Massive Open Online Course

On
ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL WIRING

COURSE MATERIALS
MODULE 9: EARTHING

Krishna Kanta Handique State Open University

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Unit 26: Process of Earthing and Soil Resistivity

Contents:
26.1 Process of Earthing
26.2 Resistance versus resistivity
26.3 Soil resistivity and its calculation
26.3.1 Wenner Array method
26.3.2 Schlumberger array method
26.4 Conclusion

Course objectives:
1. To make the students understand the process of earthing
2. To explain soil resistivity and hence to calculate it during the earthing process
3. And finally, the methods to calculate soil resistivity

26.1 Process of Earthing

The earthing process consists of establishing the location and type of earthing system, then
installing, testing, and maintaining it.

There are several steps involved in the earthing process:

1. Selection of proper location:

The first stage in building an effective earthing system is to fix the location where the
earthing will be installed. This determination must be made based on an assessment of
the soil type and other site factors.

2. Proper Installation:

Once the location and type of earthing system have been identified, the next step
involves the installation process. This typically begins with drilling a hole into the
ground to facilitate the placement of a ground wire or electrode. Ensure that the ground
wire or electrode is securely connected to the electrical system using appropriate
connections.

3. Test the earthing system:

This testing procedure essentially consists of measuring the resistance of the earthing
system with a specialized instrument known as an earth tester, or ground resistance
tester. During testing, the equipment determines how well the earthing system conducts
electricity into the ground.

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 Important:

 Resistance levels should typically fall within an acceptable range of 1 to 10

ohms.
 If the resistance is less than 1 ohm, it suggests an extremely low resistance
channel, which is generally preferred.
 However, if the resistance surpasses 10 ohms, it may indicate inadequate
earthing quality, compromising safety and efficiency.
 In such circumstances, additional study and corrective steps should be
conducted to strengthen the grounding system.
 Proper testing is required to verify compliance with safety requirements and
protect both personnel and electrical equipment.

4. Maintain the earthing system:

Earthing systems require regular maintenance to ensure that they continue to function
properly. This may involve inspecting the ground wire or electrode for signs of corrosion
or damage, and replacing it if necessary

Types of cables used in electrical system:

 Three types of cables used: live, neutral, and earth.

 The live wire is in charge of transmitting electric current from the power supply
 The neutral wire serves as the current's return channel to the electrical system.
 The earth wire, on the other hand, is primarily intended to provide safety. It is
attached to a buried metal plate, which aids in grounding the electric system.
This connection allows excess electricity to dissipate to the ground, lowering
the danger of electrical shocks and damage of devices in the event of a short
circuit or failure.
 Earthing at home is often installed near the home's energy meter.

Conditions that affect the earthing system are:

1. Soil Resistivity
2. Stratification
3. Size and type of electrode used and hence the depth to which the electrode is buried
4. Presence of moisture and chemical. As moisture content increases, resistance may
rapidly decrease.

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26.2 Resistance versus Resistivity:
The difference between resistance and resistivity is:

1. Resistance refers to how much a material opposes the flow of electric current and is
typically measured in ohms (Ω). Resistivity is a material-specific property that
quantifies how strongly a material opposes electric current. The unit of resistivity is
ohm meters (Ω·m).
2. Resistivity is an intrinsic property of a material which does not depend on the material's
size or shape. It indicates how much the material resists electric current per unit length
and area. However, the resistance of a material depends on its shape and size.
3. Resistivity is a fundamental characteristic determined by the electronic structure of the
material and is influenced by temperature. Resistivity is often used to classify materials
as conductors, semiconductors, or insulators based on their resistivity ranges.

Example: copper and aluminium have low resistivities, making them good conductors, while
materials like rubber have high resistivity and are hence called insulators. Therefore, when
resistivity is high, the material offers high resistance to electric current. Additionally, resistivity
generally increases with temperature, especially in conductors.

26.3 Soil Resistivity and Its Calculation:

According to Ohm's Law, the current flowing through a wire is directly proportional to the
applied potential difference across the two ends of the wire. This relationship can be expressed
as V = I × R, where V is the potential difference, I is the current, and R is the resistance. From
this formula, we can see that resistance (R) is defined as R = V/I. Thus, resistance is inversely
proportional to the current flowing through the circuit: when resistance is low, the amount of
current flowing through the wire is high, and vice versa.

On the other hand, if 𝜌 is the resistivity then:

𝑅𝑙
𝜌=
𝐴
Here, R is the resistance of the wire, l is length and A is the cross-sectional area.

When we talk about Soil Resistivity, it basically measures the resistance between opposite
sides of a 1-meter cube of soil.

How to test Soil Resistivity?

Earthing systems situated near the Earth's surface require correct modelling of the top soil
layers, which experience higher current densities. Two popular methods to measure soil
resistivity are:

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 1. Wenner Array method
2. Schlumberger array method

26.3.1 Wenner Array Method:

 One of the most time-consuming methods for carrying out traverses in soil resistivity
measurement is the Wenner array approach.
 In this process, a team of up to four people is usually needed.
 This method is very popular and most recommended earthing design because of its
advantageous ratio of received voltage to transmitted current.
 The method is also known as the four electrodes method. Four electrodes are used in
this process.

Fig 1(a) Fig 1(b)

Fig 1: Wenner Array method

Equipment needed in this process:

1. Four electrodes
2. Voltmeter and ammeter
3. Resistivity measuring instrument
Explanation of the Method:

1. At regular intervals, four electrodes are meticulously placed into the ground to a depth
equal to one-third of their total length from the surface. The inner probes, called
potential electrodes (P1 and P2), are positioned closer together, while the outer probes,
known as current electrodes (C1 and C2), are set further apart. This configuration is
vital for accurately measuring soil resistance with an earth resistance tester.
2. To initiate the measurement, connect the electrodes to the earth resistance tester,
making sure the connections are secure. After everything is properly set up, take the
initial resistance readings, which will provide valuable information about the soil's
conductivity. Following this, adjust the position of the electrodes by moving them away
from current electrode C1 by the same interval as their initial placement. As you do

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 this, ensure to insert the probes deeper into the soil to keep the measurement depth
accurate.
3. Keep relocating the electrodes further from C1 and adjusting their depth, while
consistently logging the resistance values at different depths and distances. This
information is essential for understanding how soil resistivity varies with depth and
distance. To calculate the soil resistivity, we use the formula:

𝜌 = 2𝜋𝑎𝑅

where 'R' represents the resistance in ohms measured between the electrodes, and 'a' indicates
the distance separating them, measured in centimeters.

Calculation of Soil Resistivity:

Let us now consider the above figure (fig 1) for analysis. The current is entering through the
C1 electrode and will go to the soil. So, a current, 𝐼, spreads out spherically when it is
introduced through a point electrode into a homogeneous medium (soil). Now the potential at
a distance r from a point current source can be written as:

𝜌𝐼
𝑉=
2𝜋𝑟
Where 𝜌 Is the resistivity of soil in this case, as the current I go to the earth from the electrode
and r is the distance at which the potential is being calculated.

To derive this formula, 1st, we have to consider the relation between electric field and the
current density, which is given by: 𝑬 = 𝝆𝑱, where J is the current density and 𝜌 is the
resistivity.

Current density J is defined as the current per unit area. Here in this case, as the current spreads
spherically once it enters the earth through the electrode, J is given by

𝐽= =
r
P

Figure 3

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In the figure, we are showing the scenario with a single electrode carrying I amount of
current into the ground. So, the current spreads spherically in the hemisphere shown by the
black arc having surface area equal to 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 .

We know from our basic knowledge of electric field that the field inside a spherical conducting
sphere is zero and at any point outside the sphere, the field due to the sphere is equal to that of
a point charge at the centre. Hence, the potential, inside such sphere, is constant and outside
the sphere, it is equal to that of a point charge at the centre, if the test charge or unit positive
charge is brought from infinity.

Hence, the Electric field is given by:

𝐸 = 𝜌𝐽 = −

Now the electric potential in an electric field is given by:

∫ 𝑑𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑟

The above relation shows the connection between potential and the resistivity. So, the electric
potential at the point P which is at a distance r from the point Q is given by:

From this relation, we have seen that the potential at any point r due to the inward current in
the electrode depends on the current and resistivity directly while it varies inversely with the
distance r. So as we move away from the potential decreases.

Now, what we have discussed about the potential is because of the current in a single electrode.
But in this method, there are two electrodes C1 and C2. So, we need to understand the scenario
in the presence of two electrodes. For that we consider the following figure:

I I

r1 r2

Figure 4

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Now, in presence of two electrodes, we have to calculate the potential at the point P which is
given by:

𝝆𝑰
𝑉 = 𝒓𝟏
+ (− 𝟐𝝅𝒓 )
𝟐

𝟏
)
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐

The negative sign in the 2nd term is because of the opposite sign of the current in the 2nd
electrode through which current is going away from the ground.

C1 P1 P2 C2

r1 r2 r3

V2 V3

Figure 5

Now, since in the Wenner setup, we have four electrodes; in such case we have to consider
figure 5.

Now as seen from the figure, C1 carries current inward and C2 carries outward and hence at
any point P we know the potential due to the current in these two electrodes. But as per the
setup, we have to measure the potential difference between P1 and P2 that is V23. But to
measure that, we 1st measure V2 and V3 respectively.

Now, if r1, r2 and r3 are the separations among the electrodes a shown in the diagram, then while
measuring V2 at point P, the contribution will come from currents in C1 and C2 and hence our
previously calculated Vt will get modified as:

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 𝟏
𝑉 = (𝒓 − 𝒓 )
𝟏 𝟐

And similarly, V3 becomes,

𝟏
𝑉 = (𝒓 −𝒓 )
𝟏 𝟑

Hence the potential difference between the electrodes P1 and P2:

𝑉 =𝑉 − 𝑉

𝟏 𝟏
𝑉 = (𝒓 − 𝒓 −𝒓 +𝒓 )
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑

But in Wenner’s method, the separation among the electrodes is the same and hence, finally,
we have:

𝑟 =𝑟 =𝑟 =𝑎

𝟏 𝟏
𝑉 = ( − − + )

𝑉 = ( )

=>𝜌 = 2𝜋𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑎𝑅

This is the desired soil resistivity. Now for comparative purpose, we will quickly go through
the Schlumberger array method.

26.3.2 Schlumberger array method

Current electrodes

Potential electrodes

Figure 6: Schlumberger array method diagram

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  In this method, like the previous one, we still have four electrodes and the two outer
electrodes are still carrying current.
 The separation among the four electrodes is not the same this time.
 Outer electrodes are also called source electrodes while the inner electrodes are known
as receiver electrodes.
 The formula to measure the soil resistivity in this method is given by:

𝑠 −𝑎
𝜋( 4 )𝑉
𝜌=
𝑎 𝐼
Explanation of the process:

 With a tiny distance between them—usually no more than one-fifth of the distance
between the current electrodes—the potential electrodes are arranged strategically in
the middle of the electrode array.
 The precision of the measurements taken during the survey depends on this
configuration.
 The current electrodes are gradually separated to increase the separation as the survey
goes on, but the potential electrodes stay in place.
 This procedure is repeated until the measured voltage drops to a level too low for
precise measurement.
 Particularly for groundwater exploration applications and aggregate mineral resource
assessment, this method is widely used in vertical electrical sounding.

Advantages and disadvantages:

 This approach has several advantages over Wenner's method, chief among them
being labor and time efficiency.
 It can be labor-intensive and time-consuming to relocate all four electrodes in the
Wenner method to maintain uniform spacing between them.
 On the other hand, this technique greatly minimizes the physical effort required by
just adjusting the exterior electrodes, enabling faster surveys.
 Additionally, this method offers more versatility for investigating subsurface
resistivity at different depths.
 Practitioners may easily adjust the depth of measurement without having to
completely reconfigure the electrode array by changing the space between the
current electrodes.
 Consequently, this technique is highly favored for precisely determining soil
resistivity at various depths, making it a crucial instrument in geophysical surveys.

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26.4 Conclusions:
In this material, we have discussed in detail how earthing is done. In addition to that, we have
learned about the difference between earthing and grounding. We learned what a lighting
protection system is and how it works to protect us. The differences between resistance and
resistivity are also discussed. We should now be able to explain the Wenner Array method in
detail and hence should be able to calculate soil resistivity for such a setup. Finally, we have
discussed the Schlumberger array method and its advantages over the Wenner Array method.

Self-Check Exercise

1. What is the primary purpose of an earthing system?

a) To increase electrical resistance
b) To store electrical energy
c) To safely dissipate excess electricity into the ground
d) To reduce power consumption
Answer:c) To safely dissipate excess electricity into the ground

2. Which of the following is NOT a step in the earthing process?

a) Selection of proper location
b) Installation of earthing system
c) Testing of earthing system
d) Increasing the resistance of the earthing system
Answer: d) Increasing the resistance of the earthing system

3. What is the ideal resistance range for an effective earthing system?

a) 1 to 10 ohms
b) 10 to 100 ohms
c) 100 to 1000 ohms
d) More than 1000 ohms
Answer: a) 1 to 10 ohms

4. What instrument is used to measure the resistance of an earthing system?

a) Ammeter
b) Voltmeter
c) Earth tester
d) Ohmmeter
Answer: c) Earth tester

5. Why is regular maintenance of an earthing system important?

a) To increase soil resistivity
b) To ensure continued efficiency and safety
c) To reduce moisture content in the soil
d) To prevent electric current from flowing

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Answer: b) To ensure continued efficiency and safety

6. What is the function of the earth wire in an electrical system?

a) To carry the main power supply
b) To serve as a return path for current
c) To provide a safety path for excess electricity
d) To reduce voltage fluctuations
Answer: c) To provide a safety path for excess electricity
7. How many electrodes are used in the Wenner Array method?
a) Two
b) Three
c) Four
d) Five
Answer: c) Four

8. In the Wenner Array method, what is the role of the inner electrodes?
a) They inject current into the ground
b) They measure potential difference
c) They generate voltage
d) They increase soil resistivity
Answer: b) They measure potential difference

9. In the Schlumberger array method, which electrodes remain in place during the process?
a) Outer electrodes
b) Inner electrodes
c) All electrodes
d) None of the electrodes
Answer:b) Inner electrodes

10. What is the formula used to calculate soil resistivity in the Wenner method?
a) ρ = 2πaR
b) ρ = πaR
c) ρ = 4πaR
d) ρ = (πR) / a
Answer: a) ρ = 2πaR

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References and Web Links:
1. https://electricalmag.com/earthing/

2. https://www.scribd.com/document/464014618/ERT-METHODOLOGY-ICRPL

3. https://www.ijera.com/papers/vol10no5/Series-1/D1005012530.pdf

4. https://greymattersglobal.com/wenner-4-probe/

5. https://www.agiusa.com/schlumberger-array

6. https://www.langeoinstrument.com/bolg/2016/0824/105.html

7. Analysis of earth resistance of electrodes and soil resistivity at different

environments, DOI:10.1109/ICLP.2012.6344314

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