CONTENTS

RMO/INMO VOLUME - 1

Chapter Page
No.
Topic No.

1. Algebra 1

2. Number theory 27

3. Inequalities 57
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CHAPTER - 1 ALGEBRA
Polynomial
Polynomial
An expression of the form a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn – 2 + ... + an – 1x + an , where n is a whole number and a0, a1,
a2.....an belong to some number system F, is called a polynomial in the variable x over the number system F.
A polynomial is denoted by f(x) or g(x) etc.
Real Polynomial
A polynomial is called a real polynomial if all the coefficients are real numbers.
Leading Coefficient and Leading Term
If a0 ¹ 0, then a0 (the coefficient of highest degree term) is called the leading coefficient and a0xn is called the
leading term.
Degree of Polynomial
The highest index of the variable x occuring in the polynomial f(x) is called the degree of the polynomial.
Zero Degree Polynomial
The constant c = cx0 is called a polynomial of degree zero.
Linear Polynomial
The polynomial f(x) = ax + b, a ¹ 0 is of degree one and is called a linear polynomial.
Quadratic Polynomial
The polynomial f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0 is of degree two and is called a quadratic polynomial.
Cubic Polynomial
The polynomial f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a ¹ 0 is of degree three and is called a cubic polynomial.
Biquadratic Polynomial
The polynomial f(x)= ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, a ¹ 0 is of degree four and is called a biquadratic polynomial
Zero Polynomial
A polynomial, all of whose coefficients are zero, is called a zero polynomial
Equality of Two Polynomials
Two polynomials
f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn
g(x) = b0 + b1x + b2x2 + ... + bmxm
are said to be equal if the coefficients of like powers of x in the two polynomials are equal.
When m ³ n, if f(x) = g(x), then a0 = b0, a1 = b1,..., an = bn , bn + 1 = bn + 1 = ... = bm = 0
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When m £ n, if f(x) = g(x), then a0 = b0, a1 = b1,..., am = bm, am +1 = am +2 .......= an = 0.

Division Algorithm
If f(x) and g(x) are two non-zero polynomials, then there exist unique polynomials q(x)and r(x) such that
f(x) = q(x) × g(x) + r(x)
where either r(x) = 0
deg r(x) < deg g(x)
The polynomial q(x) is called the quotient and r(x) the remainder.
When f(x) is divided by g(x), then degree of q(x) = deg f(x) – deg g(x)
Particular Case : When g(x) = ax + b. a linear polynomial, then either r(x) = 0 or
deg r(x) < deg g(x) =1
i.e,deg r(x) = 0
So that r(x) is a constant.
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Root of an Equation
A number ‘a’ is called a root of equation
f(x) = 0, iff f(a) = 0
a is a root of f(x) = 0
Þ f(a) = 0
Conversely f(a) = 0
Þ a is a root of f(x) = 0
Theorem 1
Remainder Theorem: If f(x) is a polynomial, then f(h) is the remainder when f(x) is divided by x – h.
Proof
Let Q(x) be the quotient R the remainder.
When f(x) is divided by x – h.
Then, f(x) = (x – h)Q(x) + R
Putting x = h, f(h) = R,
i.e., R = f(h)
Theorem 2
Factor Theorem : If h is a root of equation f(x) = 0, then (x – h) is a factor of f(x) and conversely.
Proof
Let Q(x) be the quotient and R, the remainder when f(x) is divided by x – h.
Then, f(x) = (x – h) Q(x) + R
Putting x = h, f(h) = R, But f(h) = 0
Q h is a root of f(x)= 0
\ R=0
\ f(x) = (x – h)Q
which shows that x – h is a factor of f(x).
Conversely, if x – h is a factor of f(x) h must be a root of f(x) = 0.
Divide f(x) by x – h and let Q(x) be the quotient.
Then, f(x) = (x – h) Q(x)
Putting x = h, f(h) = 0,
which shows that h is a root of f(x) = 0
Theorem 3
In an equation with real coefficients, non-real complex roots occur in conjugate pairs.
Proof
Let the given equation be
f(x) = 0 ...(i)
Let a + ib (where b ¹ 0) be a root of f(x) = 0,
then f(a + ib) =0 ...(ii)
We have, to prove that a – ib is also a root of (1)
Divide f(x)by [x – (a + ib)][x – (a – ib)]
Let Q(x) be the quotient and if there is any remainder, since it must be a linear polynomial in x, take it as Rx + R'.
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\ f(x) = [x – (a + ib)][x – (a – ib)] Q(x) + Rx + R' ...(iii)

Putting x = a + ib,
f(a + ib) = R(a + ib) + R'
But f(a + ib) = 0 [Q Eq. (ii)]
\ R(a + ib) + R' = 0 or (Ra + R') + iR b = 0
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides.
Ra + R' = 0 ...(iv)
Rb = 0 ...(v)
from Eq. (v), either R = 0 or b = 0
Now, b¹0
[Q in case b = 0 even the complex root a + ib becomes real]
\ R=0

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Putting this in Eq. (iv), we have R' = 0
\ from Eq. (iii)
f(x) = [x – (a + ib)][x – (a – ib)] Q(x)
i.e., [x – (a + ib)][x – (a – ib)]
divides f(x) exactly.
Hece, a – ib is also a root of the give equatio f(x) = 0.
Corollary
Every equation of an odd degree having real coefficients, has atleast one real root, because complex roots occur
in pairs.
Theorem 4
In an equation with rational coefficients irrational roots occur in conjugate pairs.
Proof
Let the given equation be
f(x) = 0 ...(i)
Let a + b be a root of Eq. (i) [where a and b are rational, b is + ve but not a perfect square]

\ f( a + b ) = 0 ...(ii)

We have to prove that a - b is also a root of Eq. (i)

Divide
f(x) by [x – ( a + b )][x – ( a - b )]
Lot Q(x) be the quotient and if there is remainder, since it must be a linear polynomial in x, take it as Rx + R'
\ f(x) = [x – ( a + b )][x – ( a - b )] Q(x) + Rx + R' ...(iii)

Putting x = a+ b

f( a + b ) = R( a + b ) + R'

But f( a + b ) = 0 [Q Eq. (ii)]

\ R( a + b ) + R' = 0

i.e., (Ra + R') + R b = 0

Now, rational and irrational number cannot destroy one another.
\ If there sum vanishes, each must vanish separately.
Þ Ra + R' = 0

R b =0
Since, b = 0, \ from Eq. (v), R = 0
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Putting R = 0 in Eq. (iv), R' = 0

\ Eq. (iii) becomes
f(x) = [x – ( a + b )][x – ( a - b )] Q(x)
This shows that
[x – ( a + b )][x – ( a - b )] is a factor of f(x)

Hence, a - b is also root of f(x).

Theorem 5
Two nonzero polynomials f(x), g(x) over k are coprime, iff there exist some polynomials a(x), b(x) over k such
that
a(x)f(x) + b(x)g(x) = 1

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Proof
Let f(x) be coprime
\ f(x), g(x)) = 1
\ There exist some polynomials a(x), b(x) over k such that
a(x)f(x) + b(x)g(x) = 1
Conversely
Let there exist polynomials a(x), b(x) over k such that
a(x)f(x) + b(x)g(x) = 1
Well shall prove that (f(x), g(x)) = 1
Let (f(x), g(x)) = d(x)
\ d(x)|f(x) and d(x)|g(x)
\ d(x)|a(x)f(x) + d(x)|b(x)g(x)
\ d(x)|a(x) f(x) + b(x)g(x)
\ d(x)|1
Hence, d|(x) = 1
\ f(x), g(x) are coprime.
Concept 1
To transform an equation into another whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of the given equation.
Let f(x) = a0xn + a1xn – 1 + a2xn – 2 + ... + an – 1 x + an = 0
be the given equation. If x be a root of the given equation and y that of the transformed equation, then

1 1
y= or x =
x y

1 æ1ö
Hence, the transformed equation is obtained by putting x = in f (x) = 0 and is therefore f ç y ÷ = 0.
y è ø

1 1 1 1
i.e., a0 + a1 n -1 + a2 n -2 + ... + a n-1 + a n = 0
yn y y y

or anyn + an – 1yn – 1 + ... + a2y2 + a1y + a0 = 0

Rule If the equation given be complete (if not, it may be made to take that form), then the above transfor-
mation is effected, if we take the last coefficient to be the 1st, last but one to be the llnd and so on.
Concept 2
All those equations which remain unchanged when x is replaced by 1/x are called reciprocal
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equation. These are of two types

(i) those in which the coefficient of terms, equidistant from the begining and the end, are equal and of the same
sign. e.g.,
x4 + 6x3 + 8x2 + 6x + 1 = 0
(ii) those in which these coefficients are equal but of opposite sign e.g.,
x5 – 4x4 + 7x3 – 7x2 + 4x – 1 = 0
Thus, we conclude that if a is a root of the reciprocal equation, then 1/a must be its root. Hence, the root of
a reciprocal equation occur in pairs of a, 1/a, b, 1/b, g, 1/g and so on.
In case, the equation be of odd degree then it will be seen that one of its roots must be either +1 or –1. In
case, the equation be of even degree and of Ilnd type, then it will be seen that x2 – 1 will always be its factor
e.g.,

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6x6 + 5x5 – 44x4 + 44x2 – 5x – 6 = 0
6(x6 – 1) + 5x(x4 – 1) – 44x2(x2 – 1) = 0
(x2 – 1) [6(x4 + x2 + 1) + 5x(x2 + 1) – 44x2] = 0
(x2 – 1) (6x4 + 5x3 – 38x2 + 5x + 6) = 0
Above shows that (x2 – 1) is a factor of the given equation. The equation 6x4 + 5x3 – 38x2 + 5x + 6 = 0, is
of even degree and of the first type i. e., the coefficient of terms equidistant from the beginning and the end
are equal and is called in the standard form to which all the reciprocal equations can be reduced.
Concept 3
To transform an equation into another, whose roots are the roots of the given equation with sign changed.
If y be the root of the transformed equation, then y = – x or x = – y. Hence, transformed equation is obtained
by putting x = – y in f(x) = 0,
\ f(–y) = 0, which takes the form
a0yn – a1yn – 1 + a2yn – 2 – ... + (–1)n an = 0
Rule If the given equation be complete (if not, it may be made to take that form), then the transformation is
effected by changing the sign of Ilnd, IVth, Vlth, i. e., all even terms, i. e., by changing the sign of every alternate
term beginning from the llnd.
Concept 4
To transform a given equation into another, whose roots are the roots of the given equation multiplied by a given
number m.
If y be a root of the transformed equation, then y = mx or x = y/m. Hence, the transformed equation is obtained
by putting x = y / m in f (x) = 0 and \ f (y/m) = 0
yn y n -1 y n -2
i.e. a0 + a1 + a 2 + ... + a n = 0
mn m n -1 m n -2
or a0yn + a1myn – 1 + a2m2yn – 2 + ... + mnan = 0
Rule If the given equation be complete (if not, it may be made complete), then the above transformation is
effected by multiplying the successive terms beginning from the llnd by m, m2, m3,..., mn respectively.
Note
1. The above transformation is very useful when we are dealing with equations with fractional coefficients. We
can get rid of fractional coefficients by multiplying the roots of the given equation by the LCM of the
denominators of the fractional coefficients. Similarly, if the coefficient of leading term be not unity but k and
we want to make it unity, then it can be done so by multiplying the roots of the given equation by k.
2. If we have to divide the roots of the given equation by m, we say that we have to multiply its roots by
1/m.
Concept 5
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To transform a given equation into another, whose roots are the roots of the given equation diminished (or increased)
by a constant h.
Let f(x) = a0xn + a1xn – 1 +azxn – 2 + ... + an –1
x + an = 0 ...(i)
If y be a root of the transformed equation, then y = x – h or x = y + h. Hence, the transformed equation is
obtained by putting x = y + h in f (x) = 0 and is therefore,
f (y + h) = 0
or a0(y + h)n + a1 (y + h)n – 1 + a2(y + h)n – 2 +....+ an = 0
The simplification of the above equation will be difficult and let us suppose that this equation, when simplified
and arranged in descending powers of y takes the form.
A0yn + A1yn – 1 + A2yn – 2 + ... + An – 1y + An = 0 (ii)

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The problem is to find A0, A1, A2,...,An
Now, y=x–h
\ A0(x – h)n + A1(x – h)n – 1 + A2 (x – h)n – 2 + ... + An – 1 (x – h) + An = 0
or [A0 (x – h)n – 1 + A1(x – h)n – 2 + A2(x – h)n – 3 + ... + An – 1] × (x – h) +An = 0 ...(iii)
The LHS of the above is identical with LHS of line (i) and hence, if f(x) be divided by (x – h), then the remainder
is the value of An and the quotient is A0 (x – h)n – 1 + A1(x – h)n – 2 + ... + An – 1 and the quotient when again
divided by (x – h) leaves the remainder An – 1. If we continue the above process, then we shall find A n, An – 1,....,
A2, A1 and the last quotient A0 is clearly equal to a0.
Rule In order to find the successive coefficients of the transformed equation, we have to divide the given complete
equation by (x – h), the quotient again by x – h and so on. The successive remainders that are left in the above
procedure of division are the required coefficients, the first coefficient being the same as that of the given equation.
Symmetric Functions of the Roots
A symmetric function of the roots of an equation is a function in which all the roots are involved alike, so that
the expressions remains unaltered when two of the roots are interchanged. e.g., The expression ab + bg + ga
is a symmetric function of the roots a, b, g of a cubic. For the sake of brevity, we generally denote such symmetric
functions by attaching å to one of its terms.
Thus, åab = ab + bg + ga
Rule
To find the number of terms in a symmetric function.
If n = the total number of roots of the equation.
r = the number of roots occuring in the symmetric function.
k = the number of roots having the same index (degree), then the total number of terms in the symmetric
function.
n!
=
(n - r)!k!
For example
1. If a, b and g are the roots of a cubic equation, then the total number of terms in

3!
å a2b is =6
(3 - 3)!0!

ab 3!
å 2
= å abg -2 is =3
g (3 - 2)!2!
2. If a, b, g and d are the roots of a biquadratic equation, then the total number of terms in
4!
å a2b is =2
(4 - 1)!2!
a 4!
å = å ab-1 is = 12
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b (4 - 2)!0!
Concept 6
To find The sum of the integral power of the roots of an equation.
a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2xn–2 + ... + an = 0 ....(A)
If a1, a2, a3,..., are the roots of the polynomial equation, then let us represent sr = åa1r
i.e.,
s1 = åa1 = a1+ a2 + a3 + ....
s2 = åa12 = a12 + a22 + a32 + ....
s3 = åa13 = a13 + a23 + a33 + .... and so on
The following results will help us to find out the value of s1, s2, s3,..., sr.
a0s1 + a1 = 0 ....(i)
a0s2 + a1s1 + 2a2 = 0 ....(ii)

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a0s3 + a1s2 + a2s1 + 3a3 = 0 ....(iii)
a0sr + a1sr – 1 + a2sr – 2 + ... + ar – 1s + rar = 0 ....(iv)
From result (i), we can find the value of s1 and by putting its value in result (ii) we can find s2. Proceeding in the same
way we can find the value of sr, provided r < n, if however r ³ n, then multiply Eq. (A) by xr – n
a0xr + a1xr – 1 + a2xr – 2 + ... + an – 1xr – n + 1 + anr – n = 0 ...(v)
Putting x = a1, a2, ..., an in succession,

a0 a1r + a1a1r -1 + a2a1r -2 + ... + a n -1a1r -n +1 + an ar -n = 0

a0 a2r + a1a2r -1 + a2ar2-2 + ... + a n -1a2r -n +1 + an a2r -n = 0

... ... ...
... ... ...
... ... ...

a0 anr + a1anr-1 + a2 anr-2 + ... + an -1a nr -n +1 + a na nr -n = 0

Adding we have
a0sr + a1sr –1 + a2sr – 2 + ... + an – 1sr – n + 1 + ansr – n = 0
Putting r = n, n + 1, n + 2 etc, we get
a0sn + a1sn –1 + a2sn –2 + ... + an –1s1 + nan=0
éëQ s 0 a10 + a20 + ... + a 0n = n ùû

a0sn + 1 + a1sn + a2sn – 1 + ... + an – 1s2 + ans1 = 0

a0sn + 2 + a1sn + 1 + a2sn + ... + an – 1s3 + ans2 = 0
and so on. These results results gives values of
sn, sn + 1, sn + 2,....
Some Important Observations
1. If an equation of degree n is complete, then it has (n + 1) terms. In this case (the number of continuation
in sign) + (the number of variation in sign) = n.
e.g. In the polynomial
2x5 + 7x4 – 5x3 – 4x2 + x + 5
Number of continuation in signs = 3
Number of variations in signs = 2
So, n=5
2. If the equation is incomplete, then (the number of continuation in sign) + (number of changes in sign) = total
number of non-zero terms in the polynomial –1.
e.g., Consider the polynomial x4 – 3x2 + 5
The signs are + – +
Number of continuation in sign = 0
Number of variation in sign = 2
Number of non-zero terms = 3
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0+2=3–1
3. If f (x) = 0 is a complete equation, then a continuation in sign f(x) becomes a variation in sign in f(–x) and
vice-versa. But if the equation is not complete, the result may or may not be true.
e.g.. Let f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 4x – 5 be a complete polynomial.
The sign are + – + –
There are 3 changes of signs and no continuation in sign.
Again f(–x) = –x3 – 3x2 – 4x – 5. There are 3 continuation of sign.
[Ist, IInd, IIIrd, IVth] and no changes of sign.
Let f(x) = x4 + x2 + 5
Signs are + + +
There are 2 continuations of sign and no change of sign.
So, result need not be true, if the polynomial is incomplete.

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4. If between two like signs (either both + ve or both – ve), we introduce any number of + ve or – ve signs,
then the total number of resulting variations will be an even number.
5. If between two unlike signs (one + ve and other is – ve). we introduce any number of + ve or – ve signs,
then the total number of resulting variations will be an odd number.
Descarte's Rule of Signs
The polynomial equations f (x) = 0 with real coefficient cannot have more.
1. + ve roots than the number of changes of sign in f(x)
2. – ve roots than the number of changes of signs in f(x)
Concept Location of Zeros
Consider the polynomial

æ a n -1 a1 a0 ö
f(x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + ... + a1x + a0 = anxn ç 1 + a x + a x n -1 + a x n ÷
è n n n ø
For every large value of |x|, the quantity in the bracket is very near to 1.
\ f(x) behaves like anxn. Hence, for every large values of |x|, the graph of y = f(x) is similar to the graph of
y = anxn.
It moves up (or down) as x ® ± ¥
Thus, for an > 0, we have
(i) anxn ¾® ¥ as x ¾® ± ¥
(ii) anxn ¾® ¥ as x ¾® ¥, if n is odd.
(iii) anxn ¾® – ¥ as x ¾® ¥, if n is odd.
Same is true for f(x)
Theorem Let f(x) be a real polynomial of degreen (³ 1) and a, b be two real numbers such that a < b.
(i) If f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs, then the polynomial f(x) has atleast one and always an odd number of
real zeros in (a, b).
(ii) If f(a) and f(b) are of the same sign, then the polynomial f(x) has either one real zero or an even number
of real zeros in (a,b).

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Ex.1 Solve x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) + 1 = y2 for integer values of x and y.
Sol. Let P = x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3). Since the product of four consecutive integers is divisible by 24, we may
write P = 24m where m = 0, 1, 2,... Since P + 1 = 24m + 1 is the square of an integer for selected values
of m, we set
x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) + 1
= x4 + 6x3 + 11x2 + 6x + 1 = (x2 + ax + 1)2.
By comparing the coefficients of like powers of x on both sides of this identity, we find a = 3.
Therefore, y2 = (x2 + 3x + 1), so that y = x2 + 3x + 1 or y = – (x2 + 3x + 1) and, hence, there are infinitely
many solutions in integers since we may assign to x any arbitrary integer value.
Ex.2 Solve in real numbers the system of equations
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ìx + y + z = 4
ï 2 2 2
í x + y + z = 14
ï 3 3 3
î x + y + z = 34
Sol. Consider the monic polynomial
p(t) = t3 + at2 + bt + c,
with roots x, y, z.
Because x + y + z = 4, it follows that a = – 4, hence
p(t) = t3 – 4t2 + bt + c.
We have
x2 + y2 + z2 = (x + y + z)2 – 2(xy + xz + yz)
It follows that

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b = xy + xz + yz = 1
The number x, y, z are the roots of P, thus
x3 – 4x2 + x + c = 0,
y3 – 4y2 + y + c = 0,
z3 – 4z2 + z + c = 0.
Adding these equalities and using the equations of the system, we obtain c = 6, hence
p(t) = t3 – 4t2 + t + 6,
We observe that t1 = –1 is a root, so P factors as
P(t) = (t + 1)(t2 – 5t + 6), the other two roots being t2 = 2 and t3 = 3. It follows that the solutions of the
system are the triple (–1, 2, 3) and all of its permutations.
Ex.3 Find all solutions in integers of the equation m2 + 2n2 = m2n2 – 2000.
Sol. m2n2 – 2n2 – m2 = 2000.
From the first two terms we can take n 2 common. But this process stops there. We cannot proceed further.
If we want to factorize the LHS some mainipulations should be done.
n2(m2 – 2) – m2 + 2 = 2000 + 2.
(i.e.,) n2(m2 – 2) – (m2 – 2) = 2002
Þ (m2 – 2)(n2 – 1) = 2002.
As usual we employ the factor method.
2002 = 1 × 2002 = 2 × 1001 = 7 × 286 = 11 × 182
= 13 × 154 = 14 × 143 = 22 × 91 = 26 × 77
The student now can do the problem fully to get.
m = ± 4, n = ± 12.
Ex.4 If P1 = 2x4 + 3x3 – 4x2 + 5x + 3,
P2 = x3 + 2x2 – 3x + 1,
P3 = x4 + 2x3 – x2 + x + 2,
and aP1 + bP2 + cP3 = 0, find the value of a + b + c where abc ¹ 0.
Sol. aP1 + bP2 + cP3 = (2a + c)x4 + (3a + b + 2c)x3 +
(– 4a + 2b – c)x2 + (5a – 3b + c)x + (3a + b + 2c) = 0.
Therefore,
(1) 2a + c = 0 (2) 3a + b + 2c = 0 (3) –4a + 2b – c = 0
(4) 5a – 3b + c = 0 (5) 3a + b + 2c = 0.
By addition of the five equations, we obtain (6) 9a + b + 5c = 0.
From equation (1), c = –2a or –8a – 4c = 0. Adding –8a – 4c = 0 to equation (6),
we obtain a + b + c = 0.
Comment 1: Taking a = 1, b = 1, c = –2, verify the statement P1 + P2 – 2p3 = 0.
Comment 2: Since aP1 + bP2 + cP3 = 0 and, at least, one of a, b, and c is not equal to zero,
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and P1, P2, P3 are said to be linearly dependent.

Ex.5 Let a and b be two of the roots of the polynomial x4 + x3 – 1.
Prove that ab is a root of the polynomial x6 + x4 + x3 – x2 – 1.
Sol. Let c and d be the other two roots of x4 + x3 – 1. The Viete’s relations yield.
a + b + c + d = –1,
ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd = 0,
abc + abd + acd + bcd = 0,
abcd = –1.
Write these equalities in terms of s = a + b, s' = c + d, p = ab and p' = cd (this is often useful) to obtain.
s + s' = –1,
p + p' + ss' = 0,
9
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
ps' + p's = 0,
pp' = –1.
1
Substituting p ' = - and s' = –1 – s in the second and in the third equalities yields.
p
1 2
p- -s -s =0
p

s
and p(-1 - s) - =0
p

It follows from the second equality that

p2
s=- .
2
p +1
Plugging this into the first equality gives.

1 p4 p2
p- - 2 2
+ 2 = 0,
p (p + 1) p +1

A short computation shows that this is equivalent to

p6 + p4 + p3 – p2 – 1 = 0,
hence p = ab is a root of the polynomial
x6 + x4 + x3 – x2 – 1.
(n + 1)2
Ex.6 Determine all natural numbers ‘n’ such that is an integer
n+7
(n + 1)2
Sol. is an integer..
n+7
(n + 7 - 6)2
Which Þ must be an integer
n+7
(n + 7)2 - 12(n + 7) + 36
(i.e.,)
n+7

36
(i.e.,) n + 7 – 12 + must be an integer..
n+7
\ n + 7 = 36, 18, 12, 9
n = 29, 11, 5, 2
Ex.7 Two different real numbers a and b are such that the equation (x2 + 20ax + 10b)(x2 + 20bx + 10a) = 0
has no real solutions. Prove that 20(b – a) cannot be an integer number.
Sol. Suppose that 20(b – a) is an integer number. By symmetry we can also suppose that b > a, and then
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

20(b – a) ³ 1. Since there are no real solutions, the discriminant of the polynomial x2 + 20bx + 10a is negative,
1 1
therefore 10b2 – a < 0. Then, we have 10b2 < a < b and b < . Hence 0 < b – a < b < and, then
10 10

1
20(b – a) < 2, but if 20(b – a) is an integer number we have 20(b – a) = 1 and then b = a + . Thus,
20

2
æ 1 ö 1
10b2 – a = 10 ç a + ÷ – a = 10a2 + > 0, which is a contradiction. Therefore, 20(b – a) can never
è 20 ø 40
be an integer number.

10
 Mathematics
ALLEN
Ex.8 Solve the equation

1 + mx = x + 1 - mx, where m is a real parameter..

Sol. The equation is equivalent to 1 + mx - 1 - mx = x. Multiplying and dividing by 1 + mx + 1 - mx, which

is the conjugate of 1 + mx - 1 - mx, it follows that:

2mx
= x.
1 + mx + 1 - mx
A solution is x = 0 and, if x ¹ 0, then 2m = 1 + mx + 1 - mx, hence m is positive. Squaring and simplifying,

it follows that 2m2 - 1 = 1 - m2 x2 , hence 2m2 – 1 ³ 0. Squaring again and solving for x we get

é 1 ù
x = ±2 1 - m2 and, since 1 – m2 ³ 0, it follows that m Î ê ,1ú .
ë 2 û
Ex.9 If a, b and g be the roots of the equation x3 + px + q = 0, find value of Sx5.
Sol. a0 = 1, a1 = 0, a2 = p, a3 = q
\ a0s1 + a1 = 0 Þ s1 = 0
a0s2 + a1s1 + 2a2 = 0 Þ s2 = –2p
a0s3 + a1s2 + a2s1 + 3a3 = 0 Þ s3 = –3q
Multiplying both sides of given equation by x2
x5 + px3 + qx2 = 0
Putting x = a, b, g in succession and adding
s5 + ps3 + qs2 = 0
or S5 + p(–3q) + q(–2p) = 0
\ S5 = Sx5 = 5pq
Ex.10 Fill all values of x satisfying the pair of equations x2 – px + 20 = 0, x2 – 20x + p = 0.
Sol. Case I: When p = 20, the equations are identical and satisfied by two values of x, 10 + 4 5 and 10 - 4 5 .
Case II: When p ¹ 20, then x2 – px + 20 = x2 – 20x + p, (20 – p)x = p – 20. Since p ¹ 20, we obtain
by division x –1.
To satisfy the given equations with the value x = –1, the value of p must be – 21.
Generally, the pair of equations x2 – px – p – 1 = 0 and x2 + (p + 1)x + p = 0 is satisfied by x = –1.
Ex.11 (x2 + 2x + 5) is a factor of (x4 + px2 + q) find p, q.
Sol. It is given that x2 + 2x + 5 is a factor of x4 + px2 + q. The other factor must also be a quadratic factor.
Let it be ax2 + bx + c.
\ (x4 + px2 + q) º (x2 + 2x + 5)(ax2 + bx + c).
Equating the coefficients of x4 we have a = 1.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

\ x4 + px2 + q º (x2 + 2x + 4)(x2 + bx + c).

x4 + px2 + q º (x4 + 2x3 + bx3 + cx2 + 5x2 + 2bx2 + 2cx + 5bx + 5c).
Equating the like coefficients, we get
2 + b = 0 Þ b = –2 (1)
c + 5 + 2b = p
or
c+5–4= p
c + 1 = p. (2)
2c + 5b = 0. Using (1) 2c – 10 = 0 Þ c = 5
(2) Þ p = 6.
5c = q Þ q = 25.

11
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
Ex.12 If x = cy + bz, y = az + cx, z = bx + ay where x ¹ 0, y ¹ 0, z ¹ 0. Prove that a2 + b2 + c2 + 2abc = 1.
Sol. The student can brush up his memory of the rule of cross multiplication to solve set of simultaneous equation
a1x + b1y + c1z = 0
a2x + b2y + c2z = 0

x -y z
= = .
Then b1 c2 - b2 c1 a1 c2 - a 2 c1 a1 b2 - a 2 b1

The two equations in the given problem can be written as

x – cy – bz = 0
– cx + y – az = 0.
Using the rule of cross multiplication

x -y z
= = = k(say)
-ac - b -bc - a -1 + c2
Þ x = k(ac – b)
y = k(–bc – a)
z = k(–1 + c2).
The third equation is bx + ay = z substituting in this we get
bk(–ac – b) + ak(–bc – a) = k(–1 + c2)
Þ c2 – 1 = –b2 – abc – a2 – abc
Þ a2 + b2 + c2 + 2abc = 1.
Ex.13 It a, b, g be the roots of the equation x3 – 7x + 7 = 0. Find a–4 + b–4 + y–4.
Sol. Roots of the equation x3 – 7x + 7 = 0 are a, b, g. Changing x to 1/x and multiplying by x3, we get
7x3 – 7x2 + 1 = 0 ...(i)
Its roots being the reciprocals of the roots of given equation are 1/a, 1/b, 1/g.
Let us denote them by a', b', g'.
We have to find
a–4 + b–4 + g–4 = (a')4 + (b')4 + (g')4 = s'4
Here, a0 = 7, a1 = – 7, a2 = 0, a3 = 1
\ a0S1' + a1 = 0 Þ 7S'1 – 7 = 0
\ S’1 = 1
a0S'2 + a1S'1 + 2a2 = 0 Þ 7s – 7 = 0
S'2 = 1
a0S'3 + a1S'2 + a2S'1 + 3a3 = 0
Þ 7S'3 – 7 + 3 = 0
\ S'3 = 4/7
Multiplying Eq. (i) by x, we get
7x4 – 7x3 + x = 0
Putting x = a', b', g' in succession and adding
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

7S'4 – 7S'3 + S'1 = 0 Þ 7S'4 – 4 + 1 = 0

Hence, a–4 + b–4 + g–4 = 3/7
\ S4' = 3/7
Ex.14 If a, b and g are the roots of x3 + px + q = 0. Prove that

a 5 + b5 + g 5 a 3 + b3 + g 3 a 2 + b 2 + g 2
(i) = ×
5 3 2
(ii) 3(a2 + b2 + g2) (a5 + b5 + g5) = 5(a3 + b3 + g3) (a4 + b4 + g4)
Sol. Here, a0 = 1, a1 = 0, a2 = p, a3 = q
a0 s1 + a1 = 0 Þ s1 = 0
a0s2 + a1s1 + 2a2 = 0 Þ s2 = –2p
a0s3 + a1s2 + a2s1 + 3a3 = 0
12
 Mathematics
ALLEN
Þ s3 = –3q
(i) Multiplying both sides of given equation by x2.
x5 + px3 + qx2 = 0
Putting x = a, b, g in succession and adding
s5 + ps3 + qs2 = 0
or s5 – 3pq – 2pq = 0
\ s5 = 5pq ...(i)
s5
Now, = pq;
5
s 3 s2
× = (–q) (–p) = pq
3 2
s5 s3 s2
\ × ×
5 3 2

a 5 + b5 + g 5 a 3 + b3 + g 3 a 2 + b 2 + g 2
Hence, = ×
5 3 2
(ii) Multiplying both sides of the given equation by x,
x4 + px2 + qx = 0
Putting x = a, b, g in succession and adding
s4 + ps2 + qs1 = 0 or s4 – 2p2 = 0
\ s4 = 2p2
Also, s5 = 5pq [from Eq. (i)]
3(a2 + b2 + g2)(a5 + b5 + g5) = 3s2s5
= 3(–2p)(5pq) = –30p2q
5 (a3 + b3 + g3) (a4 + b4 + g4) = 5s3s4
= 5(–3q)(2p2) = –30p2q
Hence, 3(a2 + b2 + g2) (a5 + b5 + g5)
= 5(a3 + b3 + g3) (a4 + b4 + g4)
Ex.15 If the coefficients a, b, c of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are odd integers, find a relation between a, b,
c for which the roots are rational.
Sol. We prove that if a, b, c are odd integers, there are no rational roots.
Method I: For rational roots, the discriminant must be the square of an integer. Let b2 – 4ac = t2, and
b2 – t2 = 4 ac = (b – t)(b + t) where bot b and t are odd. (Why is t odd?)
Let b = 2b1 + 1 and let t = 2t1 + 1.
Therefore, (2b1 + 1 – 2t1– 1)(2b1 + 1 + 2t1 + 1) = 4ac,
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

2(b1 – t1)(2)(b1 + t1 + 1) = 4ac, and (b1 – t1) (b1 + t1 + 1) = ac

The product ac is odd. If b1 and t1 are each even, then b1 – t1 is even. If b1 and t1 are each odd, then b1
+ t1 + 1 is even. Hence, for all possibilites, (b1 – t1) (b1 + t1 + 1) is even; we have a contradiction.
Method II : Let b = 2b1 + 1, a = 2a1 + 1, c = 2c1 + 1.
é b1 (b1 + 1) ù
Then D = b2 – 4ac = (2b1 + 1)2 – 4(2a1 + 1)(2c1 + 1) = 8 ê - 2a1 c1 - a1 - c1 - 1ú + 5. Since
ë 2 û
b1 (b1 + 1)
is integral, then D = 8k + 5. If D = N2, with N odd, then, N2 = 8k + 5. However, the square
e
2
of an odd number leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by 8; that is, N2 º 1(mod 8).
Now Q 8k + 5 ¹ 1(mod 8)
Therefore, rational roots are impossible.
13
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
Ex.16 Solve in real numbers the system
ì x + y + z = 0,
ï 3 3 3
í x + y + z = 18,
ï x7 + y7 + z7 = 2058.
î
Sol. Consider the polynomial
P(t) = t3 + at2 + bt + c,
with roots x, y, z.
Since x + y + z = 0, it follows that a = 0, hence
P(t) = t3 + bt + c.
Because x, y, z are the roots of P, we have
x3 + bx + c = 0,
y3 + by + c = 0,
z3 + bz + c = 0.
Adding these equalities and using the fact that x3 + y3 + z3 = 18, we obtain c = – 6.
Therefore
P(t) = t3 + bt – 6.
Now, use the last equation of the system to find b. Multiply the previous equalities
by xn, yn, zn respectively, and add them to obtain
xn + 3 + yn + 3 + zn + 3 + b(xn + 1 + yn + 1 + zn + 1) – 6(xn + yn + zn) = 0.
Denoting Sn = xn + yn + zn for all n ³ I, this equality becomes
Sn + 3 + bSn + 1 – 6Sn = 0 (*)
for all positive integers n. We have S7 = 2058. On the other hand, using (*), we obtain
S7 = –bS5 + 6S4 = –b(–bS3 + 6S2) + 6(–bS2 + 6S1)
= b2S3 – 12bS2 + 36S1.
Since S3 = 18, S2 = (x + y + z)2 – 2(xy + xz + yz) = –2b and S1 = 0, it follows that
S7 = 42b2.
so b = ±7.
The equation t3 + 7t – 6 = 0 has only one real root (observe that the function f(t) = t3 + 7t – 6 is strictly
increasing). The equation t3 – 7t – 6 = 0 has roots ti = – 1, t2 = –2 and t3 = 3, and thus the solutions of
the system are (– 1, –2, 3) and all of its permutations.
Ex.17 Solve x(y + z) = 44; y(z + x) = 50; z(x + y) = 54.
Sol. On adding the given equations
2(xy + yz + zx) = 148
Þ xy + yz + zx = 74 ...(i)
On subtracting given equations one by one from 1, we get
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

yz = 30, zx = 24, xy = 20
On multiplying the three, given above together.
x2y2z2 = 30 × 24 × 20 Þ xyz = ± 120 ...(ii)
On dividing Eq. (ii) by the values of xy, yz and zx respectively, we get
x = ±4, y = ±5, z = ± 6
Ex.18 If a, b, g be the roots of x3 + 2x2 – 3x – 1 = 0.
1 1 1
Find the value of 3
+ 3+ 3.
a b g
Sol. Roots of the equation,
x3 + 2x2 – 3x – 1 = 0 ...(i)
are a, b, g.

14
 Mathematics
ALLEN
Let us first form an equation whose roots are a3, b3, g3.
If y is a root of the transformed equation, then
y = x3 ...(ii)
To eliminate x between Eqs. (i) and (ii), Eq. (i) can be written as
x3 – 1 = – (2x2 – 3x)
On cubing both sides of above equations
Þ x9 – 3x6 + 3x3 – 1 = – [8x6 – 27x3 – 18x3 (2x2 – 3x)]
Þ x9 – 3x6 + 3x3 – 1 = – [8x6 – 27x3 – 18x3 (1 – x3)]
Þ x9 – 3x6 + 3x3 – 1 = – 8x6 + 27x3 + 18x3 – 18x6
Þ x9 + 23x6 – 42x3 – 1 = 0
3
Putting x = y in this equation, we get
y3 + 23y2 – 42y – 1 = 0 ...(iii)
Its roots are a3, b3, g3.
1
Changing y to , Eq. (iii) becomes
y

1 23 42
+ - –1=0
y3 y2 y
y3 + 42y2 – 23y – 1 = 0 ...(iv)
1 1 1
Its roots are , , .
a 3 b3 g 3
1 1 1
\ 3
+ 3 + 3 = sum of roots of Eq. (iv) = – 42
a b g
Ex.19 Let a, b and c be real numbers different from zero, with a + b + c = 0 and a3 + b3 + c3 = a5 + b5 + c5.
6
Prove that a2 + b2 + c2 = .
5
Sol. Let Tn = an + bn + cn for each integer number n, then T0 = 3, T1 = 0 and T2 = (a + b + c)2 – 2(ab + bc
+ ea) = –2(ab + bc + ca). Now, define A = ab + bc + ca and B = abc; then, by Vieta's formulas, it follows
that a, b and c are the roots of the equation x3 + Ax – B = 0 and T2 = –2A. For n ³ 0, we substitute a,
b and c in xn + 3 = –Axn + 1 + Bxn and adding we obtain Tn + 3 = – ATn + 1 + BTn. Then
T3 = –AT1 + BT0 = 3B,
T4 = -AT2 + BT1 = 2A2,
T5 = –AT3 + BT2 = –5AB.

T5 T T 6
Hence, = – AB = 3 × 2 . Since T3 = T5, the last equality implies that T2 = .
5 3 2 5
Ex.20 If a, b, c, x are real numbers such that abc ¹ 0 and
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

xb + (1 - x)c xc + (1 - x)a xa + (1 - x)b

= =
a b c
Prove that
a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c.
Sol. Let

xb + (1 - x)c xc + (1 - x)a xa + (1 - x)b

= = =k
a b c
Þ ak = bx + c – cx
bk – cx + a – ax
ck = ax + b – bx.

15
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
Add
Þ (a + b + c)k = a + b + c.
Þ k = 1 Q a + b + c ¹ 0.
\ bx + c – cx = a
Þ a2 = abx + ac – acx
b2 = bcx + ab – abx
c2 = cax + bc – bcx
Add
a2 + b2 + c2 = ab + bc + ca.
Þ a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca = 0
Þ [2a2 + 2b2 + 2c2 – 2ab – 2bc – 2ca] = 0
Þ (a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2 = 0
Þ a=b=c
Ex.21 Let a, b and c be real numbers such that the equation ax2 +bx + c = 0 has two different real solutions p1,
p2 and the equation cx2 + bx + a = 0 has two different real solutions q1, q2. Also the numbers p1, q1, p2,
q2, in this order, form an arithmetic progression. Prove that a + c = 0.
Sol. Each of the equations ax2 + bx + c = 0 and cx2 + bx + a = 0 have two different real solutions, a ¹ 0 and
1
c ¹ 0. Moreover, r is the root of ax2 + bx + c = 0 if and only if is a root of cx2 + bx + a = 0. Therefore,
r

ì1 1 ü
{q1, q2} = í , ý .
î p1 p2 þ

If p1, q1, p2, q2 are in arithmetic progression,

1 1 |p1 - p2 |
|p1 – p2|=|q1 – q2|= - =
p1 p2 |p1p2 |
from where |p1p2| = 1.

c
Using Vieta's formula (4.1), we have p1p2 = , so |c| = |a| and then a = ±c.
a
If a = c, the two given quadratic equations are equal, and then p1 = q1, p2 = q2, which tell us that the difference
of the progression is 0. Then, p1 = q1 = p2 = q2 which is a contradiction. Therefore, a = –c or a + c = 0.
Ex.22 Find the positive solutions of the following system of equations:
ì a 2 b2 4 4
ï 2 - 2 = 8(y - x ),
í x y
ïax - by = x 4 - y 4
î
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

where a, b > 0 are parameters.

Sol. We solve the system for a, b instead of x, y. Multiplying the first equation by x4 yields
b2 x 4
a2x2
= + 8x4(y4 – x4),
y2
and from the second equation we deduce
a2x2 = (by + x4 – y4)2 = b2y2 + 2by(x4 – y4) + (x4 – y4)2.
It follows that

b2 (x 4 - y 4 )
– 2by(x4 – y4) – (x4 – y4) (9x4 – y4) = 0.
y2

If x = y, from the original system we obtain a = b.

16
 Mathematics
ALLEN
If x ¹ y, we can divide by x4 – y4 to obtain a quadratic equation in b :
b2 – 2by3 – y2(9x4 – y4) = 0.
The solutions are y3 + 3x2y and y3 – 3x2y. If b = y3 – 3x2y. the second equation gives a = x3 – 3xy2. Because
a, b > 0, it follows that x2 > 3y2 and y2 > 3x2 > 9y2; this is a contradiction. Thus b = y3 + 3x2y and a =
x3 + 3xy2. We observe that a + b = (x + y)3 and a – b = (x – y)3; hence x + y = 3
a + b and x – y = 3
a-b ,
yielding

æ 3 a+b + 3 a-b 3 a+b - 3 a -b ö

(x, y) = çç , ÷÷ .
è 2 2 ø

Ex.23 Solve the system of equation for real x and y

æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
5x ç 1 + 2 ÷ = 12 ; 5y ç 1 - 2 ÷ = 4.
è x + y2 ø è x + y2 ø

122 42
Sol. (5x)2 + (5y)2 = 2
+ 2
æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
ç1 + 2 ÷ ç1 - 2 ÷
è x + y2 ø è x + y2 ø

1
Put x2 + y2 = , we have
t

25 144 16
= 2
+
t (1 + t) (1 - t)2

So that 25(1 – t2)2 = 144t(1 – t)2 + 16t(1 + t)2

or 25t4 – 160t3 – 206t2 – 160t + 25 = 0
Dividing by t2, we get

160 25
25t2 – 160t + 206 – + 2 =0
t t

æ 1ö æ 1ö
i.e., 25 ç t 2 + 2 ÷ - 160 ç t + ÷ + 206 = 0
è t ø è tø

1
Let t + = u, we have
t
25(u2 – 2) – 160u + 206 = 0
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

i.e., 25u2 – 160u + 156 = 0

160 ± (1602 - 4 × 25 × 156) 160 ± 100 6 26

\ u= = = ,
50 50 5 5

6 1 6
When u = , t + = which does not give any real values of t.
5 t 5

26 1 26 1
If u= ,t+ = , which gives t = or 5
5 t 5 5

1 1
\ t = 5 or so that x2 + y2 = or 5
5 5
17
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
1
When x2 + y2 = , we get
5
5x(1 + 5) = 12, 5y(1 – 5) = 4,

2 1
so that x= ,y=–
5 5
When x2 + y2 = 5, we get

æ 1ö æ 1ö
5x ç 1 + ÷ = 12 ; 5y ç 1 - ÷ = 4,
è 5 ø è 5ø

so that x = 2, y = – 1

2 1
Thus, x= , y = – and x = 2, y = – 1
5 5
Ex.24 Solve the equation :
x3(x + 1) = 2(x + a) (x + 2a),
where a is a real parameter.
Sol. The equation is equivalent to
x4 + x3 – 2x2 – 6ax – 4a2 = 0.
This fourth degree equation is difficult to solve. We might try to factor the left-hand side, but without some
appropriate software, the process would get quite complicated. What if we think of a as the unknown and
x as the parameter? In this case, the equation can be written as a quadratic :
4a2 + 6xa – x4 – x3 + 2x2 = 0,
whose discriminant is
36x2 + 16(x4 + x3 – 2x2) = 4x2(2x + l)2,
1 2
fortunately a square. Solving for a, we obtain the solutions a1 = – x – x and
2
1 2 1
a2 = x – x, yielding the factorization
2 2

æ 1 2 ö æ 1 2 1 ö
4a2 + 6ax – x4 – x3 + 2x2 = 4 ç a + 2 x + x ÷ ça - 2 x + 2 x÷
è ø è ø

= –(x2 + 2x + 2a) (x2 – x – 2a).

1 1
Finally, we obtain the solutions x1,2 = – 1 ± 1 - 2a , x3,4 = 2 ± 2 1 + 8a .
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

Ex.25 Find all pairs (x, y) of positive integers satisfying the equation x3 – y3 = 2xy + 8.
Sol. We have to find positive integral solutions of x3 – y3 = 2xy + 8.
The RHS is even Þ LHS also must be even.
\ Both x, y are even or both are odd.
Now
x3 – y3 = (x – y)(x2 + xy + y2) (1)
Apply AM ³ GM for x2, xy, y2

x 2 + xy + y2 3 2
³ x .xy.y2
3
Þ x2 + xy + y2 ³ 3xy.

18
 Mathematics
ALLEN
(1) Þ \ x3 – y3 ³ (x – y)3xy.
Since both x, y are either even or odd x – y must be even and greater than or equal to 2.
(i.e.,) x – y ³ 2.
Þ x3 – y3 ³ 6xy
\ 2xy + 8 ³ 6xy
Þ 8 ³ 4xy
Þ xy £ 2.
If x, y are both even, then xy cannot be 2. If x, y are both odd then xy cannot be 2.
But xy = 1 is possible with x = 1, y = 1.
But x = 1, y = 1 do not satisfy the equation x3 – y3 = 2xy + 8.
\ There are no positive integral solution.
Ex.26 Determine all triples (x, y, z) of positive integers which are solutions of
2x2y2 + 2y2z2 + 2z2x2 – x4 – y4 – z4 = 576.
Sol. To find the positive integers x, y, z such that
2x2y2 + 2y2z2 + 2z2x2 – x4 – y4 – z4 = 576.
All such problems belong to the Diophantine equations. In such a problem we seek positive integral solutions.
The RHS is 576. If the LHS is expressed as a product of factors then we can proceed. Thus essentially it
is a problem on factorization.
E = 2x2y2 + 2y2z2 + 2z2x2 – x4 – y4 – z4
= 4x2y2 – [x4 + y4 + z4 + 2x2y2 – 2y2z2 – 2z2x2]
= 4x2y2 – [x2 + y2 – z2]2
= (2xy)2 – (x2 + y2 – z2)2
= (2xy + x2 + y2 – z2) (2xy + z2 – x2 – y2)
= [(x + y)2 – z2] [z2 – (x – y)2]
= (x + y + z) (x + y – z) (z + x – y) (z – x + y).
\ The equation becomes.
(x + y + z) (x + y – z) (x – y + z) (–x + y + z) = 576.
x, y, z are positive integers. We find thai x + y + z = (x + y – z) + 2z etc.
Þ All the factors are of same parity.
Þ All of them must be even. Let
x + y + z = 2a, x + y – z = 2b, x – y + z = 2c, – x + y + z = 2d.
Þ abcd = 36.
Without loss of generality assume x ³ y > z.
Þ a > b ³ c ³ d.
We observe a = b + c + d. 36 = 6 × 3 × 2 × 1. This factorization is unique.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

Þ a = 6, b = 3, c = 2, d = 1.
x = 5, y = 4, z = 3.
Exploiting the symmetry of the equation. x, y, z can be cyclically changed.
\ (x, y, z) º (5, 4, 3), (5, 3, 4),(4, 5, 3),(4, 3, 5),(3, 4, 5), (3, 5, 4) are the solutions.
Ex.27 Let P(x) be a cubic polynomial with integer coefficients such that there exist different integers a, b and c
such that P(a) = P(b) = P(c) = 2. Prove that no integer number d satisfying P(d) = 3 exists.
Sol. Let Q(x) = P(x) – 2, since a, b and c are the roots of Q(x), it is clear that Q(x) = a(x – a) (x – b) (x – c), for
some integer number a. If for some integer number d we have P(d) = 3: then, since 1 = P(d) – 2 = Q(d)
= a(d – a) (d – b) (d – c), the factors on the right-hand side of the equation have to be –1 or 1, then two
of d – a, d – b, d – c are equal, so a, b, c are not different, which is a contradiction. This guarantees that
there does not exist an integer number d with P(d) = 3.

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RMO/INMO
ALLEN
Ex.28 Solve the equation 5 - x = 5 – x2.

Sol. There is no parameter! Note, however, that we must have x Î [– 5 , 5 ], since the left-hand side is
nonnegative. Squaring both sides, we obtain the equation
x4 – 10x2 + x + 20 = 0
and, if we are lucky, we might observe the factorization
(x2 + x – 5) (x2 – x – 4) = 0.
What if we are not lucky? Well, let us introduce a parameter ourselves: replace 5 by a,
where a > 0: 2
a - x = a – x . Squaring both sides yields the equation
x4 – 2ax2 + x + a2 – a = 0
Consider this as a quadratic in a with x as a parameter :
a2 – (2x2 + 1)a + x4 + x = 0.
The discriminant of the quadratic is
D = (2x – 1)2
and thus the roots are a1 = x2 + x and a2 = x2 – x + 1. It follows that
a2 – (2x2 + 1)a + x4 + x = (a – x2 – x) (a – x2 + x – 1).
Returning to a = 5, we arrive at the desired factorization.
The equations x2 + x – 5 = 0 and x2 – x – 4 = 0 have the solutions

1 1
x1,2 = (–1 ± 2 ) and X3,4 = (1 ± 17 ). respectively.
2 2

Only two of them belong to the interval [– 5 , 5 ], and therefore the solutions of the initial equation are

1 1
(– 1 + 21 )and (1 – 17 ).
2 2
Ex.29 Express P(c) = c6 + 10c4 + 25c2 as a polynomial of least positive degree when c is a root of
x3 + 3x2 + 4 = 0.
Sol. Method I : Since c is a root of x3 + 3x2 + 4 = 0, we have c3 + 3c2 + 4 = 0 (I). We multiply (I) successively
by c, c2, and c3 to obtain c4 + 3c3 + 4c = 0 (II), c5 + 3c4 + 4c2 = 0 (III), and c6 + 3c5 + 4c3 = 0 (IV). From
(I) we have c3 = –3c2 – 4 (V), and from (II) we have c4 = –3c3 – 4c (VI). Substituting (V) into (VI), we get
c4 = 9c2 – 4c + 12 (VII). From (III) we get c5 = –3c4 – 4c2 (VIII) so that c5 = –31c2 + 12c – 36 [after substituting
(VII) into (VIII)]. Finally, by similar operations, we get c6 = –3c5 – 4c3 = 105c2 – 36c + 124 (IX).
The sum of (IX) and 10 times (VII) and 25c2 is, therefore,
Method II : P(c) = Q(c) (c3 + 3c2 + 4) + R(c) where Q(c) is the quotient obtained when P(c) is divided by
c3 + 3c2 + 4 and R(c), of degree less than 3, is the remainder. But c3 + 3c2 + 4 = 0. Therefore,
P(c) = R(c), which is found by actual division to be 220c2 – 76c + 244.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

Ex.30 Find real values of x, y, z satisfying the equations

4x2 4y2 4z 2
= y, = z, = x.
1 + 4x 2 1 + 4y 2 1 + 4z2

Sol. The values of x, y, z are real.

Clearly x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 do not satisfy the equation
Þ x ¹ 0, y ¹ 0, z ¹ 0.
Multiply all the equations.

64x2 y 2 z 2
= xyz
(1 + 4x )(1 + 4y 2 )(1 + 4z 2 )
2

Þ 64xyz = (1 + 4x2) (l + 4y2) (1 + 4z2) (1)

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Clearly
(1 – 2x)2 ³ 0
Þ 1 + 4x2 ³ 4x
1 + 4y2 ³ 4y
1 + 4z2 ³ 4z
Þ (1 + 4x2) (1 + 4y2) (l + 4z2) ³ 64xyz
The equality holds when x = y = z. As per (1) the equality holds.
Þ x = y = z.

4x 2
Now = y.
1 + 4x 2
Þ 4x2 = y(1 + 4x2)
Þ 4x2 = x(1 + 4x2)
x ¹ 0 Þ 4x = 1 + 4x2

1 1 1
or (1 – 2x)2 = 0 or x = ,y= ,z = .
2 2 2
Ex.31 Let the roots of the cubic equation x2 + ax2 + bx + c = 0 be real. Show that the difference between the

greatest and the least of them is not less than a2 - 3b nor greater than 2 (a - 3b) .
2

Sol. The cubic equation is t3 + at2 + bt + c = 0.

Let a, b, g, be the real roots. Let a ³ b ³ g
Þ a is the greatest root and g is the smallest. To prove
(a2 – 3b)1/2 £ a – g £ 2(a2 – 3b)1/2
Let a – g = l, a – b = m Þ b – g = l – m. (*)
We have a+ b+ g= –a (1)
ab + bg + ga = b (2)
abg = – c (3)
2(a2 – 3b) = 2[(a + b + g)2 – 3(ab + bg + ga)]
= 2a2 + 2b2 + 2g2 – 2ab – 2bg – 2ga
= (a – b)2 + (b – g)2 + (g – a)2
= m2 + l2 + (l – m)2 ³ 0
2(a2 – 3b) = l2 + m2 + l2 + m2 – 2lm
= 2(l2 + m2) – 2lm

l 2 3l 2
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

= 2(m – ) + ³0
2 2
= m2 + l2 + (l – m)2 ³ 0
l
Minimum of the expression occurs when m =
2
maximum will occur at m = 0 or m = l.

3 2
Thus l £ 2(a2 – 3b) £ 2l2
2
2
Þ (a2 – 3b)1/2 £ l £ (a2 – 3b)1/2 < 2(a2 – 3b)1/2
3
Þ (a2 – 3b)1/2 £ a – g < 2(a2 – 3b)1/2

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RMO/INMO
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Ex.32 Let P(x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients. Prove that if P(0) and P(1) are odd, then P(x) = 0 has no
integer solutions.
Sol. If a is an integer with P(a) = 0, then P(x) = (x – a) Q(x), for some polynomial Q(x) with integer coefficients,
and P(0) = –aQ(0) and P(1) = (1 – a) Q(1). But if a is an integer, then either a or 1 – a is even, and so one
of P(0) and P(1) is even, which is a contradiction.
Ex.33 a,b are the roots of the quadratic equation x2 + px + q = 0 and for the equation x2n + pnxn + qn = 0 When

a b
n is an even integer. Prove that , are the roots of xn + 1 + (x + l)n = 0.
b a

Sol. a,b are the roots of the quadratic equation x2 + px + q = 0.

Þ a + b = –p (1)
ab = q (2)
a,b are also the roots of x2n + pnxn + qn = 0.
This equation has 2n roots out of which a, b are two roots.
The student should note that we cannot write a + b = –pn ab = qn.
a,b satisfy the equation because they are roots
a2n + pnan + qn = 0, b2n + pnbn + qn = 0
Subtract a2n – b2n + pn (an – bn) = 0
(an – bn) (an + bn) + pn = 0
Þ (an – bn) (an + bn + pn) = 0 (3)
From (3) a + b = –p.
(a + b)n = (–P)n = pn. Q n is an even integer. Þ (a + b)n = pn
(1) Þ an + bn + (a + b)n = 0
Dividing through out by bn , we get
n n
æaö æa ö
ç ÷ + 1 + ç + 1÷ = 0
èbø èb ø

a
Þ is a root of
b

xn + 1 + (x + l)n = 0

b
Similarly is also a root.
a
Ex.34 Prove that the polynomial x4 – x3 – 3x2 + 5x + 1 is irreducible over ¤ [x].
Sol. Since the coefficients of the polynomial are integers, it is enough to see that it is irreducible over ¢ [x]. The
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

polynomial has no integer roots, since a root of x4 – x3 – 3x2 + 5x + 1 must divide 1, and then it must be
1 or –1, but P(1) = 3 and P(–1) = –5. Or, because P(0) and P(1) are odd, P(x) = 0 has no integer solutions.
Hence, if P(x) can be factored, it must be into two monic quadratic polynomials, as follows: x4 – x3 – 3x2
+ 5x + 1 = (x2 + bx + c) (x2 + dx + e), with b, c, d, e integers.
Equating coefficients, it follows that :
b + d = –1
c + e + bd = –3
be + cd = 5
ce = 1.
The last identity implies c = e = 1 or c = e = –1. Now, the third identity takes the form b + d = 5 or b
+ d = – 5. In any case, these equalities are in contradiction with the first identity.

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 Mathematics
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Ex.35 Solve the system of equations :
a3 + 3ab2 + 3ac2 – 6abc = 1,
b3 + 3ba2 + 3bc2 – 6abc = 1,
c3 + 3cb2 + 3ca2 – 6abc = 1.
Sol. If A, B, C are the expressions on the left-hand sides of the equations, it follows that – A + B + C = (– a
+ b + c)3, A – B + C = (a – b + c)3, A + B – C = (a + b – c)3 and –A + B + C = A – B + C = A + B
– C = 1. The system is equivalent to –a + b + c = 1, a – b + c = 1, a + b – c = 1, which has the unique
solution (a, b, c) = (1,1,1).

EXERCISE
1
1. If x = 2016, y = 2017, z = find the value of (x + y + z)3 – (x + y – z)3 – (y + z – x)3 – (z + x – y)3 – 23xyz.
2017

2. Find all integral solutions of x3 + 5y3 + 25z3 – 15xyz = 0.

3. If f(x) = x4 + 3x3 + 9x2 + 12x + 20, and g(x) = x4 + 3x3 + 4x2 – 3x – 5, find the functions a(x), b(x) of smallest
degree such that a(x)f(x) + b(x)g(x) = 0.
4. Find m and solve the following equation, knowing that its roots form a geometrical sequence:
x4 – 15x3 + 70x2 – 120x + m = 0.
5. When x, y, z are real, solve the equations x + y = 2, xy – z2 = 1.
6. The roots of the polynomial x2 + ax + b + 1 = 0 are natural numbers. Prove that a 2 + b2 is not a prime number.
7. Solve x2 + y(x + 1) = 17, y2 + x (y + 1) = 13.
8. Factor x4 – 6x3 + 9x2 + 100 into quadratic factors with integral coefficients.
9. Find positive integers a, b such that a3 + a2b + ab2 + b3 + 1 = 2002.
10. Find all solutions of m2 – 3m + 1 = n2 + n – 1, where m and n are positive integers.
p
11. If a, b, c, p and q are integers, with q ¹ 0, (p, q) = 1 and is a root of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, Prove
q
that p divides c and q divides a.
12. If bd + cd is an odd integer, prove that the cubic polynomial (x3 + bx2 + cx + d) cannot be expressed in the
form (x + r)(x2 + px + q).
(a - b)(c - d) 5 (a - c)(b - d)
13. If = - ,find .
(b - c)(d - a) 3 (a - b)(c - d)
14. Find all solutions of the system of equations.
ax = (x + y + z)y, ay= (x + y + z)z, az = (x + y + z)x.
15. Let a, b, c be real numbers, with a and c non-zero. Let a and b be the roots of the polynomial
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

ax2 + bx + c and let a’ and b’ be the roots of the polynomial cx2 + bx + a. Prove that if a, b, a',b' are positive
numbers then (a + b)(a' + b') ³ 4.
16. Let a be a nonzero real number. Solve the equation: a3x4 + 2a2x2 + x + a + 1 = 0.
17. Solve the equations
x + y + z = 14
x2 + y2 + z2 = 91
y2 = zx.
18. Determine if there exist polynomials x2 – b1x + c1 = 0 and x2 – b2x + c2 = 0, with b1, c1, b2 and c2 different,
such that the four roots are b1, c1, b2 and c2.

23
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
19. Solve:
x2 + y2 + z2 = 14
xy + yz + zx = 11
x + y + 2z = 9
20. A student, required to solve the equation x2 + bx + c = 0, inadvertently solves the equation x2 + cx + b = 0;
b, c integers. One of the roots obtained is the same as a root of the original equation, but the second root is
m less than the second root of the original equation. Find b and c in terms of m.
21. Determine all real numbers a, such that all the solutions of the equation

a2 a2 a2 a2 a2
+ + + + = 1 are real
x(x + 1) (x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 2)(x + 3) (x + 3)(x + 4) (x + 4)(x + 5)

22. The solutions of the equation x3 + bx2 + cx + d =0 are p, q are r. Find a quadratic equation with roots
p2 + q2 + r2 and p + q + r, in terms of b, c, and d.
23. Find x5 + y5 + z5, it being given that
x + y + z = 1; x2 + y2 + z2 = 2;
x3 + y3 + z3 = 3.
24. Prove that, for n ³ 1, (x – 1)2 divides nxn+1 – (n + 1)xn + 1.
25. Find the solutions of the system
x+y+z=w

1 1 1 1
+ + = .
x y z w

26. Find the sum of the cubes of the roots of the equation x4 + ax3 + bx2 +cx + d = 0.
27. Show that if p, q, r, s are real numbers and pr = 2(q + s), then atleast one of the equation x2 + px + q = 0,
x2 + rx + s = 0 has real roots.
28. Find all real numbers a such that the sum of the squares of the roots of P(x) = x 2 – (a – 2)x – a – 1 is a minimum.
29. Solve the equations
x+y+z=9
x2 + y2 + z2 = 29
x3 + y3 + z3 = 99
30. Find all triples (x, y, z) of positive integers satisfying 2x + 2y + 2z = 2336.

æ 2m - 1 ö m2 - 3
For which positive real number m, the roots x1 and x2 of the equation x - ç x+ = 0, satisfy the
2
31. ÷
è 2 ø 2

1
condition x1 = x2 – ?
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

2
32. Let P(x) be a polynomial such that P(x2 + 1) = x4 + 4x2. Find P(x2 – 1).
33. Solve the following system of equations for real x, y, z. x + y – z = 4; x2 – y2 + z2 = – 4; xyz = 6.
34. Find the integral solutions of the equation x2 + y2 + x + y = 3.
35. Let a, b, c, d, e and f be positive integers such that they satisfy the relation ab + ac + bc = de + df + ef, and
let N = a + b + c + d + e + f. Prove that if N divides abc + def, then N is a composite number.
36. Find all pairs (x, y) of positive integers such that x3 – y3 = xy + 61.
37. Solve the equations
x3 + y3 + z3 = 495; x + y + z = 15; xyz = 105.
38. If a3 + b3 + c3 = (a + b + c)3 prove that a5 + b5 + c5 = (a + b + c)5.

24
 Mathematics
ALLEN
39. The natural numbers a, b, c and d satisfy that a3 + b3 = c3 + d3 and a + b = c + d. Prove that two of these
numbers are equal.
40. Let a, b, c be non zero real numbers such that (ab + bc + ca)3 = abc (a + b + c)3. Prove that a, b & c are
terms of a geometric sequence.
1 2
41.
2
Solve x + = 21- y where x, y are integers.
x2
42. Let a, b and c be real numbers. Prove that at least one of the following equations has a real solution.
x2 + (a – b)x + (b – c) = 0,
x2 + (b – c)x + (c – a) = 0,
x2 + (c – a)x + (a – b) = 0.
43. If a, b, c are the roots of x3 – x2 – x – 1 = 0. Prove that
(i) a, b, c are distinct.

a 2016 - b2016 b2016 - c 2016 c2016 - a 2016

(ii) + + is an integer..
a-b b-c c-a
44. If a, b, c are three consecutive odd integers such that a < b < c, find the value of a2 – 2b2 + c2.
45. Solve for x and y, x2 + y2 = (x + y + 1)2, x2 + y2 = (x – y + 2)2.
46. Find all pairs of integers (a, b) such that a + b is a root of the polynomial x2 + ax + b.
47. Find all integer values of x for which the polynomial x2 – 5x – 1 is a perfect square.
48. Let P(x) be a monic quadratic polynomial such that P(x) and P(P(P(x))) have a common root. Prove that
P(0)P(1) = 0.
49. If (x + 1)2 = x find thevalue of 11x3 + 8x2 + 8x – 2.
50. Solve xy + x + y = 23, yz + y + z = 41, zx + z + x = 27.
51. If f1 = 3x – y + 2z + w,
f2 = 2x + 3y – z + 2w,
f3 = 5x – 9y + 8z – w, find numberical values of a, b, c so that af1 + bf2 + cf3 = 0.
52. Find all pairs (x, y) where x, y are integers such that x3 + 113 = y3.
53. Do there exist integers m, n such that m2 + (m + 1)2 = n4 + (n + 1)4?
54. Solve in real numbers the system of equations

ìa + b = 8
ï
ïab + c + d = 23
í
ïad + bc = 28
ïîcd = 12

55. Fill the smallest value of p2 for which the pair of equations, (4 – p2)x + 2y = 0, 2x + (7 – p2)y = 0 has a solution
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\01-Algebra.p65

other than x = y = 0, and find the ratio x : y for this value of p2.
56. Find x, y, z satisfying the equations
(x + y)(x + y + z) = 66
(y + z)(x + y + z) = 99
(z + x)(x + y + z) = 77
57. If p, q, r are the roots of the cubic equation x3 – 3px2 + 3q2x – r3 = 0, prove that p = q = r.
4mn
58. Find all solutions in integers m, n of the equation (m – n)2 = .
m + n -1
bx + (1 - x)c cx + (1 - x)a ax + (1 - x)b
59. If a, b, c, x are real numbers such that abc ¹ 0 and = = then, prove that,
a b c
a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c.

25
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
60. Let Nk = 131313...131 be the (2k + 1) digit number in base 10 formed by k pieces of 13 and appended by
1 at the end. Prove that Nk is not divisible by 31 for any value of k = 1, 2, 3 ...
61. Find all real solutions of the system of equations: x + y = 2; xy – z2 = 1.
62. Find all integers m, n such that 2mn – 5m + n = 55.
63. Find all real numbers a and b such that x2 + ax + b2 = 0 have at least one common root.
64. Prove that the product of the first 1000 positive even integers differs from the product of the first 1000 positive
odd integers by a multiple of 2015.
65. Find all pairs (x, y) where (x, y) are integers such that x3 + 113 = y3.
66. If the quadratic ax2 + bx + c takes rational values for more than two rational values of x, then, show that a,
b, c are all rational numbers.
67. If a ¹ 0, b ¹ 0, c ¹ 0 and if

1 1 1
+ + =0
a b a+x

1 1 1
+ + =0
a c a+y

1 1 1
+ + =0
a x y

Prove that a + b + c = 0.
68. Show that there are no integers a, b, c for which a2 + b2 – 8c = 6.
69. Let A = {a2 + 4ab + b2|a, b are positive integers}. Prove that 2015 ¹ A.
70. Find integers x, y, z such that
x2y + y2z + 4xy = 40
x2 + y2 + xyz = 20

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CHAPTER - 2 NUMBER THEORY

2.1 DIVISIBILITY OF INTEGERS

In this section, we will see some elementary properties of integers. Many of the proofs depend on two principles
(i) Well Ordering Principle, (ii) Principle of Mathematical Induction. We first state these two principles.
Well Ordering Principle
Any non-empty subset of non-negative integers has a smallest element. (In other words, if S is a non-empty
subset of non-negative integers then there is s Î S such that s £ a for any a in S.)
Principle of Mathematical Induction is a logical consequence of the well ordering principle.
Principle of Mathematical Induction
If a subset S of positive integers 1, and contains n + 1 whenever it contains n, then S contains all the positive
integers.
Principle of Mathematical Induction (Strong form)
If a subset S of positive integers contains 1, and contains n + 1 whenever it contains 1,2, ...n, then S contains
all the positive integers.
Definition 2.1
An integer b is to be divisible by non-zero integer a if there is integer x such that b = ax , and we then write a|b.
The property a|b may also be expressed by saying that 'a divides b' or 'a is a divisor of b' or 'b is a multiple of
a’. In case b is not divisible by a we write b Œ a.
Note that 5 divides 10 as 10 = 5 × 2.
But 5 does not divide 13. We may write 5|10 but 5 Π13.
Theorem 2.1
(i) If a|b then a l (bc) for any integer c.
(ii) If a|b and then a|c.
(iii) If a|b and a|c then a|(bx + cy) for any integers x and y.
(iv) If a|b, b ¹ 0, then |a| £ |b|
(v) If a|b and b|a then a = ± b.
(vi) If m ¹ 0 then a|b if and only if ma|mb.
Proof
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

(i) If a|b then b = aq, where q is an integer. Hence, bc = a(qc) for any integer c. Hence, a|bc.
(ii) If a|b and b|c then b = aq and c = bq1, where q, q1 are integers.
Thus, c= (aq)q1 = a(qq1). Hence, a|c.
(iii) If a|b and a|c then b = aq and c = aq 1 , for some q, q1 Î Z
Hence, bx + cy = a(qx +q1y). Hence, a|bx +cy .
(iv) If a|b, b ¹ 0, then b = aq, q ¹ 0. Hence, |b| = |aq| = |a||q|. As q ¹ 0, |q| ³1, hence |a| £ |b|
(v) If a|b and b|a then using (iv),we get that |a| £ |b| and |b| £ |a|, Hence, a= ± b.
(vi) If a|b then b = ac for some integer c. Hence, mb = m (ac) = (ma)c which implies that ma|mb.
Conversely, if m a|mb then mb = (ma)q for some integer q. Since, m ¹ 0,
we get b = aq and hence a|b.

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Theorem 2.2 (Division Algorithm)
Given integers a and b with a ¹ 0, there exist unique integers q and T such that b = qa +r, 0 £ r < |a|. If
a Πb then r satisfies the stronger inequality 0 < r < |a|.
Proof :
Consider S = {b – ak|b – ak ³ 0, k Î Z} Note that

ìb - ( - a ) b if a > 0,
b + ab Î S for b + ab = í .
îb – a b , if a < 0

Hence, S is non-empty. By well ordering principle, S has a least element, say r. Since, r Î S,r ³ 0 and r = b –

aq for some q. If r ³ a then 0 £ r - a < r and r - a Î S

ïìb - ( q + 1) a if a > 0
for r - a = í , a contradiction to the minimality of r.. Hence 0 £ r < a .
ïîb – ( q –1 ) a if a < 0

Next we prove the uniqueness of q and r.

Suppose b = aq1 + r1 and also b = aq2 + r2 with 0 £ r1 < a ,0 £ r2 < a . If r1 ¹ r2, let r1 < r2. Then

0 < r2 - r1 £ r2 < a . Now r2–r1 = a(q1–q2). Thus a|(r2–r1). As r2–r1 > 0 (iv) of the theorem (1.1) implies that

a £ ( r2 - r1 ) , a contradiction. Hence r2 = r1 and so q2= q1.

Example 2.1
Show that the square of any integer is of the form 4k or 8k + 1.
Solution
By division algorithm (take a = 2), any integer b is representable as 2q or 2q + 1. If b = 2q, then b2 = 4q2 i.e.
b2 is of the form 4k. If b = 2q + 1, then b2 = 4q2 +4q + 1 = 4q(q + 1) + 1.
Since q(q + 1) is divisible by 2, we get that b2 is of the form 8k + 1.
This shows that no integer in the sequence 11,111,1111,... is a perfect square as every number is of the type
4k + 3.
Example 2.2
Find all integers n such that n2 + 1 is divisible by n + 1.
Solution
Let n be an integer such that n+1|n2+1.
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Note that n+1| n2–1. Hence n+1|(n2+1) – (n2–1) i.e. n+1|2. Hence , n +1 = ±1, ±2. Hence, n = –3, –2, 0, 1.
2.2 GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR
Definition 2.2 : An integer d is called a common divisor of a and b if d|a and d|b. A positive integer g is a greatest
common divisor of a and b , not both zero,if and only if the following two conditions are satisfied:
(i) g|a and g|b and
(ii) if d|a and d|b then d|g.
In other words, if at least one of a and b is not equal to 0, the greatest among their common divisors is called
the greatest common divisor of a and b and is denoted by (a,b). We abbreviate greatest common divisor of
a and b as gcd of a and b.
Note that 1,2,5,10 are common divisors of 20 and 50 and 10 is the greatest common divisor of 20 and 50.

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Theorem 2.3 (Bezout ‘s Theorem)
Let a, b be integers, not both zero. Then the gcd of a and b exists and is unique. Further, if (a, b) = g, then there
exist integers x0 and y0 such that g = axo + by0.
Proof.
Consider, S = {ax + by|x, y Î Z , ax + by > 0 }.
S is non-empty as a2 +b2 ÎS. By well ordering principle, S has a smallest element, say g.
Since, g Î S, g > 0 and g = ax0 + by0 for some xo ,y0Î Z.
If d|a and d|b then d|ax0 + by0 i.e. d|g. Suppose g|a, then a = gq + r, 0 < r < g.
Hence r = a – gp =a (1–gx0) + b (–qy0). Thus, rÎS and r < g.
But g is the smallest element of S, a contradiction.
Hence, g|a. Similarly g|b.
Hence, g is gcd of a and b.
Suppose d is another greatest common divisor of a and b. Then d|a and d|b.
Since g is a gcd of a and b, d|g.
Similarly g|d. Hence, d = ±g. But both d and g are positive. Hence, d = g.
Remark
Note that the values of x0 and y0 are not unique.
For example, if we want to express the g.c.d, of 2 and 3 then we can write it as 1 = 3 – 2 and 1= 2(2) – 3.
Definition 2.3
Two integers a and b are said to be relatively prime (co-prime) if (a, b) = 1.
Corollary 2.1
Let a, b be integers not both zero. Then a , b are co-prime if and only if there are integers x,y such that ax +
by = 1.
Proof.
Let a, b be co-prime integers. Then (a, b) = 1. So. by the Bezout‘s theorem there exist integers x,y such that
ax + by = (a, b) = 1. Conversely, if for some integers x,y, we have ax + by = 1 and (a,b) = d, then d|a and d|b
so that d|(ax + by ) or d|1. Hence d = ± l. But by definition, d> 0. So, d =1, that is, x, y are co-prime integers.
Example 2.3
Note that 9 and 16 are co-prime integers as 4(16) -7(9) = 1.
Any two consecutive integers are relatively prime . Further, any two consecutive odd integers are relatively
prime.
We also note that if gcd(a, b) = ax0 + by0 where x0, y0 are integers then (x0– y0)=1.
Corollary 2.2
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If a, b co-prime integers, then every integer n can be expressed as n = ax + by for some integers x,y.
Proof.
Let a, b be co-prime integers. Then by Bezout’s theorem, there exist integers u , v such that 1 = au + bv.
Hence n = a(nu ) + b(nv) so that x = nu, y = nv as required.
Corollary 2.3

æa bö
If d =g.c.d.(a,b), then ç , ÷ = 1.
èd dø
Proof.
Let (a, b) = d. Then d|a and d|b. So a = rd, b = sd for some integers r, s. Now by the above theorem there are
integers x, y such that ax + by = d.
So rdx + sdy = d or rx + sy = 1. Hence by Corollary 2.1, (r, s ) = 1.

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Example 2.4
If (a,n ) = 1 and (b, n) = 1, then (ab,n ) = 1.
Solution.
As (a, n) = 1 and (b,n) = 1, by Corollary 2.1, there are integers x, y and u, v such that ax + ny = 1 and
bu + nv = 1. Hence multiplying these we get abX + nY = 1 where X = xu and Y = vax + + ybu .
So (ab, n) = 1 by Corollary 2.1.
Equivalently, we also have (ax)(bu ) = (l -ny)(l-nv) = 1-n(v+y-vy) i.e. (ab)xu + n (v + y –vu) = 1.
Lemma 2.1
Let b = aq ± r, then (b, a) =(a, r).
Proof.
Let d = (b,a) and g = (a,r). Then d|b,d|a.
Hence d|(b m aq) i.e. d|r. Since d|a, d|r we have d|(a, r) i.e. d|g.
Similarly g|d. Hence, d = ±g. But both d and g are positive. Hence, d = g.
Example 2.5
Let a, b, n be any non-zero integers. Prove that there exist integers k,l whose g.c.d. is 1 and for which ak + bl
is divisible by n.
Solution.
Let d = (a,b) and let a = a'd and b = b'd so that gcd(a',b') = 1.
Hence there exist integers x, y such a'x + b'y = 1. (2.1)
So, on multiplying this equality by dn, we get a'dnx + b'dny = dn, or anx + bny = dn .
But since ab'= a'b = a'b'd , this can be rewritten as
a(nx–b') + b(ny + a') = dn or ak + bl = dn, (2.2)
where k = nx – b' and l = ny + a'. Now the g.c.d. of k, l is 1. For, if c is the g.c.d. of k and l, then c also divides
xl - ky = nxy + a¢x - nxy + b¢y = a¢x + b¢y
so that by (2.1), c divides 1; hence c = 1. Thus by (2.2), k, l are the required integers.
Theorem 2.3 (The Euclidean algorithm)
Let b, c be integers such that c > 0. We make a repeated application of the division algorithm to obtain a series
of equations
b = cq + r1, 0 < r1 < c,
c = r1q1 + r2, 0 < r2 < r1,
r1 = r2q2 + r3, 0 < r3 < r2,

M M
rj–2 = rj–1 qj–1 + rj, 0 < rj < rj–1,
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

rj–1 = rjqj
The greatest common divisor (b,c) of b and c is rj , the last non-zero remainder in the division process. Moreover,
if (b,c) = bx0 + cy0 then the values of x0 and y0 can be obtained by eliminating rj–1,..., r2, r1 from the set of
equations.
Proof.
If g = (b, c) then g|b and g|c. Hence, g|b -cq . But , b-cq = r1.
Hence g|r1. Now, g|c,g|r1. Hence, g|r2.
Continuing this way, we see that g|r1 for g|ri for 1 £ i £ j In particular , g|rj. Conversely, note that
rj|rj–1 i.e. rj|rj–2. Hence rj|rj–1qj–1 + rj . Similarly, rj|rj–3. Continuing in this way, we get that rj|rj–2, ..., rj|r1, rj|c,
rj|b. Hence rj is a common divisor of b and c. Hence rj|(b,c) i.e. rj|g. But, g|rj and both g and rj are positive
integers. Hence g = rj .

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2.3 Primes
Definition 2.4
An integer p > 1 is called a prime number, or a prime, if it has no divisor d such that 1 < d < p. If an integer
is not a prime then it is called a composite number.
Example
Note that 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31 are prime numbers, while 4, 6, 8, 15, 20 are composite

ìp, if p|a
numbers. Note that if p is a prime and a is an integer then (a, p) = í .
î1, otherwise

This implies that if p and q are distinct primes then (p,q) = 1.

Theorem 2.5 (Euclid’s Lemma)

If (a , m) = 1 and m|ab then m|b.
Proof.
Since (a, m) = 1, there exist integers x,y such that ax + my = 1. Hence, abx + mby = b. Since m|ab and
m|m we get m|(abx+mby) i.e., m|b.
Corollary 2.4
If p is a prime and p|ab then p|a or p|b.
Proof.
If p|a then we are done. Otherwise, p|a. Hence, (p, a) = 1.
Since, p|ab and (p,a ) =1, by Theorem 1.5, we get that p|b.
Euclid’s lemma can also be generalized for the product of n integers. This proof is on Principle of Mathematical
Induction. Induction is on the number of terms occurring in the product.
Corollary 2.5
If p is a prime and p|a1, a2.... an, then p divides at least one factor ai of the product.
Proof.
If n = 2, then p|a1a2. Hence p|a1 or p|a2 . Assume that the result holds for the product of n integers.
Suppose p|a1.... anan+1, then p|(a1....an) (an+1). Hence, either p|a1a2....an or p|an+1 then we are done.
Otherwise, p|a1a2....an. Hence, by induction hypothesis, for some i, 1 £ i £ n . Hence, by principle of
Mathematical Induction, we get the result.

2.4 FERMAT NUMBERS

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n
The integers Fn = 22 + 1 , n > 0 are called Fermat Numbers. Pierre Fermat conjectured the numbers of the
type +1 are primes. Hence these numbers are called Fermat numbers. F0 = 3, F1 = 5, F2 = 17, F3 = 257 and
F4 = 65537 are primes, but F5 = 4, 294, 967, 297 is divisible by 641 = 29 + 27 + 1. Primes among Fermat
numbers called Fermat primes. Gauss (1801) proved that if m is a Fermat prime then a polygon of m sides can
be constructed just using ruler and compass. It is not known whether there are infinitely many Fermat primes.
In fact, F0, F1,.... F4 are the only known Fermat primes. It is known that Fn is composite if 5 £ n £ 32.
Example 2.6
Prove that

(i) Fn - 2 = F0 F1 .....Fn -1 ,n ³ 1 .

(ii) Any two Fermat numbers are relatively prime.

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Solution
(i) (Induction on n) The result is true for n = 1. Assuming it true for n –1, we get

Fn - 2 = 22 - 1 = ( 22 + 1)( 22 - 1) = Fn -1 ( Fn -1 - 2 )
n n -1 n -1

= Fn–1× Fn–2....F0 by induction assumption.

Hence by induction (i) holds for all n ³ 1.
(ii) Let m < n. If d |Fn and d|Fm, then by (i), d|(Fn–2). Hence d|Fn –(Fn–2), i.e. d|2; so d =1 or 2. As Fn is
odd, d =1, so that (Fm, Fn)=1.
Theorem 2.5 (The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic)
Every positive integer n > 1 can be expressed as product of primes in a unique way except for the order of the
prime factors.
Proof
Let n be an integer with two different factorings.
Dividing out any primes common to the two representations, we would have an equality of the form
p1p2....pr = q1q2... qs or 1 = q1q2 ....qs (1.7)
where the factors pi and qj are primes, not necessarily all distinct, but no prime on the left side occur s on the
right side . But the first is impossible because p1|q1q2....qs, so p1 is a divisor of at least one of qj . That is, p1
must be identical with at least one of the qi . Similarly, the second case is impossible as no prime divides 1.
Hence, every positive integer greater than 1 has unique factorization.
Remark.

Given any integer n, we can rewrite n as n = p1a1 p2a2 ....p arr , where we assume that pi ¹ pj whenever i ¹ j. This
is quite often called as Canonical form or canonical factoring of n into prime factors.
Notes

1. A number n=p1a1 p2a2 ....parr is a perfect square if and only if each of a1, a2,...., ar is even. If n = p1p2....pr (i.e.
each of a1, a2,...., ar is equal to 1) then n is called a square -free integer. (Note that p1, p2,.... pr are distinct
primes).
2. If a, b are positive integers such that ab = cn and (a, b) = 1, then a and b are both perfect n-th powers.
Proof.
Let ab = c2 for some c Î N. Then the result clearly holds if one of a,b equals 1.
Hence let a > 1 and b > 1 so that c > 1. Write a, b, c in canonical form thus :

a = p1d1 .....pdmm ,b = q1e1 ....q enn ,c = s1k1 .....s kr r

Then ab = c2 becomes p1d1 .....p dmm ,q1e1 ....q enn ,s12k1 .....s2k
r
r
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Now note that since g.c.d, (n,b) = 1, the primes p 1...., pm are all different from the primes q1...., qn. Hence by
the unique factorization theorem, it follows that p1,....pm, q1...., qn is only a rearrangement of s1,....... sr and
that the indices d1,....dm, e1,...., en form a similar rearrangement of 2k1,...., 2kr. Hence each of di and ei is an
even number and so both a and b perfect squares. Similarly, if ab = cn for some c, nÎN and (a, b) =1, then a
= xn and b = yn for some x, y Î N.
3. Using unique factorization we can express the g.c.d. of two natural numbers in terms of their prime factors for
this we allow zero indices for the prime powers so that the same set of primes can be used to represent both the
positive integers, say a, b. Thus let

a = p1d1 ....pdnn ,b = p1e1 ....p enn ...(i)

where p1,...., pn are distinct primes and di ³ 0 , ei ³ 0 . Then

( a,b ) = g.c.d. ( a, b ) = p1min( d1 ,e1 ) ....pmin

n
( dn ,en ) ...(ii)

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It is easy to see that the integer

[a,b] = p1max( d1,e1 ) ....pmax

n
( dn ,en ) ...(iii)

Finally, multiplying (ii) and (iii) comparing the result with the factorization of the product ab, namely,

p1d1 +e1 ... pnd n + en , it follows that ab = (a,b) [a,b]

Example 2.7
Suppose a = 819, b = 658. Then a = 20. 32. 71. 131.470, and b = 21.30.71.130.471. Thus gcd (a,b) =
20.30.71.130.470 = 7, [a,b] = 21.32.71.131.471 = 76986.
Example 2.8
There are infinitely many primes of the type 4n–1.
Solution.
Assume that there are finitely many primes of the type 4n–1, say p1=3, p2,...., pr. Let N = 4p1p2....pr–1.
Clearly N > 2 and is odd Moreover, none of the divide N. Moreover, since N is of the type 4n-1, N must a prime
factor of the type 4n-1. Hence, this prime is a new prime of the type 4n–1, a contradiction. Hence, there are
infinitely many primes of the type 4n -1.
Theorem 2.6
Given any positive integer n, there exist n consecutive composite integers.
Proof
Consider the integers

( n + 1) !+ 2, ( n + 1) !+ 3,..., ( n + 1) !+ n, ( n + 1)!+ ( n + 1)
Every number of the sequence is a composite number because (n + 1)! + k is divisible by k for
2 £ k £ (n + 1). Hence, we get n consecutive composite numbers.

2.5 Introduction to Congruence

A congruence is a convenient statement about divisibility. It often makes it easier to discover proofs. The notion
of congruence was introduced by C. F. Gauss (1777-1855) in his famous book Disquisitions Arithmetic, written
at age 24. It gained ready acceptance as a fundamental tool for the study of number theory.
Definition 2.5
Let m be a non-zero integer and a, b be integers. We say that a is congruent to b modulo m if m|a – b, and
write a º b(mod m) . If a – b is not divisible by m, we say that a is not congruent to b modulo m, and in this case
we write a º b(mod m).
Since, a – b is divisible by m if and only if a – b is divisible by – m, we will confine our attention to a positive
modulus.
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Example 2.9
We can restate example 2.1 as follows:
If n is an odd integer, then n2 º1(mod 8) and if n is an even integer then n2º0(mod 4).
Theorem 2. 6
Let a, b, c, d, x, y denote integers. Then,
1. a º b(mod m ), b º a(mod m ), and a-b º0(mod m) are equivalent statements .
2. If a º b(mod m) and c º d(mod m), then a º c (mod m).
3. If a º b(mod m) and c º d (mod m), then ax+cy º bx + dy (mod m).
4. Ifa º b(mod m) and c º d(mod m). then ac º bd(mod m).
5. If a º b(mod m) and d|m , then a º b( mod d).

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Proof.
1. Suppose a º b(mod m). Then, by definition, m|a – b. Now, m|a – b if and only if m|b – a if and only if m|a
– b – 0. Hence, a º b (mod m), b º a (mod m), and a – b º 0 (mod m) are equivalent statements.
2. If a º b(mod m) and b º c(mod m), then m|(a – b) and m |(b –c). Hence, m|(a – c) i.e. a º c (mod m).
3. If a º b (mod m) and c º d (mod m),then m|a – b and m|c – d.
Hence, m|(a – b) x and m|(c – d)y.
Hence, m|(ax + cy) – (bx + dy) i.e. ax + cy º bx + dy (mod m).
4. m|(a – b) and m|(c – d) Þ m|[c(a – b) + b· (c – d)] i.e. m|(ac – bd) Þ ac º bd (mod m).
One can take x = c and y= bin (3).
Hence ac + cb º bc + bd (mod m) i.e. ac º bd (mod m).
5. If a º b(mod m) then m| a – b. But d|m, hence, d|a – b i.e. a º b (mod d).
Corollary 2.6
If a º b (mod m) then a2 º b2 (mod m). More generally, if n is a positive integer, then a n º bn (mod m).
Theorem 2.7
Let f(x) denote a polynomial with integral coefficients. If a ºb(mod m) , then f (a) ºf(b)(mod m) .
Proof.
Assume that f(x) = c0 + c1x + .... + cnxn, where ci's are integers.
Since, a º b (mod m), using corollary (2.1) we get
a2 º b2 (mod m), a3 º b3(mod m), ..., an º bn (mod m).

Hence , for every j,0 £ j £ n , we get c j a j º c j b j (mod m).

n n
Hence, å c j a º å c j b (mod m), that is f (a) º f (b) (mod m)
j j

j =0 j =0

Theorem 2.8
Let a, b, x, y, m, m1,..., mr be integers. Then,

m
1. ax º ay (mod m) if and only if x ºy (mod ( a,m ) ).
2. if ax º ay (mod m) and (a,m) =1 then x º y (mod m).
3. x º y (mod mi) for i = 1, 2,..., r if and only if x º y (mod [m1, m2,..., mr]).
Proof
1. If ax º ay (mod m) then ax – ay = mq for some integer q.

a m
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Hence, we have (x - y) = q
( a,m ) ( a,m )

m m
and thus | ( x - y ) . But çæ a , m ÷ö = 1 .
( a,m ) ( a,m ) è ( a,m ) ( a,m ) ø

m æ m ö
Hence, we get |( x - y ) , that is x º y ç mod
( a,m ) è ( a,m ) ÷ø

æ m ö m
Conversely, if x º y ç mod
( a,m ) ÷ then ( a,m ) |( x - y ) ,
è ø

Hence m|(a,m) (x-y). This implies that m|a(x-y), that is ax º ay(mod m).

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m
2. If ax º ay (mod m) and (a, m) =1 then x º y (mod ).
( a,m )
But (a,m) =1 hence we get x º y (mod m).
3. If x º y (mod mi) for i = 1, 2,..., r then mi|x – y for i = 1, 2,..., r.
That is, x – y is common multiple of m1, ..., mr and therefore x º y (mod [m1, m2,..., mr]).
Conversely, if x º y (mod [m1,..., mr]) then mi ­[ (m1,..., mr] for 1 £ i £ r.
Hence x º y (mod mi) for i = 1, 2,..., r.
Proposition
If b º c(mod m) then (b,m) = (c, m).
Proof
Since b º c (mod m) we get b = c+ qm.
Hence, (c, m)|b and hence, (c,m)|(b,m). Also, c = b – qm implies that (b,m))|c and hence (b, m) |(c, m). As
both (b, m) and (c,m) are positive, we get (b, m) = (c, m).
Example 2.10
Find the remainder when 1373 + 143 is divided by 11.
Solution.
We note that 13 º 2(mod 11) and 14 º 3(mod 11).
Hence, 143 º 33 (mod 11), that is
143 º 5 (mod 11). ...(1)
Also 2 º – l (mod 11). Hence, 2 º 1(mod 11) a nd 273 º 8(mod 11).
5 70

Thus
1373 º 8 (mod 11) ...(2)
Adding the congruences (1) and (2), we get
1373 + 143 º 8 + 5 º 2 (mod 11).
Hence, 2 is the remainder when 1373 + 143 is divided by 11.
Example 2.11
Show that a number is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Solution.
Let n be a given number. n can be written as
n = n0 + 10n1 +.... + 10knk,
where 0 £ n0, n1,... nk £ 9. Note that 10 º 1(mod 3). Hence, for every positive integer m 10m º 1 (mod 3).
Hence, n º n0 + n1 + ... + nk (mod 3). This implies that n is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is
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divisible by 3.
Example 2.12
If p and q are primes such that p =q + 2, prove that pp + qp is a multiple of p + q.
Solution.
We note that as p and q primes such that p = q + 2, both p and q are odd primes. Hence, q – 1 is even.
Consider
pp + qq = (p + q – q)p + qq º (–q)p + qq (mod (p+q))
º qp + qq (mod (p+q))
º qq (1–q2) (mod (p+q))
Now p+ q = 2q + 2 and 2| (q –1). Hence, p + q = 2(q+1) divides 1 – q 2.
Hence, pp + qq º 0 (mod (p+q)), that is, pp + qq is a multiple of (p+q).

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Example 2.13
If a, b are integers, p a prime, then show that

( a + b ) p º a p + b p (mod p).
Solution.
We note that

p p
( a + b )p = a p + æç ö÷ a p -1 b + .... + æç ö p -1
÷ ab + b º a + b ( mod p )
p p p

è1 ø è p - 1ø

æpö æp ö
as ç ÷ ,...., ç ÷ are divisible by p.
è1 ø è p - 1ø

Example 2.14
Prove that for any natural number n the expression
A = 2903n – 803n – 464n + 261n is divisible by 1897.
Solution.
Let n be natural number. Note that 1897 = 7 × 271. Consider the expression A = 2903 n – 803n – 464n + 261n.
Now 2903 º 803 (mod 7) and 464 º 261 (mod 7). Also 2903 º 464 (mod 271) and 803 º 261 (mod 271).
Hence, A is divisible by 7 as well as 271. Since (7,271) = 1, we get that is divisible by 1897.
2.6 Fermat, Euler, Wilson Theorems
Definition 2.6
Let m ¹ 0. If (a, m) =1, an integer a' such that aa' =1 (mod m), is called an inverse of a modulo m.
Example 2.15
The following table shows the inverse of 1,..., 12 modulo 13.

Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Inverse 1 7 9 10 8 11 2 5 3 4 6 12

observe that 11! º (mod 13) and hence 12! º 12 º –1 (mod 13).
Remark
Since (a, m) = 1, there exist integers b and c such that ab + mc = 1. Hence, ab º1(mod m). This shows that if
(a, m) = 1,a has an inverse modulo m. Further, if b and c are inverses of a (mod m) then
m|a( b -c). Using Euclid ‘s lemma, we get b = c (mod m). Thus, the inverse is unique modulo m.
If b and c are integers congruent (mod m) and b' is the inverse of (mod m) then cb' º bb' º 1( mod m). Hence, both
b and c have the same inverse modulo m. Hence, integers congruent modulo m have the same inverse modulo m.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

Definition 2.7
If x º y (mod m) then y is called a residue of x modulo m. A set x 1,...., xm is called a complete residue system
modulo m if for every integer y there exists unique x j such that y º xj (mod m) .
Definition 2.8
A reduce dressed system modulo m is a set of integers ri such that (ri, m) =1, ri º rj (mod m) if i ¹ j, and such
that every x prime to m, is congruent to some member ri of the set.
Theorem 2.9 (Fermat’s Theorem)
Let p be prime and a be an integer. Then ap ºa(mod p)
Proof.
Note that if p|a then we are done. If p|a then (a,p) =1. Since f(p) =p–1, using Euler's theorem we get
ap–1 º1(mod p). Multiplying both sides by a, we get ap º a(mod p).

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Example 2.16
Prove that for any prime p, there exist an infinite number of positive integers m such that p is a divisor of 2m+1
+ 3m – 17.
Solution
We can write N = 2m+1 + 3m – 17 =4 (2m–1–2) + 3(3m–1–3). (2.2)
If p is prime, then by Fermat‘s theorem, aP ºa(mod p) for any natural number a .
p
a p º ( a p ) º a p º a,a p º a p º a (modp),
2 3
Hence

n
and similarly, a p º a ( mod p ) , for all integers n ³ 1 .

Now put m =1 + pn. Then by (1), mod p,

N º 4 ( 2p - 2 ) + 3 ( 3p - 3 ) º 0 for all integers n ³ 1 .

n n

Solution II

We can write N = 2 m +1 + 3 m - 17 = 8 ( 2m -2 - 1 ) + 32 ( 3m -1 - 1) ...(2.3)

If p is prime, then by Euler’s theorem, a p -1 º 1 (mod p) for any natural number a . Hence

a k ( p -1) º 1 ( mod p )

for all integers k ³1. Now, put m = k (p -1) + 2. So, N º 0 (mod p ).

Theorem 2.10 (Wilson's Theorem)
Let p be a prime. Then (p-1)! º –1 (mod p).
Proof.
Note that theorem holds for p = 2 and p = 3. Assume that p ³ 5. Now, given an integer i such that 1 £ i £ p
–1 there exists a unique j such that ij º ji º1(mod p), 1 £ j £ p–1. Moreover i = j if and only if i =1 or p–1. Hence,
(p–2)! º1 (mod p). Hence, the Theorem.
Remark.
Note that n is prime if and only if (n -1)! º –1 (mod n).
Example 2.17
If p is a prime and 0 < r < p, prove that

( p - r )! ( r - 1) !+ ( -1)r -1 º 0 (mod p)

Hence ,or otherwise, prove that 18! º-1(mod 437).

Solution.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

By Wilson’s theorem, we get (p -1)! º –1 (mod p). Hence,

( p - r ) ! ( p - r + 1).... ( p - 1 ) º -1 (mod p)

\ ( p - r ) ! ( r - 1 ) ! ( -r )
r -1
º -1 (mod p)

\ ( p - r ) ! ( r - 1) !+ ( -1 )
r -1
º 0 (mod p)

Note that 437 º 19 × 23. 18! º –1 (mod 19).

Also, for r = 5 using above 18!4!+ (–1)4 º 0 (mod 23) or 18! º –1 (mod 23)
So 18! × 24 º 1 (mod 23).
Hence 18! º –1 (mod (19 × 23)). Hence the result.

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RMO/INMO
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Theorem 2.11
There are infinitely many primes of the type 4n + 1.
Proof.
Assume that there are finitely many primes of the type 4n + 1, say p1, p2,..., pr. Let N = (2p1p2....pr)2 +1.
Clearly N > 2 and is odd. Moreover, none of the p j's divide N. Since N is of the type k2 +1, N must have a prime
factor of the type 4n + 1. Hence, this prime is new prime of the type 4n + 1, contradiction. Hence, there are
infinitely primes of the type 4n + 1.
Theorem 2.12
There are infinitely many primes of the type 6n + 1.
Proof
Assume that there are finitely many primes of the type 6n +1, say p1, p2,..., pr. Let N = (2·3p1p2...pr)2 +
(2·3p1p2....pr) +1.
Clearly N is an odd integer > 2. Moreover, 2, 3 and none of the p j's divide N. Since N >1, N has a prime factor,
say p. Moreover, p > 3 and p|(2·3p1p2....pr) –1 as N º1 (mod 6). Now, p|(2.3p1p2....pr)3–1. Suppose p = 6k
–1, then ((2·3p1p2...pr)3)2k º1 (mod p). Using Fermat's little theorem, we get p|(2.3p1p2...pr)2–1, hence
p|(2.3p1p2...pr) +1. This implies that p|(2.3p1p2....pr)2, a contradiction. Hence, this prime is a new prime of
the type 6n +1, a contradiction. Hence, there are infinitely many primes of the type 6n+1.
Theorem 2.13 (Chinese Remainder Theorem)
Let m1,...,mrbe r positive integers that are relatively prime in pairs, and let a1,..., ar denote any r integers. Then
the congruences x º ai (mod mi), i =1, ...., r have common solutions. Any two solutions are congruent modulo
m1m2...mr.
Proof.
Let, m = m1m2..., mr. Note that m/mj and mj are co-prime. Hence there exists bj such that (m/mj)bj º 1 (mod
mj). Clearly

( m / m j ) b j º 0 ( mod m ) for i ¹ j
r m
Define x 0 = å ( m / m j )b j a j . Now mj
º 1 or 0 (mod mi) according as j =i or j ¹ 1 . Hence x0 is a solution of the
j =1

system of congruences.
If x0 and y0 are solutions of the system, then x0 – y0 = ai – ai º0 (mod mi) for each i. As m1,..., mr are co-prime
in pairs, x0 – y0 º 0 (mod m) as required.
Example 2.18
Find all solutions of the system
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

x º 2 ( mod 4 ) , x º 3 ( mod5 ) , x º 1 ( mod7 )

Solution.
Here m1 =4, m2 =5, m3 = 7, M = m1m2m3 = 140,

M1 = M/m1 = 35, M2 = M/m2 = 28, M3 = M/m3 = 20. M1 º3 (mod 4), hence M1¢ º 3 (mod 4). M2 º 3 (mod

5), hence M 2¢ º 2 (mod 5). M 3 º 6 (mod 7), hence M 3¢ º 6 (mod 7). Consider

x 0 = 2M1M1¢ + 3M2 M2¢ + 1M3 M3¢ = 2 ´ 35 ´ 3 + 3 ´ 28 ´ 2 + 20 ´ 6

= 498 º 78 (mod 140).

Hence all the solutions of the system are 78 + 140 k, k Î Z.

38
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SOLVED EXAMPLES
Ex.1 Find the total number of positive integral solutions of the equation xyz = 30.
Sol. To find the positive integral solutions of the equation xyz = 30. The following are the possibilities.

x y z
1 1 30
1 2 15
1 3 10
1 5 6
2 3 5
Now consider the first solution x = 1, y = 1, z = 30. We can have x = 1, y = 30, z = 1, x = 30, y = 1,
z = 1.
There are 3 solutions for the first set of values. Consider x =1, y = 2, z = 15. It gives rise to.

x y z
1 2 15
1 15 2
2 15 1
2 1 15
15 1 2
15 2 1
There are 6 solutions.
Thus there are totally 3 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 27 solutions.

1 1 1
Ex.2 Find all positive integers x, y satisfying + = .
x y 20

Sol. Suppose x, y are two positive integers such that

1 1 1
+ = .................(i)
x y 20

1 1 1 x - 20
then = - =
y 20 x 20 × x

1 x + 20 - 4 5x
\ =
y 20x
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Implying that 5x is rational

Now x Î N Þ 5x Î N. Hence 5x is the square of an integer which is divisible by 5.

\ 5x = (5a)2 for some a Î N i.e., x = 5a2 similarly y = 5b2 for some b Î N.
Now, Equation (i) becomes

1 1 1
+ = Þ 2(a + b) = ab
a b 2
(a – 2) (b – 2) = 4
Þ (a, b) Î {(3,6), (4, 4), (6, 3)}
\ Solution set is {(45, 180), (80, 80), (180, 45)}.

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Ex.3 In which base is the number 221 a factor of 1215 ?
Sol. The number 1215 in base a is written as a3 + 2a2 + a + 5 and the number 221 in base a is 2a2 + 2a + 1.
Therefore, if we divide a3 + 2a2 + a + 5 by 2a2 + 2a + 1 we obtain that
æ1 1ö æ 1 9ö
a3 + 2a2 + a + 5 = (2a2 + 2a + 1) ç a + ÷ + ç - a + ÷ .
è 2 2 ø è 2 2 ø
æ 1 9ö 1 1
Therefore, since 1215a has to be a multiple of 221a, the remainder ç - a + ÷ has to be 0 and a +
è 2 2 ø 2 2
has to be an integer number. Both conditions are satisified if a = 9.
Ex.4 Find all integers satisfying.
x2 + x = y4 + y3 + y2 + y.
Sol. To find the integer solutions of x2 + x = y4 + y3 + y2 + y.
Can we make x2 + x a square by some adjustments?, (x + 1)2 gives x2 + 2x + 1 and we cannot multiply
x alone by 2 and add 1.
But (2x +1)2 = 4x2 + 4x + 1 is easy to get from x2 + x by multiplying by 4 and adding 1.
\ 4x2 + 4x + 1 = 4y4 + 4y3 + 4y2 + 4y + 1
(2x + 1)2 = 4y4 + 4y3 + 4y2 + 4y + 1
If R.H.S is a square then we can proceed.
Now
4y4 + 4y3 + 4y2 + 4y + 1 = (2y2 + y)2 + (3y + 1) (y + 1) ............ (1)
4y4 + 4y3 + 4y2 + 4y + 1 = (2y2 +y+ 1)2 – y (y – 2) ........... (2)
Consider (3y + 1) (y + 1)
This is positive when y < –1 or y > 0
\ 4y4 + 4y3 + 4y2 + 4y + 1 > (2y2 + 1)2
y (y – 2) > 0 for y < 0, y > 2
4y4 + 4y3 + 4y2 +4y + 1 < (2y2 + y + 1)2
\ (2y2 + 1)2 < 4y4 + 4y3 + 4y2 + 1 < (2y2 + y + 1)2
This lies between two consecutive squares.
Þ it cannot be a square.
But we must check for y = –1,0,1,2,
When y = –1 y4 + y3 + y2 + y = 1 – 1 + 1 – 1 = 0.
\ x2 + x = 0 Þ x (x + 1) = 0 x = 0, x = –1
\ x = 0, y = –1 x = –1, y = –1.
Ex.5 Consider the following array, in which the numbers from 1 to 9 are placed as indicated.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

Observe that the sum of the integers in the two main diagonals is 15. If we construct a similar array with
the numbers from 1 to 10000, what is the value of the sum of the numbers in the two main diagonals ?
Sol. The array will be a square of size 100 × 100. Let S 1 be the sum of the numbers in the diagonal which goes
from the top left corner to the bottom right corner and let S2 be the sum of the numbers of the other main
diagonal.
When we move one column to the right in the same row, the number increase by 1 ; if we move one column
to the left in the same row, the number decreases by 1. When we move down in the same column, the number
increases by 100.
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 Mathematics
ALLEN
From the top left corner to the bottom right corner through the diagonal, each number is one column to
the right and one row below, that is, it is 1 + 100 = 101 grater than the previous number of the diagonal.
That is, the sum we want to calculate is the sum of the progression 1, 1 + 101, ......, 1 + 99.101 that is

æ 2.1 + 99.101 ö
S1 = ç ÷ 100 = 500050.
è 2 ø

From the top right corner, through the diagonal, each number is in the previous column, that is, one column to
the left and one row below, that is, it –1 + 100 = 99 greater than the previous number in the diagonal. That
is, the sum we are looking for is the sum of the progression 100, 100 + 1.99,....., 100 + 99.99 that is

æ 2.100 + 99.99 ö
S2 = ç ÷ 100 = 500050.
è 2 ø

Therefore, S1 = S2 = 500050.
Ex.6 Prove that, if m, n are integers, then the expression
E = m5 + 3m4n – 5m3 n2 – 15m2n3 + 4mn4 + 12n5
cannot take the value 33.
Sol. The expression E can be written as
E = (m5 – m3n2) – 4 (m3n2 – mn4) + 3 (m4n – m2n3) – 12 (m2n3 – n5)
= m3(m2 – n2) – 4mn2(m2 – n2) + 3m2n(m2 – n2) – 12n3(m2 – n2)
= (m2 – n2) (m3 – 4mn2 + 3m2n – 12n3)
= (m2 – n2) [(m3 – 4mn2) + (3m2n – 12n3)]
= (m2 – n2) [m(m2 – 4n2)+ 3n(m2 – 4n2)]
= (m2 – n2) (m + 3n) (m2 – 4n2)
= (m – n) (m + n) (m + 3n) (m – 2n) (m + 2n).
That is,
E = (m – 2n) (m – n) (m + n) (m + 2n) (m + 3n).
It is evident that for n ¹ 0, n Î Z, the expression E has been factored in five pairwise distinct factors.
Thus, the integer E has atleast five pairwise different divisors. But the number 33 cannot be expressed as
a product of five pairwise different factors.
One can write
33 = (–3) × 11 × (–1) × 1 or 33 = 3. (–11) × (–1) × 1.
Ex.7 Find the number of solutions of |[x] – 2x| = 4, where [x] is the greatest integer function.
Sol. The student should know about the greatest integer function to solve the problem.
[x] is the greatest integer not exceeding x.
e.g. [7.2] = 7, [6.75] = 6, [8] = 8
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

[0.23] = 0, [–0.3] = –1 etc.

Thus [x] function is given then x if x is a whole number, [x] = x.
If x is not a whole number, let x = n + f where n is a whole number and f is such that 0 < f < 1.
((i.e.,) a proper fraction).
Again [x] is the positive value of x.
(i.e,) When [x] = a then x = ± a.
Given equation is |[x] – 2x| = 4.
Let us solve the problem taking two cases.
Case 1 : When x is a whole number.
Then [x] = x, \ The equation reduces to |x – 2x| = 4,
|– x| = 4 Þ x = ± 4.

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Case 2 : Let x be not a whole number.
Let x = n + f where 0 < f < 1.
[x] = n.
Given equation becomes |n – 2 (n + f)| = 4.
Þ |–n – 2f| = 4.
Þ n + 2f = ±4 or n = ±4 – 2f.
n is a whole number Þ RHS must be a whole number

1
Þ f= .
2
\ n = ± 4 – 1 (i.e.,) n = –5 or n = 3.

1 1
\ x = n + f = –5 + or 3 +
2 2

9 7
(i.e.,) x = - or .
2 2

-9 7
\ The solutions are 4, –4, - , .
2 2

1 + a n an -1
Ex.8 The sequence {an} is defined by a1 = a2 = a3 = 1 and, for n ³ 3, by an + 1 = . Then every element
a n -2
of the sequence is an integer.
Sol. Observe that for n ³ 3, the elements of the sequence satisfy an+1an–2 = 1 + anan–1
Therefore an+2 an–1 = 1 + an+1 an
Subtracting the first equation from the second, we get
an+2an–1 – an+1 an–2 = an+1an – anan–1.
After factoring and rearranging the terms, we obtain
(an+2 + an)an–1 = (an + an–2)an+1

a n +2 + a n a n + an -2
= .
a n +1 a n -1

a n + a n -2
If we define bn = ; it follows that bn+2 = bn, That is, it happens that the even terms of {bn} are
a n -1
all equal and the odd terms are also equal to each other. Then, since

1 + a3 a2
+ a2 1 + 1 + 1
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a + a1 a + a2 a1
b3 = 3 = 2 and b4 = 4 = = 1 = 3,
a2 a1 a1 1

ì3a n -1 - a n -2 , if n is even
we have that a n = í
î2a n -1 - a n -2 , if n is odd
By induction, we can conclude that an is an integer number.
Ex.9 Find all the positive integral values of n for which n4 + 4 is a prime number.
Sol. n4 + 4 = n4 + 4n2 + 4 – 4n2 = (n2 + 2n + 2) (n2 – 2n + 2)
For n = 1, n4 + 4 = 5 × 1, a prime.
For n > 1, n2 + 4 is composite since it has the two factors n2 + 2n + 2 and n2 – 2n + 2, each greater than 1.
Hence, n4 + 4 is prime only for n = 1.

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ALLEN
Ex.10 Let S = {1, 2, .... 100}. A be any subset of S containing 53 elements. Show that A has two numbers
a, b such that a – b = 12. Construct a subset B of S with 52 numbers such that for any two numbers a,b
of B, |a – b| ¹ 12.
Sol. S = {1, 2, 3, 4, .... 100},
Let us consider pairs (a, b) such that, a – b = 12
(1, 13), (2, 14) ..... (12,24)
(25, 37), (26, 38) ..... (36, 48)
(49, 61), (50, 62) ...... (60,72)
(73, 85), (74, 86) ..... (84, 96)
Totally there are 48.
If we take 1,2, .... 12 from the first set
25,26, .....36 from the second
49,50,......60 from the third.
73,....84 from the fourth
and 97, 98, 99, 100 are also taken, then the difference of any two elements cannot be 12.
Totally there are 52 elements.
If we take one more element then it has to be from any one of the four sets then that particular element
with its pair gives a difference of 12.
Thus a subset of 53 elements, there is atleast two elements a, b such that (a – b) = 12.
Now, we can construct a subset B of 52 elements such that any two numbers a, b of B are such that
|a – b| ¹ 12.
The one is shown above.
B = {1, 2,.....12, 25, 26......36, 49, 50 ...... 60, 73.... 84, 97, 98, 99, 100}.
Ex.11 Prove that every composite positive integer can be represented in the form.
xy + xz + yz + 1,
where x, y, z are positive integers.
Sol. It is evident that every composite positive integer can be expressed in the form a × b, where a and b are
positive integers with a, b ³ 2. Therefore, if c is a composite positive integer, then
c = a × b.
Set z = 1 in the expression xy + xz + yz + 1. Then
xy + x + y + 1 = (x + 1) (y + 1).
However,
(x + 1) (y + 1) = a × b
for x = a – 1 and y = b – 1. Therefore, every composite positive integer can be represented in the form
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

xy + xz + yz + 1, where x = a – 1, y = b – 1 and z = 1.
Ex.12 For which positive integral values of x, if any, is the equation x6 = 9k + 1, where k = 0, 1, 2, ..., not satisfied?
Sol. Since we are seeking multiples of 9 (increased by one), we consider those values of x that leave remainder
of 0, 1, or 2 when divided by 3, since the second and higher powers of 3 are multiples of 9.
If x = 3a + 1, a = 0, 1, 2, ..., then x6 = (3a + 1)6. Of the seven terms in the expansion of (3a + 1)6, each
of the first six is divisible by 9, and the last term is 1. Therefore, x6 = (3a + 1)6 may be written as 9k + 1.
If x = 3a + 2, a = 0, 1, 2, ...., we may write x = 3b – 1, b = 1,2,3,... where b = a + 1. Then x6 =
(3b – 1)6 . Of the seven terms in the expansion of (3b – 1)6, each of the first six is divisible by 9, and the
last term is 1. Therefore, x6 = (3b – 1)6 may be written as 9k + 1.
If, however, x = 3a, a = 0, 1, 2,..., then x6 = (3a)6, which, when divided by 9, leaves a remainder of 0.
Therefore, all those values of x such that x = 3a where a = 0, 1, 2, ....., fail to satisfy the given equation,
and all those values of x such that x ¹ 3a do satisfy the given equation.

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Ex.13 A number N has three digits expressed in base 7. When N is expressed in base 9, the digits are reversed.
Find the middle digit of the number.
Sol. Let the number be (abc), in base 7 system.
Then 1 £ a £ 6, 0 £ b £ 6, 0 £ c £ 6.
It is given that
(abc)7 = (cba)9
(abc)7 = a × 72 + b × 7 + c = 49a + 7b + c.
(cba)9 = c × 92 + b × 9 + a = 81c + 9b + a.
\ 49a + 7b + c = 81a + 9b + a.
Þ 48a – 2b – 80c = 0.
Þ 24a – b – 40c = 0.
4(6a – 10c) = b.
4(6a – 10c) is divisible by 4.
Þ b also should be divisible by 4. But 0 £ b £ 6.
Þ b = 0 or b = 4. If b = 0 we have 6a – 10c = 0.
Þ 3a – 5c = 0 Þ 3a = 5c. But 1 £ a £ 6 and 0 £ c £ 6.
Þ a = 5, c = 3.
\ (503)7 = 5 × 72 + 0 × 7 + 3 = 248.
If b = 4. we have 6a – 10c = 1.
Þ 6a = 10c + 1
L.H.S is even but R.H.S is odd. Then there is no integer solution. Thus the number is 248 expressed in
base 10.
Ex.14 Let n be an integer. An integer A is formed by 2n digits each of which is 4; however, another integer B is
formed by n digits each of which is 8. Prove that the integer.
A + 2B + 4
is a perfect square of an integer.

Sol. One has A = 444...4

14243 and B = 888...8
1424 3
2n n

A = 444...4
1424 3 = 444...4000...0
1424 31 42431 +444...4
424 3
2n n n n

n
= 444...4.(10
1424 3 - 1) + 888...8
1424 3
n n
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

n
= 444...4.(10
14243 - 1) + B
n

Therefore,

A = 4. 111...1.999...9
14243 1 424 3 + B = 4.111...1.9.111...1
14243 1 4243+B
n n n n

2
= 6. 111...1.6.111...1
14243 1 4243 + B = (666...6)
14243 + B
n n n

2 2
2 æ3 ö æ3 ö
= (3. 222...2)
14243 + B = ç .888...8
1424 3 ÷ + B = ç .B ÷ +B
ç4 ÷ è4 ø
n è n ø

44
 Mathematics
ALLEN
Thus, we obtain

2
æ3 ö
A + 2B + 4 = ç .B ÷ + B + 2B + 4
è4 ø

2
æ3 ö 3
= ç .B ÷ + 2. B.2 + 22
è4 ø 4

2 2
æ3 ö æ3 ö
= ç .B + 2 ÷ = ç .888...8
1424 3 + 2÷
è4 ø è4ç ÷
n ø

2
æ ö æ 666....68 ö2
= ç 3.222...2 + 2 ÷ =
ç 1 4243 ÷ çè n - 1 ÷ø
è n ø

Which is a perfect square of an integer.

Ex.15 Calculate the following sums :

n n
1 2k + 1
(i) å k (k + 2) (ii) å k (k + 1)2
2
k =1 k =1

1 1æ1 1 ö
Sol. (i) We have = ç - , then
k(k + 2) 2 è k k + 2 ÷ø

n n
1 1æ1 1 ö
å =å ç -
k (k + 2) k = 1 2 è k k + 2 ÷ø
k =1

1 æ1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ö
= - + - + - + ... + -
2 çè 1 3 2 4 3 5 n n + 2 ÷ø

1 æ 1 1 1 ö
= ç1 + 2 - n + 1 - n + 2 ÷
2 è ø

3 2n + 3
= -
4 2(n + 1) (n + 2)
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

2k + 1 1 1
(ii) We have 2 2
= 2
- , then
k (k + 1) k (k + 1)2

n
2k + 1 n
æ1 1 ö
å 2
k (k + 1)2
=åç 2 - ÷
(k + 1)2 ø
k =1 k =1è k

1 1 1 1 1 1
= 2
- 2
+ 2
- 2
+ ... + 2
-
1 2 2 3 n (n + 1)2

1
= 1-
(n + 1)2

45
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
Ex.16 Find the largest positive integer that exactly divides N = 11k+2 + 122k+1 where k = 0, 1, 2, ...
Sol. By adding zero to the right side in the form of 11k . 12 – 11k . 12,
we have N = 11k . 112 + 11k . 12 – 11k . 12 + (122)k . 12.
N = 11k(112 + 12) + 12 (144k – 11k)
N = 11k(112 + 12) + 12 (122 – 11) (144k–1 + .... + 11k–1)
N = 11k(133) + 12(133) (144k–1 + ... + 11k–1)
Since 133 appears in each term on the right, N is exactly divisible by 133 = 112 + 12 = 122 – 11.
Ex.17 Solve the equation
[3x – 2] – [2x – 1] = 2x – 6, x Î R.
Sol. Set [3x – 2] = a, where a Î Z. Then, it follows that there exists J1, with 0 £ J1 < 1, such that
3x – 2 – J1 = a

a + J1 + 2
or x = .
3
Set [2x – 1] = b where b Î Z. Then, it follows that there exists J2, with 0 £ J2 < 1, such that
2x – 1 – J2 = b

b + J2 + 1
or x =
2
Therefore,
a – b = 2x – 6
or 2x = a – b + 6

a-b+6
or x=
2

a + J1 + 2 b + J2 + 1 a - b + 6
Thus, = =
3 2 2
Hence, 2a + 2J1 + 4 = 3a – 3b + 18

a - 3b + 14
or J1 = .
2

b + J2 + 1 a - b + 6
Similarly =
2 2
or b + J2 + 1 = a – b + 6
or J2 = a – 2b + 5.
Since 0 £ J1 < 1, we obtain
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

a - 3b + 14
0£ <1
2
or –14 £ a – 3b < –12.
Thus, a – 3b = –14 or a – 3b = –13.
Furthermore, since 0 £ J2 < 1, we obtain
0 £ a – 2b + 5 < 1
or –5 £ a – 2b < –4
a – 2b = –5.
By solving the systems of equations
a – 3b = –14
a – 2b = –5
and a – 3b = –13
a – 2b = –5
46
 Mathematics
ALLEN
if follows that a = 13, b = 9 and a = 11, b = 8, respectively.
The above solutions are acceptable, since a and b are integer numbers.
For a = 13, b = 9 the solution of the initial equation is

a - b + 6 13 - 9 + 6 10
x= = = =5
2 2 2
For a = 11, b = 8 the solution of the initial equation is

a - b + 6 11 - 8 + 6 9
x= = = = 4.5
2 2 2
Therefore, the real solutions of the equation are the numbers 4.5 and 5.
c d
Ex.18 Prove that if ad = bc, then P = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a ¹ 0 is divisible by x2 + h2 where h2 = = .
a b
b 2 c d bc ad
Sol. P = a (x3 + x + x+ ), d = ,c=
a a a a b

é æ 2 c ö b æ 2 c öù
P = a ê x ç x + ÷ + ç x + ÷ ú , and
ë è aø a è a øû

é æ dö bæ d öù
P = a ê x ç x2 + ÷ + ç x2 + ÷ ú .
ë è b ø a è b øû

æ c öæ bö æ d öæ bö
P = a ç x 2 + ÷ç x + ÷ , and P = a ç x 2 + ÷ ç x + ÷ so that x2 + h2 divides P exactly.
è a øè aø è b øè aø
Ex.19 Let a, b, c, d, e be consective positive integers such that b + c + d is a perfect square and a + b + c +
d + e is a perfect cube. What is the smallest possible value of c ?
Sol. a,b,c,d,e are consecutive integers.
Any three consecutive integers are taken for example 4,5,6 then 4 + 5 + 6 = 15 = 3 × 5. Similarly any
5 consective integers are taken for example 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 20 = 5(4).
\ b + c + d = 3c and a + b + c + d + e = 5c.
It is given that 3c is a square number. But 3 divides 3c. And since 3c is a square number 32 divides 3c.
(3c is the square of an integer means c should contain a factor 3 and the other, if there is one, must be a
square number. For example, if c = 3, 3c is 9 which is 32, and if c = 3 × 5 then 3c = 45 which is not a
square number but c = 3 × 4 \ 3c = 36 which is 62).
Since 32 divides 3c,3 must divide c.
\ 3 divides 5c Þ 33 divides 5c (Q 5c is a cube)
Þ 33 divides c.
Also 5 divides 5c.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

Þ 53 |5c Þ 52|c \ 3252|c (i.e.,) 675|c

smallest possible c is 675.
Ex.20 If a < b < c are real numbers which are in harmonic progression, then
1 4 1 1 1
+ + = - .
b-c c-a a-b c a
1 1
Sol. Since a, b and c are in harmonic progression, in that order, we can suppose that = A - s, = A and
a b
1 1 A(A + s) 4 -2(A 2 - s2 ) 1 A(A - s) 1 1
= A + s, with s ¹ 0. We have = = , = and - = 2s.
c b-c s c-a s a-b s c a

Therefore,
1 4 1 A2 + As - 2A 2 + 2s2 + A 2 - As 1 1
+ + = = 2s = -
b-c c-a a-b s c a
47
RMO/INMO
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Ex.21 Find the integer values of x between –10 and +15 such that P = 3x3 + 7x2 is the square of an integer.
Sol. Since P = 3x3 + 7x2 = x2(3x + 7) = N2, either x = 0, or 3x + 7 is the square of an integer. We therefore
set 3x + 7 = K2 = 3 (x + 2) + 1. Since the right side of this last equality leaves a remainder of 1 when
divided by 3, the same holds for K2. Therefore, K2 = 3m + 1 and, in consequence, K = 3m ± 1. Put another
way, since 3x + 7 º 1 (mod 3), K2 º 1 (mod 3).
For m = 0, K = ± 1 and x = –2.
For m = 1, K = 2 or 4 and x = –1 or 3.
For m = 2, K = 5 or 7 and x = 6 or 14.
Therefore, the required set is {–2, –1, 0, 3, 6, 14}.
Ex.22 Given that 2n(2n+1 – 1) and 2n+1 – 1 is a prime number, show that
(a) Sum of the divisors of N is 2N.
(b) Sum of the reciprocals of the divisors of N is 2.
P +1
Sol. Let 2n+1 – 1 = P. Then we are given that p is a prime number. We have 2n+1 = p + 1 and 2n = .
2
(A) This makes N = 2n × P. We find that the divisors of 2n × P are 1,2,22,23....2n,P,2P,22P,23P...2nP So,
the sum of the divisors of N is given by
(i) sN = 1 + 2 + 22 + 23
+...+2n + P (1 + 2 + 22 + 23 +....+2n)

æ 2n +1 - 1 ö
= (P + 1) çç ÷÷
è 2 -1 ø
= (P + 1) (2n+1 – 1)
= 2N.

é 1 1 1ù
(ii) s 1 = (P + 1) ê1 + + 2 + ... + n ú
N ë 2 2 2 û

é 1 ù
ê 1 - 2n + 1 ú
= (P + 1) ê ú
ê 1 - 1/ 2 ú
êë úû

æ 2n + 1 - 1 ö
= (P + 1) ç
ç 2n ÷÷
è ø

æ 2n +1 - 1 ö
= 2n +1 ç = 2(2n+1 – 1)
ç 2n ÷÷
è ø
= 2P.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

Ex.23 Find real values of x satisfying.

é 3x - 1 ù é 3x + 1 ù é 3x - 1 ù 6x + 3
ê 4 ú +ê 4 ú +ê 2 ú = 5
ë û ë û ë û
where [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x.
Sol. Given

é 3x - 1 ù é 3x + 1 ù é 3x - 1 ù 6x + 3
ê 4 ú +ê 4 ú +ê 2 ú = 5
ë û ë û ë û
Let x be any real number
Let [x] denote the integral part and (x) denote the fractional part. Now 0 £ (x) < 1
\ x = [x] + (x).
Þ [x] = x – (x)

48
 Mathematics
ALLEN
The given equation can be written as
3x - 1 æ 3x - 1 ö 3x + 1 æ 3x + 1 ö
-ç ÷ + 4 -ç 4 ÷ +
4 è 4 ø è ø

3x - 1 æ 3x - 1 ö 6x + 3
-ç ÷= 5
2 è 2 ø

3x - 1 3x + 1 3x - 1 6x + 3
Þ + + -
4 4 2 5

æ 3x - 1 ö æ 3x + 1 ö æ 3x - 1 ö
=ç ÷ +ç ÷ +ç ÷
è 4 ø è 4 ø è 2 ø

5(3x - 1) + 5(3x + 1) + 10(3x - 1) - 4(6x + 3)

20

æ 3x - 1 ö æ 3x + 1 ö æ 3x - 1 ö
=ç ÷ +ç ÷ +ç ÷
è 4 ø è 4 ø è 2 ø

36x - 22 æ 3x - 1 ö æ 3x + 1 ö æ 3x - 1 ö
=ç ÷ +ç ÷ +ç ÷
20 è 4 ø è 4 ø è 2 ø

18x - 11 æ 3x - 1 ö æ 3x + 1 ö æ 3x - 1 ö
=ç ÷ +ç ÷ +ç ÷
10 è 4 ø è 4 ø è 2 ø
Now
æ 3x - 1 ö æ 3x + 1 ö æ 3x - 1 ö
0 £ç ÷ < 1, 0 £ ç ÷ < 1, 0 £ç ÷ <1
è 4 ø è 4 ø è 2 ø

æ 3x - 1 ö æ 3x + 1 ö æ 3x - 1 ö
Þ 0 £ç ÷+ç ÷+ ç ÷<3
è 4 ø è 4 ø è 2 ø

18x - 11
Þ0£ <3
10
0 £ 18x – 11 < 30 Þ 11 £ 18x < 41
11 41
Þ £x<
18 18
6x + 3
which is the RHS is an integer..
5
6x + 3
Let = n Î z+
5
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

5n - 3
Þ x=
6
1 é 11 41 ù
n=1Þx= Ï ,
3 êë18 18 úû
7 é 11 41 ù
n=2Þx= Î ,
6 êë18 18 úû
n = 3 does not satisfy the equation
17 é 11 41 ù
n=4Þx= Ïê , ú
6 ë18 18 û
7
x= is the only solution.
6

49
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
Ex.24 The equation x2 + y2 + z2 = 2xyz has no integer solutions except when x = y = z = 0.
Sol. Consider the equation x2 + y2 + z2 = 2xyz. The left-hand side of the equation has exactly one even term
or all three terms are even. If exactly one term is even, then the right-hand side of the equation is divisible
by 4 and the left-hand side is divisible only by 2, so we have a contradiction. Then all terms are even, that
is, x = 2x1, y = 2y1 z = 2z1 and
x12 + y12 + z12 = 4x1 y1 z1 ............. (i)
From equation (i), following the same reasoning leads to x1 = 2x2, y1 = 2y2, z1 = 2z2 and
x22 + y22 + z22 = 8x2 y2 z2 ............. (ii)
Again from equation (ii), it follows that x2, y2, z2 are even, and so on and so forth. Then
x = 2x1 = 22x2 = 23x3 = ... = 2nxn = ...,
y = 2y1 = 22y2 = 23y3 = ... = 2nyn = ...,
z = 2z1 = 22z2 = 23z3 = ... = 2nzn = ...,
that is, if (x, y, z) is a solution, then x, y and z are divisible by 2n for all n. This is impossible, unless x = y
= z = 0.
Ex.25 Find the sum of all positive integers that are less than 10,000 whose squares divided by 17 leave remainder 9.
Sol. Let x be any one of these integers.
Then x2 = 17k + 9, where k Î N. ......... (1)

x2 - 9
Then k= ,
17

(x - 3) (x + 3)
that is, k= ........... (2)
17
Because of the fact that k Î N and 17 is a prime number, it follows that
(x - 3) (x + 3)
ÎN
17
in the following cases :
x – 3 = 17l, l Î N. ............ (3)
or x + 3 = 17l, l Î N. ............ (4)
For case (3), since x depends upon l, we will denote the solution of (3) by xl and thus we get.
xl = 17l + 3, l Î N
Since xl < 10,000
it follows that 17l + 3 < 10,000

which implies l = 588 1 .

7
Therefore, l = 1,2,3,...., 588.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

For these values of l, from the formula

xl = 17l + 3,

ì x1 = 17.1 + 3
ï
ï x2 = 17.2 + 3
í
we obtain ï :
ïî x588 = 17.588 + 3

Adding by parts the above equalities, we get

x1 + x2 + ... + x588 = 17(1 + 2 + ....+588) + 588.3,
that is,
(588 + 1).588
x1 + x2 + .... + x588 = 17. + 588.3. ...........(5)
2

50
 Mathematics
ALLEN
For case (4), since x depends upon l, we will denote the solution of (4) by xl and we have
x l = 17l – 3, l Î N.
Since xl < 10,000
it follows that 17l – 3 < 10,000
7
which implies l < 588 .
17
Thus, l = 1,2,...., 588.
For these values of l, from the formula
xl = 17l – 3,
ì x1 = 17.1 - 3
ï
ï x2 = 17.2 - 3
í
we obtain ï :
ï
î x588 = 17.588 - 3
Adding by parts the above equalities, we get
x1 + x2 + .... + x588 = 17(1 + 2 + ....+588) – 588.3,
that is,
(588 + 1)
x1 + x2 + .... + x588 = 17. - 588.3. ...........(6)
2
Hence, the total sum S of
x1 , x2 ...., x588 , x1 , x2 ...., x 588

æ 17 ö æ 17 ö
is S =ç .(588 + 1).588 + 588.3 ÷ +ç .(588 + 1).588 - 588.3 ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
= 17.589.588
= 5,887,644.
Therefore, S = 5,887,644.
Ex.26 Find the following product.

æ 1ö æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
ç1 + 2 ÷ ç1 + 2 ÷ ... ç 1 + 2n ÷.
è øè 2 ø è 2 ø
Sol. Define S as the product we have to calculate, that is,
æ 1ö æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
S = ç1 + ÷ ç1 + 2 ÷ ... ç 1 + 2n ÷ .
è 2 øè 2 ø è 2 ø
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

æ 1ö 1 1 æ 1 ö
Multiplying both sides of the equality by ç 1 - ÷ and using that æç 1 - ö÷ æç 1 + ö÷ = ç 1 - 2 ÷ , we get
è 2ø è 2ø è 2ø è 2 ø
æ 1ö æ 1 öæ 1 ö æ 1 ö
ç 1 - 2 ÷ S = ç 1 - 2 ÷ ç1 + 2 ÷ ... ç 1 + 2n ÷
è ø è 2 øè 2 ø è 2 ø
Proceeding in this way, we arrive at

æ 1ö æ æ 1 ö ö
2

ç 1 - S = ç 1 - ç 2n ÷ ÷÷
è 2 ÷ø ç
è è2 ø ø

æ æ 1 ö ö
2
ç 1 - ç 2n ÷ ÷
ç è 2 ø ÷ø æ æ 1 ö ö
2
Therefore, S = è = 2 ç 1 - ç 2n ÷ ÷
æ 1ö ç è 2 ø ÷ø
ç1 - 2 ÷ è
è ø

51
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
Ex.27 Prove that 22225555 + 55552222 is divisible by 7.
Sol. Consider an + bn
Let f (a, b) = an + bn where n is an odd natural numbers.
Put b = –a.
f(a, –a) = an + (–a)n = an – an = 0 \ n is odd.
Þ (a + b) is a factor of an + bn.
Consider an + bn , When a and b are positive integers and n is odd then (a + b) divides an + bn
Consider an – bn. Let f (a, b) = an – bn, where n is even or odd. Let b = ± a.
Let f(a, + a) = an – (+a)n = an – an = 0.
Þ (a – b) is a factor.
(i.e.,) (a – b) divides an – bn.
Let S = 22225555 + 55552222.
S = (22225555 + 45555) + (55552222 – 42222) + (42222 – 45555)
The number in the first bracket is divisible by
(2222 + 4) = 2226 = 7 × 318.
The number in the second bracket is divisible by
5555 – 4 = 5551 = 7 × 793.
The number in the third bracket is.
42222 – 45555 = –42222 [43333 – 1].
Consider
43333 – 1 = (43)1111 – 1 = 641111 – 11111.
It is divisible by 64 – 1 = 63 = 7 × 9.
\ All the numbers in the three brackets are divisible by 7.
\ S is divisible by 7.
Ex.28 (i) For which integers n does it follow that 7 divides 2n – 1 ?
(ii) For which positive integers n does it follow that 7 divides 2n + 1 ?
Sol. First note that for n ³ 1, it follows that 2n+3 ± 1 = 2n(23 – 1) + 2n ± 1 = 7.2n + (2n ± 1), then 7 |2n ± 1
if and only if 7| 2n+3 ± 1. This equivalence shows an inductive step of the form 7 |2n ± 1 Þ 7| 2n+3 ±1,
and of the form 7 | 2n ± 1 Þ 7 | 2n+3 + 1.
Now let us see the induction basis.
(i) For n = 1, 2 it follows that 7 does not divide 2n – 1. For n = 3, it follows that 7 divides 23 – 1 = 7. Therefore,
the integers n we are looking for are the multiples of 3.
(ii) For n = 1, 2, 3, it follows that 7 does not divide 2n + 1 (which are 3, 5 and 9). Thus 7 does not divide
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

2n + 1 with n ³ 1.
Ex.29 Define the sequence {an} as a1 = a2 = 1 and, for n ³ 1, an+2 = an+1an + 1. Which elements of the sequence
are even and which ones are multiples of 4 ?
Sol. By induction we can prove that an is a positive integer. If an–1 and an–2 are positive integers, then
an = an–1 an–2 + 1 is also a positive integer. Let us see which terms are even. We have that
a3 = a2a1 + 1 = 2 is even, but a4 and a5 are not even; since by definition each of them is the sum of an
even number and 1, then a4 and a5 are odd. However, a6 is even and the formula for a7 and a8, tell us both
are odd. Then, the sequence modulo 2 is 1,1,0,1,1,0,... The recursive relation an+2 = an+1 an+1 generates
an odd number if one of the factors is even, and an even number if both factors are odd. Then, the terms
of the form a3k are even.
If now we consider the sequence module 4, we see that it is given by 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, ...., after the third
term in the sequence, the numbers 2,3,3 are repeated, which shows that there are no multiples of 4.

52
 Mathematics
ALLEN
Ex.30 Prove that there does not exist any prime number in the sequence of integers.
1001, 100010001, 1000100010001,.....
Sol. The above sequence of integers can be expressed by the following representation :
1 + 104, 1 + 104 + 108,....., 1 + 104 + 108 + ... + 104n, ....
This sequence is a special case of the sequence
1 + x4 , 1 + x4 + x8,...., 1 + x4 + x8 + .... + x4n,...,
where x is an integer with x > 1, n Î N. We consider two cases :
Case 1 : If n = 2k and k Î N, then
1 + x4 + x8 + ..... + x4n = 1 + x4 + x8 + .... + x4(2k)
= 1 + x4 + (x4)2 +.....+ (x4)2k

1 - (x 4 )2k +1
=
1 - x4

1 - (x2k +1 )4
=
1 - x4

1 - (x2k +1 )2 1 + (x 2k +1 )2
= ×
1 - x2 1 + x2

1 - (x2 )2k +1 1 + (x 2 )2k +1

= ×
1 - x2 1 + x2

Thus,
1 + x4 + x8 + .... + x4n = (1 + x2 +....+ (x2)2k) (1 – x2 +....+(x2)2k).
Therefore, for every n Î N with n = 2k, k Î N, the number
1 + x4 + x8 +....+x4n
is composite.
Case 2 : If n = 2k + 1 and k Î N, then
1 + x4 + x8 +...+ x4n = 1 + x4 + x8 +...+ x4(2k+1)
= (1 + x4) + (x8 + x12) +...+ (x8k + x8k+4)
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

= (1 + x4) + x8 (1 + x4) +...+ x8k(1 + x4)

= (1 + x4) (1 + x8 + x12 +...+ x8k).
Therefore, for every, n Î N with n = 2k + 1, k Î N, the number
1 + x4 + x8 +...+ x4n
is composite.
In the special case when x = 10 and n = 1 we obtain
1 + 104 = 10001 = 73 × 137.
Therefore, in every case, the sequence of integers.
1 + x4 . 1 + x4 + x8,...., 1 + x4 + x8 +....+ x4n,....
where x is an integer with x > 1 and n Î N, does not contain prime numbers.

53
RMO/INMO
ALLEN
EXERCISE
1. Find all pairs of positive integers m,n (m > n) such that the difference between the mth and nth triangular numbers
is equal to 2006.
2. Find the integral solutions of 19x3 – 84y2 = 1984.
3. Prove that there are no natural numbers, which are solutions of 15x2 – 7y2 = 9.
4. Prove that there are an infinite number of pairs of irrational numbers a, b such that a + b = ab is an integer
number.
5. Find the number of positive integral values of ‘n’ for which (n3 – 8n2 + 20n – 13) is a prime number.
6. There are 500 students in a school. Two-third of the students who do not wear spectacles do not bring lunch,
three-quarter of the students who do not bring lunch do not wear spectacles. Altogether 60 spectacled students
bring lunch too. Find the number of students who do not wear spectacles and do not bring lunch.
7. Prove that there are 5 prime numbers which are in arithmetic progression with difference 6. Is the progression
unique?
8. Let {an} be a non-constant arithemtic progression with initial term a1 = 1. The terms a2, a5, a11 form a geometric
progression. Find the sum of the first 2009 terms.
9. The fourth power of the C.D of an AP with integer entries is added to the product of any four consecutive terms
of it. Prove that the resulting sum is the square of an integer.
10. If the coefficients of ax2 + bx + c = 0
are odd integers, then the roots of the equation cannot be rational numbers.
11. If a, b, c, d are in Harmonic progression prove a + d > b + c.

1 1 1 1 1 1
12. Find the sum 1+ + + 1+ + + ... + 1 + + .
12 22 22 32 20112 20122

13. Show that in the year 1996, no one could claim on his birthday, his age was the sum of the digits the year in
which he was born. Find the last year prior to 1996 which had the same property.
14. Is there an integer n such that (n2 + n + 3) is a multiple of 121 ?
15. Prove that there are no integers a, b, c, d such that
abcd – a = 111.....1 (The digit 1 appears k times) (a)
abcd – b = 111.....1 (The digit 1 appears k times) (b)
abcd – c = 111.....1 (The digit 1 appears k times) (c)
abcd – d = 111.....1 (The digit 1 appears k times) (d)
where k Î N – {1}.
16. Prove that in any perfect square the three digits immediately to the left of the unit digit cannot be 101.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

17. If ‘n’ is an odd integer, prove that the number (n3 + 3n2 – n – 3) is divisible by 48.

1 1 1 1
18. Find the sum + + + ... + .
1.4 4.7 7.10 2998.3001
19. If a, b and c are real numbers, prove that b + c, c + a and a + b are in harmonic progression if and only if
a2, b2 and c2 are in arithmetic progression.
20. Find the solutions of the system of equations.
x + [y] + {z} = 1.1,
[x] + {y} + z = 2.2,
{x} + y + [z] = 3.3.
14x + 5 17x - 5
21. Can the numbers and both be integers for some integer x ?
9 12

54
 Mathematics
ALLEN
22. The sequence {an} is defined by

a2n + 1
a1 = a2 = 1 and a n +1 = , for n ³ 2.
an -1

Prove that every term of the sequence is a positive integer.

q(a 2 - 1) (c2 - 1)
23. Find all integer solution (a, c) of a4 + 6a3 + 11a2 + 6a + 1 =
a2 + c2
where q is the product of arbitrary non-negetive roots of aternative prime i.e.

q = 2b1 5b2 11b3 ......... where bi ³ 0

24. Three non-zero real numbers form an arithmetical progression. The squares of these numbers in the same order
form a geometric progression. Is it possible ?
25. If a, b, c and d are in harmonic progession, then a + d > b + c.

7n - 12 2n - 14 24n
26. Find all integers n such that + + n =1
2n 3n 6
27. Find the last three digits of the integer 79999.
28. If a,b,c,d are integers, prove that the product of the differences b – a, c – a, d – a, c – b, d – b,c – d is divisible
by 12.
29. In the following arrangement, all the odd numbers were placed in such a way that in the jth row there are j
consecutive odd numbers,

1
3 5
7 9 11
13 15 17 19

(i) Which is the first number (on the left) in the 100th row ?
(ii) Which is the sum of the numbers in the 100th row ?
30. Prove that if the integers a1,a2,..., a9 are not divisible by 3, then

a12 + a22 + ... + a92 º 0 (mod 3)

31. Determine the number of real solutions a of the equation.

éa ù éa ù éa ù
ê2 ú + ê 3 ú + ê 5 ú = a
ë û ë û ë û
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

32. A ordered triplet (a, b, c) where a, b, c are non zero reals is said to be good if each of a, b, c is the product
of the other two. Find such good triplets.
33. Find all positive integers ‘n’ such that n + 9,16n + 9, 27n + 9 are all perfect squares.
34. The lengths of the sides of a right triangle, given by a < b < c, are in gemetric progression. Find the ratio of
the progression.
35. Find all the pairs of positive integers (a, b) such that ab + a + b divides a2 + b2 + 1.
36. The sequence {an} is defined by
a1 = 1, a2 = 3, an = an–1 + an–2, for n ³ 3.
n
æ7ö
Prove that an < ç ÷ , for all n.
è4ø

55
RMO/INMO
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(n + 1)2
37. Determine all natural numbers ‘n’ such that is an integer..
n+7

38. Find the geometric progressions {an} satisfying that an+2 = an+1 + an, for all n ³ 0.
39. Prove that for every positive integer n the value of the expression
24n+1 – 22n – 1 is divisible by 9.
40. Prove that any prime number (22n + 1) cannot be represented as a difference of two fifith powers of integers.
41. Show that if the sum of the squares of two whole numbers is divisible by 3, then each of them is divisible by 3.

1 1 1
42. Find all the positive integral solution of the equation + = .
x y 2015

43. Prove that 7 divides the number 147 + 247 + 347 + 447 + 547 + 647.
44. Find the integer solutions of the equation

1 1 1
+ =
x y 1997

45. Find the values of an, if a1 = 1 and for each n ³ 2, it follows that
a1 + a2 + ... + an = n2.
46. Let a be an integer. Prove that there are no integers b, c with c > 1, such that
(a + 1)2 + (a + 2)2 +....+ (a + 99)2 = bc.
47. If an integer of 2 digits is p times the sum of its digits, prove that the value of the number got by interchanging
the digits is the sum of the digits multiplied by (11 – p).

æ 1 ö æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
48. Evaluate the product ç 1 - 2 ÷ ç1 - 2 ÷ ... ç 1 - ÷.
è 2 ø è 3 ø è 20112 ø

49. If for the rational number x the value of the expression

2x4 + 3x + 1
is an integer, prove that x is also an integer.
50. Find all positive integers a, b such that a4 + 4b4 is a prime number.

n3 - 1
51. Find all integers ‘n’ such that is a prime number..
5

a 2m + a2n
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\02-Number theory.p65

52. The sequence a0, a1, a2 ,...., is defined as a0 = 0, a1 = 1 and, for m ³ n ³ 0, am+n + am–n = . Find
2
the value of a1000.

ì ê 2a ú
ï0, if ê ú is an even integer
ê 2a ú êaú ï ëbû
53. Let a, b Î N. Prove that ê ú - 2 ê ú = í
ë bû ëbû ï ê 2a ú
1, if ê ú is an odd integer
ïî ë bû

54. Solve the equation ëx2 – 3x + 2û = 3x – 7, x Î R.

55. abc is a three digit number. ab, bc, ca are two numbers. Determine all three digit numbers abc such that
abc = ab + bc + ca.

56
 Mathematics
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CHAPTER - 3 INEQUALITIES
Inequality
The relation between two unequal numbers (real numbers) is called an inequality.
A quantity x is said to be greater than the quantity y, if x – y is +ve.
The quantity x is said to be less than quantity y, if x – y is –ve.
The symbols > and < are used for greater than and less than respectively.
Some Important Properties
Property 1. If a > b, b > c, then a > c
We have a – c = (a – b) + (b – c) = + ve
Since, a > b and b > c i.e., (a – b) and (b – c) are + ve.
\ a>c
In same way, we can prove that if, we are given a < b, b < c, then a < c.
Property 2. If a > b, then a + c > b + c
We have (a + c) – (b + c) = a – b = + ve [Q a > b]
\ (a + c) > (b + c)
Similarly, we can prove that

a b
a – c > b – c, > and a × c > b × c
c c
provided c is +ve.
Similarly, we can also prove that, if a < b, then
a + c < b + c and a – c < b – c
Hence, if both sides of an inequality are increased or diminished by the same number (+ve, –ve or zero), then
the Sign of inequality remains unaltered i.e., remains the same.
Property 3. In an equality any term may be transposed from one side to the other provided its Sign is changed.
If a + b > c + d , then a + b – c > d
or – c – d > – a – b etc.
Property 4. If the sides of an inequality be changed the sign of inequality is reversed, if a > b, then
b < a.
Property 5. If both sides of an inequality are multiplied or divided by same +ve number, the sign of inequality remains
unaltered.
If a > b, then a – b is +ve i.e., a – b > 0 multiplying both sides by x where x > 0 we have x(a – b) > 0 or
xa – xb > 0. Hence proved.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

1
Again dividing both sides of a – b > 0 by x, where x > 0 i.e., multiplying both sides of a – b > 0 by , where
x
x > 0, we get
1 a b
(a – b) > 0 or - >0
x x x
a b
or >
x x
Hence proved.

a b
Similarly, we can prove that if a < b and x > 0, then xa < xb, < .
x x

57
RMO/INMO
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Property 6. If both sides of an inequality be multiplied by a –ve quantity, the sign of inequality is reversed.
If a > b, then a – b is +ve multiplying both sides by –x, we get
–x (a – b) = –ve or –xa + xb = –ve
or –xa + xb < 0 or –xa < – xb
i.e., –x(a) < – x(b)
Hence proved.
Similarly, we can prove that if a < b and x > 0,
then –x(a) > – x(b)

Property 7. If a and b are two +ve numbers and a > b, then 1 < 1 .
a b

Q a > 0 and b > 0 , so ab > 0

Also, it is given that a > b
Dividing both sides of this inequality by ab, where ab > 0. So, by property 5

a b 1 1
> or >
ab ab b a

1 1
or <
a b

Property 8. If a1 > b1 , a2 > b2,..., an > bn then a1 + a2 + ... + an > b1 + b2 + ... + bn for all +ve a's and +ve b's.
If a1 > b1, then a1 – b1 > 0
Similarly, a2 – b2 > 0, a3 – b3 > 0, ... ,
an – bn > 0
Adding these, we get
(a1 – b1) + (a2 – b2) + ... + (an – bn) > 0
or (a1 + a2 + ... + an) – (b1 + b2 + ... + bn) > 0
or a1 + a2 + ... + an > b1 + b2 + ... + bn
Property 9. If a1 > b1 , a2 > b2, ... , an > bn, then a1a2a3 ... an > b1b2b3 ··· bn for all +ve numbers a's and b's.
From property 5, we know that if a1 > b1, then a1x > b1x where x > 0.
Substituting a2a3 ... an for x, we get
a1a2a3 ... an > b1a2a3 ... an (i)
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

Again as a2 > b2 so a2y > b2y where y > 0

Substituting b1a3 ... an for y, we get
a2b1a3 ... an > b2b1a3 ... an
b1a2a3 ... an > b1b2 a3 ...an ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
a1a2a3 ... an > b1b2a3 ... an
Applying this method successively, we get
a1a2a3 ... an > b1b2b3 ... bn
Hence proved.

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Property 10. If a > b and n is a +ve integer, then an > bn and a1/n > b1/n provided a and b are both +ve and only
real +ve values of the nth roots are taken into account.
From property 9, if a1 > b1, a2 > b2,..., an > bn we have a1a2a3 ... an > b1b2b3 ... bn
Put a1 = a2 = a3 = ... = a
and b1 = b2 = b3 = ... = b,
we get a × a × a ... n times > b × b × b ... n times or an > bn
Similarly, we can prove second result.
First Fundamental Special Concept
We know (a – b)2 ³ 0
Þ a2 + b2 – 2ab ³ 0
Þ a2 + b2 ³ 2ab
Þ 2a2 + 2b2 ³ a2 + b2 + 2ab
Þ 2(a2 + b2) ³ (a + b)2

1
Þ (a2 + b2) ³ (a + b)2
2

a 2 + b2 1
Þ ³ (a + b)
a+b 2
Second' Special Fundamental Concept
(a2 – b2)2 ³ 0
a4 + b4 – 2a2b2 ³ 0
a4 + b4 ³ 2a2b2
2a4 + 2b4 ³ a4 + b4 + 2a2b2
2(a4 + b4) ³ (a2 + b2)2

a 4 + b4 1 2
³ (a + b2)
a 2 + b2 2
Third Special Fundamental Concept

x 2 + y 2 + a 2 + b2 ³ ( x + a )2 + (y + b)2 (Q both sides are +ve)

Q Squaring, we get

x2 + y2 + a2 + b2 + 2 x 2 + y 2 a 2 + b2 ³ (x + a)2 + (y + b)2
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

Þ 2 x 2 + y 2 a 2 + b2 ³ 2ax + 2by

Þ x 2 + y 2 a 2 + b2 ³ ax + by ...(i)

If ax + by < 0, then (i) is true and given inequality is true.

If ax + by ³ 0, then squaring (i)
(x2 + y2) (a2 + b2) ³ (ax + by)2
which on arranging becomes
(ax – by)2 ³ 0
which is true.
\ Result is proved.

59
RMO/INMO
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Fourth Special Fundamental Concept
We have, (a – b)2 ³ 0, a, b are +ve
a2 + b2 – 2ab ³ 0
a2 + b2 ³ 2ab
a2 + b2 – ab > ab
Multiplying (a + b) on both sides
(a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) > ab(a + b)
a3 + b3 > ab(a + b)

a 3 + b3
> ab
a+b
Fifth Special Fundamental Concept
we know that
a2 + b2 + c2 ³ ab + bc + ca
Now, we can write
(a + b + c)2 – 2ab – 2bc – 2ac > ab + bc + ca
or (a + b + c)2 > 3(ab + bc + ca)
2
æa+b+cö 1
or ç ÷ > (ab + bc + ca)
è 3 ø 3

Arithmetic Mean (AM)

AM of a set of n +ve real numbers a1, a2, ... , an is defined to be the average value of the n numbers.
a1 + a 2 + ... + a n
i.e.,
n
Geometric Mean (GM)

GM of the same set of numbers is defined to be n a1 ´ a 2 ´ ... ´ a n .

a+b a+b a+b

If a, b > 0, then a, , b are such that the difference between consecutive terms, viz., – a, b –
2 2 2

b-a a+b
are each i.e., the same. The three terms form an AP is thus, an AM inserted between a and b
2 2

ab b b
to get an AP. Again a, ab , b are such that the quotient of consecutive terms , are each i.e.,
a ab a

the same a, ab , b is said to form a GP and ab has been inserted (as a GM) between a and b.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

a+b
ab £ ...(i)
2
GM £ AM

Now, (i) is equivalent to 2 ab £ a + b

(Multiplying an inequality by a +ve real number does not alter the inequality).
i.e., 0 £ a + b – 2 ab
Subtracting the same real number from both sides of an inequality does not alter the inequality.

( )
2
i.e., a + b – 2 ab = a- b ³ 0

60
 Mathematics
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a+b
Note The proof shows that ab = , if and only if a = b or a = b.
2

a+b
To sum up ab £ 2
i.e., GM £ AM equality holds, if and only if both the quantities are equal.

The GM – AM
inequality is true in the general form

a1 + ... + a n
n a1 ...a n £
n

If equality holds and only if a1 = a2 = ... = an

It is easy to deduce it for a set of 4 +ve numbers from the case of 2 numbers for

4 a1a 2 a 3 a 4 = 4 a1a 2 4 a 3 a 4

= a1 a 2 × a 3 a 4

£
1
2
( a1a 2 + a 3 a 4 )
1 é1 1 ù
£ (a1 + a 2 ) + (a 3 + a 4 ) ú
2 êë 2 2 û

a1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4
=
4
This method can be extended to the case n = 2k for some k = 2, 3, 4,...

a1 + a2 + a3
Now, we have to prove 3 a1 a 2 a 3 £ ...(ii)
3
for ai > 0, i = 1, 2, 3
Let a1 = x13
a2 = x23
a3 = x33
xi > 0, i = 1, 2, 3
Now, (ii) becomes
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

3x1x2x3 £ x13 + x23 + x33

or x13 + x23 + x33 – 3x1x2x3 ³ 0 ...(iii)
Rewrite LHS of (iii) as
(x1 + x2 + x3) (x12 + x22 + x32 – x1x2 – x2x3 – x3x1)

[(x1 - x 2 )2 + (x 2 - x 3 )2 + (x 3 - x1 ) 2 ]
= (x1 + x2 + x3)
2

Q The sum of three squares is always non-negative.

The equality can occur if and only if
x1 = x2 = x3 or a1 = a2 = a3.

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Geometrical Interpretation of the AM–GM Inequality
We have segments of length a, b on a straight line putting them side by side along PR and RQ
O is the mid-point of PQ.
Draw a perpendicular to PQ at R to cut the semicircle on PQ at A and A'.
By the secant theorem
PR × RQ = a × b = A' R × AR = AR2

or AR = a×b
AR represents the GM of a and b.
AM being PO = radius of circle
Q In any circle. half of a chord is less than the radius.

(a + b)
ab £
2

equality hold if and only if

Cauchy's Inequality or Cauchy Schwarz Inequality
If a, b, x, y are real, then

|ax + by| £ a 2 + b2 x 2 + y 2

Proof To prove
(ax + by)2 £ (a2 + b2) (x2 + y2) ...(A)
i.e., a2x2 + 2axby + b2y2 £ a2x2 + a2y2 + b2x2 + b2y2
Þ 2axby £ a2y2 + b2x2
Þ a2y2 – 2axby + b2y2 ³ 0
Þ (ay – bx)2 ³ 0
which is true.
Similarly, if a1, a2, ...., an ; b1, b2, ..., bn are all real.

Then |a1b1 + a2b2 + ... + anbn| £ a12 + a22 + ... + a2n × b12 + b22 + ... + b2n

Note Let P(x, y) be a point in the plane having origin O.

Let ax + by = 0 be a given straight line through the origin.

|ax + by|
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

Then is the perpendicular distance PM of P (x, y) from the given

a 2 + b2

straight line ax + by = 0, x 2 + y 2 is the distance of x, y from origin.

-a y
The slope of the line is and of the line joining origin (0, 0) to (x, y) is .
b x

y æ -a ö a b
If these two lines are perpendicular and only then, ç ÷ = – 1 or =
xè b ø x y

This is the only case in which equality occur.

62
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ALLEN
Harmonic Mean (HM)
The +ve number
-1
éæ 1 1 1 öù
êç + + ... + ÷ ú
ê è a1 a 2 an ø ú
ê n ú
ê ú
ëê ûú
is called the HM of a1, a2, ... an and is denoted by H.
Weighted AM–GM Inequality
If a1, a2, ... , an are n +ve real numbers and m1, m2, ... , mn are n +ve rational numbers, then
1
m1a1 + m2a2 + ... + m n a n
> (a1m1 × a 2m2 ...a mn n ) m1 + m2 +...+ mn
m1 + m2 + ... + m n

Some Important Inequalities

(A) If a1, a2, ... , an are n + ve distinct real numbers, then
m
a1m + a2m + ... + a mn æ a1 + a 2 + ........ + a n ö
(i) >ç ÷
n è n ø

if m < 0 or m > 1
m
a1m + a2m + ... + a mn æ a1 + a 2 + ...... + a n ö
(ii) <ç ÷
n è n ø

if 0<m<1
i.e., the AM of mth powers of n + ve quantities is greater than the mth power of their AM except
when
m is a +ve proper fraction.
(iii) If a1, a2, ... , an and b1, b2, ... , bn are rational numbers and m is a rational number, then

m
b1a1m + b2 a2m + ... + bn a nm æ b1a1 + b2 a2 + ... + bn a n ö
>ç ÷
b1 + b2 + ... + b n è b1 + b2 + ... + b n ø

if m < 0 or m > 1

m
b1a1m + b2 a2m + ... + bn a nm æ b1a1 + b2a2 + ... + b na n ö
and <ç ÷
b1 + b2 + ... + b n è b1 + b2 + ... + b n ø
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

if 0<m<1
(B) If a1, a2, a3, ... , an are distinct +ve real numbers and p, q, r are natural numbers, then

a1p+q +r + a p+q
2
+r
+...+ a p+q
n
+r
a p + a 2p + ... + a np a q + a 2q + ... + a nq a r + a 2r + ... + a nr
> 1 × 1 × 1
n n n n

(C) Weierstrass Inequality

(i) If a1, a2, ... , an are n +ve real numbers, then for n ³ 2
(1 + a1) (1 + a2) ... (1 + an) > 1 + a1 + a2 + ... + an
(ii) If a1, a2, ... , an are +ve real numbers less than unity, then
(1 – a1) (1 – a2) ... (1 – an) > 1 – a1 – a2 – ... – an
(D) Tchebychefs Inequality

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RMO/INMO
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If a1, a2, ... , an and b1, b2, ... , bn are real numbers such that
a1 £ a2 £ a3 £ ... £ an
and b1 £ b2 £ b3 £ ... £ bn
Then n(a1b1 + a2b2 +...+ anbn) ³ (a1 + a2 +...+ an) (b1 + b2 +...+ bn)

a1 b1 + a2 b2 + ... + an bn æ a1 + a 2 + ... + a n ö æ b1 + b2 + ... + b n ö

or ³ ç n ÷ç n ÷
n è øè ø

(E) Holder's Inequality

p p pq q q qp
(a1b1 + a2b2 + ... anbn)pq £ (a1 + a2 + ... + an ) (b1 + b2 + ... + bn )

1 1
where + = 1, a and b are non-negative real numbers.
p q i i

Jensen's Inequality
Suppose f(x) is a twice differentiable function on an interval [a, b] and f ''(x) < 0 " a < x < b.
Then for every +ve integer m and for all points.
x1, x2, x3, ... , xm in [a, b], we have

æ x + x 2 + x 3 + ... + x m ö f(x1 ) + f(x 2 ) + ... + f(x m )

fç 1
m ÷³ m
è ø

Moreover equality holds if and only if x1 = x2 = x3 = ... = xn

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Ex.1 If x, y, z are three +ve integers. Prove that

æ1 1 1ö
(x + y + z) ç x + y + z ÷ > 9
è ø

Sol. Q AM > GM

x+y+z
\ > (xyz)1/3
3

or x + y + z > 3(xyz)1/3 ........(i)

1/ 3
æ1 1 1ö æ1 1 1ö
Similarly, ç + + ÷ > 3ç × × ÷ ........(ii)
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

èx y zø èx y zø

Multiplying (i) and (ii), we get

1/ 3
æ1 1 1ö æ 1 ö
(x + y + z) ç x + y + z ÷ > 9 (xyz)1/3 ç ÷
è ø è xyz ø

æ1 1 1ö
Þ (x + y + z) ç + + ÷ > 9
èx y zø

Hence proved.

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ALLEN
a1 a 2 a 3 a n -1 a n
Ex.2 Prove that a + a + a + ... + a + a > n
2 3 4 n 1

Sol. Q AM > GM

1
1 æ a1 a 2 a 3 a a ö æ ön
\ ç + + + ... + n -1 + n ÷ > ç a1 × a2 × a3 × × × a n -1 × an ÷
n è a2 a 3 a 4 an a1 ø è a2 a 3 a 4 a n a1 ø

1
æ a1 a 2 a 3 a a ö
or ç + + + × × × + n-1 + n ÷ > n(1) n
è a2 a 3 a 4 an a1 ø

æ a1 a 2 a 3 a ö
or ç + + + × × × + n -1 ÷ > n
è a2 a 3 a 4 an ø

Hence proved.
Ex.3 Let a, b, c > 0 be real numbers such that ab + bc + ca = 1. Prove the inequality

a2 b2 c2 3
+ + ³
b+c c+a a+b 2

Sol. By the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality we have

æ a2 b2 c2 ö
ç + + ÷ ((b + c) + (c + a) + (a + b)) ³ (a + b + c)2,
èb+c c+a a+bø

i.e.

a2 b2 c2 a+b+c
+ + ³ ........(i)
b+c c+a a+b 2

Furthermore
(a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca) ³ 3(ab + bc + ca) = 3,
i.e.

a+b+c³ 3. ........(ii)

Using (i) and (ii) we obtain the required inequality.

node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

Equality occurs iff a = b = c = 1/ 3 .

Ex.4 Let a, b, c, d Î ¡ + such that abcd = 1. Prove the inequality

a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd ³ 10.
Sol. Since AM ³ GM we have

a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd ³ 10 10 a5 b5 c5 d5 = 10.

Equality holds if and only if a = b = c = d = 1.

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1 1 1
Ex.5 Let x, y, z be be positive real numbers such that + + = 1. Prove the inequality
x y z
(x – 1) (y – 1) (z – 1) ³ 8.
Sol. The given inequality is equivalent to

æ x -1 öæ y -1 öæ z -1 ö 8
ç x ÷ ç y ÷ ç z ÷ ³ xyz .
è øè øè ø

æ 1 öæ 1 öæ 1ö 8
or ç 1 - x ÷ ç 1 - y ÷ ç 1 - z ÷ ³ xyz . ........(i)
è øè øè ø
From the initial condition and AM ³ GM we have
1 1 1 11 2
1- = + ³2 = .
x y z yz yz

1 2 1 2
Analogously we obtain 1 – ³ and 1 – ³ .
y zx z xy
If we multiply the last three inequalities we get inequality (i), as required.
Equality holds if and only if x = y = z = 3.
Ex.6 If m > 1, then show that 2m + 4m + 6m +...+ (2n)m > n(n + 1)m
Sol. AM of mth power > mth power of AM
m
2m + 4m + 6m + ... + (2n) m é (2 + 4 + 6 + ... + 2n) ù
>ê ú
n ë n û
m
é n(n + 1) ù
Þ 2m + 4m + 6m +...+ (2n)m > n ê ú
ë n û
Þ 2m + 4m + 6m +...+ (2n)m > n(n + 1)m
Hence proved.
Ex.7 If a, b, c, d are four non –ve real numbers and a + b + c + d = 1, show that ab + bc + cd £ 1/4.
Sol. Let a + b + c + d = A
a–b+c–d=B
Then, 2(a + c) = A + B, 2(b + d) = A – B, so that
4(a + c) (b + d) = A2 – B2 £ A2
Now, we have A = 1
1
So, (a + c) (b + d) £
4
Now, ab + bc + cd £ (a + c) (b + d) £ 1/4
Ex.8 Let x, y, z Î ¡ + such that xyz = 1. Prove the inequality
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

x2 + y 2 + z2 + xy + yz + zx
³ 2.
x+ y+ z
Sol. We have
x2 + y2 + z 2 + xy + yz + zx x2 + yz + y2 + zx + z 2 + xy
=
x+ y+ z x+ y+ z

2 x 2 yz + 2 xy2 z + 2 xyz2
³
x+ y+ z

2 ( x+ y+ z )
= = 2.
x+ y+ z
Equality occurs if and only if x = y = z = 1.
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1 1 1
Ex.9 Let a, b, c Î ¡ + such that + + ³ 1. Prove the inequality
a + b +1 b + c +1 c + a +1
a + b + c ³ ab + bc + ca.
Sol. We’ll use the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality.
We have

1 a + b + c2
(a + b + 1) (a + b + c2) ³ (a + b + c)2, i.e. £ .
a + b +1 (a + b + c)2
Analogously

1 b + c + a2 1 c + a + b2
£ and £ .
b + c + 1 (a + b + c)2 c + a + 1 (a + b + c)2
By the given condition we have

1 1 1 a + b + c 2 + b + c + a 2 + c + a + b2
1£ + + £ .
a + b +1 b + c +1 c + a +1 (a + b + c)2
i.e. 2(a + b + c) ³ (a + b + c)2 – (a2 + b2 + c2)
Þ a + b + c ³ ab + bc + ca.
Ex.10 If a + b + c = 0 show that

æb-c c-a a-bö æ a b c ö

ç a + b + c ÷ ç b - c + c - a + a - b ÷ = 9.
è øè ø
Sol. Given : a + b + c = 0.

æb-c c-a a-bö æ a b c ö

Let E = ç + + çb-c + c-a + a-b÷
è a b c ÷ø è ø

b-c a
The first terms in the first and the second brackets when multiplied (i.e.,) × gives 1.
a b-c
Similarly the second terms and the respective third terms when multiplied also give 1 each.
So we get 3.
Now there are 6 other terms.
The first term of bracket one multiplled by the second and third terms of bracket two.

æ b - c öé b c ù
(i.e.,) ç
a ÷ êc - a + a - b ú
è øë û

æ b - c ö é b(a - b) + c(c - a) ù
= ç a ÷ ê (c - a)(a - b) ú
è øë û
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

æ b - c ö é ab - b + c - ac ù
2 2

= ç a ÷ ê (c - a)(a - b) ú
è øë û

æ b - c ö é a(b - c) - (b - c ) ù
2 2

= ç a ÷ ê ú
è ø ë (c - a)(a - b) û

æ b - c ö é a(b - c) - (b - c)(b + c) ù
= ç ÷ê ú
è a øë (c - a)(a - b) û

æb-cö é a - (b + c) ù
= ç a ÷ (b - c) ê (c - a)(a - b) ú
è ø ë û

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Now use a + b + c = 0 Þ b + c = – a.
\ We have

(b - c)2 é 2a ù 2(b - c)2

= .
a êë (c - a)(a - b) úû (c - a)(a - b)

Multiplying and dividing by (b – c) we get

2(b - c)3
.
(a - b)(b - c)(c - a)
Similarly the other terms multiplied give.

2(c - a)3 2(a - b)3

and
(a - b)(b - c)(c - a) (a - b)(b - c)(c - a)
Adding we get

2[(a - b)3 + (b - c)3 + (c - a)3 ]

(*)
(a - b)(b - c)(c - a)
At this state we use the well known result. If a + b + c = 0
then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc.
Here a – b + b – c + c – a = 0
Þ (a – b)3 + (b – c)3 + (c – a)3 = 3(a – b) (b – c) (c – a).

2 ´ 3 ´ (a - b)(b - c)(c - a)
(*) Þ = 6.
(a - b)(b - c)(c - a)
Already we have 3. Totally the value is 3 + 6 = 9.
Ex.11 Prove that for every positive real number a, b, c we have

a 2 b2 c 2
+ + ³ a + b + c.
b c a
Sol. (1) From AM ³ GM we have

a2 a2
+b³2 × b = 2a .
b b
Analogously we get

b2 c2
+ c ³ 2b and + a ³ 2c.
c a
After adding these three inequalities we obtain

a 2 b2 c 2
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

+ + + (a + b + c) ³ 2(a + b + c),
b c a

a 2 b2 c 2
i.e. + + ³ a + b + c.
b c a
Equality occurs if and only if a = b = c.
sol. (2) Observe that

a 2 b2 c 2 a 2 - ab + b2 b2 - bc + c2 c 2 - ca + a 2
+ + = + +
b c a b c a
Since for any x, y Î ¡ , we have x2 – xy + y2 ³ xy, we get

a 2 b2 c 2 ab bc ca
+ + ³ + + = a + b + c.
b c a b c a
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24n
Ex.12 Show that C04 + C14 + C24 +...+ Cn4 > ,
n3

n!
where nCr =
r!(n - r)!
Sol. AM of 4th power > 4th power of AM
4
C04 + C14 + ... + Cn4 æ C0 + C1 + C2 + ... + Cn ö
>ç ÷
n è n ø
4
æ 2n ö
Þ C04 + C14 + C24 +...+ Cn4 > n ç ÷
è n ø

4n
Þ C04 + C14 + C24 +...+ Cn4 > 2
n3

Ex.13 Let a, b, c be the sides of a given triangle ABC. Let D be its area. Show that a2 + b2 + c2 ³ 4D 3 .
Sol. There are several proofs available to this inequality. Here a proof is given so that school students can
understand. We have D = s(s - a)(s - b)(s - c) where

a+b+c
S=
2
Þ 16 D2 = (a + b + c) (a + b – c) (b + c – a) (c + a – b) (1)
Consider a + b – c, b + c – a, c + a – b.
Since the sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side all the three quantities are positive
Applying AM – GM inequality.
a+b-c+b+c-a+c+a-b
3
³ 3
(a + b - c)(b + c - a)(c + a - b)

3
æa+b+cö
Þç ÷ ³ (a + b – c) (b + c – a) (c + a – b) (1)
è 3 ø

3
æa+b+cö
Þ (a + b – c) (b + c – a) (c + a – b) £ ç ÷
è 3 ø
3
æa+b+cö
(1) Þ 16D2 £ (a + b + c) ç ÷
è 3 ø
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

(a + b + c)2
Þ 4D £ (*)
3 3
Now (a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2 ³ 0
Þ 2(a2 + b2 + c2) ³ 2(ab + bc + ca)
3(a2 + b2 + c2) ³ (a + b + c)2
2
a 2 + b2 + c 2 æ a + b + c ö
Þ ³ç ÷
3 è 3 ø
2
æa+b+cö a 2 + b2 + c 2
or ç ÷ £
è 3 ø 3
*Þ the result.
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Ex.14 Find the largest integer n for which n200 < 5300.
Sol. n200 < 5300
200
æ 23 ö
Þ n 200
< çç 5 ÷÷
è ø

( 5)
3
Þ n < 53/2 = = 5 5

To find n such that n < 5 5 £ n + 1

Û n2 £ 125 £ (n + 1)2
By inspection we get 11.
\ Answer is 11
Ex.15 If A > 0, B > 0 and A + B = p/3, find maximum value of tan A tan B.
Sol. Let y = tan A tan B
Q AM ³ GM
tan A + tan B
\ ³ tan A tan B
2
tan A + tan B
Q tan (A + B) =
1 - tan A tan B
p tan A + tan B
tan =
3 1 - tan A tan B

Þ 3 (1 – tan A tan B) = tan A + tan B

3(1 - tan A tanB)
\ ³ tan A tanB
2
\ 3(1 - y) ³ 2 y (Q tan A tan B = y)
\ 3(1 – y) ³ 4y 2

Þ 3y – 10y + 3 ³ 0
2

\ y £ 1 / 3 or y ³ 3
But A + B = p / 3 and A > 0, B > 0
\ y £ 1/3
1
\ Maximum value of tan A × tan B =
3
abc 1
Ex.16 Let a, b, c Î ¡ + . Prove the inequality £ .
(1 + a)(a + b)(b + c)(c + 16) 81
Sol. We have
(1 + a)(a + b)(b + c)(c + 16)
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

æ a a öæ b b öæ c cö 2 2 2
= ç 1 + + ÷ ç a + + ÷ ç b + + ÷ (c + 8 + 8) ³ 3 3 a .3 3 ab .3 3 bc .3 3 64c ³ 81abc.
è 2 2 øè 2 2 øè 2 2ø 4 4 4

abc 1
Thus £ .
(1 + a)(a + b)(b + c)(c + 16) 81
Alter Method By Holder’s inequality we have

( ) ( )
4
(1 + a) (a + b) (b + c)(c + 16) ³ 4
1× a × b× c + 4
a × b × c.16

( )
4
= 3 4 abc = 81abc.

1 a b c
Equality occurs if and only if = = = ,i.e., a = 2, b = 4,c = 8.
a b c 16
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Ex.17 Find the greatest value of a2b3c4 subject to the condition a + b + c = 18.
Let Z = a2b3c4,
2 3 4
æaö æbö æ c ö
Z = (2233 44 ) ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
Sol. è2ø è3ø è 4ø ....(i)

\ Z will have maximum value when

2 3 4 2 3 4
æaö æbö æ cö æaö æbö æ cö
ç 2 ÷ ç 3 ÷ ç 4 ÷ is maximum. But ç 2 ÷ ç 3 ÷ ç 4 ÷ is product of 2 + 3 + 4.
è ø è ø è ø è ø è ø è ø

æaö æbö æcö

i.e., 9 factors whose sum = 2 ç ÷ + 3ç ÷ + 4 ç ÷
è2ø è3ø è4ø
= a + b + c = 18 (constant)
2 3 4
æaö æbö æ cö
\ ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ will be maximum if all the factors are equal.
è2ø è3ø è4ø

a b c a + b + c 18
i.e., If = = = = =2
2 3 4 2+3+4 9
\ Maximum value of Z from Eq. (i)
é a b c ù
= 22 × 33 ×44(2)2(2)3(2)4 êQ 2 = 3 = 4 = 2 ú
ë û
= 219 × 33.
Ex.18 For a, b, c positive and distinct, prove
(a7 + b7 + c7)(a2 + b2 + c2) > (a5 + b5 + c5)(a4 + b4 + c4).
Sol. a,b,c are real and distinct. To prove
(a7 + b7 + c7) (a2 + b2 + c2) > (a5 + b5 + c5) (a4 + b4 + c4).
Since the result is symmetric in a, b, c let us assume that a > b > c.
Let S = (a7 + b7 + c7)(a2 + b2 + c2) – (a5 + b5 + c5) (a4 + b4 + c4)
The first term gives 9 terms and the second gives 9 terms when multiplication is carried out. It is easy to
see that a9, b9, c9 terms will cancel.
S = a7(b2 + c2) + b7(c2 + a2) + c7(a2 + b2)
– a5(b4 + c4) – b5(c4 + a4) – c5(a4 + b4).
Let us consider the powers of a, b alone. We have
a7b2 + b7a2 – a5b4 – b5a4
a2b2 [a5 + b5 – a3b2 – a2b3]
= a2b2 [a3(a2 – b2) – b3(a2 – b2)]
= a2b2(a2 – b2)(a3 – b3).
Similarly the other two expressions can be got.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

\ S = a2b2(a2 – b2)(a3 – b3) + b2c2(b2 – c2)(b3 – c3) +c2a2(c2 – a2) (c3 – a3).
Since a > b > c all the terms arc positive \ S > 0.
Usually the student will not be so convinced about the condition a > b > c. A doubt will arise in the mind
of the student about a < b < c which is easily understood but when a < b and b > c. Then there are two
cases a < c or a > c. Whatever may be the order relation among a, b, c we have two factors of the type
(a2 – b2) and (a3 – b3). We should have either both positive or both negative Þ such a product is always positive.
\S>0
Þ (a7 + b7 + c7)(a2 + b2 + c2) > (a5 + b5 + c5)(a4 + b4 + c4)
Note: Once the student understands the steps we can frame similar questions.
For example, if a, b, c are positive and unequal prove
(a9 + b9 + c9)(a2 + b2 + c2) > (a6 + b6 + c6)(a5 + b5 + c5).
The total power of the factors must be the same

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Ex.19 Let a, b, c be lengths of the sides of a triangle. Prove that: if 2(ab2 + bc2 + ca2) = a2b + b2c + c2a + 3abc
then the triangle is equilateral.
Sol. We’ll show that
a2b + b2c + c2a + 3abc ³ 2(ab2 + bc2 + ca2).
with equality if and only if a = b = c, i.e. the triangle is equilateral.
Let us use Ravi's substitutions, i.e. a = x + y, b = y + z, c = z + x. Then the given inequality becomes
x3 + y3 + z3 + x2y + y2z + z2x ³ 2(x2z + y2x + z2y).
Since AM ³ GM we have
x3 + z2x ³ 2x2z, y3 + x2y ³ 2y2x, z3 + y2z ³ 2z2y.
After adding these inequalities we obtain
x3 + y3 + z3 + x2y + y2z + z2x ³ 2(x2z + y2x + z2y).
Equality holds if and only if x = y = z, i.e. a = b = c, as required.
Ex.20 If a, b > 0 and a + b = 1 show that

1 3 1
3 11 + 4
+ 11 + 4 ³ 6.
a b
Sol. Given a + b = 1, a, b > 0. To prove that

1 3 1
3 11 + 4
+ 11 + 4 ³ 6.
a b

a+b
We know the AM – GM inequality of two positive reals a, b(i.e.,) ³ ab.
2
There is one more inequality (viz.,) Cauchy-Schwarz inequality which is useful in solving problems.
If a, b, x, y are two sets of reals then
(ax + by)2 £ (a2 + b2)(x2 + y2).
The proof of this is simple. Let
S = (ax + by)2 – (a2 + b2)(x2 + y2)
= a2x2 + b2y2 + 2abxy – [a2x2 + b2y2 + a2y2 + b2x2]
= – [a2y2 + b2x2 – 2abxy]
= – (ay – bx)2 £ 0
Þ S £ 0 Þ (ax + by)2 £ (a2 + b2)(x2 + y2).
The equality holds when ay = bx

a x
(i.e.,) = .
b y
Thus the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality is.
(a2 + b2)(x2 + y2) ³ (ax + by)2.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

When

a+b
a,b > 0, ³ ab.
2

1 1
Þ ³ ab Þ ³ 2.
2 ab

1
Þ ³ 16. ..........(i)
a 2 b2

1 3 1
Apply AM – GM inequality to 3 11 + 4
, 11 + 4 .
a b

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We have

3 11 +
1 3 1 ìæ 1 öæ 1 ö ü6
4
+ 11 + 4 ³ 2 íç 11 + 4 ÷ç 11 + 4 ÷ ý ..........(ii)
a b îè a øè b øþ

1 1
Apply Cauchy-Schwarz inequality to 11 + ,11 + 4 .
a4 b

2
æ 1 öæ 1 ö æ 1 ö
ç 11 + a4 ÷ç 11 + b 4 ÷ ³ ç 11 + a2 b2 ÷
è øè ø è ø

1
1 1 æ 1 ö3
(ii) Þ 11 + 4 + 3 11 + 4 ³ 2 ç 11 + 2 2 ÷ .
3
a b è a b ø

1
But ³ 16.
a b2
2

1
1 3 1
\ 3 11 + 4
+ 11 + 4 ³ 2(11 + 16) 3
a b

1 1

= 2(27) 3 = 2(33 ) 3
=6
Ex.21 Let a, b, c > 0. Prove Nesbitt’s inequality

a b c 3
+ + ³ .
b+c c+a a+b 2
Sol. Applying the Cauchy – Schwarz inequality for

a1 = b + c, a 2 = c + a, a3 = a + b;

1 1 1
b1 = , b2 = , b3 = ;
b+c c+a a+b

gives us

æ 1 1 1 ö
((b + c) + (c + a) + (a + b)) ç + + ÷ ³ (1 + 1 + 1) = 9.
2

èb+c c+a a+bø

node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

i.e.,

æ 1 1 1 ö
2(a + b + c) ç + + ÷³9
èb+c c +a a+ bø

a+b+c a+b+c a+b+c 9

Û + + ³
b+c c+a a+c 2

a b c 9 3
Û + + ³ -3= .
b+c c+a a+b 2 2
Equality occues iff (b + c)2 = (c + a)2 = (a + b)2. i.e, if a = b = c.

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Ex.22 Find the greatest value of x2y3z4. If x2 + y2 + z2 = 1, where x, y, z are +ve.
Sol. Let A = x2y3z4
Then A2 = x4y6z8
2 3 4
æ x2 ö æ y2 ö æ z 2 ö
= 22 × 33 × 44 ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ .....(i)
è 2ø è 3ø è4ø
2 3 4
æ x2 ö æ y 3 ö æ z 2 ö
\ A will have maximum value when A2 is maximum i.e., when ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ is maximum.
è 2 ø è 3ø è4ø
2 3 4
æ x2 ö æ y 3 ö æ z 2 ö
But ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ is the product of 2 + 3 + 4 i.e., 9 factors.
è 2 ø è 3ø è4ø

æ x2 ö æ y2 ö æ z2 ö
The sum of which = 2 ç ÷ + 3 ç ÷ + 4 ç ÷
è 2 ø è 3ø è4ø
= x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 (constant)
2 3 4
æ x 2 ö æ y 2 ö æ z2 ö
\ ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ will be maximum if all the factors are equal i.e.,
è 2ø è 3ø è4ø

x2 y2 z 2 x2 + y2 + z 2 1
If = = = = [Q x2 + y2 + z 2 = 1]
2 3 4 2+3+4 9
From Eq. (i) maximum value of A2 is
2 3 4
æ1ö æ1ö æ1ö 22 ´ 33 ´ 44
22 × 33 × 44 ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷ =
è9ø è9ø è9ø 99

22 ´ 33 ´ 28
=
318

210
=
315
\ Maximum value of x2y3z4 is 25 × 3–15/2
Ex.23 Let a, b, c be the side lengths of a given triangle. Prove the inequality

1 1 1 9
+ + ³ .
s-a s-b s-c s
Sol. Since AM ³ HM we have

1 1 1 9 9
+ + ³ = .
s - a s - b s - c (s - a) + (s - b) + (s - c) s
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

Equality occurs if and only if a = b = c.

b c a
Ex.24 Let ABC be a triangle with side lengths a, b, c and DA1B1C1 with side lengths a + ,b + ,c + . Prove that
2 2 2
9
P1 > P, where P is the area of DABC and P1 is the area of DA1B1C1.
4
Sol. By Heron’s formula for DABC and DA1B1C1 we have
16P2 = (a + b + c)(a + b – c)(b + c – a)(a + c – b) and

3
16P21 = (a + b + c)(–a + b + 3c)(–b + c + 3a)(–c + a + 3b).
16
Since a, b and c are the side lengths of triangle there exist positive real number p, q, r such that a = q +
r, b = r + p, c = p + q.

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Now we easily get that

P2 16pqr
= .
2
P1 3(2p + q)(2q + r)(2r + p)
So it suffices to show that
(2p + q)(2q + r)(2r + p) ³ 27 pqr.
Apply AM ³ GM we obtain
(2p + q)(2q + r)(2r + p) = (p + p + q)(q + q + r)(r + r + p)

³ 3 3 p2 q × 3 3 q 2 r × 3 3 r 2 p = 27pqr.
We get the desired result.
Ex.25 If a, b, c, d are four +ve real numbers such that abcd = 1, prove that (1 + a)(1 + b)(1 + c)(1 + d) ³ 16.
Sol. AM > GM
\ AM > GM
1+a 1+ b 1+c 1+d
\ ³ 1.a, ³ 1.b ³ 1.c, ³ 1.d
2 2 2 2
Multiplying corresponding side of the above inequalities, we have
(1 + a)(1 + b)(1 + c)(1 + d) ³ 16 abcd ³ 16.
Ex.26 Let a, b, c be the side lengths of a given triangle. Prove the inequality
(a + b – c)(b + c – a)(c + a – b) £ abc.
Sol.1 We have
a2 ³ a2 – (b – c)2 =(a + b – c)(a + c – b).
Analogously
b2 ³ (b + a – c)(b + c – a) and c2 ³ (c + a – b)(c + b – a).
If we multiply these inequalities we obtain
a2b2c2 ³ (a + b – c)2(b + c – a)2(c + a – b)2
Û abc ³ (a + b – c)(b + c – a)(c + a – b).
Equality holds if and only if a = b = c, i.e. the triangle is equilateral.
Alter Solution : After setting a = x + y, b = y + z, c = z + x, where x, y, z > 0, the given inequality becomes
(x + y) (y + z) (z + x) ³ 8xyz
Q AM ³ GM, we have
(x + y)(y + z)(z + x) ³ 2 xy × 2 yz × 2 zx = 8xyz, as required. Equality occurs if and only if x = y = z i.e.
a = b = c.
Remark : This inequality holds for any a, b, c Î ¡ + .
1 bc ca ab
Ex.27 If a, b, c are +ve real numbers, then prove that the expression (a + b + c) - - - is always
2 b+c c+a a+b
non –ve. Find the condition that this expression is zero.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

1 bc ca ab
Sol. Let S= (a + b + c) – - -
2 b+c c+a a+b

1 4 æ bc ca ab ö
= (2a + 2b + 2c) - ç + +
4 4 è b + c c + a a + b ÷ø

1é 4bc 4ca 4ab ù

= ê (b + c) - +c+a- +a+b-
4ë b+c c+a a + b úû

1 é (b - c)2 (c - a)2 (a - b)2 ù

= 4ê b+c + c+a + a+b ú ³ 0 [Q a, b, c are all +ve].
ë û
Now S = 0 iff each of the three terms in the expression are zero i.e.,
a=b=c

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Ex.28 Let a, b, c Î R+ , a + b + c = 1, Prove that

a3 b3 c3 1
+ 2 + 2 ³
a +b
2 2
b +c 2
c + a2 2
Sol. a+b+c=1,
2
a3 a(a 2 + b2 ) – ab2 ab
= =a– 2
a +b
2 2
a +b
2 2
a + b2
Now , a2 + b2 ³ 2ab
1 1
2 2
£
a + b 2ab

–1 –1
2 2
³
a +b 2ab

a3 ab2
Hence ³ a -
a2 + b2 2ab
b
³a–
2
b c a a+b+c 1
\ ³a– + b– + c– ³ ³
2 2 2 2 2
Ex.29 Let a, b, c > 0 and abc £ 1.
a b c
Prove that, + + ³ a + b + c.
c a b
Sol. Since abc £ 1

1 1 1
³ a, ³ b, ³ c
bc ac ab
By AM - GM

1
2a c a a c æ a2 ö 3
+ = + + ³ 3ç ÷
c b c c b ç bc ÷
è ø

³ 3 (a3)1/3
³ 3a

2b a 2c b
+ ³ 3b, + ³ 3c
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

Similiarly,
a c b a
Adding these three & dirving be 3 we will get desired inequality.
Ex.30 Prove that for the real numbers, a, b, c, d.
a b c d 2
+ + + ³
b + 2c + 3d c + 2d + 3a d + 2a + 3b a + 2b + 3c 3

a
Sol. Let x1 = y1 = a(b + 2c + 3d)
b + 2c + 3d

b
x2 = y2 = b(c + 2d + 3a)
c + 2d + 3a

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c
x3 = y3 = c(d + 2a + 3b)
d + 2a + 3b

d
x4 = y4 = d(a + 2b + 3c)
a + 2b + 3c

The inequality is to prove that,

2
x12 + x22 + x32 + x42 ³
3
By cauchy schwarz inequality,
(x12 + x22 + x32 + x42) (y12 + y22 + y32 + y42) ³ (x1y1 + x2y2 + x3y3 + x4y4)2
³ (a + b + c + d)2

2
\ to show x12 + x22 + x32 + x42 ³ , it is sufficient to
3

(a + b + c + d)2 2
show that 2 2 2 2
³
y1 + y 2 + y 3 + y 4 3

3(a + b + c + d)2 – 2(y12 + y22 + y32 + y42)

3(a + b + c + d)2 – 2(ab + 2ac + 3ad + bc + 2bd
+ 3ab + cd + 2ac + 3bc + ad + 2bd + 3cd)
Þ 3(a + b + c + d)2 – 8(ab + bc + cd + da + ac + bd)
Þ (a – b)2 + (a – c)2 + (a – d)2 + (b – c)2 + (b – d)2 + (c – d)2 ³ 0

EXERCISE
1. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers. Determine the minimal value of

3a 4b 5c
+ + .
b+c c+a a+b
2. If a, b, c are positive integers prove
(a + b + c)100 < 3100 (a100 + b100 + c100).
3. If a, b, c, d are in harmonic progression prove a + d > b + c.
4. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers. Prove the inequality

a 2 + b2 b2 + c 2 c 2 + a 2
+ + ³ a + b + c.
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

a+b b+c c+a

b2 + c 2
5. If D is the area of the triangle ABC, show that D £ .
4

n n! n -1
6. If Cr = , then prove C1 + C2 + ... + C n £ 2n -1 + .
r!(n - r)! 2
7. Show that in any triangle with sides a, b, c we have (a + b + c)2 < 4(ab + bc + ca).
a b c 3(a + b + c)
8. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers. Prove the inequality + + ³ .
b +1 c +1 a +1 3 + a + b + c

a b c
9. If a, b, c are the sides of a triangle prove + + < 2.
b+c c+a a+b

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10. If a, b, c are +ve real numbers, then show that a2b + ab2 + c2a + ca2 + b2c + bc2 + 2abc ³ 8abc.
11. Let a, b, c be real such that 0 < a < 1, 0 < b < 1, 0 < c < 1. Prove that

(i) ab + (1 - a)(1 - b) £ 1 (ii) abc + (1 - a)(1 - b)(1 - c) £ 1

12. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that a + b + c = 1. Prove the inequality
(a + b)2(1 + 2c)(2a + 3c)(2b + 3c) ³ 54abc.
13. If x5 – x3 + x = a prove that x6 ³ 2a –1.
ai
14. If a1, a2, a3,...,an and b1, b2, b3,..., bn be +ve such that k the largest of fraction b ,i = 1,2,...,n.
i

a1 + a 22 + a 33 + ..... + a nn
Prove £k
b1 + kb22 + k 2 b33 + ...... + k n -1 b nn

15. Let ‘a’ be a real number such that a5 – a3 + a = 2 prove that 3 < a6 < 4.
16. If a, b, c are three positive real numbers, prove that

a 2 + 1 b2 + 1 c 2 + 1
+ + ³ 3.
b+c c+a a+b
17. Let a, b and c be the lengths of the sides of a triangle, and a, b, g be its angles (in radians), respectively. let

b + c c + a a + b 12S
S be the semi-perimeter of the triangle. Prove the inequality + + ³ .
a b g p

18. If a1, a2, a3,....,an are unequal real number, then prove that
(1 + a1 + a12 )(1 + a 2 + a 22 )...(1 + a n + a n2 )
³ 3n.
a1 a 2 a 3 ...a n
æ 1 öæ 1 öæ 1ö
19. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers. Such that abc = 1, prove that ç a - 1 + ÷ ç b - 1 + ÷ ç c - 1 + ÷ £ 1.
è b øè c øè aø
20. 2 2 2
If x, y, z are the sides of a triangle, then prove that |x (y – z) + y (z – x) + z (x – y)|<xyz.
21. For any natural number n > 1, prove the inequality.

1 1 2 3 n 1 1
< 2 + 2 + 2 + ... + 2 < + .
2 n +1 n +2 n + 3 n + n 2 2n

22. Let a, b, c, d Î ¡ + . Prove the inequality

a 3 + b 3 + c 3 a 3 + b 3 + d 3 a 3 + c 3 + d 3 b3 + c 3 + d 3
+ + + ³ a 2 + b2 + c 2 + d2 .
a+b+c a+b+d a+c+d b+c+d
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23. Let a, b, c be positive reals with abc = 1 prove that

1 1 1 3
3
+ 3 + 3 ³ .
a (b + c) b (c + a) c (a + b) 2

24. If a, b, c, d, e, f are real numbers, then show that

a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + e2 + f 2
³ 1/ 2.
(a + c)2 + (b + d)2 + (c + e)2 + (d + f)2 + (e + a)2 + (f + b)2
25. Let s > 1 and n be a +ve integer. Prove that

1 1 1 1
+ + .... + s < .
1s 2s n 1 - 21-s

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26. Let a, b, c be the lengths of the sides of a triangle. Prove that a2b (a – b) + b2c (b – c) + c2a (c – a) ³ 0.
27. Solve that
xyz > (y + z – x) (z + x – y) (x + y – z).
28. Let k Î ¥, and a1, a2, ..., an be positive real numbers such that a1 + a2 +...+ an = 1. Prove the inequality

a1- k + a2- k + ... + a n- k ³ n k +1.

29. If a + b + c + d = s, show that (s – a)(s – b)(s – c)(s – d) > 81abcd.
30. Let a, b, c be real numbers such that a + b + c = 1. Prove that a2 + b2 + c2 ³ 4(ab + bc + ca) – 1. When
does equality hold?
31. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that a + b + c = 1. Find the minimum value of the expression.

1 1 1
abc + + + .
a b c
32. If a, b, c are +ve real number, prove

a 3 + b 3 + c 3 æ a + b + c ö æ a 2 + b2 + c 2 ö
>ç ÷ç ÷
9 è 3 øè 32 ø

33. Find all positive real solutions (x1, x2, x3, x4, x5) of the system of inequations.
(x12 – x3x5) (x22 – x3x5) £ 0
(x22 – x4x1) (x32 – x4x1) £ 0
(x32 – x5x2) (x42 – x5x2) £ 0
(x42 – x1x3) (x52 – x1x3) £ 0
(x52 – x2x4) (x12 – x2x4) £ 0
34. If a < c, (b – a)(b – c) < 0. Show that
æa c ö æ1 1 1ö
3 ç + + 1 ÷ > (a + b + c) ç + + ÷ .
è c a ø èa b cø

x2 y2 z 2
35. Find the maximum value of xyz when + + = 1.
a 2 b2 c 2
36. Let a, b, c, d > 0 be real numbers. Find the minimum value of the expression.

a b c d b+c+d c+d+a a+b+d a+b+c

+ + + + + + + .
b+c+d c+d+a d+a+b a+b+c a b c d
37. If a, b, c are three real numbers such that
|a – b|³|c|,|b – c|³|a|,|c – a|³|b|, then prove that one of a, b, c is the sum of the other two.
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38. Prove that if the number x1 and x2 does not exceed 1 in absolute value,

2
æ x + x2 ö
then 1 - x12 + 1 - x22 £ 2 1 - ç 1 ÷ .
è 2 ø

For what number x1 and x2 does the equality holds?

39. Prove that the cube is the rectangular parallelopiped of maximum volume for given surface and of minimum
surface for given volume.
40. Find all pairs (x, y) of positive integers such that x3 – y3 = xy + 61.

4x2 + 8x + 13
41. Find the smallest value of for x ³ 0.
6(1 + x)

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42. If x satisfies 3
x + 9 - 3 x - 9 = 3, prove that 75 < x2 < 85.

2 2
æ 1ö æ 1ö
43. For any +ve a, b. Prove that ç a + ÷ + ç b + ÷ ³ 8.
è aø è bø

44. If the roots of the equation

x2 – 2ax + a2 + a – 3 = 0 are real and less than 3, prove a < 2.
45. Let x, y, z be positive if the harmonic mean of x, y, z be h and that of 1 + x, 1 + y, 1 + z is H, prove that
H ³ 1 + h.
46. If, for xyz ³ 0, x + y + z = 11, find the maximum of xyz + xy + yz + zx.
47. If a1, a2, a3,....an are non –ve and a1a2a3...an = 1, then show that
(1 + a1)(1 + a2)(1 + a3)...(1 + an) ³ 2n.

a1 a 2 a a
48. Given that a1a2, ..., a2004 are distinct positive real numbers then + + ... + 2003 + 2004 > is
a2 a3 a2004 a1

49. A point is chosen on each side of a unit square. The four points form the sides of a quadrilateral with sides of
lengths a, b, c, d.
Show that
2 £ a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 £ 4

2 2 £a+b+c+d£4

1 n 1
50. For how many natural numbers n, the inequality < £ holds good ?
3 2005 2

51. If ai > 0, " i = 1, 2, ... n. Prove that

æ1 1 1ö
(a1 + a 2 + ...a n ) ç + + ... + ÷ > n2
a
è 1 a 2 a n ø

52. Given that a, b, c are positive real numbers such that a2 + b2 + c2 = 3abc. Prove that,

a b c 9
+ 2 2 + 2 2 ³
2 2
.
bc ca a b a+b+c

a+ b
a b æa+bö
53. If x < 1, prove that (1 + x)1+x (1 – x)1– x < 1. Also show that a b > ç ÷ .
è 2 ø
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\RMO & INMO Module\Volume - 1\03-Inequality.p65

54. Let a and b be positive numbers. Prove that

a 3b æ1 1 ö
3 + £ 3 2 ( a + b ) ç + ÷.
b a èa bø

55. If a, b, c > 0, show that

a b c 3
+ + ³ .
b+c c+a a+b 2

56. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that a + b + c ³ abc. Prove that a2 + b2 + c2 ³ 3abc.

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57. Let a, b, c, d, e, f be positive real numbers. Prove the inequality

a b c d e f
+ + + + + ³ 3.
b + c c + d d+ f e + f f + a a + b

58. Let a, b, c be real numbers such that a + b + c = 1. Prove that a2 + b2 + c2 ³ 4(ab + bc + ca) – 1. When
does the equality hold?
59. Let a, b, c be three positive real numbers such that a + b + c = 1. Prove that among the three numbers
a – ab, b – bc, c – ca there is one which is at most 1/4 and there is one which is at least 2/9.

1 1 1 1
60. Show that + + ... + > where n is a +ve integer..
n +1 n + 2 2n 2
61. Let a, b, c be the reals, and a2 + b2 + c2 = 3. Prove that

1 1 1
3
+ 3 + 3 ³1
a +2 b +2 c +2

a b 4
62. Let a, b, c, d be non -ve reals, such that a + b + c + d = 4, Prove that 3
+ 3
+ .............. £ .
a +8 b +8 9
63. Let x, y, z be +ve, reals such that xy + yz + zx = 5. Prove that 3x2 + 3y2 + z2 ³ 10.
64. Let a, b, c, d be non -ve reals such that a + b + c + d = 4. Prove that

a b c d 4
+ + + £ .
a +2 b+2 c+2 d +2 3
65. Let a, b, c, d > 0 and

1 1 1 1
4
+ 4
+ 4
+ =1
1+ a 1+ b 1+ c 1 + d4
Prove that abcd ³ 3.
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Important Notes
ALLEN

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