gone; yet this was, I
believe, before the consumption showed itself distinctly.
S. T. Coleridge (Table Talk).

This was about 1819. It is pathetic, this meeting of two great poets, Keats who
was to die two years afterwards at the early age of twenty-six, and Coleridge,
whose few brilliant years of poetic life had long previously ended in slavery to the
opium-habit.
THE BALLAD OF JUDAS ISCARIOT
’Twas the body of Judas Iscariot
Lay in the Field of Blood;
’Twas the soul of Judas Iscariot
Beside the body stood.

Black was the earth by night,

And black was the sky;
Black, black were the broken clouds,
Tho’ the red Moon went by....

’Twas the soul of Judas Iscariot,

So grim, and gaunt, and gray,
Raised the body of Judas Iscariot,
And carried it away.

...

For days and nights he wandered on

Upon an open plain,
And the days went by like blinding mist,
And the nights like rushing rain.

He wandered east, he wandered west,

And heard no human sound;
For months and years, in grief and tears,
He wandered round and round....

...

’Twas the soul of Judas Iscariot,

Strange, and sad, and tall,
Stood all alone at dead of night
Before a lighted hall.

And the wold was white with snow,

And his foot-marks black and damp,
And the ghost of the silvern Moon arose
And the ghost of the silvern Moon arose,
Holding her yellow lamp.

And the icicles were on the eaves,

And the walls were deep with white,
And the shadows of the guests within
Pass’d on the window light.

The shadows of the wedding guests

Did strangely come and go,
And the body of Judas Iscariot
Lay stretch’d along the snow.

The body of Judas Iscariot

Lay stretched along the snow;
’Twas the soul of Judas Iscariot
Ran swiftly to and fro.

To and fro, and up and down,

He ran so swiftly there,
As round and round the frozen Pole
Glideth the lean white bear.

’Twas the Bridegroom sat at the table-head,

And the lights burnt bright and clear—
“Oh, who is that,” the Bridegroom said,
“Whose weary feet I hear?”

’Twas one look’d from the lighted hall,

And answered soft and slow,
“It is a wolf runs up and down
With a black track in the snow.”

The Bridegroom in his robe of white

Sat at the table-head—
“Oh, who is that who moans without?”
The blessed Bridegroom said.
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