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COLD HARDINESS IN PLANTS
Molecular Genetics, Cell Biology and Physiology
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COLD HARDINESS
IN PLANTS
Molecular Genetics, Cell Biology
and Physiology
Edited by
and
S. Fujikawa
Department of Environmental Resources
Graduate School of Agriculture
Hokkaido University
Sapporo, Japan
CABI Publishing
CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International
© CAB International 2006. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owners.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London,
UK.
Contributors vii
Preface xi
v
vi Contents
Index 251
Contributors
M.K. Aalto, Viikki Biocentre, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Division
of Genetics, POB 56, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland.
K. Amundsen, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
K. Arakawa, Department of Environmental Resources, Graduate School of Agriculture,
Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan.
C. Benedict, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University,
S-901 87 Umeå, Sweden.
A. Bertrand, Soils and Crops Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, 2560 Hochelaga Blvd, Sainte-Foy, QC, Canada G1V 2J3.
R. Bhalerao, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics, Swedish University
of Agricultural Sciences, S-901 83 Umeå, Sweden.
G. Bryant, Department of Applied Physics, RMIT University, Melbourne 3001, Australia.
Y. Castonguay, Soils and Crops Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, 2560 Hochelaga Blvd, Sainte-Foy, QC, Canada G1V 2J3.
Y. Chang, Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-7304,
USA.
T.H.H. Chen, Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
H. Cheng, Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing
100081, China.
J. Cloutier, Soils and Crops Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, 2560 Hochelaga Blvd, Sainte-Foy, QC, Canada G1V 2J3.
D. Cook, USDA-ARS, Natural Products Utilization Research Unit, University, MS 38677,
USA.
L.L.D. Cooper, Department of Crop and Soil Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
97331, USA.
J. Danyluk, Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Case
Postale 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3P8.
vii
viii Contributors
T. Filichkin, Department of Crop and Soil Science, College of Agriculture, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
C. Finn, US Department of Agriculture–Agricultural Research Service, Corvallis, OR 97330,
USA.
S.G. Fowler, MSU-DOE Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
E. Francia, Experimental Institute for Cereal Research – C.R.A., Section of Fiorenzuola,
I-29017 Fiorenzuola d’Arda, Italy.
S. Fujikawa, Department of Environmental Resources, Graduate School of Agriculture,
Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060–8589, Japan.
P.M. Hayes, Department of Crop and Soil Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
97331, USA.
A.G. Heyer, Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, D-14424 Potsdam,
Germany.
D.K. Hincha, Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, D-14424 Potsdam,
Germany.
M. Hundertmark, Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, D-14424
Potsdam, Germany.
V. Hurry, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University,
S-901 87 Umeå, Sweden.
Z. Jeknić, Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
N.A. Kane, Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Case
Postale 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3P8.
I. Karsai, Agricultural Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-2462
Martonvásár, Hungary.
Y. Kawamura, Cryobiosystem Research Centre, Iwate University, Morioka 020-8550, Japan.
K.L. Koster, Department of Biology, The University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD 57069,
USA.
S. Laberge, Soils and Crops Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, 2560 Hochelaga Blvd, Sainte-Foy, QC, Canada G1V 2J3.
D.A Laurie, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK.
L. Marquez-Cedillo, Department of Crop and Soil Science, College of Agriculture, Oregon
State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
R. Meng, Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331-
7304, USA.
R. Michaud, Soils and Crops Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, 2560 Hochelaga Blvd, Sainte-Foy, QC, Canada G1V 2J3.
A. Minami, Cryobiosystem Research Centre, Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, Morioka
020-8550, Japan.
M. Nagao, Cryobiosystem Research Centre, Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, Morioka
020-8550, Japan.
C. Nakagawara, Cryobiosystem Research Centre, Iwate University, Morioka 020-8550, Japan.
E.T. Palva, Viikki Biocentre, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Division
of Genetics, POB 56, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland.
E.J. Park, Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
Contributors ix
xi
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1 Global Analysis of Gene Networks
to Solve Complex Abiotic Stress
Responses
K. SHINOZAKI1,2,* AND K. YAMAGUCHI-SHINOZAKI3,4
1
Laboratory of Plant Molecular Biology, RIKEN Tsukuba Institute, Tsukuba,
Ibaraki 305-0074, Japan; 2Plant Functional Genomics Research Group,
RIKEN Genomic Sciences Centre, Yokohama, Kanagawa 230-0045, Japan;
3
Laboratory of Plant Molecular Physiology, Graduate School of Agricultural
and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan;
4
Biological Resources Division, Japan International Research Centre for
Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8686 Japan
Introduction
Environmental abiotic stresses, such as drought and cold stresses, have severe
effects on plant growth and crop production. Plants respond and adapt to these
abiotic stresses in order to survive unfavourable environmental conditions. Abiotic
stress induces various biochemical and physiological responses in plants (Bray
et al., 2000). Accumulation of various substances, such as sugars, sugar alcohols
and proline, is observed during these stresses in various plants. These molecules
are thought to function in osmotic adjustment. Plant hormone, abscisic acid
(ABA), is produced under stress conditions and plays important roles in response
to and tolerance against abiotic stress.
Many genes with various functions have been described that respond to
drought stress at transcriptional level (Thomashow, 1999; Shinozaki and
Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, 2000; Zhu, 2002; Shinozaki et al., 2003). Their gene prod-
ucts function in stress tolerance and response. Stress-inducible genes have been
used to improve stress tolerance of plants by gene transfer. It is important to
analyse functions of stress-inducible genes not only for further understanding of
molecular mechanisms of stress tolerance and response of higher plants, but also
for improvement of stress tolerance of crops by gene manipulation.
Recently, transcriptome analyses using microrarray technology have revealed
that many genes are induced by abiotic stress to function in stress response and
©CAB International 2006. Cold Hardiness in Plants: Molecular Genetics, Cell Biology
and Physiology (eds T.H.H. Chen et al.) 1
2 K. Shinozaki and K. Yamaguchi-Shinozaki
tolerance (Shinozaki et al., 2003). These gene products are involved not only in
the protection of cells against stresses, but also in the regulation of gene expression
and the signal transduction pathways in abiotic stress response. Most of the stress-
inducible genes are also induced by ABA. Dehydration triggers the production of
ABA that induces various genes. The existence of ABA-independent as well as
ABA-dependent signal transduction cascades upstream of stress-inducible gene
expression has been described (Shinozaki and Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, 2000; Zhu,
2002; Shinozaki et al., 2003). Cis- and trans-acting elements that function in ABA-
independent and ABA-responsive gene expression by drought stress have been
precisely determined. Various transcription factors function in stress-responsive
gene expression, which suggests complex regulatory mechanism of gene expression
in response to drought stress. Details of molecular mechanisms regulating genes to
stress still remain to be solved concerning signal transduction cascades. In this
chapter, molecular processes of drought and cold stress response and tolerance are
described. Functions of drought-inducible genes, regulation of their gene expres-
sion and signal transduction pathways in drought stress response and tolerance are
also discussed.
Many plant genes are induced by environmental stresses such as drought, low tem-
perature and high salinity (Thomashow, 1999; Shinozaki and Yamaguchi-
Shinozaki, 2000; Zhu, 2002; Shinozaki et al., 2003). Recently, expression profiles
of genes under drought, cold and high salinity stress conditions were analysed using
microrarray and GeneChip (Seki et al., 2001, 2002a,b; Fowler and Thomashow,
2002). We have identified 299 drought-inducible genes, 54 cold-inducible genes,
213 high salinity stress-inducible genes and 245 ABA-inducible genes using a
cDNA microarray containing c. 7000 independent Arabidopsis full-length cDNA
groups (Seki et al., 2001, 2002a,b). More than half of drought-inducible genes
overlap with high salinity- and ABA-inducible genes, which indicates the existence
of significant crosstalk among drought, high salinity and ABA responses. By con-
trast, only 10% of drought-inducible genes overlap with cold-inducible genes.
Among the stress-inducible genes, many transcription factor genes were found,
suggesting that various transcriptional regulatory mechanisms function in the
drought-, cold- or high salinity-stress signal transduction pathways.
Genes induced during drought and cold stress conditions encode proteins that
function not only in the protection of cells from stress, but also in the gene expres-
sion and signal transduction in stress response (Thomashow, 1999; Shinozaki and
Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, 2000; Zhu, 2002; Shinozaki et al., 2003). These gene prod-
ucts are classified into two groups (Fig. 1.1). The first group includes proteins that
probably function in stress tolerance, such as chaperones, late embryogenesis
abundant (LEA) proteins, osmotin, antifreeze proteins, mRNA-binding proteins,
Global Analysis of Gene Networks 3
key enzymes for osmolytes biosynthesis, water channel proteins, sugar and proline
transporters, detoxification enzymes and various proteases. The second group con-
tains protein factors involved in further regulation of signal transduction and gene
expression that probably function in stress response, such as protein kinases, tran-
scription factors and enzymes in phospholipids metabolism. Existence of a variety
of stress-inducible genes suggests complex responses of plants to abiotic stress.
Many drought- and cold-inducible genes are also induced by exogenous ABA
treatment, which indicates important roles of ABA in stress-responsive gene
expression. However, many stress-inducible genes are regulated by ABA-inde-
pendent processes. Cold-inducible genes are mainly induced by ABA-independent
processes whereas many cold-inducible genes are induced by ABA treatment.
Analysis of stress-inducible gene expression has revealed the existence of ABA-
independent, as well as ABA-dependent, transcriptional regulatory systems in
abiotic stress-inducible genes (Thomashow, 1999; Shinozaki and Yamaguchi-
Shinozaki, 2000; Zhu, 2002; Shinozaki et al., 2003). It has been shown that at
least four independent regulatory systems function in the activation of stress-
inducible genes under dehydration conditions (Fig. 1.2). Two of them are ABA-
dependent and the remaining two are ABA-independent.
Protein kinases,
Protection factors Phosphatases,
of macromolecules Stress Phospholipid
(LEA proteins)
metabolism
Fig. 1.1. Functions of drought and cold stress-inducible genes in stress tolerance and response.
Gene products are classified into two groups. The first group includes proteins that probably
function in stress tolerance (functional proteins), and the second group contains protein factors
involved in further regulation of signal transduction and gene expression that probably function
in stress response (regulatory proteins).
4 K. Shinozaki and K. Yamaguchi-Shinozaki
Drought Cold
Gene
function Stress response and stress tolerance
Fig. 1.2. Signal transduction pathways from the perception of drought and cold stress signals to
gene expression. At least four signal transduction pathways exist (I–IV): two are abscisic acid
(ABA)-dependent (I and II) and two are ABA-independent (III and IV). Protein biosynthesis is
required in one of the ABA-dependent pathways in which MYB an MYC transcription factors
are involved (I). In another ABA-dependent pathway, ABRE functions as an ABA-responsive
element and does not require protein biosynthesis (II). This is a major regulatory system in
ABA-dependent gene expression in which bZIP transcription factors function. In one of the
ABA-independent pathways, DRE/CRT is involved in the regulation of genes not only by
drought and salt, but also by cold stress (IV). In this pathway, AP2 transcription factors, named
DREB or CBF, are major transcription factors involved in this process. Another ABA-
independent pathway is controlled by drought and salt, but not by cold (III). In this process,
NAC and HD-ZIP transcription factors are involved in gene expression.
ABA is synthesized in response to drought and high salinity stress but not to cold
stress. Many stress-inducible genes are regulated by endogenous ABA accumulated
during drought and high salinity stress. Recently, genes involved in ABA biosyn-
thesis have been identified based on genetic and genomics analysis. Several genes
involved in ABA biosynthesis are induced by drought and high salinity but not by
cold stress (Zhu, 2002; Shinozaki et al., 2003). This indicates important roles of
ABA in drought stress responses. Among the genes involved in ABA biosynthesis,
an Arabidopsis gene for nine-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED3), a key
enzyme for ABA biosynthesis, is strongly induced by drought stress.
ABRE is a major cis-acting element in ABA-responsive gene expression
(Fig. 1.1). Two ABRE motifs are important cis-acting elements in ABA-responsive
expression of Arabidopsis RD29B gene (Uno et al., 2000). Basic leucine zipper
(bZIP) transcription factors, AREB/ABF, bind to ABRE and activate ABA-depend-
ent gene expression (Choi et al., 2000; Uno et al., 2000). The AREB/ABF proteins
need ABA-mediated signals for their activation, because of their reduced activity in
the ABA-deficient aba2 and ABA-insensitive abi1 mutants and their enhanced activ-
ity in the ABA-hypersensitive era1 mutant (Uno et al., 2000). This is probably due
to ABA-dependent phosphorylation of the AREB/ABF proteins. Overexpression of
ABF3 or AREB2/ABF4 caused ABA-hypersensitivity, reduced transpiration rate
and enhanced drought tolerance of the transgenics (Kang et al., 2002).
6 K. Shinozaki and K. Yamaguchi-Shinozaki
Drought
Osmotic stress
Mechanical stress
Osmosensor
Signal perception Oxidative stress
Two-component system
(ATHK1)
Phospholipid
Ca2+ signalling (IP3, PA)
ABA
Signal transduction
Protein kinases: Protein kinases:
RPK1, SnRK2, etc. SnRK2, MAPK, etc.
Protein phosphatases Protein phosphatases
Fig. 1.3. Second messengers and protein factors involved in the signal perception and the
signal transduction in drought stress response. Two-component histidine kinase, ATHK1, is
thought to function as an osmosensor in plants. Calcium and phospholipids are the most
probable cellular second messengers of the drought stress signal. The phosphorylation process
functions in water stress and ABA signal transduction pathways. RPK1 functions in the early
process of ABA signalling. SnRK2 family protein kinases function in ABA and osmotic stress
signalling pathways. ABA plays important roles in the regulation of gene expression as well as
in physiological responses during water stress.
Perspectives
References
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10 K. Shinozaki and K. Yamaguchi-Shinozaki
Introduction
Plants must cope with a variety of abiotic stresses in the environment including
extremes in temperature, lack of water and flooding. In many regions of the Earth,
the ability to survive freezing temperatures is an essential trait. Many plants from
temperate regions, for instance, are able to sense low, non-freezing temperatures
and activate mechanisms that lead to an increase in freezing tolerance, a phe-
nomenon known as cold acclimation (Thomashow, 1999; Smallwood and Bowles,
2002). In contrast, plants from warm regions of the Earth, such as banana and
rice, are unable to cold acclimate and often suffer injury, and even death, upon
exposure to chilling temperatures between 0°C and 10°C (Thomashow and
Browse, 1999).
For decades, understanding the mechanisms of chilling and freezing tolerance
has been the major goal of investigators studying abiotic stress responses. A recent
important advance made with Arabidopsis has been the discovery of a stress
response pathway, the CBF cold response pathway that has a role in cold accli-
mation (Thomashow, 2001; Shinozaki et al., 2003). It has been established that
Arabidopsis encodes a small family of cold-responsive transcriptional activators
known either as CBF1, CBF2 and CBF3 (Stockinger et al., 1997; Gilmour et al.,
1998; Medina et al., 1999) or DREB1b, DREB1c and DREB1a (Liu et al., 1998;
Kasuga et al., 1999), respectively (the CBF designation will be used throughout this
chapter). The CBF transcription factors, which are members of the AP2/EREBP
family of DNA-binding proteins (Riechmann and Meyerowitz, 1998), recognize
©CAB International 2006. Cold Hardiness in Plants: Molecular Genetics, Cell Biology
and Physiology (eds T.H.H. Chen et al.) 11
12 J.T. Vogel et al.
Research Findings
The CBF cold response pathway is not the only pathway activated at low temp-
erature. Transcriptome-profiling experiments sampling roughly one-third of the
Arabidopsis genome indicated that extensive changes in gene expression occurred
during cold acclimation and that the majority of COR genes could not be assigned
to the CBF regulon (Seki et al., 2001; Fowler and Thomashow, 2002; Kreps et al.,
2002; Seki et al., 2002; Maruyama et al., 2004). To further explore the extent to
which the CBF cold response pathway configures the low-temperature transcrip-
tome of Arabidopsis (ecotype Col-0), we first identified a core set of cold-respons-
ive transcripts (Vogel et al., 2005) using the Arabidopsis ATH1 GeneChip from
Affymetrix (Redman et al., 2004). This chip contains probe sets representing
23,423 genes (based on TAIR’s 1 July 2004 annotation). Profiling experiments
were performed on plants exposed to low temperature for 1 h, 24 h and 7 days
grown in duplicate using two different culture conditions (soil and solid media).
This resulted in the identification of 514 transcripts (2.5-fold cut-off, P ≤ 0.05) that
were cold-responsive in all four replicates (two per culture condition) (Vogel et al.,
2005). Of these, 302 were upregulated and 212 were downregulated in response
to low temperature. We designated these genes the ‘cold standard’ (COS) set of
cold-responsive genes. The COS gene set almost certainly does not include all
cold-responsive genes, as root tissue was not harvested from the soil-grown plants
and the selection criteria used were stringent. Identifying all COR genes, however,
was not the purpose of these experiments. Rather, it was to identify a set of genes
that we could be confident were cold-induced and would serve as a robust
resource to begin to decipher the low-temperature regulatory network of
Arabidopsis.
Once the COS gene set was identified, we moved on to determining which
of these genes were members of the CBF regulon. COS genes were assigned to
the CBF regulon if the levels of their corresponding transcripts increased or
decreased at least 2.5-fold in two independent transgenic Arabidopsis lines that
constitutively expressed CBF2 under control of the cauliflower mosaic virus
(CaMV) 35S promoter. Other transcript-profiling experiments using the ‘8K’
Affymetrix GeneChip had indicated that there were no obvious differences in
genes affected by constitutive overexpression of CBF1, 2 or 3 (Gilmour et al.,
2004). Thus, it was judged that CBF2 overexpression would probably capture
most, if not all, genes that belonged to the CBF regulon.
Of the 514 COS genes, 93 were assigned to the CBF regulon (Vogel et al.,
2005). Of these 93 CBF regulon COS genes, the large majority, 85 (91%), were
cold-induced. A scan of the promoters of these 85 genes indicated that 68 (80%)
had one or more CRT/DRE elements, (A/G)CCGAC, present within 1 kb
upstream of the start of the protein-coding sequence. Thus, these genes were likely
to be direct targets of CBF2. Those CBF2-regulated COS genes without
CRT/DRE elements were presumably regulated by other genes controlled by
CBF2. Bioinformatic analysis of the sequences 1 kb upstream of the 85 CBF
14 J.T. Vogel et al.
It is well established that biochemical changes are associated with the process of
cold acclimation in plants (Levitt, 1980). This includes the accumulation of sugars
and amino acids such as sucrose and proline, which have been shown to have cry-
oprotective properties (Rudolph and Crowe, 1985; Strauss and Hauser, 1986).
Until recently, the analysis of the metabolic changes associated with cold acclim-
ation has been limited to targeted studies of individual metabolites. However, the
recent development of novel technologies to assess global metabolic changes
now makes a more comprehensive analysis possible (Fiehn et al., 2000). Using
these technologies in collaboration with Oliver Fiehn (Max Planck Institute for
Molecular Plant Physiology), an initial step to determine the global metabolic
changes that occur with cold acclimation in Arabidopsis was taken (Cook et al.,
Table 2.1. Cold-induced COS genes assigned to the CBF regulon.
1 kb
Probe seta AGI Annotation Subrole CBF2 1h 24 h 7d upstream
Metabolism
265119_at AT1G62570 Flavin-containing monooxygenase Amino acid 12.2 −0.6 30.4 9.7 0
(similar to glutamate synthase)
264511_at AT1G09350 Putative galactinol synthase Carbohydrate 346.5 −0.6 113.5 40.7 3
245998_at AT5G20830 Sucrose synthase I (SUS1) Carbohydrate 2.6 0.0 10.4 4.9 1
263789_at AT2G24560 Putative GDSL-motif lipase/hydrolase Lipid 258.5 1.2 23.5 4.1 2
Transcription
260776_at AT1G14580 Zinc finger (C2H2 type) protein family mRNA synthesis 3.4 0.0 5.3 2.5 0
245807_at AT1G46768 AP2 domain transcription factor mRNA synthesis 5.3 −5.8 10.4 5.6 2
(RAP2.1)
15
(Continued)
Table 2.1. (continued)
16
Average fold changeb A/GCCGACc
1 kb
Probe seta AGI Annotation Subrole CBF2 1h 24 h 7d upstream
259971_at AT1G76580 Squamosa promoter binding protein- mRNA synthesis 3.3 0.6 4.5 1.9 1
related
266514_at AT2G47890 CONSTANS B-box zinc finger mRNA synthesis 3.6 0.0 5.5 2.7 1
family protein
251793_at AT3G55580 Regulator of chromosome mRNA synthesis 5.5 2.6 38.1 41.9 0
condensation RCC1 family
253722_at AT4G29190 Zinc finger (CCCH type) protein family mRNA synthesis 2.9 2.2 4.1 2.6 1
253219_at AT4G34990 MYB family transcription factor mRNA synthesis 3.1 −1.3 2.7 1.5 0
(MYB32)
245711_at AT5G04340 Putative C2H2 zinc finger mRNA synthesis 3.5 5.7 3.7 0.9 2
transcription factor
246922_at AT5G25110 Serine/threonine protein kinase-like Intracellular 11.5 0.5 91.1 47.9 0
signalling
Energy
253416_at AT4G33070 Pyruvate decarboxylase-1 (Pdc1) Fermentation 3.7 −0.9 22.6 7.1 1
247937_at AT5G57110 Ca2+-transporting ATPase (ACA8) Calcium 2.6 −0.2 7.6 3.6 1
transport
CBF Cold Response Pathways
245427_at AT4G17550 Glycerol-3-phosphate Sugar transport 6.7 0.7 15.2 4.8 2
permease-like protein
263574_at AT2G16990 Putative tetracycline transporter protein Transport 14.9 −1.2 3.3 1.9 2
266225_at AT2G28900 Putative membrane channel protein Transport 7.8 −0.1 6.1 3.5 2
250151_at AT5G14570 Similar to trans-membrane nitrate Transport 3.1 0.6 5.2 2.8 1
transporter protein
251899_at AT3G54400 Aspartyl protease family Proteolysis 3.0 0.0 4.8 2.8 1
Stress related
263951_at AT2G35960 Putative Harpin-induced protein Defense 2.7 0.5 4.4 2.7 0
258893_at AT3G05660 Disease resistance protein Intracelluar 20.5 0.5 7.3 5.7 2
signalling
259426_at AT1G01470 LEA protein (LEA14) LEA/dehydrin 10.3 0.1 8.6 3.4 3
17
(Continued)
Table 2.1. (continued)
18
Average fold changeb A/GCCGACc
1 kb
Probe seta AGI Annotation Subrole CBF2 1h 24 h 7d upstream
256310_at AT1G30360 Dehydrin (ERD4) LEA/dehydrin 2.6 1.1 2.8 0.7 1
262452_at AT1G11210 Expressed protein (COR35) Unknown 3.5 4.3 33.4 14.0 0
256114_at AT1G16850 Expressed protein (COR17) Unknown 380.4 0.4 218.0 60.8 3
259789_at AT1G29395 Similar to cold acclimation protein Unknown 20.0 −0.1 9.4 7.3 1
WCOR414 (WCOR414-TM1)
262050_at AT1G80130 Expressed protein (COR33.5) Unknown 6.1 0.6 24.1 26.3 1
265480_at AT2G15970 Similar to cold acclimation protein Unknown 4.0 −1.1 5.0 3.3 2
WCOR413 (WCOR413-PM1)
267261_at AT2G23120 Expressed protein (COR8.5) Unknown 8.6 1.4 6.2 3.4 1
254818_at AT4G12470 pEARLI 1-like protein Unknown 11.7 1.1 38.1 34.1 0
−0.1
253627_at AT4G30650 Hydrophobic protein (LTI6A/RCI2A) Unknown 11.7 0.0 8.9 7.2 1
253595_at AT4G30830 Expressed protein (COR42) Unknown 66.3 0.8 91.6 40.9 2
CBF Cold Response Pathways
Cellular biogenesis
259173_at AT3G03640 Beta-glucosidase (GLUC) Cell wall 3.2 0.4 4.2 1.8 2
258719_at AT3G09540 Putative pectate lyase Cell wall 4.5 −0.6 6.9 3.0 2
251229_at AT3G62740 Beta-glucosidase-like protein Cell wall 7.8 −0.2 12.1 12.2 1
254662_at AT4G18270 Glycosyltransferase family 4 Cell wall 2.6 0.0 2.9 1.6 1
(ATTRANS11)
252997_at AT4G38400 Expansin protein family (EXPL2) Cell wall 3.3 1.9 9.6 2.4 3
247478_at AT5G62360 Similar to pectinesterase Cell wall 3.9 1.4 8.3 2.0 1
Cellular organization
254085_at AT4G24960 Similar to abscisic acid-induced Vesicular 13.1 0.0 8.6 2.1 3
protein (HVA22D) trafficking
257237_at AT3G14890 DNA nick sensor, putative DNA synthesis 3.1 −1.1 7.6 2.8 2
Unknown role
260727_at AT1G48100 Glycoside hydrolase family 28 protein Unknown 16.2 0.6 15.8 3.3 0
262881_at AT1G64890 Expressed protein (integral Unknown 2.8 0.0 9.6 3.4 0
membrane/transporter family)
252956_at AT4G38580 Farnesylated protein (ATFP6) Unknown 3.2 1.1 10.0 4.5 2
250279_at AT5G13200 Like ABA-responsive protein Unknown 7.0 1.5 4.4 2.7 1
248467_at AT5G50800 Nodulin MtN3-like protein Unknown 3.1 −0.1 4.4 7.0 0
245749_at AT1G51090 Similar to proline-rich protein Unknown 56.5 1.3 29.3 4.4 2
251927_at AT3G53990 Universal stress protein Unknown 3.4 1.1 4.4 2.1 2
(USP) family protein
(Continued)
19
Table 2.1. (continued)
20
Average fold changeb A/GCCGACc
1 kb
Probe seta AGI Annotation Subrole CBF2 1h 24 h 7d upstream
262164_at AT1G78070 WD-40 repeat family protein Unknown 4.8 0.6 5.1 2.7 2
Unknown protein
For details on the experiments that generated these data, see Vogel et al. (2005).
Fig. 2.1. A majority of the transcripts that exhibit the greatest fold increase in response to low
temperature are members of the CBF regulon. Cold-upregulated transcripts were ranked by
average fold change after 24 h at 4°C. Those that were assigned to the CBF regulon (CBF) are
coloured grey; those that were assigned as not being members of the CBF regulon (non-CBF)
are coloured light grey; and those that could not be assigned (not assigned) to either of these
classes are coloured black.
Table 2.2. Number of metabolites that increase in Arabidopsis (ecotype Ws-2) with cold
acclimation.
≥ 25 26
≥ 5 to < 25 88
Total 325
a
A total of 434 metabolites were monitored using GC-time-of-flight mass spectrometry, 325 of which
increased the indicated amounts in response to low temperature (14 days).
acclimate. Given the role of the CBF cold response pathway in chilling and freez-
ing tolerance in Arabidopsis, it was of interest to determine whether tomato has a
CBF cold response pathway, and if so, whether ‘deficiencies’ in it might contribute
to the cold-sensitive phenotype of tomato. Towards this end, it should be asked
first whether tomato has functional CBF genes. It was found that tomato has three
genes encoding CBF-like proteins, LeCBF1–3, that, as in Arabidopsis, are located
in tandem array in the genome (Jaglo et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2004). All three
tomato CBF proteins contain the CBF family ‘signature sequences’ flanking the
AP2/ERF domain (Jaglo et al., 2001), and alignments of the tomato and
Arabidopsis CBF1–3 proteins reveal additional highly conserved regions outside of
the AP2/ERF domain (Jaglo et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2004). Overall, the amino
acid sequences of LeCBF1–3 are 70–84% identical to each other and 51–59%
identical to CBF1–3 proteins from Arabidopsis.
Expression analysis studies showed that in a similar manner to CBF1–3 in
Arabidopsis, transcripts for the tomato LeCBF1 gene accumulate rapidly (within
15 min) upon transferring tomato plants to low temperature and also after
mechanical agitation (Jaglo et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2004). In contrast, neither
LeCBF2 nor LeCBF3 was induced in response to low temperature. They were,
however, responsive to mechanical agitation, indicating that these genes could still
be activated under certain conditions. None of the tomato CBF genes was upreg-
ulated in response to high salinity, drought or treatment with ABA.
To test whether the cold-responsive tomato gene, LeCBF1, encodes a func-
tional homologue of the Arabidopsis CBF proteins, transgenic Arabidopsis plants
that constitutively expressed LeCBF1 under the control of the CaMV 35S pro-
moter were created (Zhang et al., 2004). The transgenic plants exhibited stunted
growth and delayed flowering, a phenotype similar to that described when CBF
genes are overexpressed in Arabidopsis (Liu et al., 1998; Kasuga et al., 1999;
Gilmour et al., 2004). Furthermore, constitutive expression of LeCBF1 in trans-
genic Arabidopsis plants activated expression of COR genes and increased plant
freezing tolerance in the absence of a low-temperature stimulus (Zhang et al.,
2004). These results indicated that LeCBF1 encodes a functional homologue of the
Arabidopsis CBF1–3 genes.
The finding that tomato is able to activate expression of at least one func-
tional CBF gene in response to low temperature indicated that upstream compon-
ents of the CBF cold response pathway were functional in tomato. That is,
tomato could sense low temperature and activate expression of a CBF gene that
encoded a functional protein. The question then became whether downstream
components of the CBF cold response pathway were present and functional in
tomato. To determine whether the CBF regulon of tomato was similar to that of
Arabidopsis, transgenic tomato plants constitutively overexpressing either AtCBF3
or LeCBF1 under control of the CaMV 35S promoter were created and tested for
changes in gene expression and freezing tolerance.
The results indicated that tomato did have a CBF regulon, but that it was
much smaller than that of Arabidopsis. In particular, transcriptome analysis using
a cDNA microarray surveying approximately 25% of the tomato genome identi-
fied only three genes that were members of the tomato CBF regulon (i.e. were
induced by both low temperature and overexpression of AtCBF3 and LeCBF1).
24 J.T. Vogel et al.
Two of these genes encoded dehydrins (genes encoding dehydrins are also found
in the Arabidopsis CBF regulon) and the third encoded a putative proteinase
inhibitor. Limited sequence analysis of the promoter regions of the two dehydrin
genes indicated the presence of putative CRT/DRE elements. Further analysis
indicated that eight tomato genes that were likely homologues of Arabidopsis CBF
regulon genes were not responsive to CBF overexpression in tomato. Finally, con-
stitutive expression of AtCBF3 or LeCBF3 did not result in increased freezing tol-
erance in the transgenic tomato plants. A similar result was described by Hsieh
et al. (2002) for constitutive expression of AtCBF1 in tomato.
Taken together, the results obtained with tomato indicate that it has a com-
plete CBF cold response pathway; i.e. tomato can sense low temperature, activate
the expression of a CBF gene encoding a functional protein and has a CBF reg-
ulon that includes genes with putative functional CRT/DRE elements and encoding
dehydrin proteins. However, it also appears that the CBF regulon of tomato is
much smaller, and, consequently, is less functionally diverse than that of
Arabidopsis.
Concluding Remarks
A central goal of the studies described above was to determine the extent to which
the CBF cold response pathway ‘configures’ the low-temperature transcriptome
and metabolome of Arabidopsis. The results provide significant insights into this
issue. The expression-profiling experiments indicate that the CBF transcription
factors have a prominent role in regulating the expression of those cold-responsive
genes that are the most highly induced in response to low temperature and remain
upregulated for extended periods of time (7 days in these experiments). In addi-
tion, the metabolite-profiling experiments indicate that extensive changes occur in
the metabolome of Arabidopsis Ws-2 plants in response to low temperature, and
that the CBF cold response pathway has a prominent role in bringing about these
changes. In sum, the results provide additional evidence that the CBF cold
response pathway has a central role in the cold acclimation response in
Arabidopsis.
While it is evident that the CBF cold response pathway is a major player in
cold acclimation, it is also apparent that many cold-induced genes fall outside of
the CBF regulon. Key challenges now are to determine what transcription factors
control the expression of the ‘non-CBF regulon’ genes; to define the regulons con-
trolled by these transcription factors; and to determine whether these regulons
contribute significantly to cold tolerance. Towards these ends, Vogel et al. (2005)
identified a number of transcription factors that are expressed in parallel with the
CBF1–3 genes and demonstrated that one of these transcription factors, ZAT12,
a C2H2 zinc finger protein (Meissner and Michael, 1997), contributes to condi-
tioning the low-temperature transcriptome and freezing tolerance. Overexpression
of ZAT12 in transgenic Arabidopsis plants led to the assigning of 24 genes to the
ZAT12 regulon and demonstrates that expression of the ZAT12 regulon results in a
small, but detectible, increase in plant freezing tolerance (Vogel et al., 2005). Similarly,
Zhu et al. (2004) have identified a transcription factor, HOS9, a homeodomain
CBF Cold Response Pathways 25
protein, that appears to control expression of certain COR genes and to contribute
to freezing tolerance. Continued efforts along these lines should, over the next few
years, lead to the construction of a low-temperature ‘wiring diagram’ that includes
the identification of regulatory networks that function in Arabidopsis cold
acclimation.
In regard to the low-temperature metabolome studies, we would like to inte-
grate the metabolite data with the transcriptome results. At present, however, such
efforts are severely limited by the fact that, of the estimated 5000 primary and sec-
ondary metabolites present in an Arabidopsis leaf, only about 10% have been
identified (Bino et al., 2004). Indeed, of the 325 metabolites that we found
increased upon cold acclimation, only 75 (23%) were conclusively identified (Cook
et al., 2004). Similarly, efforts to integrate metabolome and transcriptome data are
limited by the fact that a large percentage (approximately one-third) of the iden-
tified transcripts are not yet assigned functions. It is also the case that the linking
of individual metabolites to particular transcripts or pathways is complicated by
the fact that individual metabolites can be members of multiple pathways and indi-
vidual enzymes can catalyse the synthesis of multiple metabolites. Despite these
limitations, we have learned that cold acclimation is associated with extensive
changes in the metabolome and that the CBF cold response pathway has a promi-
nent role in bringing about these changes. It is also the case that improved tech-
nologies and methods for metabolome analysis are intensively being developed as
well as bioinformatic approaches to integrate datasets (e.g. Scholz et al., 2004;
Thimm et al., 2004). This is an exciting area of research that should continue to
blossom in the coming years.
The second major goal of the research described here was to develop a bet-
ter understanding of the CBF cold response pathway of tomato. It was found
that tomato can sense low temperature and activate expression of a CBF gene
encoding a functional CBF protein. In addition, we found that expression of the
tomato CBF gene leads to induction of target genes that have putative functional
CRT/DRE elements, i.e. tomato has a CBF regulon. Thus, it can be concluded
that tomato has a ‘complete’ CBF cold response pathway. However, the results
also indicate that the CBF regulon of tomato is much smaller, and consequently
is less functionally diverse, than the Arabidopsis CBF regulon. Whereas the
Arabidopsis CBF regulon appears to include more than 100 genes (Fowler and
Thomashow, 2002; Seki et al., 2002; Maruyama et al., 2004; Vogel et al., 2005),
the CBF regulon of tomato may comprise only about 10–15 genes (three genes
were assigned to the tomato CBF regulon after surveying approximately 25% of
the genome). What could account for this large difference in regulon composi-
tion? One possibility is that tomato might have only a few genes with functional
CRT/DRE elements within their promoters. Alternatively, the differences in
CBF regulon composition might reflect differences in the protein factors required
for CBF to function. For instance, in Arabidopsis, the SFR6 gene is required for
CBF to activate expression of its target genes (Knight et al., 1999; Boyce et al.,
2003). Perhaps tomato encodes a weak allele of SFR6 or some other gene
required for full CBF activity, resulting in weak induction of most CBF target
genes. Distinguishing between these and other possibilities is a goal that is being
pursued.
26 J.T. Vogel et al.
Acknowledgements
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CBF Cold Response Pathways 29
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3 Barley Contains a Large CBF Gene
Family Associated with Quantitative
Cold-tolerance Traits
J.S. SKINNER,1,2,* J. VON ZITZEWITZ,2 L. MARQUEZ-CEDILLO,2
T. FILICHKIN,2 P. SZU″CS,3 K. AMUNDSEN,4 E.J. STOCKINGER,5
M.F. THOMASHOW,4 T.H.H. CHEN1 AND P.M. HAYES2
1
Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR 97331, USA; 2Department of Crop and Soil Science, College of
Agriculture, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA; 3Agricultural
Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-2462
Martonvásár, Hungary; 4Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; 5Department of Horticulture
and Crop Science, The Ohio State University/OARDC, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
Introduction
Plants display a broad capacity range to survive cold and freezing conditions
(Thomashow, 1999). Most current work into the molecular basis of plant cold tol-
erance has been performed in the model non-crop plant Arabidopsis. Increasingly,
these observations are being tested in crop plants. The grasses, or Poaceae, con-
tain the economically most important crop plant family members, including all the
cereal crops utilized by humans. These include rice (Oryza sativa), maize (Zea
mays) and members of the Triticeae, which includes the important members
wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley (Hordeum vulgare) and rye (Secale cereale).
Within the cereals, a broad range of cold tolerance, from completely sensitive
to extreme cold hardy, is observed. At one extreme are the cereals of subtropical
origin such as rice and maize, which are sensitive to cold and will not survive
freezing temperatures. These characteristics make these systems of limited use for
©CAB International 2006. Cold Hardiness in Plants: Molecular Genetics, Cell Biology
30 and Physiology (eds T.H.H. Chen et al.)
Quantitative Cold-tolerance Traits in Barley 31
dissecting the molecular basis of freezing tolerance within the cereals. In contrast,
within the Triticeae, a wide range of phenotypic variation for cold tolerance
occurs, and is exemplified at the other extreme by rye, which can withstand tem-
peratures of −30°C when fully cold-acclimated (Thomashow, 1999). Our group
has been using barley as a model to study the mechanisms by which the Triticeae,
and cold-tolerant cereals in general, adapt to and survive cold and freezing
conditions.
Domesticated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare, is an economically
important crop model for the study and dissection of the molecular, genetic and
physiological components of Triticeae winter hardiness. Winter hardiness consists
of three major traits: low-temperature (LT) tolerance, vernalization (VRN)
response and photoperiod (PPD) sensitivity. The specific combination of these
three traits determines the growth habit of a genotype (below). Barley is a self-
pollinated diploid and abundant genetic variation for cold tolerance is found
within its primary gene pool. Relative to the cold-tolerant cereals, barley is unique
in the broad array of ever-expanding tools that are currently available for genetic
and molecular analysis (reviewed in Hayes et al., 2003), which include multiple
doubled haploid mapping populations, near isogenic lines, arrayed large insert
BAC clones (Yu et al., 2000), a large expressed sequence tag (EST) database, and
a 22K microarray gene chip (Close et al., 2004), among others.
The Triticeae form a homogeneous genetic system with a high degree of syn-
teny. Comparative genetics studies confirm that the genetic determinants of win-
ter hardiness appear to be conserved among members that possess this trait, and,
therefore, results from one species are frequently applicable to other members of
the cereal tribe (Dubcovsky et al., 1998; Mahfoozi et al., 2000). Furthermore, all
barley linkage maps are collinear and allow linkage map position alignments of
loci and quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapped in different populations, utilizing
the BIN map concept of Kleinhofs and Graner (2001). In barley, as in other mem-
bers of the Triticeae, genetic variation for growth habit occurs. QTL analysis tools
have revealed that a limited number of conserved genome regions are responsible
for the components of winter hardiness. A region is present on the long arm of
chromosome 5H where QTL for VRN response, LT tolerance and PPD sensitiv-
ity are co-localized in the Triticeae (Pan et al., 1994; Cattivelli et al., 2002);
this cluster was first observed in the Dicktoo × Morex (DM) barley population as
coincident LT tolerance and PPD sensitivity QTLs (Hayes et al., 1993). While
VRN, LT and PPD are interrelated (Limin and Fowler, 2002), these three trait
phenotypes occur in all possible combinations within the barley germplasm (Karsai
et al., 2001), suggesting the interrelationships of these traits may be attributable to
linkage rather than to pleiotropy.
Relative to the LT, VRN and PPD trait combinations, three winter hardiness
growth habit classes – winter, facultative and spring – are defined for the barley
germplasm (Karsai et al., 2001). Winter habits are VRN responsive, PPD sensitive
and the most LT tolerant. Higher LT-tolerance capacity is necessary in winter
habit genotypes so the plants can survive the prolonged LT exposure needed to
fulfil the VRN requirement. In contrast, spring habits lack a VRN response, are
insensitive to short-day PPD, and are the most sensitive to LT, and thus have a
growth habit that is essentially the inverse of the winter habit. Facultative habits
32 J.S. Skinner et al.
are PPD sensitive and can be as LT tolerant as winter varieties, but lack a VRN
requirement. The facultative growth habit may actually be a winter genotype sub-
class in which the Vrn-H2 candidate gene has been deleted (von Zitzewitz, 2004;
Karsai et al., 2005; Cooper et al., Chapter 5, this volume). In cereals, maximum
LT tolerance is achieved following cold acclimation, the process by which a plant
develops freezing tolerance when exposed to low, but non-freezing, temperatures
while still within the vegetative growth state (Hayes et al., 1997).
During the cold acclimation process, many changes occur at both the biochemical
and physiological levels in a plant (Thomashow, 1999). One major change is the
induction of a suite of LT-responsive genes termed cor (cold-regulated) genes. The
products of these cor genes are thought to collectively impart the necessary physio-
logical and biochemical alterations that increase a plant’s freezing tolerance
(Thomashow, 1999). Many of these cor genes contain a CRT (C-repeat) regula-
tory element having the core sequence motif, CCGAC, in their promoter. This
element has been shown to respond to the abiotic stresses of cold, drought and
salt exposure (Thomashow, 1999); this motif is also referred to as a DRE (dehy-
dration response element). One major advance in plant cold hardiness research
was the identification of the CBF (C-repeat binding factor) family of genes from
Arabidopsis (Stockinger et al., 1997; Gilmour et al., 1998; Liu et al., 1998). CBF
genes encode transcription factors that are members of the AP2/EREBP family of
DNA-binding proteins and specifically bind to the CRT element of cor gene pro-
moters in response to cold, inducing their expression (Stockinger et al., 1997;
Gilmour et al., 1998; Jaglo et al., 2001). CBFs are distinguished from other mem-
bers of the AP2/EREBP superfamily by the presence of CBF signature sequence
motifs flanking the AP2 domain (Jaglo et al., 2001). The Arabidopsis genome
encodes six CBF genes and ectopic expression of AtCBF1–4 in transgenic plants
results in activation of components of the CBF regulon, including cor genes that
harbour CRT elements within their promoters (Jaglo-Ottosen et al., 1998; Liu
et al., 1998; Gilmour et al., 2000; Jaglo et al., 2001; Haake et al., 2002). EST
database searches reveal that CBF-like genes are present in most dicot and mono-
cot EST collections (J.S. Skinner, unpublished results), implying the CBF response
pathway is widely distributed within higher plants.
CRT motifs are present in the regulatory regions of most barley cor genes for
which a promoter has been isolated; three CBF genes have been reported from
barley (Choi et al., 2002; Xue, 2002, 2003) to date. In Arabidopsis, AtCBF1–3 are
present as a tandem gene array (Gilmour et al., 1998) that is coincident with a
LT-tolerance QTL (Salinas, 2002), implying that genetic variation at CBF gene
loci could be a basis for genotypical differences in LT tolerance. Together, these
results suggest that CBF genes are involved in LT tolerance in barley, and could
be a basis for the differential genotypic LT capacities. Two important barley popu-
lations for mapping winter growth habit traits, including LT tolerance, were avail-
able at the initiation of this study and accordingly employed to maximize the
barley germplasm variation analysed. The DM population is a barley research
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verbrauchen. Nächstdem kommt Bengalen und Malabar in Britisch-
Indien und Java und Sumatra in Holländisch-Indien. Gute Kassia ist
ein billigerer Ersatz des teuren, echten Ceylonzimts und wird häufig
unter dessen Namen in den Handel gebracht. Sie ist dicker und
kräftiger als Zimt, bricht kürzer, schmeckt beißender und ist ärmer
an Aroma. Diese Unterschiede verschwinden um so mehr, je feiner
die Kassia und je geringer der Zimt ist. Besonders in gemahlenem
Zustand wird Kassia sehr häufig als Zimt verkauft, oder kommt mit
Zimt vermischt als reiner Zimt in den Handel. Die K a s s i a b l ü t e n
haben einige Ähnlichkeit mit den Gewürznelken, sind nur etwas
kleiner. Sie stellen die in der Sonne getrockneten, ganz jungen
Früchte des besonders in Südjapan kultivierten Cinnamomum dulce
bald nach dem Verblühen der Blüten dar und werden gleicherweise
wie die Rinde als Arznei und Gewürze verwendet. Als Zimtnägelein
standen sie im Mittelalter hoch im Preise und wurden besonders zur
Herstellung des als Hippokras bezeichneten Würzweins benutzt. Die
Kultur und Ernte der Zimtkassia ist ganz analog derjenigen des
echten Zimts.
Die Kassia wird seit Urzeiten vom alten Kulturvolke der Chinesen
als geschätzte Arznei und Würze verwendet. Schon in einem auf den
chinesischen Kaiser Schen-nung ums Jahr 2800 v. Chr.
zurückgeführten Kräuterbuche wird sie unter dem Namen kwai
angeführt, der sich in China unverändert bis heute für Zimt erhalten
hat. Sie ist es auch, welche unter dem heute noch gebräuchlichen
Namen kasia neben dem echten Zimt schon im frühen Altertum auf
dem Seewege an die Küsten des Roten Meeres gebracht und von
dort aus an die Kulturvölker im Bereiche des östlichen
Mittelmeerbeckens weiter verhandelt wurde. In einem uralten, an
der Wand des Laboratoriums des Tempels von Edfu (18. Dynastie
1580–1350 v. Chr.) in Hieroglyphen eingemeißelten Rezept zu
heiligem Räucherwerk wird Zimt als kainamaa aufgeführt. Und als
die unternehmende Tochter und Erbin des ägyptischen Königs
Thutmosis I., Hatschepsut, die mit ihrem Halbbruder Thutmosis II.
verheiratet war und nach dessen Tode von 1516–1481 v. Chr.
selbständig über Ägypten herrschte, im 9. Jahre ihrer Regierung eine
Expedition von fünf Schiffen nach dem Lande Punt (Südarabien)
sandte, brachte diese außer Weihrauch, Gold und Elfenbein auch
Zimt in größerer Menge nach der Residenz Theben mit. Da nun im
Lande Punt kein Zimt wuchs, müssen ihn indische Handelsschiffe
dahin gebracht haben.
Zu Ende des zweiten vorchristlichen Jahrtausends war der Zimt
als kostbarer Handelsartikel Vorderasiens auch den Juden und den
Phönikiern unter dem Namen kinnamon bekannt. So lesen wir in
dem zur Zeit der israelitischen Könige, deren drei erste Saul (1055
bis 1033 v. Chr.), David (1033–993) und Salomo (993–953) waren,
verfaßten Pentateuch im 2. Mose 30, 22 u. f. welche Wertschätzung
dieses ferne Produkt Indiens bei den ältesten Juden besaß. Dort
heißt es: „Und der Herr (Jahve) redete mit Mose (am Sinai um 1280
v. Chr.) und sprach: Nimm zu dir die besten Spezereien 500 (Sekel)
und Zimt halb soviel, nämlich 250, und Kalmus auch 250, und Kassia
500 nach dem Sekel des Heiligtums und Öl vom Ölbaum 1 Hin, und
mache ein heiliges Salböl nach der Apothekerkunst und salbe damit
die Hütte des Stifts und die Lade des Zeugnisses, den Tisch mit all
seinem Geräte, den Leuchter mit seinem Geräte, den Räucheraltar,
den Brandopferaltar mit all seinem Geräte und das Handfaß mit
seinem Fuß; und sollst sie also weihen, daß sie das Allerheiligste
seien, denn wer sie anrühren will, der soll geweiht sein. Und sollst
mit den Kindern Israels reden und sprechen: Dieses Öl soll mir eine
heilige Salbe sein bei euren Nachkommen. Auf Menschen soll es
nicht gegossen werden, du sollst auch seinesgleichen nicht machen;
denn es ist heilig, darum soll’s euch heilig sein. Wer ein solches (Öl)
machet oder einem andern davon gibt, der soll von seinem Volk
ausgerottet werden.“
Dann findet sich der Zimt in der den Sprüchen Salomos
nachgeahmten „Weisheit Jesu, des Sohnes Sirach“, die ein gelehrter
jüdischer Priester von angesehener Lebensstellung ums Jahr 180
v. Chr. in Alexandrien in griechischer Sprache verfaßte, und in der im
Jahre 68 auf 69 n. Chr. in Ephesus ebenfalls griechisch abgefaßten
Offenbarung des Johannes erwähnt, und zwar in letzterer Schrift
dort, wo von den Waren die Rede ist, die die Kaufleute Babylons
verkaufen: Silber, Gold, Edelstein, Perlen, Seide, Purpur und
Scharlach, Zimt, Weihrauch, Thymian, Salben, Wein, Öl, Weizen,
Vieh usw.
Phönikische Kaufleute brachten den Zimt unter der von ihnen
dafür gebrauchten Bezeichnung kinnamon zu den Griechen und
müssen ihnen dabei recht abenteuerliche Geschichten über dessen
Herkunft und Gewinnung erzählt haben; denn gleich der erste
griechische Schriftsteller, der diese kostbare, als Gewürz und Arznei
gleich hochgeschätzte Droge erwähnt, der Vater der griechischen
Geschichtschreibung Herodot (484 bis 424 v. Chr.), der selbst
Ägypten, Syrien und Babylonien bereiste, schreibt über ihn: „Die
Araber sind nicht imstande anzugeben, in welchem Lande der Zimt
(kinnámōmon) wächst, doch vermuten einige, er wachse in den
Ländern, in denen Dionysos (der angeblich aus Indien stammende,
über Kleinasien nach Griechenland gekommene orientalische Gott
des Natursegens und der bei seinen Festen zum Ausdruck
kommenden ausgelassenen Lebensfreude) erzogen worden. Große
Vögel brächten die Späne herbei, welche die Phönikier kinnámōmon
nennen, welchen Namen wir von ihnen entlehnt haben. Die Vögel
trügen den Zimt in ihre an unzugängliche Felsen gebauten Nester.
Um ihn nun von da zu bekommen, legten die Araber große Stücke
Fleisch von krepierten Rindern, Eseln usw. unter die Felsen und
versteckten sich dann. Die Vögel trügen die Fleischstücke in ihre
Nester und überlüden sich so damit den Magen, daß sie
herunterstürzten, worauf der Zimt gesammelt und nach den anderen
Ländern hin verhandelt würde.“
Noch Aristoteles (384–322 v. Chr.), seit 343 Lehrer Alexanders
des Großen, — sein Vater Nikomachos war in Stagira in Makedonien
Leibarzt und Vertrauter des Königs Amyntas II. von Makedonien
gewesen — meldet uns solche zu seiner Zeit herum gebotene und
geglaubte Märchen, indem er in seiner Naturgeschichte sagt: „Das
Zimtvögelchen soll in den Gegenden, wo es heimisch ist, Zimt
zusammentragen und sein Nest daraus auf den Zweigen hoher
Bäume bauen. Die Bewohner des Landes sollen es von da mit
Pfeilen, deren Spitze von Blei ist, herabschießen und so den Zimt
gewinnen.“ Sein Schüler Theophrast (390–286 v. Chr.) weiß uns,
nachdem inzwischen Alexander der Große seinen Zug nach Indien
ausgeführt hatte, schon Positiveres über den Zimt, wie auch über
Kassia zu berichten. Er schreibt in seiner Pflanzengeschichte: „Über
Zimt (kinnámōmon) und Kassia (kasia) berichtet man folgendes:
Beide sollen Sträucher von unbedeutender Höhe, dabei dem
Keuschbaum (ágnos, Vitex agnus castus) ähnlich sein und viele
holzige Zweige haben. Wenn man den ganzen Zimtbaum fällt, so soll
man ihn in fünf Teile teilen. Die jungen Triebe sollen den besten Zimt
geben und man schneidet davon Stücke eine Spanne lang oder
wenig länger. Was darunter folgt gibt die zweite Sorte und wird
kürzer geschnitten; dann folgt die dritte und vierte Sorte. Die letzte
Sorte ist der Wurzel am nächsten und die schlechteste; denn da ist
wenig Rinde. Überhaupt wird nur die letztere gebraucht, nicht das
Holz. Deswegen sind eben die Zweige am besten; denn sie haben
die meiste Rinde.
Andere behaupten ebenfalls, es seien Sträucher, aber es gebe
eine weiße und schwarze Sorte. Es geht auch die Sage, daß sie in
Schluchten wachsen, worin viele Schlangen leben, deren Biß tödlich
ist. In diese Schluchten gehe man zum Sammeln des Zimts mit
geschützten Händen und Füßen. Das Gewonnene teile man in drei
Teile, bestimme den einen für den Sonnengott und entscheide durch
das Los, welchen er bekommen solle. Gehen die Leute fort, so soll
der dem Sonnengott zuteil gewordene Zimt sogleich verbrennen.
Das ist aber natürlich nur Fabel.
Von der Kassia sagt man, sie habe dickere Ruten, deren Rinde
man nicht abschälen könne. Deswegen verfahre man, da man auch
von ihr nur die Rinde will, folgendermaßen: Man schneidet die Ruten
in Stücke, welche zwei Finger lang oder etwas länger sind. Diese
näht man in eine frische, abgezogene Tierhaut; dann erzeugten sich
aus der Fäulnis der Haut und des Holzes Würmer, die das Holz
wegfräßen, die Rinde aber wegen ihres scharfen Geruches und ihrer
Bitterkeit nicht anrühren.“
Um 50 v. Chr. berichtet uns der griechische Geschichtschreiber
Diodoros aus Sizilien in seinem Geschichtswerk: „In Arabien wachsen
Costus, Kassia, Zimt und andere Herrlichkeiten in solcher Menge,
daß man dort Dinge, die man bei uns nur sparsam auf die Altäre der
Götter legt, zum Heizen der Kochherde verwendet, und daß Dinge,
die man anderwärts nur in kleinen Proben sieht, dort als Streu für
die Leute gebraucht werden. Namentlich wächst in Arabien der
sogenannte Zimt, ein ausgezeichnet nützlicher Stoff, nebst Gummi
und wohlriechendem Terpentin in unermeßlichem Überfluß.“
Auch der 25 n. Chr. gestorbene griechische Geograph Strabon,
der weite Reisen durch das Römerreich machte, war noch im Wahn
befangen, daß das Glückliche Arabien, das doch nur den Zimt und
die anderen Gewürze von Indien her bezog, solchen selbst
hervorbringe. Er sagt in seinem Geographiebuch: „Im arabischen
Gewürzland soll Weihrauch und Myrrhe von Bäumen, Kassia aber
von Sträuchern gewonnen werden, die meiste Kassia jedoch, wie
manche behaupten, aus Indien. Es wächst in diesem Gewürzland
auch Zimt und Narde; den meisten Wein gewinnt man dort von
Palmen.“ Und an einer anderen Stelle schreibt er: „Daß der Nil zu
der Zeit schwelle, wo das oberhalb Ägyptens liegende Negerland von
Platzregen überschwemmt wird, hat man von Leuten erfahren, die
im Arabischen Meerbusen bis zum Zimtlande geschifft sind, oder von
solchen, die von den Ptolemäern auf die Elefantenjagd ausgesandt
wurden.“
Der um die Mitte des 1. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. lebende griechische
Arzt Dioskurides zählt verschiedene Sorten Zimt und deren
Eigenschaften auf und meint, die beste müsse eigentümlich
wohlriechen und scharf, fast beißend und erhitzend schmecken. Er
werde als Arznei, als Parfüm für Salben und sonst zu gar mancherlei
Zwecken gebraucht. Sein Zeitgenosse Plinius, der 79 n. Chr. beim
Vesuvausbruch umkam, war schon besser als seine griechischen
Vorgänger unterrichtet. Er schreibt in seiner Naturgeschichte: „Zimt
(cinnamomum) und Kassia (casia) trägt Arabien nicht. Übrigens
haben die alten Schriftsteller und namentlich Herodot über den Zimt
allerlei Fabeln berichtet, so z. B. daß er in der Heimat des Bacchus
von unzugänglichen Felsen und Bäumen aus dem Neste des Vogels
Phönix teils durch das Gewicht hineingetragenen Fleisches
herabgestürzt, teils mit Pfeilen herabgeschossen werde. Ferner
müsse man an den dortigen Sümpfen, um die Kassia zu gewinnen,
gegen die Krallen gräßlicher Fledermäuse und gegen geflügelte
Schlangen kämpfen. Das sind nun lauter Fabeln, durch die man den
Preis der Ware zu steigern suchte. Es schließt sich an die genannte
Sage noch eine zweite, daß nämlich durch die Hitze der südlichen
Sonne auf der ganzen Halbinsel ein unbeschreiblicher Wohlgeruch
erzeugt werde, in welchem sich die Würze und Balsamdüfte so vieler
Pflanzen vereinten, daß z. B. die Flotte Alexanders des Großen auf
hohem Meere die Nähe Arabiens zuerst durch den Geruch entdeckt
habe. Lauter Erdichtung! Denn Zimt und Kassia wachsen im Lande
derjenigen Neger, welche mit den Troglodyten verwandt sind. Die
Troglodyten kaufen den Zimt von ihren Nachbarn und verhandeln ihn
weithin übers Meer auf Flößen, welche weder durch Steuerruder
gelenkt, noch durch Ruder oder Segel in Bewegung gesetzt, ja nicht
einmal durch den Verstand der Menschen regiert werden, sondern
nur auf gut Glück drauflos fahren. Sie gehen übrigens Mitte Winters
in See, zur Zeit da vorzüglich Südostwinde wehen. Diese treiben sie
geradewegs durch die Meerbusen hin, und nach der Fahrt um das
Vorgebirge führt sie der Westsüdwest in den Hafen der Gebaniter,
welcher Ocilia heißt. So kaufen denn die Gebaniter vorzugsweise den
Zimt auf und sagen, die Zimtverkäufer kämen in fünf Jahren kaum
einmal und viele von ihnen verunglückten. Für den Zimt tauschen
die Troglodyten Glas- und Bronzewaren, Kleider, Spangen und
Geschmeide ein.
Der Zimtstrauch wird höchstens 2 Ellen, mindestens aber 1 Hand
hoch und sieht wie vertrocknet aus. So lange er grün ist, hat er
keinen Wohlgeruch; er hat Blätter wie der Dosten (origanum), steht
gerne trocken, wächst bei starkem Regen schlecht, verträgt den
Schnitt gut. Er wächst in Ebenen, aber zwischen dichtem
Dornengebüsch, so daß man ihm schwer beikommt. Die Ernte wird
nur vorgenommen, wenn ein Gott es erlaubt, welchen die
Eingeborenen Assabinus nennen, manche aber für den Jupiter
halten. Die Erlaubnis zur Ernte gibt der Gott nur gegen ein Opfer von
44 Rindern, Ziegen und Widdern. Vor Aufgang der Sonne und nach
deren Untergang darf nicht geschnitten werden. Der Priester des
Gottes teilt die Zweige mit einer Lanze, sondert den Anteil des
Gottes aus; das übrige verpackt der Kaufmann. Nach anderen
Angaben bekommt jener Gott ein Drittel, ein anderes die Sonne, ein
Drittel der Kaufmann. Über die drei Teile soll zweimal gelost werden;
der Anteil der Sonne soll von selbst in Flammen aufgehen. Am
höchsten im Preise stehen die Zweigenden, welche in Stücke von
Handlänge geschnitten sind; für geringer gelten die hinter jenen
stehenden, kürzer geschnittenen Stücke. Am wenigsten werden die
der Wurzel zunächst stehenden Teile geschätzt; denn sie haben am
wenigsten Rinde, und gerade in der Rinde liegt der Wert. Das Holz
des Zimtstrauchs wird verachtet, weil es scharf und nach Dosten
riecht. Man nennt es xylocinnamomum und bezahlt das Pfund mit 10
Denaren (6 Mark).
Manche unterscheiden eine hellere und eine dunklere Sorte von
Zimt. Früher gab man ersterer den Vorzug; jetzt gilt die dunkle und
sogar die gefleckte für besser. Am sichersten kann man den Zimt für
gut erklären, wenn er nicht rauh ist und wenn gegeneinander
geriebene Stücke nur langsam zerbröckeln. Weiche oder mit loser
Oberhaut überzogene Stücke achtet man gar nicht. Den Preis des
Zimts bestimmt einzig der König der Gebaniter. Das Pfund galt sonst
1000 Denare (600 Mark). Jetzt ist er um die Hälfte im Preise
gestiegen, weil die Barbaren, wie man erzählt, ganze Wälder
abgebrannt haben; aus welchem Grunde weiß man nicht sicher. Es
gibt auch Schriftsteller, welche behaupten, daß die Südwinde im
Zimtlande so heiß wehen, daß sie im Sommer die Wälder versengen.
Kaiser Vespasian (geb. 9 n. Chr., wurde 69 nach Othos Sturz von
seinen Legionen zum Kaiser ausgerufen, bestieg den Thron,
nachdem sein Legat Antonius Primus den Kaiser Vitellius gestürzt
hatte, schloß 71 den Janustempel, starb 79) ist der erste gewesen,
welcher in allen Tempeln des Kapitols und im Friedenstempel in Gold
gefaßte Zimtkränze aufhing. Ich habe auch eine sehr schwere
Wurzel des Zimtstrauches im Palatinischen Tempel gesehen, den
Augusta (dritte Gemahlin des Augustus, 38 v. Chr. von Tiberius
Claudius Nero geschieden, übte großen Einfluß auf Augustus aus,
sicherte ihrem Sohne Tiberius die Nachfolge durch Wegräumung
mehrerer Glieder des julischen Geschlechts, hieß eigentlich Livia
Drusilla, erhielt aber 14 n. Chr. im Todesjahre des Augustus den
Namen Julia Augusta, d. h. „die erhabene Julia“, starb 29) ihrem
Gemahl Augustus erbaut hat. Die Wurzel lag auf einer goldenen
Schale. Jahr für Jahr drangen Tropfen aus ihr hervor und
verhärteten, bis der Tempel von einer Feuersbrunst verzehrt wurde.“
Weiter berichtet Plinius:
„Auch die Kassia ist ein Strauch, der auf Ebenen neben dem
Zimte wächst, auf Bergen aber stärkere Triebe bildet. Die Schale ist
dünn, bildet keine eigentliche Rinde und wird um so höher
geschätzt, je zarter sie ist, was sich beim Zimt gerade umgekehrt
verhält. Der Strauch wird 3 Ellen hoch und hat 3 verschiedene
Farben. Schlägt er aus, so ist er einen Fuß hoch weiß, einen halben
Fuß höher rot, weiter hinauf dunkelfarbig. Dieser Teil wird am
höchsten geschätzt, der rote geringer, der weiße gar nicht. Am
wertvollsten ist die frische Kassia, welche einen sanften Geruch und
mehr einen brennenden, als allmählich erwärmenden und sanft
beißenden Geschmack hat, an Farbe purpurbraun, an Gewicht leicht
ist und kurze, nicht zerbrechliche Röhrchen bildet. Man nennt diese
Sorte mit einem ausländischen Namen lada, eine andere heißt von
ihrem balsamischen Geruch balsamodes; sie ist aber bitter, wird
mehr von Ärzten gebraucht, wie die dunkelfarbige zu Salben. Keine
andere Ware hat so verschiedene Preise. So kostet das Pfund bester
Kassia 50 Denare (30 Mark), geringere nur 5 Denare (3 Mark).“
Neben Zimt und Kassia hat übrigens schon das Altertum aus
Indien die wohlriechenden Blätter und wohl auch die Rinde einer von
uns als M u t t e r z i m t (Cassia tamala) bezeichneten Kassienart
bezogen, die als malabáthron bei den Griechen und Römern als
kostbares Parfüm sehr beliebt waren. Aus ihnen wurde auch eine viel
begehrte Salbe hergestellt, die an Beliebtheit fast die berühmte
indische Nardensalbe erreichte. Der griechische Schriftsteller
Arrianus, der im Jahre 136 unter Hadrian Präfekt von Kappadokien
war und unter Mark Aurel starb, sagt in seinem Bericht über die
Umschiffung des Roten Meeres, daß viele Schiffe nach dem am
Südwestufer Indiens gelegenen Handelsplatz Nelecynda fahren, weil
dort Pfeffer und malabáthron in Menge und besonderer Güte zu
haben seien.
Wie diese kostbaren Gewürze vom Persischen Golf nach
Babylonien gelangten, so wurden sie über das Rote Meer und
Alexandrien nach den Mittelmeerländern ausgeführt. Und als später
die Droge durch die Wirren der Völkerwanderung immer seltener
und unerschwinglicher wurde, bedienten sich besonders die Ärzte
ihrer als wertvolle Arznei. So ging durch sie das lateinische
cinnamomum ins mittelhochdeutsche cinment, weiter Zimmet und
schließlich das neuhochdeutsche Zimt über. Ein großer Teil der Ware
muß aber zu Beginn des Mittelalters aus China bezogen worden sein,
welche Tatsache allein uns den bei den Persern und Arabern
üblichen Ausdruck dar Chini (Holz von China) für Zimt und Kassia
erklärlich macht. Später nannten die Venezianer und Portugiesen
den Zimt wie jede aromatische Rinde canella, welcher Ausdruck
dann als canelle ins Französische überging.
Die Zimtwälder um Kolombo auf Ceylon werden erst im Jahre
1340 von dem 1302 in Tanger geborenen, bis China und Südasien
vorgedrungenen arabischen Reisenden Ibn Batuta erwähnt, der
1352 auch Timbuktu besuchte und 1377 in Fes starb. Im Jahre 1444
beschrieb der venezianische Kaufmann Nicolo Conto die Zimtbäume
der von ihm als Saillana bezeichneten Insel Ceylon, teilte aber nichts
über die Ausfuhr des Gewürzes mit. Erst der Portugiese Lorenzo da
Almeida, der im Hafen von Point de Galle Schiffe mit Zimt und
Elefanten verladen sah, berichtete darüber eingehend im Jahre
1505. Die Portugiesen, die sich an der Küste Ceylons niederließen,
legten zunächst auf diesen Handelsartikel keinen großen Wert,
wurden aber bald eines anderen belehrt. So unterschied bereits
1536 Garcia da Orta den Zimt von Ceylon von demjenigen der
Philippinen und Java; der erstere war damals 40mal teurer als die
letzteren, im Jahre 1644 aber nur noch 5mal teurer. Im Jahre 1546
erfahren wir aus einem Briefe des Florentiners Filippo Sassetti an
Franzesco I. di Medici, daß die Zweige regelmäßig alle drei Jahre
geschält würden. Zur Erlangung von Stockausschlägen wurden die
Bäume einfach gekappt. Dies und das Einsammeln der Rinde der
wilden Bestände, die vorzugsweise durch eine Drossel vermehrt
wurden, welche die reifen Beeren verzehrte und die unverdaulichen
Samen in noch völlig keimfähigem Zustande von sich gab, besorgten
Angehörige einer besonderen Kaste, die Chalias oder Zimtschäler.
Tafel 75.
(Copyright by F. O. Koch.)
Zimtbaum auf Ceylon.
(Copyright by F. O. Koch.)
Das Schälen der Zimtrinde.
Tafel 76.
Muskatnüsse.
(Nach Photographie von H. Schenck in „Karsten u. Schenck,
Vegetationsbilder“.)
Gewürznelkenbäume (Caryophyllus aromaticus) auf
Zanzibar.
(Nach Photographie von Busse in „Karsten u. Schenck,
Vegetationsbilder.“)
Bild 41.
Blütenzweig und Frucht eines weiblichen
Muskatnußbaums (Myristica fragrans).
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