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 MANUAL
2013-2017

HISTORY
CONSTITUTION
GOVERNMENT
RITUAL

NAZARENE PUBLISHING HOUSE

Kansas City, Missouri, U.S.A.
 Copyright 2013
by Nazarene Publishing House

Published by the authority of

the Twenty-eighth General Assembly
held in Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.A.
June 23-27, 2013

Editing Committee
DEAN G. BLEVINS
STANLEY J. RODES
JOHN E. SEAMAN
TERRY S. SOWDEN
DAVID P. WILSON

© 2014 eISBN 978-0-8341-3296-2

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical,
or any other—except for brief quotations in printed reviews, without
the prior written permission of the publisher. If you have received
this publication from any source other than an online bookstore,
you’ve received a pirated copy. Please contact us at the Nazarene
Publishing House and notify us of the situation.

Printed in the United States of America

All scripture quotations are taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version® (NIV®).
Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by the International Bible Society. Used by permission of
Zondervan Publishing House. All rights reserved.

The seal and logo of the Church of the Nazarene are registered trademarks of the Church
of the Nazarene, Inc. Use or reproduction thereof, without the expressed, written consent of
the Church of the Nazarene, Inc. is strictly prohibited.
CHURCH CONSTITUTION
AND THE COVENANT OF
CHRISTIAN CONDUCT
(1-99 Series)

LOCAL GOVERNMENT
(100 Series)

DISTRICT GOVERNMENT
(200 Series)

GENERAL GOVERNMENT
(300 Series)

HIGHER EDUCATION
(400 Series)

MINISTRY AND CHRISTIAN SERVICE

(500 Series)

JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION
(600 Series)

RITUAL
(800 Series)

NAZARENE YOUTH INTERNATIONAL,

NAZARENE MISSIONS INTERNATIONAL AND,
SUNDAY SCHOOL AND DISCIPLESHIP
MINISTRIES INTERNATIONAL
CHARTER & MINISTRY PLANS/CONSTITUTION/BYLAWS
(800 Series)

FORMS
(800 Series)

APPENDIX
(900 Series)
 FOREWORD
“The mission of the Church of the Nazarene is to make
Christlike disciples in the nations.”
“The primary objective of the Church of the Nazarene is to
advance God’s kingdom by the preservation and propagation
of Christian holiness as set forth in the Scriptures.”
“The critical objectives of the Church of the Nazarene are
‘holy Christian fellowship, the conversion of sinners, the en-
tire sanctification of believers, their upbuilding in holiness,
and the simplicity and spiritual power manifest in the prim-
itive New Testament Church, together with the preaching of
the gospel to every creature.’” (19)
The Church of the Nazarene exists to serve as an instru-
ment for advancing the kingdom of God through the preach-
ing and teaching of the gospel throughout the world. Our
well-defined commission is to preserve and propagate Chris-
tian holiness as set forth in the Scriptures, through the con-
version of sinners, the reclamation of backsliders, and the
entire sanctification of believers.
Our objective is a spiritual one, namely, to evangelize as
a response to the Great Commission of our Lord to “go and
make disciples of all nations” (Matthew 28:19; cf. John 20:21;
Mark 16:15). We believe that this aim can be realized through
agreed-upon policies and procedures, including doctrinal te-
nets of faith and time-tested standards of morality and life-
style.
This 2013-2017 edition of the Manual includes a brief
historical statement of the church; the church Constitution,
which defines our Articles of Faith, our understanding of the
church, the Covenant of Christian Character for holy living,
and principles of organization and government; the Covenant
of Christian Conduct, which address key issues of contempo-
rary society; and policies of church government dealing with
the local, district, and general church organization.
The General Assembly is the supreme doctrine-formulat-
ing and lawmaking body of the Church of the Nazarene. This
Manual contains the decisions and judgments of ministerial
and lay delegates of the Twenty-eighth General Assembly,
which met in Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.A., June 23-27, 2013,
and is therefore authoritative as a guide for action. Because it
is the official statement of the faith and practice of the church
and is consistent with the teachings of the Scriptures, we ex-
pect our people everywhere to accept the tenets of doctrine
and the guides and helps to holy living contained in it. To fail
to do so, after formally taking the membership vows of the
Church of the Nazarene, injures the witness of the church,
violates her conscience, and dissipates the fellowship of the
people called Nazarenes.
The government of the Church of the Nazarene is distinc-
tive. In polity it is representative—neither purely episcopal
nor wholly congregational. Because the laity and the minis-
try have equal authority in the deliberative and lawmaking
units of the church, there is a desirable and effective balance
of power. We see this not only as an opportunity for participa-
tion and service in the church but also as an obligation on the
part of both laity and ministry.
Commitment and clear purpose are important. But an intel-
ligent and informed people following commonly agreed-upon
practices and procedures advance the Kingdom faster and en-
hance their witness for Christ. Therefore, it is incumbent upon
our members to acquaint themselves with this Manual—the
history of the church and the doctrines and ethical practices
of the ideal Nazarene. Adherence to the injunctions of these
pages will nurture loyalty and faithfulness both to God and
the church and will increase the effectiveness and efficiency of
our spiritual efforts.
With the Bible as our supreme Guide, illuminated by the
Holy Spirit, and the Manual as our official agreed-upon state-
ment of faith, practice, and polity, we look forward to the new
quadrennium with joy and unswerving faith in Jesus Christ.
The Board of General Superintendents
Jerry D. Porter
David W. Graves
J. K. Warrick
David A. Busic
Eugénio R. Duarte
Gustavo A. Crocker
 CONTENTS
Foreword

PART I
Historical Statement

PART II
CHURCH CONSTITUTION
Preamble
Articles of Faith
The Church
Articles of Organization and Government
Amendments

PART III
THE COVENANT OF CHRISTIAN CONDUCT
A. The Christian Life
B. Marriage and Divorce and/or Dissolution of Marriage
C. Sanctity of Human Life
D. Human Sexuality
E. Christian Stewardship
F. Church Officers
G. Rules of Order
H. Amending the Covenant of Christian Conduct

PART IV
GOVERNMENT
Preamble
I. Local Government
A. Local Church Organization, Name, Incorporation,
Property, Restrictions, Mergers, Disorganization
B. Local Church Membership
C. Local Church Evangelism and Church
Membership Committee
D. Change of Local Church Membership
E. Termination of Local Church Membership
F. Local Church Meetings
 G. The Local Church Year
H. Calling of a Pastor
I. The Local Church/Pastor Relationship
J. Renewing the Local Church/Pastor Relationship
K. The Local Church Board
L. The Stewards of the Local Church
M.The Trustees of the Local Church
N. The Local Church Sunday School and
Discipleship Ministries International Board
O. The Local Church Nazarene Youth
International (NYI) Council
P. Nazarene Childcare/Schools (Birth through
Secondary) of the Local Church
Q. The Local Church Nazarene Missions
International
R. Prohibition of Financial Appeals for a Local
Church
S. Use of the Local Church Name
T. Church-sponsored Corporation
U. Associates in the Local Church
II. District Government
A. District Bounds and Name
B. Membership and Time of District Assembly
C. Business of the District Assembly
D. The District Assembly Journal
E. The District Superintendent
F. The District Secretary
G. The District Treasurer
H. The District Advisory Board
I. The District Ministerial Credentials Board
J. The District Ministerial Studies Board
K. The District Evangelism Board or Director
of Evangelism
L. The District Church Properties Board
M.The District Assembly Finance Committee
 N. The District Advisory Committee
O. The District Chaplaincy Director
P. The District Sunday School and Discipleship
Ministries International Board
Q. The District Nazarene Youth International
R. The District Nazarene Missions International
S. District Paid Assistants
T. Disorganization of a District
III. General Government
A. General Assembly Functions and Organization
B. Membership of the General Assembly
C. The Time and Place of General Assembly
D. Special Sessions of the General Assembly
E. General Assembly Arrangements Committee
F. Business of the General Assembly
G. The General Superintendents
H. General Superintendents Emeriti and Retired
I. The Board of General Superintendents
J. The General Secretary
K. The General Treasurer
L. The General Board
M.Pension Plans
N. Nazarene Publishing House Board
O. The General Christian Action Committee
P. Committee on the Interests of the God-Called
Evangelist
Q. International Course of Study Advisory Committee
R. The Global Nazarene Youth International
S. The Global Council of the Global Nazarene
Missions International
T. National Boards
U. The Region
PART V
HIGHER EDUCATION
A. Church and College/University
B. Global Nazarene Education Consortium
C. International Board of Education

PART VI
MINISTRY AND CHRISTIAN SERVICE
I. Call and Qualifications of the Minister
II. Categories and Roles of Ministry
A. The Lay Minister
B. Ministry of the Members of the Clergy
C. The Administrator
D. The Chaplain
E. The Deaconess
F. The Educator
G. The Evangelist
H. The Minister of Christian Education
I. The Minister of Music
J. The Missionary
K. The Pastor
L. The Interim Pastor
M.The Song Evangelist
N. Special Service
III. Education for Ministers
A. For Ministers
B. General Guidelines for Preparation for
Christian Ministry
IV. Credentials and Ministerial Regulations
A. The Local Minister
B. The Licensed Minister
C. The Deacon
D. The Elder
E. The Recognition of Credentials
F. The Retired Minister
G. The Transfer of Ministers
H. General Regulations
I. The Resignation or Removal from the Ministry
 J. The Restoration of Members of the Clergy to
Church Membership and Good Standing
PART VII
JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION
I. Investigation of Possible Wrongful Conduct and
Church Discipline
II. Response to Possible Misconduct
III. Response to Misconduct by a Person in a Position
of Trust or Authority
IV. Contested Discipline of a Layperson
V. Contested Discipline of a Member of the Clergy
VI. Rules of Procedure
VII. District Court of Appeals
VIII. General Court of Appeals
IX. Regional Court of Appeals
X. Guaranty of Rights
PART VIII
RITUAL
I. The Sacrament of Baptism
A. The Baptism of Believers
B. The Baptism of Infants or Young Children
C. The Dedication of Infants or Young Children
D. The Dedication of Infants or Young Children
(for single parent or guardian)
II. The Reception of Church Members
III. The Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper
IV. Matrimony
V. The Funeral Service
VI. The Organization of a Local Church
VII. Installation of Officers
VIII. Church Dedications
PART IX
NAZARENE YOUTH INTERNATIONAL (NYI),
NAZARENE MISSIONS INTERNATIONAL (NMI),
 AND SUNDAY SCHOOL AND DISCIPLESHIP
MINISTRIES INTERNATIONAL (SDMI)
CHARTER & MINISTRY PLANS/CONSTITUTION/BYLAWS
I. Charter & Ministry Plans for Nazarene Youth
International
II. Constitution for Nazarene Missions International
III. Bylaws of the Sunday School and
Discipleship Ministries International

PART X
FORMS
I. The Local Church
II. The District Assembly
III. Bills of Charges

PART XI
APPENDIX
I. General Officers
II. Administrative Boards, Councils, and
Educational Institutions
III. Administrative Policies
IV. Current Moral and Social Issues
Special Revision Index
Index of Vacant Paragraphs
Manual Index
PART I

Historical Statement
 HISTORICAL STATEMENT
Historic Christianity
and the Wesleyan-Holiness Heritage
One Holy Faith. The Church of the Nazarene, from its be-
ginnings, has confessed itself to be a branch of the “one, holy,
universal, and apostolic” church and has sought to be faithful
to it. It confesses as its own the history of the people of God
recorded in the Old and New Testaments, and that same his-
tory as it has extended from the days of the apostles to our
own. As its own people, it embraces the people of God through
the ages, those redeemed through Jesus Christ in whatever
expression of the one church they may be found. It receives
the ecumenical creeds of the first five Christian centuries as
expressions of its own faith. While the Church of the Naza-
rene has responded to its special calling to proclaim the doc-
trine and experience of entire sanctification, it has taken care
to retain and nurture identification with the historic church
in its preaching of the Word, its administration of the sacra-
ments, its concern to raise up and maintain a ministry that
is truly apostolic in faith and practice, and its inculcating of
disciplines for Christlike living and service to others.
The Wesleyan Revival. This Christian faith has been medi-
ated to Nazarenes through historical religious currents and
particularly through the Wesleyan revival of the 18th cen-
tury. In the 1730s the broader Evangelical Revival arose in
Britain, directed chiefly by John Wesley, his brother Charles,
and George Whitefield, clergymen in the Church of England.
Through their instrumentality, many other men and wom-
en turned from sin and were empowered for the service of
God. This movement was characterized by lay preaching, tes-
timony, discipline, and circles of earnest disciples known as
“societies,” “classes,” and “bands.” As a movement of spiritu-
al life, its antecedents included German Pietism, typified by
Philip Jacob Spener; 17th-century English Puritanism; and
a spiritual awakening in New England described by the pas-
tor-theologian Jonathan Edwards.
The Wesleyan phase of the great revival was character-
ized by three theological landmarks: regeneration by grace
through faith; Christian perfection, or sanctification, likewise
by grace through faith; and the witness of the Spirit to the
assurance of grace. Among John Wesley’s distinctive contri-
butions was an emphasis on entire sanctification in this life
as God’s gracious provision for the Christian. British Meth-
odism’s early missionary enterprises began disseminating
these theological emphases worldwide. In North America,
the Methodist Episcopal Church was organized in 1784. Its
stated purpose was “to reform the Continent, and to spread
scriptural Holiness over these Lands.”
The Holiness Movement of the 19th Century. In the 19th
century a renewed emphasis on Christian holiness began in
the Eastern United States and spread throughout the nation.
Timothy Merritt, Methodist clergyman and founding editor
of the Guide to Christian Perfection, was among the leaders
of the holiness revival. The central figure of the movement
was Phoebe Palmer of New York City, leader of the Tuesday
Meeting for the Promotion of Holiness, at which Methodist
bishops, educators, and other clergy joined the original group
of women in seeking holiness. During four decades, Mrs.
Palmer promoted the Methodist phase of the holiness move-
ment through public speaking, writing, and as editor of the
influential Guide to Holiness.
The holiness revival spilled outside the bounds of Meth-
odism. Charles G. Finney and Asa Mahan, both of Oberlin
College, led the renewed emphasis on holiness in Presbyte-
rian and Congregationalist circles, as did revivalist William
Boardman. Baptist evangelist A. B. Earle was among the
leaders of the holiness movement within his denomination.
Hannah Whitall Smith, a Quaker and popular holiness reviv-
alist, published The Christian’s Secret of a Happy Life (1875),
a classic text in Christian spirituality.
In 1867 Methodist ministers John A. Wood, John Inskip,
and others began at Vineland, New Jersey, the first of a long
series of national camp meetings. They also organized at that
time the National Camp Meeting Association for the Promo-
tion of Holiness, commonly known as the National Holiness
Association (now the Christian Holiness Partnership). Until
the early years of the 20th century, this organization spon-
sored holiness camp meetings throughout the United States.
Local and regional holiness associations also appeared, and
a vital holiness press published many periodicals and books.
The witness to Christian holiness played roles of vary-
ing significance in the founding of the Wesleyan Methodist
Church (1843), the Free Methodist Church (1860), and, in En-
gland, the Salvation Army (1865). In the 1880s new distinc-
tively holiness churches sprang into existence, including the
Church of God (Anderson, Indiana) and the Church of God
(Holiness). Several older religious traditions were also influ-
enced by the holiness movement, including certain groups of
Mennonites, Brethren, and Friends that adopted the Wes-
leyan-holiness view of entire sanctification. The Brethren in
Christ Church and the Evangelical Friends Alliance are ex-
amples of this blending of spiritual traditions.

Uniting of Holiness Groups

In the 1890s a new wave of independent holiness entities
came into being. These included independent churches, urban
missions, rescue homes, and missionary and evangelistic as-
sociations. Some of the people involved in these organizations
yearned for union into a national holiness church. Out of that
impulse the present-day Church of the Nazarene was born.
The Association of Pentecostal Churches of America. On
July 21, 1887, the People’s Evangelical Church was organized
with 51 members at Providence, Rhode Island, with Fred A.
Hillery as pastor. The following year the Mission Church at
Lynn, Massachusetts, was organized with C. Howard Davis as
pastor. On March 13 and 14, 1890, representatives from these
and other independent holiness congregations met at Rock,
Massachusetts, and organized the Central Evangelical Holi-
ness Association with churches in Rhode Island, New Hamp-
shire, and Massachusetts. In 1892, the Central Evangelical
Holiness Association ordained Anna S. Hanscombe, believed
to be the first of many women ordained to the Christian min-
istry in the parent bodies of the Church of the Nazarene.
In January 1894, businessman William Howard Hoople
founded a Brooklyn mission, reorganized the following May
as Utica Avenue Pentecostal Tabernacle. By the end of the
following year, Bedford Avenue Pentecostal Church and
Emmanuel Pentecostal Tabernacle were also organized. In
December 1895, delegates from these three congregations
adopted a constitution, a summary of doctrines, and bylaws,
forming the Association of Pentecostal Churches of America.
On November 12, 1896, a joint committee of the Central
Evangelical Holiness Association and the Association of Pen-
tecostal Churches of America met in Brooklyn and framed a
plan of union, retaining the name of the latter for the united
body. Prominent workers in this denomination were Hiram
F. Reynolds, H. B. Hosley, C. Howard Davis, William Howard
Hoople, and, later, E. E. Angell. Some of these were originally
lay preachers who were later ordained as ministers by their
congregations. This church was decidedly missionary, and
under the leadership of Hiram F. Reynolds, missionary secre-
tary, embarked upon an ambitious program of Christian wit-
ness to the Cape Verde Islands, India, and other places. The
Beulah Christian was published as its official paper.
The Holiness Church of Christ. In July 1894, R. L. Har-
ris organized the New Testament Church of Christ at Milan,
Tennessee, shortly before his death. Mary Lee Cagle, wid-
ow of R. L. Harris, continued the work and became its most
prominent early leader. This church, strictly congregational
in polity, spread throughout Arkansas and western Texas,
with scattered congregations in Alabama and Missouri. Mary
Cagle and a coworker, Mrs. E. J. Sheeks, were ordained in
1899 in the first class of ordinands.
Beginning in 1888, a handful of congregations bearing the
name The Holiness Church were organized in Texas by min-
isters Thomas and Dennis Rogers, who came from California.
In 1901 the first congregation of the Independent Holi-
ness Church was formed at Van Alstyne, Texas, by Charles
B. Jernigan. At an early date, James B. Chapman affiliated
with this denomination, which prospered and grew rapidly.
In time, the congregations led by Dennis Rogers affiliated
with the Independent Holiness Church.
In November 1904, representatives of the New Testament
Church of Christ and the Independent Holiness Church met
at Rising Star, Texas, where they agreed upon principles
of union, adopted a Manual, and chose the name Holiness
Church of Christ. This union was finalized the following year
at a delegated general council held at Pilot Point, Texas. The
Holiness Evangel was the church’s official paper. Its other
leading ministers included William E. Fisher, J. D. Scott, and
J. T. Upchurch. Among its key lay leaders were Edwin H.
Sheeks, R. B. Mitchum, and Mrs. Donie Mitchum.
Several leaders of this church were active in the Holiness
Association of Texas, a vital interdenominational body that
sponsored a college at Peniel, near Greenville, Texas. The as-
sociation also sponsored the Pentecostal Advocate, the South-
west’s leading holiness paper, which became a Nazarene or-
gan in 1910. E. C. DeJernett, a minister, and C. A. McConnell,
a layman, were prominent workers in this organization.
The Church of the Nazarene. In October 1895, Phineas F.
Bresee, D.D., and Joseph P. Widney, M.D., with about 100 oth-
ers, including Alice P. Baldwin, Leslie F. Gay, W. S. and Lucy P.
Knott, C. E. McKee, and members of the Bresee and Widney
families, organized the Church of the Nazarene at Los An-
geles. At the outset they saw this church as the first of a de-
nomination that preached the reality of entire sanctification
received through faith in Christ. They held that Christians
sanctified by faith should follow Christ’s example and preach
the Gospel to the poor. They felt called especially to this work.
They believed that unnecessary elegance and adornment of
houses of worship did not represent the spirit of Christ but
the spirit of the world, and that their expenditures of time
and money should be given to Christlike ministries for the
salvation of souls and the relief of the needy. They organized
the church accordingly. They adopted general rules, a state-
ment of belief, a polity based on a limited superintendency,
procedures for the consecration of deaconesses and the or-
dination of elders, and a ritual. These were published as a
Manual beginning in 1898. They published a paper known as
The Nazarene and then The Nazarene Messenger. The Church
of the Nazarene spread chiefly along the West Coast, with
scattered congregations east of the Rocky Mountains as far
as Illinois.
Among the ministers who cast their lot with the new church
were H. D. Brown, W. E. Shepard, C. W. Ruth, L. B. Kent, Isa-
iah Reid, J. B. Creighton, C. E. Cornell, Robert Pierce, and W.
C. Wilson. Among the first to be ordained by the new church
were Joseph P. Widney himself, Elsie and DeLance Wallace,
Lucy P. Knott, and E. A. Girvin.
Phineas F. Bresee’s 38 years’ experience as a pastor, super-
intendent, editor, college board member, and camp meeting
preacher in Methodism, and his unique personal magnetism,
entered into the ecclesiastical statesmanship that he brought
to the merging of the several holiness churches into a nation-
al body.
The Year of Uniting: 1907-1908. The Association of Pente-
costal Churches of America, the Church of the Nazarene, and
the Holiness Church of Christ were brought into association
with one another by C. W. Ruth, assistant general superin-
tendent of the Church of the Nazarene, who had extensive
friendships throughout the Wesleyan-holiness movement.
Delegates of the Association of Pentecostal Churches of
America and the Church of the Nazarene convened in gen-
eral assembly at Chicago, from October 10 to 17, 1907. The
merging groups agreed upon a church government that bal-
anced the need for a superintendency with the independence
of local congregations. Superintendents were to foster and
care for churches already established and were to organize
and encourage the organizing of churches everywhere, but
their authority was not to interfere with the independent ac-
tions of an organized church. Further, the General Assembly
adopted a name for the united body drawn from both organi-
zations: The Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene. Phineas F.
Bresee and Hiram F. Reynolds were elected general superin-
tendents. A delegation of observers from the Holiness Church
of Christ was present and participated in the assembly work.
During the following year, two other accessions occurred.
In April 1908 P. F. Bresee organized a congregation of the
Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene at Peniel, Texas, which
brought into the church leading figures in the Holiness Asso-
ciation of Texas and paved the way for other members to join.
In September, the Pennsylvania Conference of the Holiness
Christian Church, after receiving a release from its Gener-
al Conference, dissolved itself and under the leadership of
H. G. Trumbaur united with the Pentecostal Church of the
Nazarene.
The second General Assembly of the Pentecostal Church of
the Nazarene met in a joint session with the General Council
of the Holiness Church of Christ from October 8 to 14, 1908,
at Pilot Point, Texas. The year of uniting ended on Tuesday
morning, October 13, when R. B. Mitchum moved and C. W.
Ruth seconded the proposition: “That the union of the two
churches be now consummated.” Several spoke favorably on
the motion. Phineas Bresee had exerted continual effort to-
ward this proposed outcome. At 10:40 a.m., amid great en-
thusiasm, the motion to unite was adopted by a unanimous
rising vote.
Denominational Change of Name. The General Assembly of
1919, in response to memorials from 35 district assemblies,
officially changed the name of the organization to Church of
the Nazarene because of new meanings that had become as-
sociated with the term “Pentecostal.”

Later Accessions
After 1908 various other bodies united with the Church of
the Nazarene:
The Pentecostal Mission. In 1898 J. O. McClurkan, a Cum-
berland Presbyterian evangelist, led in forming the Pente-
costal Alliance at Nashville, which brought together holiness
people from Tennessee and adjacent states. This body was
very missionary in spirit and sent pastors and teachers to
Cuba, Guatemala, India, and Mexico. McClurkan died in
1914. The next year his group, known then as the Pentecostal
Mission, united with the Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene.
Pentecostal Church of Scotland. In 1906 George Sharpe, of
Parkhead Congregational Church, Glasgow, was evicted from
his pulpit for preaching the Wesleyan doctrine of Christian
holiness. Eighty members who left with him immediately
formed Parkhead Pentecostal Church. Other congregations
were organized, and in 1909 the Pentecostal Church of Scot-
land was formed. That body united with the Pentecostal
Church of the Nazarene in November 1915.
Laymen’s Holiness Association. The Laymen’s Holiness As-
sociation was formed under S. A. Danford in 1917 at James-
town, North Dakota, to serve the cause of Wesleyan-holiness
revivalism in the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Montana. This
group published a paper, The Holiness Layman. J. G. Mor-
rison was elected president in 1919 and led an organization
with over 25 other evangelists and workers. In 1922 Morri-
son, together with most of the workers and more than 1,000
of the members, united with the Church of the Nazarene.
Hephzibah Faith Missionary Association. This missionary
body, centered in Tabor, Iowa, organized in 1893 by Elder
George Weavers, subsequently sent over 80 workers to more
than a half dozen countries. Around 1950 the work at Tabor,
the South African mission, and other parts of the organiza-
tion united with the Church of the Nazarene.
International Holiness Mission. David Thomas, business-
man and lay preacher, founded The Holiness Mission in
London in 1907. Extensive missionary work developed in
southern Africa under the leadership of David Jones, and the
church was renamed the International Holiness Mission in
1917. It united with the Church of the Nazarene on October
29, 1952, with 28 churches and more than 1,000 constituents
in England under the superintendency of J. B. Maclagan, and
work led by 36 missionaries in Africa.
Calvary Holiness Church. In 1934 Maynard James and
Jack Ford, who had led itinerant evangelism (or “trekking”)
in the International Holiness Mission, formed the Calvary
Holiness Church. On June 11, 1955, union took place with
the Church of the Nazarene, bringing about 22 churches and
more than 600 members into the denomination. The acces-
sion of the International Holiness Mission and the Calvary
Holiness Church came about largely through the vision and
efforts of Nazarene District Superintendent George Frame.
Gospel Workers Church of Canada. Organized by Frank
Goff in Ontario in 1918, this church arose from an earlier
group called the Holiness Workers. It united with the Church
of the Nazarene on September 7, 1958, adding five churches
and about 200 members to the Canada Central District.
Church of the Nazarene (Nigeria). In the 1940s a Wesley-
an-holiness church was organized in Nigeria under indige-
nous leadership. It adopted the name Church of the Naza-
rene, deriving its doctrinal beliefs and name in part from a
Manual of the International Church of the Nazarene. Under
the leadership of Jeremiah U. Ekaidem, it united with the
latter on April 3, 1988. A new district with 39 churches and
6,500 members was created.

Toward a Global Church

The Church of the Nazarene had an international dimen-
sion from its beginning. By the uniting assembly of 1908,
Nazarenes served and witnessed not only in the United
States and Canada, but also as missionaries in the Cape
Verde Islands, India, Japan, Mexico, and South Africa—living
testimony to the impact of the 19th-century missions move-
ment upon the religious bodies that formed the present-day
Church of the Nazarene.
Expansion into new areas of the world began in Asia in
1898 by the Association of Pentecostal Churches of America.
The Pentecostal Mission was at work in Central America by
1900, in the Caribbean by 1902, and in South America by
1909. In Africa, Nazarenes active there in 1907 were recog-
nized as denominational missionaries at a later date.
Subsequent extension into the Australia-South Pacific area
began in 1945 and into continental Europe in 1948. In these
instances, the Church of the Nazarene entered by identifying
with local ministers who already preached and taught the
Wesleyan-holiness message: A. A. E. Berg of Australia and
Alfredo del Rosso of Italy.
In developing a global ministry, the Church of the Nazarene
has depended historically on the energies of national workers
who have shared with missionaries the tasks of preaching
and teaching the word of grace. In 1918 a missionary in India
noted that his national associates included three preachers,
four teachers, three colporteurs, and five Bible women. By
1936 the ratio of national workers to missionaries through-
out the worldwide Church of the Nazarene was greater than
five to one.
The global areas where the church has entered reached a
total of 159 by 2013. Thousands of ministers and lay workers
have indigenized the Church of the Nazarene in their respec-
tive cultures, thereby contributing to the mosaic of national
identities that form our international communion.
Distinctives of International Ministry. Historically, Naza-
rene global ministry has centered around evangelism, com-
passionate ministry, and education. The evangelistic impulse
was exemplified in the lives of H. F. Schmelzenbach, L. S.
Tracy, Esther Carson Winans, Samuel Krikorian, and others
whose names symbolize this dimension of ministry. Around
the world, Nazarene churches and districts continue to re-
flect a revivalistic and evangelistic character.
The international roots of Nazarene compassionate minis-
try lie in early support for famine relief and orphanage work
in India. This impulse was strengthened by the Nazarene
Medical Missionary Union, organized in the early 1920s to
build Bresee Memorial Hospital in Tamingfu, China. An ex-
tensive medical work has developed in Swaziland, and other
compassionate ministries have developed around the world.
Education is an aspect of world ministry exemplified early
by Hope School for Girls, founded in Calcutta by Mrs. Suk-
hoda Banarji in 1905 and adopted the following year by the
Church of the Nazarene. Outside North America, Nazarenes
have established schools for primary education and for spe-
cialized ministerial training.
 There are graduate seminaries and theological colleges
in Australia, Costa Rica, England, the Philippines, and the
United States; liberal arts institutions in Africa, Brazil, Can-
ada, Korea, Trinidad, and the United States; one teachers
college in Papua New Guinea; two nursing schools in Papua
New Guinea and India; and thirty-one undergraduate Bible/
theological institutions around the world.
The church has prospered as these components of its mis-
sion have developed. In 2013 the Church of the Nazarene had
a global membership of 2,150,883 distributed in over 28,130
congregations (includes organized churches and other con-
gregations).
As a result of this historical development, the denomina-
tion is poised today with an unfinished agenda of moving
from “global presence” to a “global community” of faith. Rec-
ognition of this fact led the 1976 General Assembly to autho-
rize a Commission on Internationalization, whose report to
the 1980 General Assembly led to the creation of a system of
world regions. As of 2013, the regions are: the Africa Region,
the Asia-Pacific Region, the Eurasia Region, the Mesoameri-
ca Region, the South America Region, and the U.S.A./Canada
Region.1

1. A more complete history of the Church of the Nazarene may be found in

Floyd Cunningham, ed., Our Watchword and Song: The Centennial History of
the Church of the Nazarene (2009). Other sources include specialized histories
by Timothy L. Smith, Called unto Holiness, Vol. 1: The Formative Years (1962);
W. T. Purkiser, Called unto Holiness, Vol. 2: The Second 25 Years (1983); and
J. Fred Parker, Mission to the World (1988).
 CHURCH GOVERNMENT FLOW CHART
(with detail)
 Global Church of the Nazarene  Constitution and Articles of Government – Manual Paragraphs 22-26 

QUADRENNIAL GENERAL ASSEMBLY

Doctrinal and Legislative Authority
Delegates from Districts Worldwide

GENERAL GOVERNMENT DISTRICT GOVERNMENT LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Paragraphs 300s Paragraphs 200s Paragraphs 22.3, 23, 100s

GENERAL BOARD GENERAL DISTRICT ASSEMBLY LOCAL CHURCH

Paragraph 335 SUPERINTENDENTS Paragraphs 24, 200
(6)
Paragraph 307.16
(corporate board elected by (annually delegates from local churches (elects pastor and local church board;
General Assembly delegates (elected by General Assembly meet to ordain ministers, elect district manages local church finances;
for policy and fiduciary to administer international superintendent, officers and boards; has charge of all other matters
matters of international church ministries; preside over disciplines ministers) pertaining to its local life and work)
church ministries in the General Board and district
interim of General Assembly) assemblies; give leadership
to the mission objectives)

DISTRICT DISTRICT BOARDS

SUPERINTENDENT corporate
Paragraphs 22.2, 208.2

(elected by district assembly (Advisory, Ministerial Credentials,

to give leadership in spiritual, Ministerial Studies; other district
financial, and pastoral matters) boards and officers)
PART II

Church Constitution

ARTICLES OF FAITH

THE CHURCH

ARTICLES OF ORGANIZATION AND

GOVERNMENT

AMENDMENTS
 PREAMBLE
In order that we may preserve our God-given heritage,
the faith once delivered to the saints, especially the doctrine
and experience of entire sanctification as a second work of
grace, and also that we may cooperate effectually with other
branches of the Church of Jesus Christ in advancing God’s
kingdom, we, the ministers and lay members of the Church
of the Nazarene, in accordance with the principles of consti-
tutional legislation established among us, do hereby ordain,
adopt, and set forth as the fundamental law or Constitution
of the Church of the Nazarene the Articles of Faith, the Cove-
nant of Christian Character, and the Articles of Organization
and Government here following, to wit:

ARTICLES OF FAITH1

1. Scripture references are supportive of the Articles of Faith and were

placed here by action of the 1976 General Assembly but are not to be consid-
ered part of the Constitutional text.

I. The Triune God

1. We believe in one eternally existent, infinite God, Sover-
eign Creator and Sustainer of the universe; that He only is
God, holy in nature, attributes, and purpose. The God who is
holy love and light is Triune in essential being, revealed as
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
(Genesis 1; Leviticus 19:2; Deuteronomy 6:4-5; Isaiah 5:16; 6:1-7; 40:18-
31; Matthew 3:16-17; 28:19-20; John 14:6-27; 1 Corinthians 8:6; 2 Corin-
thians 13:14; Galatians 4:4-6; Ephesians 2:13-18; 1 John 1:5; 4:8)

II. Jesus Christ

2. We believe in Jesus Christ, the Second Person of the Tri-
une Godhead; that He was eternally one with the Father; that
He became incarnate by the Holy Spirit and was born of the
Virgin Mary, so that two whole and perfect natures, that is to
say the Godhead and manhood, are thus united in one Person
very God and very man, the God-man.
We believe that Jesus Christ died for our sins, and that He
truly arose from the dead and took again His body, together
with all things appertaining to the perfection of man’s na-
ture, wherewith He ascended into heaven and is there en-
gaged in intercession for us.
(Matthew 1:20-25; 16:15-16; Luke 1:26-35; John 1:1-18; Acts 2:22-36; Ro-
mans 8:3, 32-34; Galatians 4:4-5; Philippians 2:5-11; Colossians 1:12-22; 1
Timothy 6:14-16; Hebrews 1:1-5; 7:22-28; 9:24-28; 1 John 1:1-3; 4:2-3, 15)

III. The Holy Spirit

3. We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Third Person of the
Triune Godhead, that He is ever present and efficiently ac-
tive in and with the Church of Christ, convincing the world
of sin, regenerating those who repent and believe, sanctifying
believers, and guiding into all truth as it is in Jesus.
(John 7:39; 14:15-18, 26; 16:7-15; Acts 2:33; 15:8-9; Romans 8:1-27; Gala-
tians 3:1-14; 4:6; Ephesians 3:14-21; 1 Thessalonians 4:7-8; 2 Thessalo-
nians 2:13; 1 Peter 1:2; 1 John 3:24; 4:13)

IV. The Holy Scriptures

4. We believe in the plenary inspiration of the Holy Scrip-
tures, by which we understand the 66 books of the Old and
New Testaments, given by divine inspiration, inerrantly re-
vealing the will of God concerning us in all things necessary
to our salvation, so that whatever is not contained therein is
not to be enjoined as an article of faith.
(Luke 24:44-47; John 10:35; 1 Corinthians 15:3-4; 2 Timothy 3:15-17; 1
Peter 1:10-12; 2 Peter 1:20-21)

V. Sin, Original and Personal

5. We believe that sin came into the world through the dis-
obedience of our first parents, and death by sin. We believe
that sin is of two kinds: original sin or depravity, and actual
or personal sin.
5.1. We believe that original sin, or depravity, is that cor-
ruption of the nature of all the offspring of Adam by reason
of which everyone is very far gone from original righteous-
ness or the pure state of our first parents at the time of
their creation, is averse to God, is without spiritual life, and
inclined to evil, and that continually. We further believe that
original sin continues to exist with the new life of the regen-
erate, until the heart is fully cleansed by the baptism with
the Holy Spirit.
5.2. We believe that original sin differs from actual sin in
that it constitutes an inherited propensity to actual sin for
which no one is accountable until its divinely provided reme-
dy is neglected or rejected.
5.3. We believe that actual or personal sin is a voluntary
violation of a known law of God by a morally responsible per-
son. It is therefore not to be confused with involuntary and
inescapable shortcomings, infirmities, faults, mistakes, fail-
ures, or other deviations from a standard of perfect conduct
that are the residual effects of the Fall. However, such inno-
cent effects do not include attitudes or responses contrary to
the spirit of Christ, which may properly be called sins of the
spirit. We believe that personal sin is primarily and essen-
tially a violation of the law of love; and that in relation to
Christ sin may be defined as unbelief.
(Original sin: Genesis 3; 6:5; Job 15:14; Psalm 51:5; Jeremiah 17:9-10;
Mark 7:21-23; Romans 1:18-25; 5:12-14; 7:1-8:9; 1 Corinthians 3:1-4; Ga-
latians 5:16-25; 1 John 1:7-8
Personal sin: Matthew 22:36-40 {with 1 John 3:4}; John 8:34-36; 16:8-9;
Romans 3:23; 6:15-23; 8:18-24; 14:23; 1 John 1:9-2:4; 3:7-10)

VI. Atonement
6. We believe that Jesus Christ, by His sufferings, by the
shedding of His own blood, and by His death on the Cross,
made a full atonement for all human sin, and that this
Atonement is the only ground of salvation, and that it is suf-
ficient for every individual of Adam’s race. The Atonement
is graciously efficacious for the salvation of those incapable
of moral responsibility and for the children in innocency but
is efficacious for the salvation of those who reach the age of
responsibility only when they repent and believe.
(Isaiah 53:5-6, 11; Mark 10:45; Luke 24:46-48; John 1:29; 3:14-17; Acts
4:10-12; Romans 3:21-26; 4:17-25; 5:6-21; 1 Corinthians 6:20; 2 Corin-
thians 5:14-21; Galatians 1:3-4; 3:13-14; Colossians 1:19-23; 1 Timothy
2:3-6; Titus 2:11-14; Hebrews 2:9; 9:11-14; 13:12; 1 Peter 1:18- 21; 2:19-25;
1 John 2:1-2)
 VII. Prevenient Grace
7. We believe that the human race’s creation in Godlike-
ness included ability to choose between right and wrong, and
that thus human beings were made morally responsible; that
through the fall of Adam they became depraved so that they
cannot now turn and prepare themselves by their own nat-
ural strength and works to faith and calling upon God. But
we also believe that the grace of God through Jesus Christ is
freely bestowed upon all people, enabling all who will to turn
from sin to righteousness, believe on Jesus Christ for pardon
and cleansing from sin, and follow good works pleasing and
acceptable in His sight.
We believe that all persons, though in the possession of the
experience of regeneration and entire sanctification, may fall
from grace and apostatize and, unless they repent of their
sins, be hopelessly and eternally lost.
(Godlikeness and moral responsibility: Genesis 1:26-27; 2:16-17; Deuter-
onomy 28:1-2; 30:19; Joshua 24:15; Psalm 8:3-5; Isaiah 1:8-10; Jeremiah
31:29-30; Ezekiel 18:1-4; Micah 6:8; Romans 1:19-20; 2:1-16; 14:7-12; Ga-
latians 6:7-8
Natural inability: Job 14:4; 15:14; Psalms 14:1-4; 51:5; John 3:6a; Romans
3:10-12; 5:12-14, 20a; 7:14-25
Free grace and works of faith: Ezekiel 18:25-26; John 1:12-13; 3:6b; Acts
5:31; Romans 5:6-8, 18; 6:15-16, 23; 10:6-8; 11:22; 1 Corinthians 2:9-14;
10:1-12; 2 Corinthians 5:18-19; Galatians 5:6; Ephesians 2:8-10; Philippi-
ans 2:12-13; Colossians 1:21-23; 2 Timothy 4:10a; Titus 2:11-14; Hebrews
2:1-3; 3:12-15; 6:4-6; 10:26-31; James 2:18-22; 2 Peter 1:10-11; 2:20-22)

VIII. Repentance
8. We believe that repentance, which is a sincere and thor-
ough change of the mind in regard to sin, involving a sense
of personal guilt and a voluntary turning away from sin, is
demanded of all who have by act or purpose become sinners
against God. The Spirit of God gives to all who will repent the
gracious help of penitence of heart and hope of mercy, that
they may believe unto pardon and spiritual life.
(2 Chronicles 7:14; Psalms 32:5-6; 51:1-17; Isaiah 55:6-7; Jeremiah 3:12-
14; Ezekiel 18:30-32; 33:14-16; Mark 1:14-15; Luke 3:1-14; 13:1-5; 18:9-
14; Acts 2:38; 3:19; 5:31; 17:30-31; 26:16-18; Romans 2:4; 2 Corinthians
7:8-11; 1 Thessalonians 1:9; 2 Peter 3:9)
 IX. Justification, Regeneration, and Adoption
9. We believe that justification is the gracious and judicial
act of God by which He grants full pardon of all guilt and
complete release from the penalty of sins committed, and ac-
ceptance as righteous, to all who believe on Jesus Christ and
receive Him as Lord and Savior.
9.1. We believe that regeneration, or the new birth, is that
gracious work of God whereby the moral nature of the repen-
tant believer is spiritually quickened and given a distinctive-
ly spiritual life, capable of faith, love, and obedience.
9.2. We believe that adoption is that gracious act of God by
which the justified and regenerated believer is constituted a
son of God.
9.3. We believe that justification, regeneration, and adop-
tion are simultaneous in the experience of seekers after God
and are obtained upon the condition of faith, preceded by re-
pentance; and that to this work and state of grace the Holy
Spirit bears witness.
(Luke 18:14; John 1:12-13; 3:3-8; 5:24; Acts 13:39; Romans 1:17; 3:21-26,
28; 4:5-9, 17-25; 5:1, 16-19; 6:4; 7:6; 8:1, 15-17; 1 Corinthians 1:30; 6:11; 2
Corinthians 5:17-21; Galatians 2:16-21; 3:1-14, 26; 4:4-7; Ephesians 1:6-
7; 2:1, 4-5; Philippians 3:3-9; Colossians 2:13; Titus 3:4-7; 1 Peter 1:23; 1
John 1:9; 3:1-2, 9; 4:7; 5:1, 9-13, 18)

X. Christian Holiness and Entire Sanctification

10. We believe that sanctification is the work of God which
transforms believers into the likeness of Christ. It is wrought
by God’s grace through the Holy Spirit in initial sanctifica-
tion, or regeneration (simultaneous with justification), entire
sanctification, and the continued perfecting work of the Holy
Spirit culminating in glorification. In glorification we are ful-
ly conformed to the image of the Son.
We believe that entire sanctification is that act of God, sub-
sequent to regeneration, by which believers are made free
from original sin, or depravity, and brought into a state of en-
tire devotement to God, and the holy obedience of love made
perfect.
It is wrought by the baptism with or infilling of the Holy
Spirit, and comprehends in one experience the cleansing of
the heart from sin and the abiding, indwelling presence of
the Holy Spirit, empowering the believer for life and service.
Entire sanctification is provided by the blood of Jesus, is
wrought instantaneously by grace through faith, preceded by
entire consecration; and to this work and state of grace the
Holy Spirit bears witness.
This experience is also known by various terms represent-
ing its different phases, such as “Christian perfection,” “perfect
love,” “heart purity,” “the baptism with or infilling of the Holy
Spirit,” “the fullness of the blessing,” and “Christian holiness.”
10.1. We believe that there is a marked distinction between
a pure heart and a mature character. The former is obtained
in an instant, the result of entire sanctification; the latter is
the result of growth in grace.
We believe that the grace of entire sanctification includes
the divine impulse to grow in grace as a Christlike disciple.
However, this impulse must be consciously nurtured, and
careful attention given to the requisites and processes of
spiritual development and improvement in Christlikeness of
character and personality. Without such purposeful endeavor,
one’s witness may be impaired and the grace itself frustrated
and ultimately lost.
Participating in the means of grace, especially the fellow-
ship, disciplines, and sacraments of the Church, believers
grow in grace and in wholehearted love to God and neighbor.
(Jeremiah 31:31-34; Ezekiel 36:25-27; Malachi 3:2-3; Matthew 3:11-12;
Luke 3:16-17; John 7:37-39; 14:15-23; 17:6-20; Acts 1:5; 2:1-4; 15:8-9; Ro-
mans 6:11-13, 19; 8:1-4, 8-14; 12:1-2; 2 Corinthians 6:14-7:1; Galatians
2:20; 5:16-25; Ephesians 3:14-21; 5:17-18, 25-27; Philippians 3:10-15; Co-
lossians 3:1-17; 1 Thessalonians 5:23-24; Hebrews 4:9-11; 10:10-17; 12:1-
2; 13:12; 1 John 1:7, 9)
(“Christian perfection,” “perfect love”: Deuteronomy 30:6; Matthew 5:43-
48; 22:37-40; Romans 12:9-21; 13:8-10; 1 Corinthians 13; Philippians
3:10-15; Hebrews 6:1; 1 John 4:17-18
“Heart purity”: Matthew 5:8; Acts 15:8-9; 1 Peter 1:22; 1 John 3:3
“Baptism with the Holy Spirit”: Jeremiah 31:31-34; Ezekiel 36:25-27;
Malachi 3:2-3; Matthew 3:11-12; Luke 3:16-17; Acts 1:5; 2:1-4; 15:8-9
“Fullness of the blessing”: Romans 15:29
“Christian holiness”: Matthew 5:1-7:29; John 15:1-11; Romans 12:1-15:3;
 2 Corinthians 7:1; Ephesians 4:17-5:20; Philippians 1:9-11; 3:12-15; Co-
lossians 2:20-3:17; 1 Thessalonians 3:13; 4:7-8; 5:23; 2 Timothy 2:19-22;
Hebrews 10:19-25; 12:14; 13:20-21; 1 Peter 1:15-16; 2 Peter 1:1-11; 3:18;
Jude 20-21)

XI. The Church

11. We believe in the Church, the community that confess-
es Jesus Christ as Lord, the covenant people of God made
new in Christ, the Body of Christ called together by the Holy
Spirit through the Word.
God calls the Church to express its life in the unity and
fellowship of the Spirit; in worship through the preaching
of the Word, observance of the sacraments, and ministry in
His name; by obedience to Christ, holy living, and mutual ac-
countability.
The mission of the Church in the world is to share in the
redemptive and reconciling ministry of Christ in the power of
the Spirit. The Church fulfills its mission by making disciples
through evangelism, education, showing compassion, work-
ing for justice, and bearing witness to the kingdom of God.
The Church is a historical reality that organizes itself in
culturally conditioned forms, exists both as local congrega-
tions and as a universal body, and also sets apart persons
called of God for specific ministries. God calls the Church to
live under His rule in anticipation of the consummation at
the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.
(Exodus 19:3; Jeremiah 31:33; Matthew 8:11; 10:7; 16:13-19, 24; 18:15-20;
28:19-20; John 17:14-26; 20:21-23; Acts 1:7-8; 2:32-47; 6:1-2; 13:1; 14:23;
Romans 2:28-29; 4:16; 10:9-15; 11:13-32; 12:1-8; 15:1-3; 1 Corinthians 3:5-
9; 7:17; 11:1, 17-33; 12:3, 12-31; 14:26-40; 2 Corinthians 5:11-6:1; Gala-
tians 5:6, 13-14; 6:1-5, 15; Ephesians 4:1-17; 5:25-27; Philippians 2:1-16;
1 Thessalonians 4:1-12; 1 Timothy 4:13; Hebrews 10:19-25; 1 Peter 1:1-2,
13; 2:4-12, 21; 4:1-2, 10-11; 1 John 4:17; Jude 24; Revelation 5:9-10)

XII. Baptism
12. We believe that Christian baptism, commanded by our
Lord, is a sacrament signifying acceptance of the benefits of
the atonement of Jesus Christ, to be administered to believers
and declarative of their faith in Jesus Christ as their Savior,
and full purpose of obedience in holiness and righteousness.
 Baptism being a symbol of the new covenant, young chil-
dren may be baptized, upon request of parents or guardians
who shall give assurance for them of necessary Christian
training.
Baptism may be administered by sprinkling, pouring, or
immersion, according to the choice of the applicant.
(Matthew 3:1-7; 28:16-20; Acts 2:37-41; 8:35-39; 10:44-48; 16:29-34; 19:1-
6; Romans 6:3-4; Galatians 3:26-28; Colossians 2:12; 1 Peter 3:18-22)

XIII. The Lord’s Supper

13. We believe that the Memorial and Communion Supper
instituted by our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ is essential-
ly a New Testament sacrament, declarative of His sacrificial
death, through the merits of which believers have life and
salvation and promise of all spiritual blessings in Christ. It is
distinctively for those who are prepared for reverent appreci-
ation of its significance, and by it they show forth the Lord’s
death till He come again. It being the Communion feast, only
those who have faith in Christ and love for the saints should
be called to participate therein.
(Exodus 12:1-14; Matthew 26:26-29; Mark 14:22-25; Luke 22:17-20; John
6:28-58; 1 Corinthians 10:14-21; 11:23-32)

XIV. Divine Healing2

2. Constitutional changes adopted by the 2013 General Assembly are in the

process of ratification by the district assemblies at the time of printing. Where
changes are being made, words in italics are new words and words in brackets
[ ] are words being deleted.

14. We believe in the Bible doctrine of divine healing and

urge our people [to seek] to offer the prayer of faith for the
healing of the sick. We also believe God heals through the
means of medical science.
(2 Kings 5:1-19; Psalm 103:1-5; Matthew 4:23-24; 9:18-35; John 4:46-54;
Acts 5:12-16; 9:32-42; 14:8-15; 1 Corinthians 12:4-11; 2 Corinthians 12:7-
10; James 5:13-16)

XV. Second Coming of Christ

15. We believe that the Lord Jesus Christ will come again;
that we who are alive at His coming shall not precede them
that are asleep in Christ Jesus; but that, if we are abiding in
Him, we shall be caught up with the risen saints to meet the
Lord in the air, so that we shall ever be with the Lord.
(Matthew 25:31-46; John 14:1-3; Acts 1:9-11; Philippians 3:20-21; 1 Thes-
salonians 4:13-18; Titus 2:11-14; Hebrews 9:26-28; 2 Peter 3:3-15; Reve-
lation 1:7-8; 22:7-20)

XVI. Resurrection, Judgment, and Destiny

16. We believe in the resurrection of the dead, that the bod-
ies both of the just and of the unjust shall be raised to life and
united with their spirits—“they that have done good, unto
the resurrection of life; and they that have done evil, unto the
resurrection of damnation.”
16.1. We believe in future judgment in which every person
shall appear before God to be judged according to his or her
deeds in this life.
16.2. We believe that glorious and everlasting life is as-
sured to all who savingly believe in, and obediently follow,
Jesus Christ our Lord; and that the finally impenitent shall
suffer eternally in hell.
(Genesis 18:25; 1 Samuel 2:10; Psalm 50:6; Isaiah 26:19; Daniel 12:2-3; Mat-
thew 25:31-46; Mark 9:43-48; Luke 16:19-31; 20:27-38; John 3:16-18; 5:25-
29; 11:21-27; Acts 17:30-31; Romans 2:1-16; 14:7-12; 1 Corinthians 15:12-58;
2 Corinthians 5:10; 2 Thessalonians 1:5-10; Revelation 20:11-15; 22:1-15)

THE CHURCH

I. The General Church

17. The Church of God is composed of all spiritually regen-
erate persons, whose names are written in heaven.

II. The Churches Severally

18. The churches severally are to be composed of such re-
generate persons as by providential permission, and by the
leadings of the Holy Spirit, become associated together for
holy fellowship and ministries.
 III. The Church of the Nazarene
19. The Church of the Nazarene is composed of those per-
sons who have voluntarily associated themselves together
according to the doctrines and polity of said church, and who
seek holy Christian fellowship, the conversion of sinners, the
entire sanctification of believers, their upbuilding in holiness,
and the simplicity and spiritual power manifest in the prim-
itive New Testament Church, together with the preaching of
the gospel to every creature.

IV. Agreed Statement of Belief

20. Recognizing that the right and privilege of persons to
church membership rest upon the fact of their being regen-
erate, we would require only such avowals of belief as are
essential to Christian experience. We, therefore, deem belief
in the following brief statements to be sufficient. We believe:
20.1. In one God—the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
20.2. The Old and New Testament Scriptures, given by
plenary inspiration, contain all truth necessary to faith and
Christian living.
20.3. Human beings are born with a fallen nature, and are,
therefore, inclined to evil, and that continually.
20.4. The finally impenitent are hopelessly and eternally
lost.
20.5. The atonement through Jesus Christ is for the whole
human race; and that whosoever repents and believes on
the Lord Jesus Christ is justified and regenerated and saved
from the dominion of sin.
20.6. That believers are to be sanctified wholly, subsequent
to regeneration, through faith in the Lord Jesus Christ.
20.7. The Holy Spirit bears witness to the new birth, and
also to the entire sanctification of believers.
20.8. Our Lord will return, the dead will be raised, and the
final judgment will take place.

V. The Covenant of Christian Character

21. To be identified with the visible Church is the blessed
privilege and sacred duty of all who are saved from their sins
and are seeking completeness in Christ Jesus. It is required
of all who desire to unite with the Church of the Nazarene,
and thus to walk in fellowship with us, that they shall show
evidence of salvation from their sins by a godly walk and vi-
tal piety; and that they shall be, or earnestly desire to be,
cleansed from all indwelling sin. They shall evidence their
commitment to God—
21.1. FIRST. By doing that which is enjoined in the Word
of God, which is our rule of both faith and practice, including:
(1) Loving God with all the heart, soul, mind, and strength,
and one’s neighbor as oneself (Exodus 20:3-6; Leviticus 19:17-
18; Deuteronomy 5:7-10; 6:4-5; Mark 12:28-31; Romans 13:8-
10).
(2) Pressing upon the attention of the unsaved the claims of
the gospel, inviting them to the house of the Lord, and trying
to compass their salvation (Matthew 28:19-20; Acts 1:8; Ro-
mans 1:14-16; 2 Corinthians 5:18-20).
(3) Being courteous to all [men] people (Ephesians 4:32; Ti-
tus 3:2; 1 Peter 2:17; 1 John 3:18).3

3. Constitutional changes adopted by the 2013 General Assembly are in the

process of ratification by the district assemblies at the time of printing. Where
changes are being made, words in italics are new words and words in brackets
[ ] are words being deleted.

(4) Being helpful to those who are also of the faith, in love
forbearing one another (Romans 12:13; Galatians 6:2, 10; Co-
lossians 3:12-14).
(5) Seeking to do good to the bodies and souls of [men] peo-
ple; feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, visiting the sick
and imprisoned, and ministering to the needy, as opportunity
and ability are given (Matthew 25:35-36; 2 Corinthians 9:8-
10; Galatians 2:10; James 2:15-16; 1 John 3:17-18).4

4. Constitutional changes adopted by the 2013 General Assembly are in the

process of ratification by the district assemblies at the time of printing. Where
changes are being made, words in italics are new words and words in brackets
[ ] are words being deleted.

(6) Contributing to the support of the ministry and the

church and its work in tithes and offerings (Malachi 3:10;
Luke 6:38; 1 Corinthians 9:14; 16:2; 2 Corinthians 9:6-10;
Philippians 4:15-19).
(7) Attending faithfully all the ordinances of God, and the
means of grace, including the public worship of God (Hebrews
10:25), the ministry of the Word (Acts 2:42), the sacrament
of the Lord’s Supper (1 Corinthians 11:23-30); searching the
Scriptures and meditating thereon (Acts 17:11; 2 Timothy
2:15; 3:14-16); family and private devotions (Deuteronomy
6:6-7; Matthew 6:6).
21.2. SECOND. By avoiding evil of every kind, including:
(1) Taking the name of God in vain (Exodus 20:7; Leviticus
19:12; James 5:12).
(2) Profaning of the Lord’s Day by participation in unnec-
essary secular activities, thereby indulging in practices that
deny its sanctity (Exodus 20:8-11; Isaiah 58:13-14; Mark
2:27-28; Acts 20:7; Revelation 1:10).
(3) Sexual immorality, such as premarital, [or] extramar-
ital, or same-sex relations[,]; perversion in any form[,] or
looseness and impropriety of conduct (Genesis 19:4-11; Exo-
dus 20:14; Leviticus 18:22; 20:13; Matthew 5:27-32; Romans
1:26-27; 1 Corinthians 6:9-11; Galatians 5:19; 1 Thessalo-
nians 4:3-7; 1 Timothy 1:10).4
(4) Habits or practices known to be destructive of physical
and mental well-being. Christians are to regard themselves
as temples of the Holy Spirit (Proverbs 20:1; 23:1-3; 1 Corin-
thians 6:17-20; 2 Corinthians 7:1; Ephesians 5:18).
(5) Quarreling, returning evil for evil, gossiping, slander-
ing, spreading surmises injurious to the good names of oth-
ers (2 Corinthians 12:20; Galatians 5:15; Ephesians 4:30-32;
James 3:5-18; 1 Peter 3:9-10).
(6) Dishonesty, taking advantage in buying and selling,
bearing false witness, and like works of darkness (Leviticus
19:10-11; Romans 12:17; 1 Corinthians 6:7-10).
(7) The indulging of pride in dress or behavior. Our people
are to dress with the Christian simplicity and modesty that
become holiness (Proverbs 29:23; 1 Timothy 2:8-10; James
4:6; 1 Peter 3:3-4; 1 John 2:15-17).
 (8) Music, literature, and entertainments that dishonor
God (1 Corinthians 10:31; 2 Corinthians 6:14-17; James 4:4).
21.3. THIRD. By abiding in hearty fellowship with the
church, not inveighing against but wholly committed to its
doctrines and usages and actively involved in its continuing
witness and outreach (Ephesians 2:18-22; 4:1-3, 11-16; Phi-
lippians 2:1-8; 1 Peter 2:9-10).

*******

ARTICLES OF ORGANIZATION
AND GOVERNMENT

Article I. Form of Government

22. The Church of the Nazarene has a representative form
of government.
22.1. We are agreed that there are three legislative entities
in the structure of the Church of the Nazarene: local, district,
general. The regions serve as administrative entities for mis-
sion strategy and implementation.5

5. Constitutional changes adopted by the 2013 General Assembly are in the

process of ratification by the district assemblies at the time of printing. Where
changes are being made, words in italics are new words and words in brackets
[ ] are words being deleted.

22.2. We are agreed on the necessity of a superintenden-

cy that shall complement and assist the local church in the
fulfilling of its mission and objectives. The superintendency
shall build morale, provide motivation, supply management
and method assistance, and organize and encourage organi-
zation of new churches and missions everywhere.
22.3. We are agreed that authority given to superinten-
dents shall not interfere with the independent action of a
fully organized church. Each church shall enjoy the right to
select its own pastor, subject to such approval as the General
Assembly shall find wise to institute. Each church shall also
elect delegates to the various assemblies, manage its own fi-
nances, and have charge of all other matters pertaining to its
local life and work.

Article II. Local Churches

23. The membership of a local church shall consist of all
who have been organized as a church by those authorized so
to do and who have been publicly received by those having
proper authority, after having declared their experience of
salvation, their belief in our doctrines, and their willingness
to submit to our government. (100-107)

Article III. District Assemblies6

6. Constitutional changes adopted by the 2013 General Assembly are in the

process of ratification by the district assemblies at the time of printing. Where
changes are being made, words in italics are new words and words in brackets
[ ] are words being deleted.

24. The General Assembly shall organize the membership

of the church into district assemblies, giving such lay and
ministerial representation therein as the General Assembly
may deem fair and just, and shall determine qualifications
of such representatives, provided, however, that all assigned
ordained ministers shall be members thereof. The General
[Assembly] Boundaries Committee shall [also] fix the bound-
aries of assembly districts[, and]. The General Assembly
shall also define the powers and duties of district assemblies.
(200-205.6)

Article IV. The General Assembly

25.1. How Composed. The General Assembly shall be
composed of ministerial and lay delegates in equal numbers,
elected thereto by district assemblies of the Church of the
Nazarene; such ex-officio members as the General Assembly
shall from time to time direct; and such delegates of districts
under the administration of the Global Mission Committee
of the Church of the Nazarene as may be provided for by the
General Assembly.
25.2. Election of Delegates. At a district assembly with-
in 16 months of the meeting of the General Assembly or with-
in 24 months in areas where travel visas or other unusual
preparations are necessary, an equal number of ministerial
and lay delegates to the General Assembly shall be elect-
ed by plurality vote, provided that the ministerial delegates
shall be assigned ordained ministers of the Church of the
Nazarene. Each Phase 3 assembly district shall be entitled
to at least one ministerial and one lay delegate, and such
additional delegates as its membership may warrant on the
basis of representation fixed by the General Assembly. Each
assembly district shall elect alternate delegates not exceed-
ing twice the number of its delegates. In situations where
travel visas are problematic, a district assembly may autho-
rize the District Advisory Board to select additional alter-
nates. (203.23, 301-301.1)
25.3. Credentials. The secretary of each district assembly
shall furnish certificates of election to the delegates and al-
ternates severally elected to the General Assembly, and shall
also send certificates of such elections to the general secre-
tary of the Church of the Nazarene immediately following the
adjournment of the district assembly.
25.4. Quorum. When the General Assembly is in session,
a majority of the whole number of delegates elected thereto
shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. If
a quorum has once been obtained, a smaller number may ap-
prove the unapproved minutes and adjourn.
25.5. General Superintendents. The General Assembly
shall elect by ballot from among the elders of the Church of
the Nazarene as many general superintendents as it may
deem necessary, who shall constitute the Board of General
Superintendents. Any vacancy in the office of general super-
intendent in the interim of General Assemblies shall be filled
by a two-thirds vote of the General Board of the Church of the
Nazarene. (305.2, 316)
25.6. Presiding Officers. A general superintendent ap-
pointed thereto by the Board of General Superintendents
shall preside over the daily meetings of the General Assem-
bly. But if no general superintendent be so appointed or be
present, the General Assembly shall elect one of its members
as temporary presiding officer. (300.1)
25.7. Rules of Order. The General Assembly shall adopt
rules of order governing its manner of organization, proce-
dure, committees, and all other matters pertaining to the
orderly conduct of its business. It shall be the judge of the
election and qualifications of its own members. (300.2-300.3)
25.8. General Court of Appeals. The General Assembly
shall elect from among members of the Church of the Naza-
rene a General Court of Appeals and shall define its jurisdic-
tion and powers. (305.7)
25.9. Powers and Restrictions.
(1) The General Assembly shall have power to legislate for
the Church of the Nazarene, and to make rules and regula-
tions for all the departments related to or associated with it
in any respect, but not in conflict with this Constitution. (300,
305-305.9)
(2) No local church shall be deprived of the right to call
its pastor, subject to such approval as the General Assembly
shall find wise to institute. (115)
(3) All local churches, officers, ministers, and laypersons
shall always have the right to a fair and orderly trial and the
right to make an appeal.

AMENDMENTS
26. The provisions of this Constitution may be repealed or
amended when concurred in by a two-thirds vote of the Gen-
eral Assembly members present and voting, and when rati-
fied by not less than two-thirds of all the Phase 3 and Phase 2
district assemblies of the Church of the Nazarene. A majority
vote is required on each constitutional amendment item by
any Phase 3 or Phase 2 district assembly. Either the General
Assembly or any Phase 3 or Phase 2 district assembly may
take the initiative in the matter of proposing such amend-
ments. As soon as such amendments shall have been adopted
as herein provided, the result of the vote shall be announced
by the Board of General Superintendents, whereupon such
amendments shall have full force and effect.7
 7. Constitutional changes adopted by the 2013 General Assembly are in the
process of ratification by the district assemblies at the time of printing. Where
changes are being made, words in italics are new words and words in brackets
[ ] are words being deleted.

27. Resolutions amending the Articles of Faith (paragraphs

1-16.2) shall be referred by the General Assembly to the Board
of General Superintendents for review by a study committee,
including theologians and ordained ministers, appointed by
the Board of General Superintendents that reflect the global
nature of our Church. The committee shall report, with any
recommendations or resolutions, to the subsequent General
Assembly.8

8. Constitutional changes adopted by the 2013 General Assembly are in the

process of ratification by the district assemblies at the time of printing. Where
changes are being made, words in italics are new words and words in brackets
[ ] are words being deleted.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
acute by the armaments and wars implied by the present system,
are rendering its maintenance more and more difficult. Moreover, the
workers plainly manifest their intention to support no longer
patiently the misery occasioned by each crisis. And each crisis
accelerates the day when the present institutions of individual
property and production will be shaken to their foundations with
such internal struggles as will depend upon the more or less good
sense of the now privileged classes.
But we maintain also that any socialist attempt at remodelling the
present relations between Capital and Labour will be a failure, if it
does not take into account the above tendencies towards
integration. These tendencies have not yet received, in our opinion,
due attention from the different socialist schools—but they must. A
reorganised society will have to abandon the fallacy of nations
specialised for the production of either agricultural or manufactured
produce. It will have to rely on itself for the production of food and
many, if not most, of the raw materials; it must find the best means
of combining agriculture with manufacture—the work in the field
with a decentralised industry; and it will have to provide for
“integrated education,” which education alone, by teaching both
science and handicraft from earliest childhood, can give to society
the men and women it really needs.
Each nation—her own agriculturist and manufacturer; each
individual working in the field and in some industrial art; each
individual combining scientific knowledge with the knowledge of a
handicraft—such is, we affirm, the present tendency of civilised
nations.

The prodigious growth of industries in Great Britain, and the

simultaneous development of the international traffic which now
permits the transport of raw materials and articles of food on a
gigantic scale, have created the impression that a few nations of
West Europe were destined to become the manufacturers of the
world. They need only—it was argued—to supply the market with
manufactured goods, and they will draw from all over the surface of
the earth the food they cannot grow themselves, as well as the raw
materials they need for their manufactures. The steadily increasing
speed of trans-oceanic communications and the steadily increasing
facilities of shipping have contributed to enforce the above
impression. If we take the enthusiastic pictures of international
traffic, drawn in such a masterly way by Neumann Spallart—the
statistician and almost the poet of the world-trade—we are inclined
indeed to fall into ecstasy before the results achieved. “Why shall we
grow corn, rear oxen and sheep, and cultivate orchards, go through
the painful work of the labourer and the farmer, and anxiously watch
the sky in fear of a bad crop, when we can get, with much less pain,
mountains of corn from India, America, Hungary, or Russia, meat
from New Zealand, vegetables from the Azores, apples from Canada,
grapes from Malaga, and so on?” exclaim the West Europeans.
“Already now,” they say, “our food consists, even in modest
households, of produce gathered from all over the globe. Our cloth
is made out of fibres grown and wool sheared in all parts of the
world. The prairies of America and Australia; the mountains and
steppes of Asia; the frozen wildernesses of the Arctic regions; the
deserts of Africa and the depths of the oceans; the tropics and the
lands of the midnight sun are our tributaries. All races of men
contribute their share in supplying us with our staple food and
luxuries, with plain clothing and fancy dress, while we are sending
them in exchange the produce of our higher intelligence, our
technical knowledge, our powerful industrial and commercial
organising capacities! Is it not a grand sight, this busy and intricate
exchange of produce all over the earth which has suddenly grown up
within a few years?”
Grand it may be, but is it not a mere nightmare? Is it necessary?
At what cost has it been obtained, and how long will it last?
Let us turn a hundred years back. France lay bleeding at the end
of the Napoleonic wars. Her young industry, which had begun to
grow by the end of the 18th century, was crushed down. Germany,
Italy were powerless in the industrial field. The armies of the great
Republic had struck a mortal blow to serfdom on the Continent; but
with the return of reaction efforts were made to revive the decaying
institution, and serfdom meant no industry worth speaking of. The
terrible wars between France and England, which wars are often
explained by merely political causes, had a much deeper meaning—
an economical meaning. They were wars for the supremacy on the
world market, wars against French industry and commerce,
supported by a strong navy which France had begun to build—and
Britain won the battle. She became supreme on the seas. Bordeaux
was no more a rival to London; as to the French industries, they
seemed to be killed in the bud. And, aided by the powerful impulse
given to natural sciences and technology by a great era of
inventions, finding no serious competitors in Europe, Britain began
to develop her manufactures. To produce on a large scale in
immense quantities became the watchword. The necessary human
forces were at hand in the peasantry, partly driven by force from the
land, partly attracted to the cities by high wages. The necessary
machinery was created, and the British production of manufactured
goods went on at a gigantic pace. In the course of less than seventy
years—from 1810 to 1878—the output of coal grew from 10 to
133,000,000 tons; the imports of raw materials rose from 30 to
380,000,000 tons; and the exports of manufactured goods from 46
to 200,000,000 pounds. The tonnage of the commercial fleet was
nearly trebled. Fifteen thousand miles of railways were built.
It is useless to repeat now at what a cost the above results were
achieved. The terrible revelations of the parliamentary commissions
of 1840-1842 as to the atrocious condition of the manufacturing
classes, the tales of “cleared estates,” and kidnapped children are
still fresh in the memory. They will remain standing monuments for
showing by what means the great industry was implanted in this
country. But the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the
privileged classes was going on at a speed never dreamed of before.
The incredible riches which now astonish the foreigner in the private
houses of England were accumulated during that period; the
exceedingly expensive standard of life which makes a person
considered rich on the Continent appear as only of modest means in
Britain was introduced during that time. The taxed property alone
doubled during the last thirty years of the above period, while during
the same years (1810 to 1878) no less than £1,112,000,000—nearly
£2,000,000,000 by this time—was invested by English capitalists
either in foreign industries or in foreign loans.[1]
But the monopoly of industrial production could not remain with
England for ever. Neither industrial knowledge nor enterprise could
be kept for ever as a privilege of these islands. Necessarily, fatally,
they began to cross the Channel and spread over the Continent. The
Great Revolution had created in France a numerous class of peasant
proprietors, who enjoyed nearly half a century of a comparative
well-being, or, at least, of a guaranteed labour. The ranks of
homeless town workers increased slowly. But the middle-class
revolution of 1789-1793 had already made a distinction between the
peasant householders and the village prolétaires, and, by favouring
the former to the detriment of the latter, it compelled the labourers
who had no household nor land to abandon their villages, and thus
to form the first nucleus of working classes given up to the mercy of
manufacturers. Moreover, the peasant-proprietors themselves, after
having enjoyed a period of undeniable prosperity, began in their turn
to feel the pressure of bad times, and their children were compelled
to look for employment in manufactures. Wars and revolution had
checked the growth of industry; but it began to grow again during
the second half of our century; it developed, it improved; and now,
notwithstanding the loss of Alsace, France is no longer the tributary
to England for manufactured produce which she was sixty years ago.
To-day her exports of manufactured goods are valued at nearly one-
half of those of Great Britain, and two-thirds of them are textiles;
while her imports of the same consist chiefly of the finer sorts of
cotton and woollen yarn—partly re-exported as stuffs—and a small
quantity of woollen goods. For her own consumption France shows a
decided tendency towards becoming entirely a self-supporting
country, and for the sale of her manufactured goods she is tending
to rely, not on her colonies, but especially on her own wealthy home
market.[2]
Germany follows the same lines. During the last fifty years, and
especially since the last war, her industry has undergone a thorough
re-organisation. Her population having rapidly increased from forty
to sixty millions, this increment went entirely to increase the urban
population—without taking hands from agriculture—and in the cities
it went to increase the population engaged in industry. Her industrial
machinery has been thoroughly improved, and her new-born
manufactures are supplied now with a machinery which mostly
represents the last word of technical progress. She has plenty of
workmen and technologists endowed with a superior technical and
scientific education; and in an army of learned chemists, physicists
and engineers her industry has a most powerful and intelligent aid,
both for directly improving it and for spreading in the country serious
scientific and technical knowledge. As a whole, Germany offers now
the spectacle of a nation in a period of Aufschwung, of a sudden
development, with all the forces of a new start in every domain of
life. Fifty years ago she was a customer to England. Now she is
already a competitor in the European and Asiatic markets, and at the
present speedy rate of growth of her industries, her competition will
soon be felt even more acutely than it is already felt.
At the same time the wave of industrial production, after having
had its origin in the north-west of Europe, spreads towards the east
and south-east, always covering a wider circle. And, in proportion as
it advances east, and penetrates into younger countries, it implants
there all the improvements due to a century of mechanical and
chemical inventions; it borrows from science all the help that science
can give to industry; and it finds populations eager to grasp the last
results of modern knowledge. The new manufactures of Germany
begin where Manchester arrived after a century of experiments and
gropings; and Russia begins where Manchester and Saxony have
now reached. Russia, in her turn, tries to emancipate herself from
her dependency upon Western Europe, and rapidly begins to
manufacture all those goods she formerly used to import, either
from Britain or from Germany.
Protective duties may, perhaps, sometimes help the birth of new
industries: always at the expense of some other growing industries,
and always checking the improvement of those which already exist;
but the decentralisation of manufactures goes on with or without
protective duties—I should even say, notwithstanding the protective
duties. Austria, Hungary and Italy follow the same lines—they
develop their home industries—and even Spain and Servia are going
to join the family of manufacturing nations. Nay, even India, even
Brazil and Mexico, supported by English, French, and German capital
and knowledge, begin to start home industries on their respective
soils. Finally, a terrible competitor to all European manufacturing
countries has grown up of late in the United States. In proportion as
technical education spreads more and more widely, manufactures
grow in the States; and they do grow at such a speed—an American
speed—that in a very few years the now neutral markets will be
invaded by American goods.
The monopoly of the first comers on the industrial field has ceased
to exist. And it will exist no more, whatever may be the spasmodic
efforts made to return to a state of things already belonging to the
domain of history. New ways, new issues must be looked for: the
past has lived, and it will live no more.

Before going farther, let me illustrate the march of industries

towards the east by a few figures. And, to begin with, let me take
the example of Russia. Not because I know it better, but because
Russia is one of the latest comers on the industrial field. Fifty years
ago she was considered as the ideal of an agricultural nation,
doomed by nature itself to supply other nations with food, and to
draw her manufactured goods from the west. So it was, indeed—but
it is so no more.
 In 1861—the year of the emancipation of the serfs—Russia and
Poland had only 14,060 manufactories, which produced every year
the value of 296,000,000 roubles (about £36,000,000). Twenty years
later the number of establishments rose to 35,160, and their yearly
production became nearly four times the above, i.e., 1,305,000,000
roubles (about £131,000,000); and in 1894, although the census left
the smaller manufactures and all the industries which pay excise
duties (sugar, spirits, matches) out of account, the aggregate
production in the Empire reached already 1,759,000,000 roubles,
i.e., £180,000,000. The most noteworthy feature of this increase is,
that while the number of workmen employed in the manufactures
has not even doubled since 1861 (it attained 1,555,000 in 1894, and
1,902,750 in 1910), the production per workman has more than
trebled in the leading industries. The average was less than £70 per
annum in 1861; it reaches now £219. The increase of production is
thus chiefly due to the improvement of machinery.[3]
If we take, however, separate branches, and especially the textile
industries and the machinery works, the progress appears still more
striking. Thus, if we consider the eighteen years which preceded
1879 (when the import duties were increased by nearly 30 per cent.
and a protective policy was definitely adopted), we find that even
without protective duties the bulk of production in cottons increased
three times, while the number of workers employed in that industry
rose by only 25 per cent. The yearly production of each worker had
thus grown from £45 to £117. During the next nine years (1880-
1889) the yearly returns were more than doubled, attaining the
respectable figure of £49,000,000 in money and 3,200,000 cwts. in
bulk. Since that time, from 1890 to 1900, it has doubled once more,
the quantity of raw cotton worked in the Russian factories having
increased from 255,000 to 520,700 cwts., and the number of
spindles having grown from 3,457,000 to 6,646,000 in 1900, and to
8,306,000 in 1910. It must also be remarked that, with a population
of 165,000,000 inhabitants, the home market for Russian cottons is
almost unlimited; while some cottons are also exported to Persia and
Central Asia.[4]
 True, that the finest sorts of yarn, as well as sewing cotton, have
still to be imported. But Lancashire manufacturers will soon see to
that; they now plant their mills in Russia. Two large mills for
spinning the finest sorts of cotton yarn were opened in Russia in
1897, with the aid of English capital and English engineers, and a
factory for making thin wire for cotton-carding has lately been
opened at Moscow by a well-known Manchester manufacturer.
Several more have followed since. Capital is international and,
protection or no protection, it crosses the frontiers.
The same is true of woollens. In this branch Russia was for a
certain time relatively backward. However, wool-combing, spinning
and weaving mills, provided with the best modern plant, were built
every year in Russia and Poland by English, German and Belgian
mill-owners; so that now four-fifths of the ordinary wool, and as
much of the finer sorts obtainable in Russia, are combed and spun
at home—one fifth part only of each being sent abroad. The times
when Russia was known as an exporter of raw wool are thus
irretrievably gone.[5]
In machinery works no comparison can even be made between
nowadays and 1861, or even 1870. Thanks to English and French
engineers to begin with, and afterwards to technical progress within
the country itself, Russia needs no longer to import any part of her
railway plant. And as to agricultural machinery, we know, from
several British Consular reports, that Russian reapers and ploughs
successfully compete with the same implements of both American
and English make. During the years 1880 to 1890, this branch of
manufactures has largely developed in the Southern Urals (as a
village industry, brought into existence by the Krasnoufimsk
Technical School of the local District Council, or zemstvo), and
especially on the plains sloping towards the Sea of Azov. About this
last region Vice-Consul Green reported, in 1894, as follows: “Besides
some eight or ten factories of importance,” he wrote, “the whole of
the consular district is now studded with small engineering works,
engaged chiefly in the manufacture of agricultural machines and
implements, most of them having their own foundries.... The town
of Berdyansk,” he added, “can now boast of the largest reaper
manufactory in Europe, capable of turning out three thousand
machines annually.”[6]
Let me add that the above-mentioned figures, including only those
manufactures which show a yearly return of more than £200, do not
include the immense variety of domestic trades which also have
considerably grown of late, side by side with the manufactures. The
domestic industries—so characteristic of Russia, and so necessary
under her climate—occupy now more than 7,500,000 peasants, and
their aggregate production was estimated a few years ago at more
than the aggregate production of all the manufactures. It exceeded
£180,000,000 per annum. I shall have an occasion to return later on
to this subject, so that I shall be sober of figures, and merely say
that even in the chief manufacturing provinces of Russia round
about Moscow domestic weaving—for the trade—shows a yearly
return of £4,500,000; and that even in Northern Caucasia, where the
petty trades are of a recent origin, there are, in the peasants’
houses, 45,000 looms showing a yearly production of £200,000.
As to the mining industries, notwithstanding over-protection, and
notwithstanding the competition of fuelwood and naphtha,[7] the
output of the coal mines of Russia has doubled during the years
1896-1904, and in Poland it has increased fourfold.[8] Nearly all
steel, three-quarters of the iron, and two-thirds of the pig-iron used
in Russia are home produce, and the eight Russian works for the
manufacture of steel rails are strong enough to throw on the market
over 10,000,000 cwts. of rails every year (10,068,000 cwts. in 1910).
[9]

It is no wonder, therefore, that the imports of manufactured goods

into Russia are so insignificant, and that since 1870—that is, nine
years before the general increase of duties—the proportion of
manufactured goods to the aggregate imports has been on a steady
decrease. Manufactured goods make now only one-fifth of the
imports, and only occasionally rise to one-third, as was the case in
1910—a year of maximal imports. Besides, while the imports of
Britain into Russia were valued at £16,300,000 in 1872, they were
only £6,884,500 to £11,320,000 in the years 1894 to 1909. Out of
them, manufactured goods were valued at a little more than
£2,000,000—the remainder being either articles of food or raw and
half-manufactured goods (metals, yarn and so on). They reached
£15,300,000 in 1910—a year of maximum, and consisted chiefly of
machinery and coal. In fact, the imports of British home produce
have declined in the course of ten years from £8,800,000 to
£5,000,000, so as to reduce in 1910 the value of British
manufactured goods imported into Russia to the following trifling
items: machinery, £1,320,000; cottons and cotton yarn, £360,000;
woollens and woollen yarn, £480,000; chemical produce, £476,000;
and so on. But the depreciation of British goods imported into Russia
is still more striking. Thus, in 1876 Russia imported 8,000,000 cwts.
of British metals, and they were paid £6,000,000; but in 1884,
although the same quantity was imported, the amount paid was only
£3,400,000. And the same depreciation is seen for all imported
goods, although not always in the same proportion.
It would be a gross error to imagine that the decline of foreign
imports is mainly due to high protective duties. The decline of
imports is much better explained by the growth of home industries.
The protective duties have no doubt contributed (together with other
causes) towards attracting German and English manufacturers to
Poland and Russia. Lodz—the Manchester of Poland—is quite a
German city, and the Russian trade directories are full of English and
German names. English and German capitalists, English engineers
and foremen, have planted within Russia the improved cotton
manufactures of their mother countries; they are busy now in
improving the woollen industries and the production of machinery;
while Belgians have rapidly created a great iron industry in South
Russia. There is now not the slightest doubt—and this opinion is
shared, not only by economists, but also by several Russian
manufacturers—that a free-trade policy would not check the further
growth of industries in Russia. It would only reduce the high profits
of those manufacturers who do not improve their factories and
chiefly rely upon cheap labour and long hours.
Moreover, as soon as Russia succeeds in obtaining more freedom,
a further growth of her industries will immediately follow. Technical
education—which, strange to say, was for a long time systematically
suppressed by the Government—would rapidly grow and spread;
and in a few years, with her natural resources and her laborious
youth, which even now tries to combine workmanship with science,
Russia would see her industrial powers increase tenfold. She farà da
sè in the industrial field. She will manufacture all she needs; and yet
she will remain an agricultural nation.
At the present time only a little more than 1,500,000 men and
women, out of the 112,000,000 strong population of European
Russia, work in manufactures, and 7,500,000 combine agriculture
with manufacturing. This figure may treble without Russia ceasing to
be an agricultural nation; but if it be trebled, there will be no room
for imported manufactured goods, because an agricultural country
can produce them cheaper than those countries which live on
imported food. Let us not forget that in the United Kingdom
1,087,200 persons, all taken, are employed in all the textile
industries of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, and that only
300,000 out of them are males above eighteen years of age
(311,000 in 1907); that these workpeople keep going 53,000,000
spindles and more than 700,000 looms in the cotton factories only;
and that the yearly production of textiles during the last few years
was so formidable that it represented a value of £200,000,000, and
that the average value of textiles exported every year attained
£136,257,500 in 1905-1910—to say nothing of the £163,400,000
reached in the extraordinary year of 1911.[10]
 The same is still more true with regard to other European nations,
much more advanced in their industrial development, and especially
with regard to Germany. So much has been written about the
competition which Germany offers to British trade, even in the
British markets, and so much can be learned about it from a mere
inspection of the London shops, that I need not enter into lengthy
details. Several articles in reviews; the correspondence exchanged
on the subject in The Daily Telegraph in August, 1886; numerous
consular reports, regularly summed up in the leading newspapers,
and still more impressive when consulted in originals; and, finally,
political speeches, have familiarised the public opinion of this country
with the importance and the powers of German competition.[11]
Moreover, the forces which German industry borrows from the
technical training of her workmen, engineers and numerous scientific
men, have been so often discussed by the promoters of technical
education in England that the sudden growth of Germany as an
industrial power can be denied no more.
Where half a century was required in olden times to develop an
industry, a few years are sufficient now. In the year 1864 only
160,000 cwts. of raw cotton were imported into Germany, and only
16,000 cwts. of cotton goods were exported; cotton spinning and
weaving were mostly insignificant home industries. Twenty years
later the imports of raw cotton were already 3,600,000 cwts., and in
another twenty years they rose to 7,400,000 cwts.; while the exports
of cottons and yarn, which were valued at £3,600,000 in 1883, and
£7,662,000 in 1893, attained £19,000,000 in 1905. A great industry
was thus created in less than thirty years, and has been growing
since. The necessary technical skill was developed, and at the
present time Germany remains tributary to Lancashire for the finest
sorts of yarn only. However, it is very probable that even this
disadvantage will soon be equalised.[12] Very fine spinning mills have
lately been erected, and the emancipation from Liverpool, by means
of a cotton exchange established at Bremen, is in fair progress.[13]
 In the woollen trade we see the same rapid increase, and in 1910
the value of the exports of woollen goods attained £13,152,500
(against £8,220,300 in 1894), out of which £1,799,000 worth were
sent on the average to the United Kingdom during the years 1906-
1910.[14] The flax industry has grown at a still speedier rate, and as
regards silks Germany is second only to France.
The progress realised in the German chemical trade is well known,
and it is only too badly felt in Scotland and Northumberland; while
the reports on the German iron and steel industries which one finds
in the publications of the Iron and Steel Institute and in the inquiry
which was made by the British Iron Trade Association show how
formidably the production of pig-iron and of finished iron has grown
in Germany since 1871. (See Appendix D.) No wonder that the
imports of iron and steel into Germany were reduced by one-half
during the twenty years, 1874-1894, while the exports grew nearly
four times. As to the machinery works, if the Germans have
committed the error of too slavishly copying English patterns,
instead of taking a new departure, and of creating new patterns, as
the Americans did, we must still recognise that their copies are good
and that they very successfully compete in cheapness with the tools
and machinery produced in this country. (See Appendix E.) I hardly
need mention the superior make of German scientific apparatus. It is
well known to scientific men, even in France.
In consequence of the above, the imports of manufactured goods
into Germany are, as a rule, in decline. The aggregate imports of
textiles (inclusive of yarn) stand so low as to be compensated by
nearly equal values of exports. And there is no doubt that not only
the German markets for textiles will be soon lost for other
manufacturing countries, but that German competition will be felt
stronger and stronger both in the neutral markets and those of
Western Europe. One can easily win applause from uninformed
auditories by exclaiming with more or less pathos that German
produce can never equal the English! The fact is, that it competes in
cheapness, and sometimes also—where it is needed—in an equally
good workmanship; and this circumstance is due to many causes.
The “cheap labour” cause, so often alluded to in discussions about
“German competition,” which take place in this country and in
France, must be dismissed by this time, since it has been well
proved by so many recent investigations that low wages and long
hours do not necessarily mean cheap produce. Cheap labour and
protection simply mean the possibility for a number of employers to
continue working with obsolete and bad machinery; but in highly
developed staple industries, such as the cotton and the iron
industries, the cheapest produce is obtained with high wages, short
hours and the best machinery. When the number of operatives
which is required for each 1000 spindles can vary from seventeen (in
many Russian factories) to three (in England), and when one weaver
can look either after twenty Northrop machine-looms, as we see it in
the United States, or after two machine-looms only, as it is the case
in backward mills, then it is evident that no reduction of wages can
compensate for that immense difference. Consequently, in the best
German cotton mills and ironworks the wages of the worker (we
know it directly for the ironworks from the above-mentioned inquiry
of the British Iron Trade Association) are not lower than they are in
Great Britain. All that can be said is, that the worker in Germany
gets more for his wages than he gets in this country—the paradise
of the middleman—a paradise which it will remain so long as it lives
chiefly on imported food produce.
The chief reason for the successes of Germany in the industrial
field is the same as it is for the United States. Both countries have
only lately entered the industrial phase of their development, and
they have entered it with all the energy of youth. Both countries
enjoy a widely-spread scientifically-technical—or, at least, concrete
scientific—education. In both countries manufactories are built
according to the newest and best models which have been worked
out elsewhere; and both countries are in a period of awakening in all
branches of activity—literature and science, industry and commerce.
They enter now on the same phase in which Great Britain was in the
first half of the nineteenth century, when British workers took such a
large part in the invention of the wonderful modern machinery.
We have simply before us a fact of the consecutive development
of nations. And instead of decrying or opposing it, it would be much
better to see whether the two pioneers of the great industry—Britain
and France—cannot take a new initiative and do something new
again; whether an issue for the creative genius of these two nations
must not be sought for in a new direction—namely, the utilisation of
both the land and the industrial powers of man for securing well-
being to the whole nation instead of to the few.

FOOTNOTES:
[1] See Appendix A.
[2] See Appendix B.
[3] For the last few years, since the Japanese war, the figures
were uncertain. It appeared, however, in 1910, that there were in
the empire, including the industries paying an excise duty, 19,983
establishments, employing 2,253,790 persons, and showing a
yearly production of 4,565,400,000 roubles (£494,600,000). Out
of them, the industrial establishments under the factory
inspectors in European Russia proper, Poland, and the four
northern provinces of Caucasia numbered 15,720, employing
1,951,955 workpeople, out of whom 1,227,360 were men,
521,236 women, and 203,359 children.
[4] The yearly imports of raw cotton from Central Asia and
Transcaucasia represent, as a rule, about one-tenth part of the
total imports of raw cotton (£1,086,000, as against £11,923,000
in 1910). They are quite a recent growth, the first plantations of
the American cotton tree having been introduced in Turkestan by
the Russians, as well as the first sorting and pressing
establishments. The relative cheapness of the plain cottons in
Russia, and the good qualities of the printed cottons, attracted
the attention of the British Commissioner at the Nijni Novgorod
Exhibition in 1897, and are spoken of at some length in his report.
[5] The yearly production of the 1,037 woollen mills of Russia and
Poland (149,850 workpeople) was valued at about £25,000,000 in
1910, as against £12,000,000 in 1894.
[6] Report of Vice-Consul Green, The Economist, 9th June, 1894:
“Reapers of a special type, sold at £15 to £17, are durable and go
through more work than either the English or the American
reapers.” In the year 1893, 20,000 reaping machines, 50,000
ploughs, and so on, were sold in that district only, representing a
value of £822,000. Were it not for the simply prohibitive duties
imposed upon foreign pig-iron (two and a half times its price in
the London market), this industry would have taken a still greater
development. But in order to protect the home iron industry—
which consequently continued to cling to obsolete forms in the
Urals—a duty of 61s. a ton of imported pig-iron was levied. The
consequences of this policy for Russian agriculture, railways and
State’s budget have been discussed in full in a work by A. A.
Radzig, The Iron Industry of the World. St. Petersburg, 1896
(Russian).
[7] Out of the 1,500 steamers which ply on Russian rivers one-
quarter are heated with naphtha, and one-half with wood; wood
is also the chief fuel of the railways and ironworks in the Urals.
[8] The output was, in 1910, 24,146,000 tons in European Russia,
and 1,065,000 tons in Siberia.
[9] See Appendix C.
[10] Here are the figures obtained by the official census of 1908.
In all the cotton industry, only 220,563 men (including boys),
262,245 women, and 90,061 girls less than eighteen years old
were employed. They produced 6,417,798,000 yards of
unbleached gray, and 611,824,000 yards of bleached white and
coloured cottons—that is, 160 yards per head of population—and
1,507,381,000 lb. of yarn, valued £96,000,000. We have thus
12,271 yards of cotton, and 2,631 lb. of yarn per person of
workpeople employed. For woollens and worsted there were
112,438 men and boys, 111,492 women, and 34,087 girls under
eighteen. The value (incomplete) of the woven goods was about
£40,250,000, and that of the yarn about £21,000,000. These
figures are most instructive, as they show how much man can
produce with the present machinery. Unfortunately, the real
productivity in a modern factory is not yet understood by the
economists. Thus, we saw lately Russian economists very
seriously maintaining that it was necessary to “proletarize” the
peasants (about 100,000,000) in order to create a great industry.
We see now that if one-fourth, or even one-fifth, part only of the
yearly increase of the population took to industry (as it has done
in Germany), Russian factories would soon produce such
quantities of all sorts of manufactured goods, that they would be
able to supply with them 400 or 500 million people, in addition to
the population of the Russian Empire.
[11] Many facts in point have also been collected in a little book,
Made in Germany, by E. E. Williams. Unhappily, the facts relative
to the recent industrial development of Germany are so often
used in a partisan spirit in order to promote protection that their
real importance is often misunderstood.
[12] Francke, Die neueste Entwickelung der Textil-Industrie in
Deutschland.
[13] Cf. Schulze Gäwernitz, Der Grossbetrieb, etc.—See
Appendixes D, E, F.
[14] The imports of German woollen stuffs into this country have
steadily grown from £607,444 in 1890 to £907,569 in 1894, and
£1,822,514 in 1910. The British exports to Germany (of woollen
stuffs and yarns) have also grown, but not in the same
proportion. They were valued at £2,769,392 in 1890, £3,017,163
in 1894, and £4,638,000 in 1906-1910 (a five years’ average).
 CHAPTER II.
THE D E C E N T R A L I S AT I O N OF INDUSTRIES—(continued).

Italy and Spain—India—Japan—The United States—The cotton, woollen, and silk

trades—The growing necessity for each country to rely chiefly upon home
consumers.

The flow of industrial growths spreads, however, not only east; it

moves also south-east and south. Austria and Hungary are rapidly
gaining ground in the race for industrial importance. The Triple
Alliance has already been menaced by the growing tendency of
Austrian manufacturers to protect themselves against German
competition; and even the dual monarchy has seen its two sister
nations quarrelling about customs duties. Austrian industries are a
modern growth, and still they already give occupation to more than
4,000,000 workpeople.[15] Bohemia, in a few decades, has grown to
be an industrial country of considerable importance; and the
excellence and originality of the machinery used in the newly
reformed flour-mills of Hungary show that the young industry of
Hungary is on the right road, not only to become a competitor to her
elder sisters, but also to add her share to our knowledge as to the
use of the forces of nature. Let me add, by the way, that the same is
true to some extent with regard to Finland. Figures are wanting as
to the present state of the aggregate industries of Austria-Hungary;
but the relatively low imports of manufactured goods are worthy of
note. For British manufacturers Austria-Hungary is, in fact, no
customer worth speaking of; but even with regard to Germany she is
rapidly emancipating herself from her former dependence. (See
Appendix G.)
 The same industrial progress extends over the southern
peninsulas. Who would have spoken in 1859 about Italian
manufactures? And yet—the Turin Exhibition of 1884 has shown it—
Italy ranks already among the manufacturing countries. “You see
everywhere a considerable industrial and commercial effort made,”
wrote a French economist to the Temps. “Italy aspires to go on
without foreign produce. The patriotic watchword is, Italy all by
herself. It inspires the whole mass of producers. There is not a single
manufacturer or tradesman who, even in the most trifling
circumstances, does not do his best to emancipate himself from
foreign guardianship.” The best French and English patterns are
imitated and improved by a touch of national genius and artistic
traditions. Complete statistics are wanting, so that the statistical
Annuario resorts to indirect indications. But the rapid increase of
imports of coal (9,339,000 tons in 1910, as against 779,000 tons in
1871); the growth of the mining industries, which have trebled their
production during the fifteen years, 1870 to 1885; the increasing
production of steel and machinery (£4,800,000 in 1900), which—to
use Bovio’s words—shows how a country having no fuel nor minerals
of her own can have nevertheless a notable metallurgical industry;
and, finally, the growth of textile industries disclosed by the net
imports of raw cottons and the number of spindles[16]—all these
show that the tendency towards becoming a manufacturing country
capable of satisfying her needs by her own manufactures is not a
mere dream. As to the efforts made for taking a more lively part in
the trade of the world, who does not know the traditional capacities
of the Italians in that direction?
I ought also to mention Spain, whose textile mining and
metallurgical industries are rapidly growing; but I hasten to go over
to countries which a few years ago were considered as eternal and
obligatory customers to the manufacturing nations of Western
Europe. Let us take, for instance, Brazil. Was it not doomed by
economists to grow cotton, to export it in a raw state, and to receive
cotton goods in exchange? In 1870 its nine miserable cotton mills
could boast only of an aggregate of 385 spindles. But already in
1887 there were in Brazil 46 cotton mills, and five of them had
already 40,000 spindles; while altogether their nearly 10,000 looms
threw every year on the Brazilian markets more than 33,000,000
yards of cotton stuffs.
Twenty five years later, in 1912, there were already 161 cotton
mills, with 1,500,000 spindles and 50,000 looms, employing over
100,000 operatives.[17] Even Vera Cruz, in Mexico, under the
protection of customs officers, has begun to manufacture cottons,
and boasted in 1887 its 40,200 spindles, 287,700 pieces of cotton
cloth, and 212,000 lb. of yarn. Since that year progress has been
steady, and in 1894 Vice-Consul Chapman reported that some of the
finest machines are to be found at the Orizaba spinning mills, while
“cotton prints,” he wrote, “are now turned out as good if not
superior to the imported article.”[18] In 1910, 32,000 workpeople
were already employed in 145 cotton mills, which had 703,000
spindles, and 25,000 power-looms.[19]
The flattest contradiction to the export theory has, however, been
given by India. She was always considered as the surest customer
for British cottons, and so she has been until quite lately. Out of the
total of cotton goods exported from Britain she used to buy more
than one-quarter, very nearly one-third (from £17,000,000 to
£22,000,000, out of an aggregate of about £75,000,000 in the years
1880-1890). But things have begun to change, and in 1904-1907 the
exports were only from £21,680,000 to £25,680,000 out of an
aggregate of £110,440,000. The Indian cotton manufactures, which
—for some causes not fully explained—were so unsuccessful at their
beginnings, suddenly took firm root.
In 1860 they consumed only 23,000,000 lb. of raw cotton, but the
quantity was nearly four times as much in 1877, and it trebled again
within the next ten years: 283,000,000 lb. of raw cotton were used
in 1887-1888. The number of cotton mills grew up from 40 in 1887
to 147 in 1895; the number of spindles rose from 886,100 to
3,844,300 in the same years; and where 57,188 workers were
employed in 1887, we found, seven years later, 146,240 operatives.
And now, in 1909-1910, we find 237 cotton mills at work, with
6,136,000 spindles, 80,000 looms, and 231,850 workpeople. As for
the quality of the mills, the blue-books praise them; the German
chambers of commerce state that the best spinning mills in Bombay
“do not now stand far behind the best German ones”; and two great
authorities in the cotton industry, Mr. James Platt and Mr. Henry Lee,
agree in saying “that in no other country of the earth except in
Lancashire do the operatives possess such a natural leaning to the
textile industry as in India.”[20]
The exports of cotton twist from India more than doubled in five
years (1882-1887), and already in 1887 we could read in the
Statement (p. 62) that “what cotton twist was imported was less and
less of the coarser and even medium kind, which indicates that the
Indian (spinning) mills are gradually gaining hold of the home
markets.” Consequently, while India continued to import nearly the
same amount of British cotton goods and yarn (from £16,000,000 to
£25,700,000 in 1900-1908), she threw already in 1887 on the
foreign markets no less than £3,635,510 worth of her own cottons of
Lancashire patterns; she exported 33,000,000 yards of gray cotton
piece goods manufactured in India by Indian workmen. And the
export has continued to grow since, so that in the year 1910-1911
the value of the piece-goods and yarn exported from India reached
the value of £7,943,700.
The jute factories in India have grown at a still speedier rate, and
the once flourishing jute trade of Dundee was brought to decay, not
only by the high tariffs of continental powers, but also by Indian
competition.[21] Even woollen mills have lately been started; while
the iron industry took a sudden development in India, since the
means were found, after many experiments and failures, to work
furnaces with local coal. In a few years, we are told by specialists,
India will be self-supporting for iron. Nay, it is not without
apprehension that the English manufacturers see that the imports of
Indian manufactured textiles to this country are steadily growing,
while in the markets of the Far East and Africa India becomes a
serious competitor to the mother country.
Why should it not be so? What might prevent the growth of Indian
manufactures? Is it the want of capital? But capital knows no
fatherland; and if high profits can be derived from the work of
Indian coolies whose wages are only one-half of those of English
workmen, or even less, capital will migrate to India, as it has gone
to Russia, although its migration may mean starvation for Lancashire
and Dundee. Is it the want of knowledge? But longitudes and
latitudes are no obstacle to its spreading; it is only the first steps
that are difficult. As to the superiority of workmanship, nobody who
knows the Hindoo worker will doubt about his capacities. Surely they
are not below those of the 36,000 children less than fourteen years
of age, or the 238,000 boys and girls less than eighteen years old,
who are employed in the British textile manufactories.

Twenty years surely are not much in the life of nations. And yet
within the last twenty years another powerful competitor has grown
in the East. I mean Japan. In October, 1888, the Textile Recorder
mentioned in a few lines that the annual production of yarns in the
cotton mills of Japan had attained 9,498,500 lb., and that fifteen
more mills, which would hold 156,100 spindles, were in course of
erection.[22] Two years later, 27,000,000 lb. of yarn were spun in
Japan; and while in 1887-1888 Japan imported five or six times as
much yarn from abroad as was spun at home, next year two-thirds
only of the total consumption of the country were imported from
abroad.[23]
From that date the production grew up regularly. From 6,435,000
lb. in 1886 it reached 91,950,000 lb. in 1893, and 153,444,000 lb. in
1895. In nine years it had thus increased twenty-four times. Since
then it rose to 413,800,000 lb. in 1909; and we learn from the
Financial Economical Annual for the years 1910 and 1911, published
at Tokio, that there were in Japan, in 1909, no less than 3,756 textile
factories, with 1,785,700 spindles and 51,185 power-looms, to which
783,155 hand-looms must be added. Japan is thus already a serious
competitor of the great industrial nations for tissues altogether, and
especially for cottons, in the markets of Eastern Asia; and it took it
only five-and-twenty years to attain this position. The total
production of tissues, valued at £1,200,000 in the year 1887, rapidly
rose to £14,270,000 in 1895 and to £22,500,000 in 1909—cottons
entering into this amount to the extent of nearly two-fifths.
Consequently, the imports of foreign cotton goods from Europe fell
from £1,640,000 in 1884 to £849,600 in 1895, and to £411,600 in
1910, while the exports of silk goods rose to nearly £3,000,000.[24]
As to the coal and iron industries, I ventured in the first edition of
this book to predict that the Japanese would not long remain a
tributary to Europe for iron goods—that their ambition was also to
have their own shipbuilding yards, and that the previous year 300
engineers left the Elswick works of Mr. Armstrong in order to start
shipbuilding in Japan. They were engaged for five years only—the
Japanese expecting to have learned enough in five years to be their
own shipbuilders. This prediction has been entirely fulfilled. Japan
has now 1,030 iron and machine works, and she now builds her own
warships. During the last war, the progress realised in all industries
connected with war was rendered fully evident.[25]
All this shows that the much-dreaded invasion of the East upon
European markets is in rapid progress. The Chinese slumber still; but
I am firmly persuaded from what I saw of China that the moment
they will begin to manufacture with the aid of European machinery—
and the first steps have already been made—they will do it with
more success, and necessarily on a far greater scale, than even the
Japanese.

But what about the United States, which cannot be accused of

employing cheap labour or of sending to Europe “cheap and nasty”
produce? Their great industry is of yesterday’s date; and yet the
States already send to old Europe constantly increasing quantities of
machinery. In 1890 they began even to export iron, which they
obtain at a very low cost, owing to admirable new methods which
they have introduced in metallurgy.
In the course of twenty years (1870-1890) the number of persons
employed in the American manufactures was more than doubled,
and the value of their produce was nearly trebled; and in the course
of the next fifteen years, the number of persons employed increased
again by nearly fifty per cent., while the value of the produce was
nearly doubled.[26] The cotton industry, supplied with excellent
home-made machinery, has been rapidly developing, so that the
yearly production of textiles attained in 1905 a value of
2,147,441,400 dollars, thus being twice as large as the yearly
production of the United Kingdom in the same branch (which was
valued at about £200,000,000); and the exports of cottons of
domestic manufacture attained in 1910 the respectable figure of
£8,600,000.[27] As to the yearly output of pig-iron and steel, it is
already in excess of the yearly output in Britain;[28] and the
organisation of that industry is also superior, as Mr. Berkley pointed
out, already in 1891, in his address to the Institute of Civil
Engineers.[29]
But all this has grown almost entirely within the last thirty or forty
years—whole industries having been created entirely since 1860.[30]
What will, then, American industry be twenty years, hence, aided as
it is by a wonderful development of technical skill, by excellent
schools, a scientific education which goes hand in hand with
technical education, and a spirit of enterprise which is unrivalled in
Europe?

Volumes have been written about the crisis of 1886-1887, a crisis

which, to use the words of the Parliamentary Commission, lasted
since 1875, with but “a short period of prosperity enjoyed by certain
branches of trade in the years 1880 to 1883,” and a crisis, I shall
add, which extended over all the chief manufacturing countries of
the world. All possible causes of the crisis have been examined; but,
whatever the cacophony of conclusions arrived at, all unanimously
agreed upon one, namely, that of the Parliamentary Commission,
which could be summed up as follows: “The manufacturing countries
do not find such customers as would enable them to realise high
profits.” Profits being the basis of capitalist industry, low profits
explain all ulterior consequences.
Low profits induce the employers to reduce the wages, or the
number of workers, or the number of days of employment during
the week, or eventually compel them to resort to the manufacture of
lower kinds of goods, which, as a rule, are paid worse than the
higher sorts. As Adam Smith said, low profits ultimately mean a
reduction of wages, and low wages mean a reduced consumption by
the worker. Low profits mean also a somewhat reduced consumption
by the employer; and both together mean lower profits and reduced
consumption with that immense class of middlemen which has
grown up in manufacturing countries, and that, again, means a
further reduction of profits for the employers.
A country which manufactures to a great extent for export, and
therefore lives to a considerable amount on the profits derived from
her foreign trade, stands very much in the same position as
Switzerland, which lives to a great extent on the profits derived from
the foreigners who visit her lakes and glaciers. A good “season”
means an influx of from £1,000,000 to £2,000,000 of money
imported by the tourists, and a bad “season” has the effects of a
bad crop in an agricultural country: a general impoverishment
follows. So it is also with a country which manufactures for export. If
the “season” is bad, and the exported goods cannot be sold abroad
for twice their value at home, the country which lives chiefly on
these bargains suffers. Low profits for the innkeepers of the Alps
mean narrowed circumstances in large parts of Switzerland; and low
profits for the Lancashire and Scotch manufacturers, and the
wholesale exporters, mean narrowed circumstances in Great Britain.
The cause is the same in both cases.
For many decades past we had not seen such a cheapness of
wheat and manufactured goods as we saw in 1883-1884, and yet in
1886 the country was suffering from a terrible crisis. People said, of
course, that the cause of the crisis was over-production. But over-
production is a word utterly devoid of sense if it does not mean that
those who are in need of all kinds of produce have not the means
for buying them with their low wages. Nobody would dare to affirm
that there is too much furniture in the crippled cottages, too many
bedsteads and bedclothes in the workmen’s dwellings, too many
lamps burning in the huts, and too much cloth on the shoulders, not
only of those who used to sleep (in 1886) in Trafalgar Square
between two newspapers, but even in those households where a silk
hat makes a part of the Sunday dress. And nobody will dare to
affirm that there is too much food in the homes of those agricultural
labourers who earn twelve shillings a week, or of those women who
earn from fivepence to sixpence a day in the clothing trade and
other small industries which swarm in the outskirts of all great cities.
Over-production means merely and simply a want of purchasing
powers amidst the workers. And the same want of purchasing
powers of the workers was felt everywhere on the Continent during
the years 1885-1887.
After the bad years were over, a sudden revival of international
trade took place; and, as the British exports rose in four years (1886
to 1890) by nearly 24 per cent., it began to be said that there was
no reason for being alarmed by foreign competition; that the decline
of exports in 1885-1887 was only temporary, and general in Europe;
and that England, now as of old, fully maintained her dominant
position in the international trade. It is certainly true that if we
consider exclusively the money value of the exports for the years
1876 to 1895, we see no permanent decline, we notice only
fluctuations. British exports, like commerce altogether, seem to show
a certain periodicity. They fell from £201,000,000 sterling in 1876 to
£192,000,000 in 1879; then they rose again to £241,000,000 in
1882, and fell down to £213,000,000 in 1886; again they rose to
£264,000,000 in 1890, but fell again, reaching a minimum of
£216,000,000 in 1894, to be followed next year by a slight
movement upwards.
This periodicity being a fact, Mr. Giffen could make light in 1886 of
“German competition” by showing that exports from the United
Kingdom had not decreased. It can even be said that, per head of
population, they had remained unchanged until 1904, undergoing
only the usual ups and downs.[31] However, when we come to
consider the quantities exported, and compare them with the money
values of the exports, even Mr. Giffen had to acknowledge that the
prices of 1883 were so low in comparison with those of 1873 that in
order to reach the same money value the United Kingdom would
have had to export four pieces of cotton instead of three, and eight
or ten tons of metallic goods instead of six. “The aggregate of British
foreign trade, if valued at the prices of ten years previously, would
have amounted to £861,000,000 instead of £667,000,000,” we were
told by no less an authority than the Commission on Trade
Depression.
It might, however, be said that 1873 was an exceptional year,
owing to the inflated demand which took place after the Franco-
German war. But the same downward movement continued for a
number of years. Thus, if we take the figures given in the
Statesman’s Year-book, we see that while the United Kingdom
exported, in 1883, 4,957,000,000 yards of piece goods (cotton,
woollen and linen) and 316,000,000 lb. of yarn in order to reach an
export value of £104,000,000, the same country had to export, in
1895, no less than 5,478,000,000 yards of the same stuffs and
330,000,000 lb. of yarn in order to realise £99,700,000 only. And the
figures would have appeared still more unfavourable if we took the
cottons alone. True, the conditions improved during the last ten
years, so that in 1906 the exports were similar to those of 1873; and
they were better still in 1911, which was a year of an extraordinary
foreign trade, when 7,041,000,000 yards of stuffs and 307,000,000
lb. of yarn were exported—the two being valued at £163,400,000.
However, it was especially the yarn which kept the high prices,
because it is the finest sorts of yarn which are now exported. But
the great profits of the years 1873-1880 are irretrievably gone.
We thus see that while the total value of the exports from the
United Kingdom, in proportion to its growing population, remains,
broadly speaking, unaltered for the last thirty years, the high prices
which could be got for the exports thirty years ago, and with them
the high profits, are gone. And no amount of arithmetical
calculations will persuade the British manufacturers that such is not
the case. They know perfectly well that the home markets grow
continually overstocked; that the best foreign markets are escaping;
and that in the neutral markets Britain is being undersold. This is the
unavoidable consequence of the development of manufactures all
over the world. (See Appendix J.)
Great hopes were laid, some time ago, in Australia as a market for
British goods; but Australia will soon do what Canada already does.
She will manufacture. And the colonial exhibitions, by showing to the
“colonists” what they are able to do, and how they must do, are only
accelerating the day when each colony farà da sè in her turn.
Canada and India already impose protective duties on British goods.
As to the much-spoken-of markets on the Congo, and Mr. Stanley’s
calculations and promises of a trade amounting to £26,000,000 a
year if the Lancashire people supply the Africans with loin-cloths,
such promises belong to the same category of fancies as the famous
nightcaps of the Chinese which were to enrich England after the first
Chinese war. The Chinese prefer their own home-made nightcaps;
and as to the Congo people, four countries at least are already
competing for supplying them with their poor dress: Britain,
Germany, the United States, and, last but not least, India.
There was a time when this country had almost the monopoly in
the cotton industries; but already in 1880 she possessed only 55 per
cent. of all the spindles at work in Europe, the United States and
India (40,000,000 out of 72,000,000), and a little more than one-
half of the looms (550,000 out of 972,000). In 1893 the proportion
was further reduced to 49 per cent. of the spindles (45,300,000 out
of 91,340,000), and now the United Kingdom has only 41 per cent.
of all the spindles.[32] It was thus losing ground while the others
were winning. And the fact is quite natural: it might have been
foreseen. There is no reason why Britain should always be the great
cotton manufactory of the world, when raw cotton has to be
imported into this country as elsewhere. It was quite natural that
France, Germany, Italy, Russia, India, Japan, the United States, and
even Mexico and Brazil, should begin to spin their own yarns and to
weave their own cotton stuffs. But the appearance of the cotton
industry in a country, or, in fact, of any textile industry, unavoidably
becomes the starting-point for the growth of a series of other
industries; chemical and mechanical works, metallurgy and mining
feel at once the impetus given by a new want. The whole of the
home industries, as also technical education altogether, must
improve in order to satisfy that want as soon as it has been felt.
What has happened with regard to cottons is going on also with
regard to other industries. Great Britain, which stood in 1880 at the
head of the list of countries producing pig-iron, came in 1904 the
third in the same list, which was headed by the United States and
Germany; while Russia, which occupied the seventh place in 1880,
comes now fourth, after Great Britain.[33] Britain and Belgium have
no longer the monopoly of the woollen trade. Immense factories at
Verviers are silent; the Belgian weavers are misery-stricken, while
Germany yearly increases her production of woollens, and exports
nine times more woollens than Belgium. Austria has her own
woollens and exports them; Riga, Lodz, and Moscow supply Russia
with fine woollen cloths; and the growth of the woollen industry in
each of the last-named countries calls into existence hundreds of
connected trades.
For many years France has had the monopoly of the silk trade.
Silkworms being reared in Southern France, it was quite natural that
Lyons should grow into a centre for the manufacture of silks.
Spinning, domestic weaving, and dyeing works developed to a great
extent. But eventually the industry took such an extension that
home supplies of raw silk became insufficient, and raw silk was
imported from Italy, Spain and Southern Austria, Asia Minor, the
Caucasus and Japan, to the amount of from £9,000,000 to
£11,000,000 in 1875 and 1876, while France had only £800,000
worth of her own silk. Thousands of peasant boys and girls were
attracted by high wages to Lyons and the neighbouring district; the
industry was prosperous.
However, by-and-by new centres of silk trade grew up at Basel
and in the peasant houses round Zürich. French emigrants imported
the trade into Switzerland, and it developed there, especially after
the civil war of 1871. Then the Caucasus Administration invited
French workmen and women from Lyons and Marseilles to teach the
Georgians and the Russians the best means of rearing the silkworm,
as well as the whole of the silk trade; and Stavropol became a new
centre for silk weaving. Austria and the United States did the same;
and what are now the results?
During the years 1872 to 1881 Switzerland more than doubled the
produce of her silk industry; Italy and Germany increased it by one-
third; and the Lyons region, which formerly manufactured to the
value of 454 million francs a year, showed in 1887 a return of only
378 millions. The exports of Lyons silks, which reached an average
of 425,000,000 francs in 1855-1859, and 460,000,000 in 1870-1874,
fell down to 233,000,000 in 1887. And it is reckoned by French
specialists that at present no less than one-third of the silk stuffs
used in France are imported from Zurich, Crefeld, and Barmen. Nay,
even Italy, which has now 191,000 persons engaged in the industry,
sends her silks to France and competes with Lyons.
The French manufacturers may cry as loudly as they like for
protection, or resort to the production of cheaper goods of lower
quality; they may sell 3,250,000 kilogrammes of silk stuffs at the
same price as they sold 2,500,000 in 1855-1859—they will never
again regain the position they occupied before. Italy, Switzerland,
Germany, the United States and Russia have their own silk factories,
and will import from Lyons only the highest qualities of stuffs. As to
the lower sorts, a foulard has become a common attire with the St.
Petersburg housemaids, because the North Caucasian domestic
trades supply them at a price which would starve the Lyons weavers.
The trade has been decentralised, and while Lyons is still a centre
for the higher artistic silks, it will never be again the chief centre for
the silk trade which it was thirty years ago.
Like examples could be produced by the score. Greenock no
longer supplies Russia with sugar, because Russia has plenty of her
own at the same price as it sells at in England. The watch trade is no
more a speciality of Switzerland: watches are now made
everywhere. India extracts from her ninety collieries two-thirds of
her annual consumption of coal. The chemical trade which grew up
on the banks of the Clyde and Tyne, owing to the special advantages
offered for the import of Spanish pyrites and the agglomeration of
such a variety of industries along the two estuaries, is now in decay.
Spain, with the help of English capital, is beginning to utilise her own
pyrites for herself; and Germany has become a great centre for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid and soda—nay, she already complains
about over-production.

But enough! I have before me so many figures, all telling the

same tale, that examples could be multiplied at will. It is time to
conclude, and, for every unprejudiced mind, the conclusion is self-
evident. Industries of all kinds decentralise and are scattered all over
the globe; and everywhere a variety, an integrated variety, of trades
grows, instead of specialisation. Such are the prominent features of
the times we live in. Each nation becomes in its turn a
manufacturing nation; and the time is not far off when each nation
of Europe, as well as the United States, and even the most backward
nations of Asia and America, will themselves manufacture nearly
everything they are in need of. Wars and several accidental causes
may check for some time the scattering of industries: they will not
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