Malaysian Journal Of Science 40(2): 40-50 (June 2021)

MOLLUSCICIDAL ACTIVITY OF ZINGIBER OFFICINALE AND

CARICA PAPAYA ON THE EGG HATCHABILITY OF THE GOLDEN
APPLE SNAIL, POMACEA CANALICULATA (GASTROPODA:
AMPULIRIIDAE)

Hasnun Nita Ismail1a* and Nadia Nisha Musa2a

a
Department of Biology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University Technology of MARA Perak Branch, Tapah
Campus, 35400 Tapah Road, Perak, MALAYSIA. Email: [email protected] 1; [email protected]
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Received: 11th May 2020 Accepted: 11th Sep 2020 Published: 30th Jun 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.22452/mjs.vol40no2.4

ABSTRACT The study was conducted to assess the effect of Zingiber officinale and
Carica papaya extract on the egg hatchability of the golden apple snail, Pomacea canaliculata.
This is a freshwater snail that is considered a pest in agriculture as well as natural ecosystems.
In combating the population of the aforementioned pest, this study evaluates the use of plant
extracts such as biomolluscicides to control the production of new hatchlings from the clusters
of eggs. The egg clusters were exposed to different concentrations of Z. officinale ethanolic
extract and C. papaya methanolic extracts (25 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm) using the direct single
spraying method. Observation was made for a maximum of 30 days. The time taken for the
eggs to hatch and the number of eggs successfully hatched were measured to reflect the
potential of both extracts in affecting egg hatchability. The finding shows that the eggs hatch
later when exposed to increasing concentrations (25 to 100 ppm) of Z. officinale extract. The
number of eggs successfully hatched was significantly decreased from 86% to 9% after
exposure to 25 ppm and above. Meanwhile, the extract of C. papaya did not show any
significant effect on both parameters for egg hatchability of P. canaliculata, regardless of the
increase in concentration from 25 to 100 ppm. Our findings reveal that the extract of Z.
officinale contains higher molluscicidal activity than the extract of C. papaya. Therefore, it has
the potential to be commercialized as a biomolluscicide to control the population of golden
apple snails specifically at the egg stage.

Keywords: biomolluscicide, golden apple snail, egg hatchability, ginger, papaya

1. INTRODUCTION to crops, but the population breeds and

invades other areas of plantations rapidly.
The occurrence of pest organisms in One of the pests and invasive organisms is
agricultural areas is always a nuisance to the freshwater snail, the golden apple snail
farmers. For instance, at rice plantations, from the family of Pomacaea, which is a
the paddy plant suffers from various pest non-native species to our country. Not only
organisms, right from the sowing process it is a well-known pest in Malaysia, but the
until it is ready for harvesting. Some of the golden apple snail is also recorded as the
pests are manageably under control but most invasive species worldwide on the list
some are still contributing to a major loss in of Global Invasive Species (Lowe et al.,
agriculture. Not only do they cause damage 2000).

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Malaysian Journal Of Science 40(2): 40-50 (June 2021)

The introduction of Pomacea sp. in Thus far, an integrated pest

Malaysia is believed to be in the early of management system has been employed as
1990s. In Peninsular Malaysia, they were a control measure for snail infestation
first spotted around the tin mine areas in around agricultural areas. The system
Puchong, Selangor and the rice fields in integrates various methods such as
Kampung Pengkalan Semeling, Kedah; and physical, chemical and biological
in West Malaysia, around Keningau, Sabah. measures. Physical methods are tedious and
In the beginning, the population did not consume high manpower as the collecting
cause any problems until major damages of snails and picking of the eggs are done
were reported at almost all rice plantations manually. The chemical method is
in Malaysia by the end of the 1990s. In the favourable since it produces a fast knock-
review provided by Yahaya et al. (2017), he down effect on the snails. However, it
stated that the total area infested was around adversely affects non-target organisms and
17,399 ha in 2004, and that increased to ecosystems. It would be in one’s best
almost 20,704 ha in late 2008. The total interest to use biological methods which are
infested area during off-season in 2015 was considered safer and environment-friendly
about 1,939 ha. In 2010, costs associated to improvise the integrated pest
with apple snail damage were estimated at management in agriculture. Among the
RM82 million (US $28 million). Since most intensive areas is the research on the
2009, following intervention measures, the use of plant extracts as a biomolluscicide.
data suggests a fluctuating but stable area of In previous literature, a comprehensive
around 2,500 ha from 2009 until 2012. review on 26 types of plant species with
Considering the total area of rice infested in molluscicidal activity was provided by
Malaysia and the two yearly planting Marston and Hostettmann (1985). Most are
seasons, the total loss caused is estimated to non-native plant species in Malaysia and
be more than US $2.63 million per year. the best molluscicides should have activity
at concentrations of lower than 100 ppm
In Peninsular Malaysia, the and are non-toxic to other non-target
population of the golden apple snail is organisms.
mainly composed of two dominant species;
Pomacea maculata and Pomacea Several plant species distributed in
canaliculata (Arfan et al., 2014). Of the two Malaysia which showed molluscicidal
species, P. maculata has been reported with activities have been reported elsewhere.
widespread distribution and high These include the lemon grass,
abundance around 5 states of Peninsular Cymbopogon citratus (Demetillo et al.,
Malaysia (Perak, Kedah, Selangor, Penang 2015), Barringtonia racemosa (Musman et
and Kelantan). However, a year after, a al., 2013), Azadirachta indica (Massaguni
study by Phoong et al. (2018) with over 25 & Md Latip, 2012; Massaguni & Md. Latip,
sampling sites revealed the occurrence of P. 2015), and Chromoleana odorata (Doctor,
canaliculata within 15 sampling sites, 2019). These studies tested the eggs and
whereas P. maculata was found in just 4 adult stages by determining the rate of
sampling sites around Selangor. At the hatchability or mortality at 50% and 90%.
northern region of Perlis and Kedah, a The results varied depending on the species
major distribution of P. canaliculata was of the snail, solvent for extraction and
reported by Mohd Salleh et al. (2012), exposure time. However, only B. racemosa
while in Sabah, extensive study on the and A. indica extracts showed toxicity at
biology and ecology of P. canaliculata was concentrations lower than 100 ppm,
provided by Teo (2004). indicating that these extracts contain strong

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Malaysian Journal Of Science 40(2): 40-50 (June 2021)

molluscicidal activities. In a study by Ramli inches of depth from the bottom of the
et al. (2017), he claimed that the extract of aquarium. The animals were fed with fresh
Furcraea selloa var. marginata and spent lettuce ad libitum, and the rearing water
tea leaves are potential biomolluscicides for was renewed twice a week to prevent the
golden apple snails, P. canaliculata. The unfavourable smell from the decomposition
study proved over 50% mortality in adult of leftover food and metabolic waste of the
snails after 24 hours of exposure to a snails. Inside of the aquarium tank, we
concentration as low as 1.00 ppm that was suspended long sticks vertically from the
applied on the snails. The same study also top of the tank closure to the bottom of the
revealed the molluscicidal activity of water aquarium. These sticks served to assist the
hyacinth species, Monochoria vaginalis, female adults during the egg laying process
when >50% mortality was observed after at the aerial part above the water surface.
36 hours of exposure. In this study, we aim Egg clusters below 24 hours old were
to assess the effectiveness of Z. officinale selected as the experimental unit for further
extract and C. papaya extract to assessment.
demonstrate molluscicidal effects,
particularly on the egg stage of the P. 2.2 Preparation and extraction
canaliculata. Both herbaceous plants are of plants
uncommon around Malaysia and their
ethnobotanical properties are well- 2.2.1 Z. officinale
documented (Mao et al., 2019; Mahboubi,
2019; Priyadarshi & Ram, 2018; Srivastava The epidermis layers of rhizomes
& Singh, 2016). Therefore, research in were peeled off and the inner part of
identifying the use of the plants in the field rhizomes were cut into thin slices. The
of sustainable and environment-friendly drying process was carried out under
agriculture needs to be exploited, indirect sunlight until the samples of ginger
particularly to reduce dependence on were completely dry. The dried ginger
chemical pesticides in integrated pest slices were grounded into fine powder and
management. soaked in ethanol overnight (1: 5).
Thereafter, the mixture was filtered, and the
filtrate was evaporated by using a rotary
2. METHODOLOGY evaporator at 60°C until the formation of
crude extracts emerged. The extract was
2.1 Snail collection and eggs selection aliquoted into a dark bottle and kept in the
fridge (4°C) for further experimentation.
The population of adult P.
canaliculata has been captured around rice 2.2.2 C. papaya
fields in the area of Chenderong Balai,
Perak and Sungai Lampam, Perak. The The leaves of C. papaya were
species was identified based on the deveined and left to dry for several days.
description provided by Arfan et al. (2014). The drying process was conducted outdoors
They were transported inside a plastic within indirect sunlight. The dried leaves
container and were kept in the Plant were grounded into fine powder and then
Laboratory, Faculty of Applied Sciences, soaked in methanol (1:5) overnight to allow
UiTM Perak Branch Tapah Campus. a complete extraction process. After a
Rearing of the adult snails was conducted night, the extraction mixture was filtered
using a glass aquarium tank filled with and the filtrate was evaporated using a
aging tap water, with approximately 3 rotary evaporator at 45°C to obtain the
crude extract of C. papaya leaves. The

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Malaysian Journal Of Science 40(2): 40-50 (June 2021)

crude extract was transferred to a dark Any eggs that failed to develop thereafter,
bottle and kept in the fridge (4°C) for were considered unsuccessful in terms of
further experimentation. hatchability.

2.3 Assessment of crude extracts on 2.4 Data analysis

egg hatchability
All the data recorded for hatching
The assessment on the time (days) and hatching success (%) were
molluscicidal activity of the crude extracts analysed separately based on the type of
on the eggs of P. canaliculata was plant extracts. Analysis was conducted
determined using a spot spraying method, using the statistical software by IBM SPSS
as adopted by Musman et al. (2013) and ver. 20. Before the parametric test, the data
Sisa et al. (2016). All the crude extracts was explored for normality assumption and
were left in ambient temperature before the homogeneity of variances. All data met the
assessment on egg hatchability. Thereafter, assumptions for ANOVA except data
each of the extracts were diluted with related to hatching success which was log-
distilled water to make up for 25, 50 and transformed to meet the assumption for
100 ppm. Then, the diluted solutions were homogeneity of variances.
each transferred into a small spray bottle
(total volume = 50 mL) and were then ready One-way ANOVA was employed to
for spraying assessment. find the differences between groups. Post-
hoc test was performed using the Tukey
Egg clusters of less than 24 hours test. All the analysis was set up with a
old were collected and the clusters were significant level of p < 0.05.
separated individually into a small plastic
cup half-filled with soil. The clusters were
divided into 2 × 3 units representing the 3. RESULTS
experimental units for 2 different extracts
versus 3 different concentrations. Each unit 3.1 Z. officinale
of experiment was set up in triplicates. The
egg clusters were sprayed with up to a Our findings indicated that the
maximum of 5 mL of the plant extracts. hatching time increased significantly with
During the spot spraying, no excess extract increasing concentrations of the extracts
liquid was allowed to drip off and all egg from 25 to 100 ppm (One-way ANOVA; p
surfaces must be in contact with the extract < 0.05; Table 1.0). An increase from 25 to
spray. The spraying process was continued 50 ppm did not differ significantly but an
the next day until all of the total 5 mL increase of up to 100 ppm showed a
extract was utilized. A set of experiment significant difference in hatching time. The
where the egg clusters (triplicate) were control experiment resulted with no
sprayed with distilled water was employed significant difference with 25 ppm, but
as a control experiment in both plant differed significantly with 50 and 100 ppm
extracts assessments. (Tukey test; p < 0.05; Figure 1.0 (a)). The
egg clusters took the longest time to hatch
The egg hatchability was assessed under exposure to 100 ppm.
through the length of time taken for the
embryos to fully develop inside of the eggs One-way ANOVA showed there
(hatching time; days) and the number of was a significant difference among tested
hatchlings successfully emerged from the groups for hatching success (One-way
eggs (% of hatching success). Observation ANOVA; p < 0.05; Table 1.0). The
was conducted for a maximum of 30 days. difference in hatching success was

43
 Malaysian Journal Of Science 40(2): 40-50 (June 2021)

insignificant between the control and 25 with an increase of concentration from 25

ppm (Tukey test; p > 0.05; Figure 1.0 (b)). to 100 ppm (Tukey test; p > 0.05; Figure 1.0
However, a significant difference was (b)). Overall, the result indicates that
observed between the control and an exposure of Z. officinale extract from 50 to
increase from 50 to 100 ppm (Tukey test; p 100 ppm has reduced the production of new
< 0.05; Figure 1.0 (b)). No significant hatchlings significantly in comparison to
difference was found in hatching success the control group.

30
Table 1. Analysis of one-way ANOVA on the egg hatchability of P. canaliculata c
exposed to Z. officinale
25
extract
Source df SS MS F-value P-value
a) Hatching time b

Hatching time (days)

20
Between group 3 450.92 150.31 ab 24.05 0.001*
Within group 8 50.00 15 6.25
Total 11 500.92
a
10
b) Hatching success
Between group 3 1.99 5
0.66 6.79 0.014*
Within group 8 0.78 0.09
Total 11 2.78 0
df= degree of freedom; SS= sum of squares; MS= mean squares 0 25 50 100
* significant at p < 0.05
Zingiber concentration (ppm)

30 100
c
a

25
80

b
Hatching success (%)
Hatching time (days)

20
ab 60 ab

15

40
a
10

20
5 b b

0 0
0 25 50 100 0 25 50 100
Zingiber concentration (ppm) Zingiber concentration ppm

Figure 1. Effect of Z. officinale extract on the (a) hatching time (days) and (b) hatching
100
a
success (%) of P. canaliculata’s egg

80
3.2 C. papaya (One-way ANOVA; p > 0.05; Table 2.0).
Hatching success (%)

There is no significant difference between

ab
60
The analysis of ANOVA shows that the time taken for the eggs to hatch in the
C. papaya extract did not produce any control group in comparison to the egg
40
significant effect on the hatching time clusters applied with increasing

44
20
b b

0
 Malaysian Journal Of Science 40(2): 40-50 (June 2021)

concentrations, from 25 to 100 ppm, of C. 0.05; Table 2.0). There was no significant
papaya extract (Tukey test; p > 0.05; Figure difference between the percentage of eggs
2.0 (a)). successfully hatched in the control group
and the group of experiments exposed to
The same result is observed on the increasing concentrations, from 25 to 100
hatching success of the eggs in exposure to ppm, of C. papaya extract (Tukey test; p >
C. papaya extract (One-way ANOVA; p > 0.05; Figure 2.0 (b)).

Table 2. Analysis of one-way ANOVA on the egg hatchability of P. canaliculata

exposed to C. papaya extract
Source df SS MS F-value P-value
a) Hatching time
Between group 3 62.25 20.75 0.741 0.557
Within group 8 224.00 28.00
Total 11 286.25

b) Hatching success
Between group 3 300.04 100.01 0.803 0.527
Within group 8 996.86 124.61
Total
11 1296.89
df= degree of freedom; SS= sum of squares; MS= mean squares
* significant at p < 0.05

18 120

16 a a a a a
a a a 100
14
Hatching success (%)
Hatching time (days)

12 80

10
60
8

6 40

4
20
2

0 0
0 25 50 100 0 25 50 100

Concentration of Carica extract (ppm) Concentration of Carica extract (ppm)

Figure 2. Effect of C. papaya extract on the (a) hatching time (days) and (b) hatching
success (%) of P. canaliculata’s egg

4. DISCUSSION chemical pesticides due to their low

toxicity, high biodegradability, and the fact
Biomolluscicides have long been that they do not produce any negative
explored as a replacement for synthetic impacts on non-target organisms and

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Malaysian Journal Of Science 40(2): 40-50 (June 2021)

surrounding ecosystems. Currently, local freshwater apple snail, P. canaliculata,

farmers are still relying heavily on the use with single spot spraying. Interestingly,
of synthetic chemical pesticides due to the exposure to Z. officinale at above 25 ppm
fast ‘knock-down effect’ without any demonstrated strong molluscicidal activity
concerns for the adverse effects to the when more than 50% of the
ecosystem, and their own health and safety. P. canaliculata’s eggs failed to develop and
Our findings may help in proposing the hatch.
option to shift to the use of
biomolluscicides using available sources Similarly, the role of Z. officinale in
that occur abundantly in nature. Finally, regulating egg hatchability has been
this option can add continuous determined in other agricultural pest
improvement on integrated pest species. The extract of Z. officinale at 0.51
management. ppm reduced the egg hatchability of the
Callosobruchus chinensis (Pulse beetle),
4.1 Z. officinale the pest insect in the storage of food grains
(Chaubey, 2013). Meanwhile, a study by
Our study revealed that the extract Hamada et al., (2018) found insecticidal
of Z. officinale produces a strong effect on properties of Z. officinale extract when the
the hatching time and hatching success of egg hatchability of the Spodoptera littoris
the golden apple snail’s eggs. The trend (Cotton leafworm) was significantly
shows that with increasing concentrations reduced after exposure to it at a level of 40
of extract (25 to 100 ppm), the eggs hatch ppm. In both studies, the pest insects were
later and the number of eggs that exposed to Z. officinale extract at both
successfully hatch decreases significantly. larval and adult stages respectively.
Significant effects were observed above 25 Interestingly, the adverse effects were
ppm, where hatching success was below continuously seen at the next stage when
50% in the clusters of eggs. A study by the affected larva or affected adults began
Prabhakaran et al. (2017) stated that the to produce eggs. Exposure to Z. officinale
juvenile apple snail of P. maculata was during the larval and adult stages eventually
affected by the extract of Z. officinale caused physiological disturbances which
where 50% of the population died (LC50) influenced the rate of egg hatchability in
due to exposure of it at a level of 485.48 both insects; C. chinensis and S. littoris.
ppm. Similarly, exposure of Z. officinale to
the freshwater snail, Bulinus globosus, In other studies, Z. officinale has
revealed that LC50 was achieved at 214.72 been observed to cause the decrease in shell
ppm (Labe et al., 2012). This indicates that thickness in the study on egg characteristics
Z. officinale shows molluscicidal activity at of egg-laying hens (Zomrawi et al., 2014).
higher concentrations during the juvenile Since the snail’s egg is similarly calcareous
stage of P. maculata and B. globosus. In (Yang & Yu, 2019), it is not possible that
contrast, a study by Barros Gomes et al. some amount of Z. officinale extract had
(2019) on the adult stage of the freshwater penetrated the shell and interrupted the
snail, Biomphalaria glabrata, obtained the embryonic development inside (size of P.
LC50 at lower concentrations that were as canaliculata egg = 2.0 mm). Overall, the
low as 56.23 ppm. In both studies, the hatching success of the P. canaliculata eggs
molluscicide examination was conducted were adversely affected by the application
on the body of snails protected with of Z. officinale extract regardless of the
calcareous shells that were larger in size, dosage.
and with constant exposure to the Z.
officinale extract. Our study was on the In an extensive phytochemistry
smaller sized calcareous eggs of the study, analysis on the extract of Z.

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Malaysian Journal Of Science 40(2): 40-50 (June 2021)

officinales rhizome revealed the presence of chemical substance, papain. Papain is an

194 types of volatile oils, 85 types of enzyme which can be found in all parts of
gingerol, and 28 types of diarylheptanoid the tree except the root (Islam et al., 2015).
compounds (Liu et al., 2019). The most This enzyme significantly inhibited the
important component is the content of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), acid and
essential oils with major compounds of alkaline phosphatase (ACP/ALP) activity
gingerols and oleoresin. Both compounds in the nervous tissue of L. acuminata. In
give the characteristic of pungency to the Z. addition, the concentration of Carica
officinale, and their pharmaceutical extract used to kill the population of snails
properties have long been recognized for did not affect the non-target fish species,
their antioxidant, anticancer, antibacterial, Colisa fasciatus, in the same habitat
antifungal and anti-inflammatory effects. In (Jaiswal & Singh, 2008).
this study, we provide evidence that the Z.
officinale extract contains molluscicidal In contrast, the study on the extract
properties, particularly during the egg stage taken from the Carica leaf showed
of the P. canaliculata. However, the details molluscicidal activities at different ranges
in the molluscicidal mode of action in of concentration depending on the
altering the egg shell composition and freshwater snail’s species. In adult
interrupting the embryonic development Biomphalaria pfeifferi, the molluscicidal
need further study in the future. activity was established at LC50 = 2716.3
ppm which is higher than the molluscicidal
4.2 C. papaya activity observed in the population of
Bulinus globosus (LC50 = 619.1 ppm)
Although not native to Malaysia, C. (Adetunji & Salawu, 2010). In our study,
papaya is a perennial species with abundant we used the leaf extract of Carica too, but
distribution in this country. They are easily with much lower concentrations between
grown in tropical countries as the origin of 20 to 100 ppm. As a result, no significant
the tree is from the southern part of tropical molluscicide effects were observed on the
Mexico. The motivation of using the C. eggs of the P. canaliculata. Although in
papaya extract in this study is based on previous studies the experiments on toxicity
their multiple ethnobotanical properties, as used adult snails, the results are likely
reviewed extensively by Srivastava & comparable to the use of eggs as in our
Singh (2016). The review reported that study. Both adult and egg stages are
many parts of the tree have shown various protected by calcareous shells. In
properties such as anthelmintic, antifungal, conclusion, we extrapolate that the strong
antioxidant and anti-fertility properties, and molluscicide effect is more due to the seed
mollusicicidal activity. and latex powder than the leaf extract. In
future, we recommend the use of higher
The use of C. papaya as a concentrations of Carica’s leaf extract to
biomolluscicide has been reported in examine the molluscicidal effect on the egg
previous literature using different parts of hatchability of P. canaliculata.
the plant. The extract taken from Carica’s
seed and the latex powder reveal the
molluscicidal activity on the adult 5. CONCLUSION
freshwater snail of Lymnaea acuminata
with the LC50 at levels 53.38 ppm (24 High dependence on synthetic
hours) and 8.38 ppm (96 hours) chemical molluscicides has contributed to
respectively (Jaiswal & Singh, 2008). undesirable effects on the environment and
According to Jaiswal et al. (2008), the non-target organisms. Now, the shift to
toxicity may be due to the presence of the safer techniques to control the pest

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Malaysian Journal Of Science 40(2): 40-50 (June 2021)

population is highly demanded to secure the Arfan, A. G., Muhamad, R., Omar, D., Nor
biodiversity and sustainability of rice Azwady, A. A., & Manjeri, G. (2014).
plantations. In this study, we found that the Distribution of two Pomacea spp. in rice
extract of Z. officinale rhizome produced fields of Peninsular Malaysia. Annual
stronger molluscicidal activity than the Research & Review in Biology, 4(24),
extract of C. papaya that was taken from the 4123–4136. DOI:
leaf. The effect of toxicity was observed at 10.9734/ARRB/2014/11398.
concentrations of less than 100 ppm,
emphasizing that Z. officinale is a strong Barros Gomes, P. R., Fernandes, R. P.,
biomolluscicide, particularly in controlling Reis, J. B., Fontenele, M. A., de Freitas,
the egg hatchability of P. canaliculata. The A. C., da Silva, J. C., de Oliveira, R. W.
egg hatchability is crucial since thousands S., da Silva Lyra, W., de Paula, M. d. L.,
of new individuals may emerge in Louzeiro, H. C., & Filho, V. E. M.
environments if no adequate control (2019). Molluscicidal activity of the
measures are taken by the farmers and essential oil of Zingiber officinale roscoe
related authorities. In future research, we rhizomes. Journal of Essential Oil
recommend further toxicity testing is Bearing Plants, 22(2), 526–534. DOI:
conducted on non-target organisms as well 10.1080/0972060X.2019.1611484.
as investigating the mechanism of ginger
extract in interrupting the embryonic Chaubey, M. K. (2013). Biological activity
development of snails. of Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)
and Piper cubeba (Piperaceae) essential
oils against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT chinensis (Coleoptera: Bruchidae).
Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences,
The consumables and chemical 16(11), 517–523. DOI:
items for this research were self-sponsored. 10.3923/pjbs.2013.517.523.
The authors wish to thank Assistant Science
Officer Mohd Hafiz Md Isa, and the Demetillo, M. T., Baguio, M. L., Limitares,
students of the Diploma of Science for their D. E., Madjos, G. G., & Abrenica-
kind help and technical assistance during Adamat, L. R. (2015). Effect of
the length of the experiment. We are Cymbopogon citratus (lemon grass)
grateful to the Faculty of Applied Science, crude leaf extracts on the developmental
Universiti Teknologi MARA Perak Branch, stages of Pomacea canaliculata (Golden
Tapah Campus for their laboratory and apple snail). Advances in Environmental
equipment facilities. Sciences, 7(3), 460–467.

Doctor, T. (2019). Molluscicidal

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