Design and Development of a Scale Model Wind Tunnel

CHAPTER 01

INTRODUCTION

The design and development of a scale model wind tunnel focused on studying the thermal effects
on aerodynamic performance is a significant advancement in the field of fluid dynamics and
aerospace engineering. This project aims to explore the intricate relationship between thermal
variations and aerodynamic characteristics of objects in motion, such as aircraft, vehicles, and other
engineered structures. While conventional wind tunnel testing predominantly assesses aerodynamic
performance under constant, uniform temperature conditions, the influence of temperature
fluctuations—whether due to external environmental conditions or heat generated by the moving
object itself—has gained increasing importance in understanding real-world performance. Thermal
effects can drastically alter the behavior of airflow around an object, influencing key aerodynamic
parameters like drag, lift, and stability.
The development of this scale model wind tunnel is a specialized effort that combines principles
from both aerodynamics and thermodynamics. Wind tunnels are designed to simulate real-world
airflows, typically by directing high-speed air over a model to replicate the forces experienced during
motion. However, the introduction of thermal considerations adds a new layer of complexity. As the
temperature of the air and the object changes, variations in air density, viscosity, and compressibility
occur. These factors can alter the way airflow interacts with the object’s surface, leading to
differences in performance outcomes, especially at high speeds or when the object generates
substantial heat through friction or propulsion systems.
In this project, a scale model wind tunnel is engineered with the capacity to control both the velocity
of the airflow and the temperature. This system is designed to allow for detailed analysis of thermal
effects under different conditions, enabling the examination of how temperature gradients impact
aerodynamic forces. The model includes a controlled heating and cooling mechanism for both the
air and the object being tested. Temperature sensors, integrated into the wind tunnel, will measure
thermal gradients around the object, providing critical data to evaluate how heat transfer from the
object influences airflow and aerodynamic performance. A combination of steady-state and transient
testing is employed, allowing for comprehensive insights into both instantaneous and long-term
thermal impacts.
The significance of this research lies in its potential applications across various industries, including
aerospace, automotive, and renewable energy. Aircraft designers, for example, can gain deeper

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insights into how aerodynamic performance changes under the influence of engine heat or
environmental factors such as atmospheric temperature shifts. Similarly, the automotive industry can
refine vehicle designs to better understand heat management in high-performance sports cars or
electric vehicles, where thermal effects play a critical role in efficiency and stability.
Moreover, the data generated from this scale model wind tunnel can contribute to advancements in
optimization techniques for vehicle designs, improved materials for heat resistance, and enhanced
safety features for high-speed vehicles. By simulating real-world thermal conditions in a controlled
environment, engineers and researchers can develop more accurate models, leading to safer, more
efficient, and higher-performing designs across multiple sectors.
In conclusion, the design and development of a scale model wind tunnel for studying thermal effects
on aerodynamic performance represents a pivotal step forward in the scientific understanding of fluid
dynamics. By bridging the gap between aerodynamics and thermodynamics, this project offers
valuable insights that can influence the future of engineering design and performance optimization.

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Design and Development of a Scale Model Wind Tunnel

CHAPTER 02

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Wind Tunnel Tests of Wind Turbine Airfoils at High Reynolds

Numbers
Wind tunnel tests have been performed to measure the two-dimensional aerodynamic characteristics
of two different airfoil families at high Reynolds numbers (from 3 to 12 millions) in the DNW High
Pressure Wind Tunnel in Gottingen (HDG), Germany. Also, tests at a Reynolds number of 3 million
have been performed in the Low-Speed Low Turbulence Wind Tunnel of Delft University, The
Netherlands. The airfoils tested belong to two wind turbine dedicated families: the TU-Delft DU
family and the ACCIONA Wind power AWA family that was designed in collaboration with
CENER. Reynolds number effects on airfoil performance have been obtained in the range of 3 to 12
million. The availability of data from two different wind tunnels has brought the opportunity to cross
compare the results from the two facilities.

2.2 Wind Tunnel Testing Airfoils at Low Reynolds Numbers

This paper describes the wind tunnel testing methodology that has been applied to testing over 200
airfoils at low Reynolds numbers (40,000 to 500,000). The experiments were performed in the
2.8×4.0 ft. (0.853×1.219 m) low-turbulence wind tunnel in the Subsonic Aerodynamics Research
Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC). The test apparatus,
methodology, and data reduction techniques are described in detail, and the measurements are
validated against benchmark data. New results on the AG455ct airfoil with a large 30%-chord flap,
deflected over a wide range, are presented. The results show a dramatic increase in drag with higher
flap deflections, and the flap efficiency reduces with large deflections up to 40 deg. Also, tests on a
flat-plate airfoil with leading edge serration geometries were conducted to explore the effects on stall
characteristics. The results support the conclusions of other researchers that leading edge serrations
(protuberances like those found on the fins/flippers of some aquatic animals) lead to higher lift and
softer stall. The results suggest that these characteristics are accompanied by lower drag in the stall
and post-stall range.

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2.3 Characterization and laboratory simulation of turbine airfoil

surface roughness and associated heat transfer
The physical characteristics of surface roughness observed on 1st stage high pressure turbine vanes
which had been in service for a long period were investigated in this study. Profilometry
measurements were utilized to provide details of the surface roughness formed by deposits of foreign
materials on different parts of the turbine vane. Typical measures of surface roughness such as
centreline average roughness values were shown to be inadequate for characterizing roughness
effects. Using a roughness shape parameter originally derived from regular roughness arrays, the
turbine airfoil roughness was characterized in terms of equivalent sand grain roughness in order to
develop an appropriate simulation of the surface for laboratory experiments. Two rough surface test
plates were designed and fabricated and these test plates were evaluated experimentally to quantify
the heat transfer rate for flow conditions similar to that which occur on the turbine airfoil. Although
the roughness levels on the two test plates were different by a factor of two, both surfaces caused
similar 50% increases in heat transfer rates relative to a smooth ‘surface. The effects of high free-
stream turbulence, with turbulence levels from 10% to 17%, were also investigated. Combined free-
stream turbulence and surface roughness effects were found to be additive, resulting in as much as a
100% increase in heat transfer rate.

2.4 Small-Scale Airfoil Aerodynamic Efficiency Improvement by

Surface Temperature and Heat Transfer
The improvement of aerodynamic efficiency of small-scale airfoils using surface temperature and
heat transfers investigated using numerical simulations, asymptotic analysis, and experimental work.
The basic idea is to take a direct advantage of heat transfer that dominates microscale systems to
enhance lift, reduce drag, and increase the envelope of operation of airfoils. This is achieved by
cooling the upper surface and heating the lower surface of the airfoil. The numerical simulations
show that, although varying surface temperature does not produce sign cant impact at the full-scale
(Reynolds numbers> 106), because the thickness of the thermal boundary layer is very small
compared to the airfoil chord, its effect is very pronounced at the microscale, where the thermal and
velocity boundary layers are larger. The asymptotic theory demonstrates that most of the effect
actually comes from the heat transfer in the much smaller nose region of the small-scale airfoil. The
experimental apparatus consists of a micro rotor system that uses the Peltier effect to produce

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different temperatures on the surfaces of the blades. The experimental measurements show good
agreement with numerical predictions.

2.5 Design and performance of a small-scale aeroacoustics wind tunnel

The D5 aeroacoustics wind tunnel at Beijing University is a newly built facility designed to study
both the aerodynamic and acoustic properties of aircraft parts or models. It’s a small-scale, closed-
circuit wind tunnel with very low turbulence and background noise, which is crucial for testing in
these fields.There are two different types of test sections in the wind tunnel: a closed-type test section
used for studying aerodynamics (airflow behaviour) and an open-type test section used primarily for
studying aeroacoustics (noise generated by the airflow). Both sections are the same size—1-meter-
tall and 1-meter-wide—and they can handle wind speeds of up to 80 meters per second.Surrounding
the test sections is an anechoic chamber, which is designed to eliminate sound reflections and create
an environment suitable for precise acoustic measurements.The paper discusses the design process
and the specific features included to improve both aerodynamic and acoustic performance. The
authors conducted tests to verify the wind tunnel’s performance, and the results showed that the
turbulence intensity inside the core of the test section is under 0.08%, which is very low. The
background noise level is also in line with what’s expected in other wind tunnels built for
aeroacoustics experiments.As part of the testing, a simplified model of a nose landing gear was used
as a benchmark. The test results showed that the noise generated by the model was significantly
higher than the background noise across a wide range of frequencies, and the data closely matched
previous studies published in the literature.

2.6 Small-Scale Wind Turbine Testing in Wind Tunnels Under Low

Reynolds Number Conditions
When designing wind turbines, a lot of the aerodynamic work is done using computer programs like
XFOIL. However, these tools often struggle to predict the performance of small-scale wind turbines
because they aren't reliable enough at the low Reynolds numbers that these turbines operate at.To
overcome this challenge, wind tunnels are used for experimental testing. In these wind tunnels,
researchers can measure the lift and drag forces on wind turbine airfoils (the blades of the turbine) at
the low Reynolds numbers that are typical for small-scale turbines. This gives accurate, real-world
data that can’t always be predicted by computational methods. Additionally, wind tunnels can test
entire small wind turbine systems to see how they perform overall. For small-scale turbines, having
high-quality experimental data on airfoil performance at the right Reynolds numbers is essential for
designing efficient turbines and accurately predicting how much power they will generate.

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Design and Development of a Scale Model Wind Tunnel

CHAPTER 03

METHODOLOGY

• The wind tunnel is at low speed, an open kind of test section. The test section frame is
made up of fiberglass.
EXISTING
CONDITION
• Entrance, contraction, test section and diffuser

•Materials
•Changing existing material.
NECESSARY
REFINEMENTS
•Introducing thermometer and hot air gun.

•Types of materials
•Properties.
SELECTION •Required dimensions.( Upper and lower surface : 100mm breadth , 210mm length) (side
OF surfaces : 200mm length, 150mm height)
MATERIALS

MODIFICATI • Modifying the test section with selected materials as per our requirements.
ON

•Testing the airfoil at different temperatures.

TESTING

•Visualizing the flow pattern with the smoke flow.

FLOW
ANALYSIS/ •Calculating the aerodynamic efficiency over different temperatures.
VISUALISATIO
N

Fig 01. Methodology flow chart

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3.1 Existing Condition

In a low-speed wind tunnel with an open-type test section, the design of the tunnel is structured to
ensure smooth airflow and accurate testing conditions.
1. Entrance: This is the point where the air enters the wind tunnel. The air typically comes from
a fan or blower and needs to be directed smoothly into the system. The entrance design ensures
the air flows without turbulence or interruptions, which could affect test results.
2. Contraction: After the entrance, the tunnel has a contraction section. This part of the wind
tunnel narrows as it leads toward the test section. The purpose of the contraction is to increase
the wind speed while maintaining smooth airflow, as the air is forced through a smaller
opening. This helps achieve the desired speed and flow conditions for testing.
3. Test Section: The test section is the area where the actual experiments are conducted. It's where
models (like aircraft parts or wind turbine blades) are placed to measure aerodynamic
properties. In this case, the test section is open, meaning it isn’t fully enclosed, and air flows
through it directly. The test section needs to have steady, uniform airflow for accurate data
collection.
4. Diffuser: After the test section, the diffuser is the part of the wind tunnel that widens again. Its
role is to slow down the air and reduce the pressure as the airflow exits the test section. The
diffuser helps to guide the air smoothly out of the tunnel without creating turbulence or
disturbing the test conditions.
The frame of the test section is made of fiberglass, which is a lightweight, durable material that can
handle the wind tunnel's airflow while keeping the structure stable and resistant to vibrations or other
disturbances.

3.2 Necessary Refinements

3.2.1 Changing Existing Material:
Changing materials in the wind tunnel, especially in the test section, refers to modifying or upgrading
the materials used to construct parts of the tunnel. For instance, if the current material in the test
section frame, walls, or floor is not performing well in terms of durability, airflow smoothness, or
resistance to wear, it may be replaced with a more suitable material.
For example:
1. Fiberglass might be swapped for a stronger or more heat-resistant material if the wind tunnel
tests involve higher temperatures or if there is a need to reduce vibrations for better data
accuracy.

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2. Smooth surfaces are crucial for reducing drag and turbulence during tests, so materials that
create less friction might be preferred.
Changing materials could also help in minimizing noise or ensuring that the test section maintains
its intended aerodynamic properties over time.

3.2.2 Introducing Thermometer:

A thermometer in the wind tunnel’s test section is essential for measuring the temperature of the air
flowing through it. Temperature can affect air density and, consequently, the results of aerodynamic
testing.
For instance:
1. In low-speed wind tunnels, the air's temperature must be monitored because the density of air
changes with temperature, which influences lift, drag, and overall performance of the tested
models.
2. In some wind tunnel setups, the temperature might be deliberately controlled or varied to study
how a model behaves under different thermal conditions (for example, testing at cold or hot
temperatures to simulate real-world conditions).
The thermometer ensures that accurate, consistent conditions are maintained throughout the test,
which is crucial for the reliability of the data.

3.2.3 Introducing Hot Air Gun:

A hot air gun in a wind tunnel test section might be used to heat the airflow deliberately. This can
serve several purposes:
1. Simulating real-world conditions: Some wind tunnel tests might require simulating higher
temperatures, such as those encountered at higher altitudes or in specific climates. The hot air
gun can raise the temperature of the air in the test section to match these conditions.
2. Changing the air's properties: Heating the air changes its density and viscosity, which can
affect the aerodynamic performance of the model being tested. Using a hot air gun allows for
a more controlled way of altering the air's properties, helping to understand how the model
behaves under different conditions.
3. Preventing condensation: In some cases, especially when moisture is present, a hot air gun
can help avoid condensation on the model, which could otherwise interfere with measurements
and the overall test.

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By introducing both a thermometer and a hot air gun, the wind tunnel becomes more adaptable and
capable of testing models under various temperature conditions, giving a better understanding of how
the model will perform in different real-world environments.

3.3 SELECTION OF MATERIALS

When selecting materials for a wind tunnel test section, different types of materials are chosen based
on their properties and the specific needs of the wind tunnel's design and testing requirements.

3.3.1 Types of Materials:

In wind tunnel test sections, materials are selected based on factors like durability, smoothness, and
resistance to heat or vibrations. Common materials used include:
1. Fiberglass: Often used in the frame and walls due to its lightweight, strong, and durable nature.
It’s resistant to environmental factors and helps maintain smooth airflow.
2. Aluminium: Sometimes used in the construction of parts of the test section because of its
lightweight and strength. Aluminium is also easy to work with and resists corrosion.
3. Acrylic or Polycarbonate: Transparent materials may be used for parts where visual
observation of the model is required. These materials are smooth and help ensure that airflow
is maintained without disruptions.
4. Steel or Stainless Steel: Used for parts requiring more strength or heat resistance, particularly
in areas where airflow speed and temperature may fluctuate.

3.3.2 Properties:
The materials selected for the wind tunnel test section need to have certain properties:
1. Smoothness: The inner surfaces of the test section should be smooth to minimize air
turbulence, which can distort test results.
2. Strength and Durability: The material must be strong enough to withstand the forces of high-
speed air and any mechanical stresses during testing.
3. Heat Resistance: In some wind tunnel tests, the air might be heated using a hot air gun or other
methods, so materials need to resist thermal expansion or degradation at higher temperatures.
4. Low Vibration and Noise: The materials should reduce vibrations and noise, ensuring that
test results are accurate and unaffected by external disturbances.
5. Lightweight: The test section frame and parts should be as lightweight as possible to reduce
the load on the overall system while maintaining structural integrity.

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3.3.3 Required Dimensions:

For a typical wind tunnel test section, the following dimensions are specified for different surfaces:
a. Upper and Lower Surfaces:
1. Breadth: 100 mm
2. Length: 210 mm These dimensions describe the size of the top and bottom parts of
the test section. The 100 mm breadth is the width of the test section, while the 210
mm length is how long the surface stretches.
b. Side Surfaces:
1. Length: 200 mm
2. Height: 150 mm These measurements apply to the side walls of the test section. The
length (200 mm) refers to the side surface’s stretch along the flow direction, and the
height (150 mm) is the vertical dimension of the test section.
These specific dimensions ensure that the test section is sized appropriately for the experiments being
conducted and the models being tested. They also help maintain consistent airflow and provide
enough space for models to be placed while still ensuring that the tunnel can operate effectively.

3.4 Modification
Modifying the test section of the wind tunnel with selected materials, (dimensions and properties),
involves adjusting the construction and material choices to meet the specific needs of the experiments
you intend to conduct. Here’s how the modification process can be explained:
To modify the test section effectively, we need to ensure that the materials chosen meet the
requirements for smooth airflow, durability, heat resistance, and minimal turbulence. Based on the
data, here are the steps to follow:
1. Upper and Lower Surfaces (100 mm breadth, 210 mm length): These surfaces directly
interact with the airflow. Since these surfaces will see the most air movement, selecting
fiberglass or smooth acrylic could be ideal. These materials are smooth, durable, and will help
maintain low turbulence, ensuring that airflow remains consistent during tests.
a. Fiberglass: A popular choice for its strength, lightness, and ability to maintain
structural integrity while being smooth enough to avoid disrupting the airflow. It’s also
easy to shape for precision.
b. Acrylic or Polycarbonate: If visibility into the test section is needed or if the wind
tunnel needs to be clear for monitoring the experiment, acrylic or polycarbonate could
be used, offering both transparency and smoothness.

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2. Side Surfaces (200 mm length, 150 mm height): The side walls need to be made of materials
that support the structural integrity of the test section while minimizing sound and vibrations.
Aluminium or fiberglass are good options for these surfaces.
a. Aluminium: Light but strong, making it a good choice for the side surfaces. It would
maintain the strength required to withstand the pressures inside the test section without
adding excessive weight.
b. Fiberglass: Also a great choice for side walls, as it provides durability, reduces
vibration, and maintains airflow stability.

3.4.1. Improving Aerodynamic Performance:

The test section must have smooth, consistent surfaces to minimize drag, turbulence, and vibrations
in the airflow. By using materials such as fiberglass for both the upper and lower surfaces, and
potentially acrylic or polycarbonate for visibility, the smoothness of the test section can be enhanced.
This ensures that the airflow remains steady and controlled during testing.

3.4.2. Heat Resistance:

If the tests involve heating the air (using a hot air gun or other methods), the materials selected need
to handle changes in temperature. For instance, fiberglass and aluminium are both heat-resistant and
would perform well when subjected to temperature variations. This is particularly important for
ensuring the integrity of the test section and preventing deformation or breakdown of the materials
under higher temperatures.

3.4.3. Modifying For Low Turbulence And Noise:

Using fiberglass for the construction of the frame and other components can significantly reduce
unwanted vibrations and noise. This will result in a quieter test environment, which is crucial for
conducting precise aerodynamic and aeroacoustics tests. The smooth surfaces of materials like
acrylic will also help in reducing turbulence.

3.4.4. Adjusting the Test Section Layout:

Now that we know the specific dimensions of the test section (100 mm breadth, 210 mm length for
the top and bottom surfaces, and 200 mm length, 150 mm height for the sides), these measurements
can be factored into the design of the tunnel to ensure that the materials fit correctly and support the
desired airflow.The materials used for these sections must be precisely cut and shaped to match the
required dimensions. This ensures that the test section maintains its intended geometry for accurate

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testing. For example, fiberglass panels can be custom-formed to fit these dimensions, creating
smooth and uniform surfaces for the airflow.

3.4.5 Final Modifications:

1. The upper and lower surfaces would be made from smooth fiberglass or acrylic to enhance
the airflow while maintaining the desired dimensions of 100 mm by 210 mm.
2. The side walls would likely use aluminium or fiberglass, with dimensions of 200 mm in length
and 150 mm in height, providing the necessary strength and smoothness for the test section.
3. Thermometers and hot air guns can be incorporated into the modified setup to measure and
control the air temperature during the tests.
By selecting and modifying the materials based on these requirements, the wind tunnel test section
will be better suited to accurately test aerodynamic properties and provide valuable data while
maintaining controlled conditions for low turbulence and minimal noise.

3.5 TESTING
Testing an airfoil at different temperatures in a wind tunnel is a valuable process for understanding
how temperature variations affect the aerodynamic performance of the airfoil. Temperature plays a
significant role in the properties of air, such as its density and viscosity, which in turn influence the
airfoil’s lift, drag, and overall performance.

3.5.1. Impact of Temperature on Air Properties:

Air density and viscosity are both temperature-dependent:
1. Air Density: As the temperature increases, air density decreases. This is because warmer air
molecules move faster and are more spread out, which reduces the overall mass of air in a
given volume. Lower air density can reduce the lift generated by an airfoil because there are
fewer air molecules interacting with the airfoil.
2. Air Viscosity: The viscosity of air also increases with temperature. Higher viscosity means
the air resists flow more, which could impact the airflow around the airfoil, affecting drag
forces.
By testing at different temperatures, we can see how the airfoil performs under conditions that mimic
various environments, such as high-altitude or high-temperature conditions.

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3.5.2. How Temperature Affects Airfoil Performance:

Testing the airfoil at different temperatures helps simulate various real-world conditions:
1. Cold Conditions: At lower temperatures (like those at higher altitudes), air is denser. This
increases the lift generated by the airfoil, as there are more air molecules for the airfoil to
interact with. However, the viscosity is lower, which may reduce drag slightly.
2. Hot Conditions: At higher temperatures (like those in hot climates), air becomes less dense,
which can reduce the lift produced by the airfoil. The lower air density also reduces the
efficiency of the airfoil in generating power (in the case of wind turbines, for example). Higher
viscosity at hot temperatures might also increase drag and resistance.

3.5.3. How Wind Tunnel Temperature Control Works:

In a wind tunnel, the temperature of the air can be controlled using tools like hot air guns, heaters, or
cooling systems:
1. Hot Air Gun/Heaters: These are used to raise the temperature of the air flowing through the
test section. By adjusting the hot air flow, the temperature can be carefully controlled to
simulate hot environmental conditions.
2. Cooling Systems: If cold conditions need to be tested, the wind tunnel may be equipped with
cooling systems that lower the temperature of the air, simulating colder conditions like those
found at high altitudes or in polar regions.

3.5.4. Experimental Setup for Temperature Variation:

To test an airfoil at different temperatures, the wind tunnel setup would follow these steps:
1. Initial Setup: Set up the airfoil in the test section of the wind tunnel, ensuring that it is properly
mounted and aligned.
2. Temperature Adjustment: Use the hot air gun or cooling system to adjust the air temperature
to the desired level for the first test (e.g., a higher temperature to simulate hot conditions).
3. Flow and Data Collection: Start the wind tunnel and monitor the airflow around the airfoil.
Measure key aerodynamic parameters like lift, drag, and pressure distribution.
4. Repeat at Different Temperatures: Change the temperature to another value (e.g., a cooler
temperature) and repeat the tests to collect data at different thermal conditions. The wind
tunnel’s thermometer will help track and maintain consistent air temperatures throughout the
experiment.

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5. Data Analysis: Compare the results from the different temperature settings. This will show
how temperature affects the airfoil’s performance, providing insights into how it will perform
in various real-world environments.

3.5.5. Why It’s Important:

Testing an airfoil at different temperatures allows engineers to understand the temperature-dependent
behaviour of the airfoil. For example:
1. In aviation, understanding how an airfoil behaves in both hot and cold conditions can help
design wings that perform optimally at various altitudes and climates.
2. For wind turbines, it’s important to know how temperature impacts the efficiency of the blades.
Testing across different temperature conditions helps ensure the blades perform well under
different environmental scenarios.
Testing the airfoil at different temperatures in the wind tunnel gives engineers a detailed
understanding of how temperature influences airfoil performance. This helps improve design
accuracy, ensuring that airfoils work efficiently under the full range of possible environmental
conditions they might encounter in real-world applications.

3.6 FLOW ANALYSIS/ VISUALISATION

3.6.1. Visualizing the Flow Pattern with Smoke Flow:
In a wind tunnel, one effective way to visualize airflow around an airfoil or model is by using smoke
flow visualization. This method helps engineers and researchers observe how air moves over and
around the object being tested, providing insight into flow separation, turbulence, and other
aerodynamic phenomena.

3.6.2 How Smoke Flow Visualization Works:

1. Smoke Injection: Smoke or a similar smoke-like substance is introduced into the airflow
through a controlled source, such as a smoke generator or a fog machine. The smoke is injected
into the airflow just before it reaches the model, ensuring it flows over the surface of the object
in a controlled manner.
2. Observation: As the air flows over the model, the smoke moves along with it. This allows
you to see how the airflow interacts with the model, showing areas where the air flows

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smoothly, where it separates, and where turbulence occurs. You can use high-speed cameras
or visual sensors to capture the movement of the smoke.
3. Flow Patterns:
a. Laminar Flow: In some regions, the smoke will flow smoothly, following the surface
of the model. This indicates laminar flow, which is desirable for aerodynamic
efficiency because it reduces drag.
b. Turbulent Flow: In other regions, the smoke might show swirling or chaotic patterns,
indicating turbulence. Turbulence increases drag and can reduce the efficiency of the
object.
c. Flow Separation: If the smoke starts to detach from the surface of the model, this
indicates flow separation. This typically leads to a significant increase in drag and can
affect the performance of the airfoil or model.
By observing these smoke patterns, engineers can adjust the design of the model, such as the shape
of the airfoil or the placement of surfaces, to optimize the airflow and reduce unwanted turbulence.

3.6.2. Calculating Aerodynamic Efficiency Over Different Temperatures:

Aerodynamic efficiency measures how well an object produces lift while minimizing drag. In the
context of wind tunnel testing at different temperatures, the aerodynamic efficiency can be affected
by the changes in air density and viscosity with temperature. To calculate the efficiency, we typically
look at the lift-to-drag ratio (L/D), which is a common indicator of aerodynamic performance.

1. How Aerodynamic Efficiency is Calculated:

The aerodynamic efficiency is commonly represented by the lift-to-drag ratio (L/D), which is given
by:
L/D ratio= Lift Force (L)
Drag Force (D)
Where:
a. Lift Force (L) is the upward force generated by the airfoil due to the pressure difference
between the upper and lower surfaces.
b. Drag Force (D) is the resistance faced by the airfoil due to friction and pressure differences as
the air moves over it.

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2. Effect of Temperature on Aerodynamic Efficiency:

Temperature affects both air density and air viscosity, which in turn impact the lift and drag forces
acting on the model.
a. At Higher Temperatures:
1. Air density decreases, which reduces the lift generated by the airfoil. Less dense air provides
fewer air molecules to interact with the airfoil, which results in reduced lift.
2. Air viscosity increases, which can cause more drag because the air resists movement more at
higher temperatures. This increases the drag force acting on the model.
3. Overall, the L/D ratio decreases, meaning the aerodynamic efficiency might decrease at
higher temperatures due to lower lift and higher drag.
b. At Lower Temperatures:
1. Air density increases, which means there are more air molecules to interact with the airfoil,
increasing lift.
2. Air viscosity decreases, leading to lower drag. Less viscous air creates less resistance against
the airfoil.
3. As a result, the L/D ratio increases, meaning the aerodynamic efficiency improves at lower
temperatures because of higher lift and lower drag.

3. Experimental Calculation:
To calculate aerodynamic efficiency at different temperatures:
1. Step 1: Conduct the wind tunnel tests at various temperatures, using either a hot air gun to
increase the temperature .
2. Step 2: Measure the lit and drag forces at each temperature, using force sensors placed on the
model.
3. Step 3: Use the formula for the L/D ratio to calculate the aerodynamic efficiency for each
temperature setting.
4. Example:
a. At a lower temperature (say 10°C), you might find that the lift is 50 N and the drag is
5 N, so the L/D ratio is 50/5=10
b. At a higher temperature (say 40°C), the lift might decrease to 45 N and the drag might
increase to 7 N, so the L/D ratio is 45/7=6.43
In this case, the aerodynamic efficiency at the lower temperature is higher, meaning the airfoil
performs better in cooler conditions.

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3.7 Conclusion
Wind tunnel testing is a fundamental tool for understanding and optimizing the aerodynamic and
aeroacoustics performance of various components, such as airfoils, aircraft models, and wind
turbines. One of the most valuable techniques in these tests is smoke flow visualization, which
enables engineers to directly observe the airflow around a model. By introducing smoke into the
airflow, engineers can visually track how air moves over the surfaces of the model, revealing crucial
information about flow patterns, turbulence, and potential areas where airflow separation might
occur. Smooth flow indicates laminar conditions, while swirling, chaotic smoke patterns suggest
turbulence. These insights are critical in refining designs to minimize drag and improve lift, both
essential for enhancing the aerodynamic performance of the tested model.
In addition to smoke flow visualization, testing at different temperatures provides another layer of
understanding. Temperature has a significant impact on the properties of air, such as density and
viscosity, which in turn affects the aerodynamic forces acting on the model. At higher temperatures,
air density decreases, reducing lift, while air viscosity increases, raising drag. Lower temperatures,
on the other hand, increase air density, resulting in higher lift, and decrease viscosity, reducing drag.
These changes in lift and drag directly influence the lift-to-drag ratio (L/D), a key indicator of
aerodynamic efficiency. Generally, lower temperatures lead to improved efficiency, as the air is
denser and offers less resistance.
The lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) is crucial for evaluating aerodynamic performance. By measuring lift and
drag forces at various temperatures, engineers can calculate the L/D ratio and determine the overall
efficiency of the airfoil or model under different environmental conditions. For example, testing an
airfoil at higher temperatures may show a decrease in lift and an increase in drag, leading to a lower
L/D ratio. Conversely, at lower temperatures, an increase in lift and a decrease in drag may result in
a higher L/D ratio, demonstrating better aerodynamic efficiency.
This ability to manipulate and measure aerodynamic forces at different temperatures is invaluable
for applications where environmental conditions vary. For instance, aircraft must perform well at
high altitudes, where temperatures are colder and air density is lower, while wind turbines must
operate efficiently in both hot and cold climates. By understanding how temperature affects the
airflow, engineers can design airfoils, wings, or turbine blades that perform optimally in a variety of
conditions.
Furthermore, the ability to visualize flow patterns with smoke and analyze aerodynamic efficiency
under different temperature conditions is essential for improving the overall design process. It allows
engineers to predict how a component will behave in real-world scenarios and make informed design

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choices that enhance performance, reduce energy loss, and ensure the reliability of the system.
Whether for aviation, automotive design, or renewable energy, this approach provides critical data
to optimize performance and increase the efficiency of engineered systems.
Wind tunnel testing using techniques like smoke flow visualization and temperature variation offers
a comprehensive method to study and improve aerodynamic performance. By understanding how
temperature influences the airflow around a model, engineers can optimize the design for better
efficiency and reliability across different environmental conditions. This testing methodology not
only aids in the development of more efficient airfoils and wings but also contributes to broader
advancements in aerodynamics, enhancing the performance of systems such as aircraft, wind
turbines, and other aerospace applications.

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CHAPTER 4

FIBER GLASS MATERIAL FOR TEST SECTION

4.1 Introduction
The ability to perform accurate wind tunnel tests is crucial in understanding aerodynamic
performance, particularly in environments where high temperatures are a factor. A critical
component of any wind tunnel is the test section, where the model undergoes testing. This section
must be designed to maintain stability and accuracy under varying conditions. When it comes to
withstanding high temperatures in wind tunnel operations, materials used in constructing the test
section must possess properties such as thermal stability, strength, resistance to thermal cycling, and
minimal expansion or contraction under heat. Fiberglass, a composite material consisting of glass
fibres embedded in a resin matrix, has gained significant attention in aerospace, automotive, and fluid
dynamics research due to its outstanding mechanical and thermal properties. This paper explores the
modification of the wind tunnel test section using fiberglass materials that can withstand high
temperatures, examining why fiberglass is preferred over other materials and how it contributes to
enhanced testing accuracy.
Wind tunnel testing plays a pivotal role in aerodynamic research, helping engineers and scientists
simulate real-world conditions to study the behaviour of airflow around models. The test section of
a wind tunnel is particularly important, as it is where the interaction between the air and the object
being tested occurs. To ensure that the results are accurate and reflective of real-world performance,
the materials used in constructing the test section must meet specific requirements, such as minimal
distortion of airflow, durability, ease of maintenance, and cost-effectiveness.
Historically, many wind tunnels were constructed using materials like steel or aluminium, which
provided durability and strength but often presented challenges regarding weight, cost, and
complexity in handling. In recent years, fiberglass has gained attention as an alternative material for
wind tunnel construction, particularly for the test section. This modification can lead to
improvements in aerodynamic testing and performance optimization. The modification of the wind
tunnel test section with fiberglass is motivated by its superior properties—strength-to-weight ratio,
ease of fabrication, resistance to corrosion, and cost-effectiveness.
This paper will explore the process of modifying the test section of a wind tunnel using fiberglass
material. It will examine the key design considerations, the advantages of fiberglass, and the
construction methods involved. Furthermore, it will highlight the impact of these modifications on

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the overall performance and maintenance of the wind tunnel, including challenges faced during the
construction process.

4.2 Understanding Wind Tunnel Test Section Requirements

4.2.1 Importance of the Test Section
The test section is the area where the model (usually a scaled version of an aircraft, vehicle, or other
objects) is placed to simulate real-world airflow conditions. The geometry of the test section must be
precise to ensure laminar flow over the object under test, while the walls of the section should not
interfere with the airflow. To ensure high-quality data, the test section should be designed to
minimize turbulence, friction, and heat transfer effects.

4.2.3 Material Requirements for Test Sections

The materials used for constructing the wind tunnel test section should meet several criteria:
1. Thermal stability: The test section may encounter varying temperatures, especially when
conducting tests related to high-speed or high-performance objects. Materials must withstand
thermal stress without degrading.
2. Aerodynamic smoothness: The material should maintain smooth, continuous surfaces to
avoid disturbances in the airflow that could affect the accuracy of the test.
3. Durability: Wind tunnels can be in operation for extended periods, so the materials need to
resist wear, corrosion, and other forms of degradation.
4. Cost and ease of manufacturing: Materials should not only be effective but also cost-efficient
and easy to fabricate.

4.3 Properties of Fiberglass for High-Temperature Wind Tunnel Test

Sections
4.3.1 Fiberglass Material Composition
Fiberglass is a composite material made of glass fibers embedded in a resin matrix. The fibers provide
strength, while the resin binds the fibers together and gives the material its structural integrity.
Fiberglass is used in various industries, including aerospace, automotive, and construction, due to its
favorable properties, which can be enhanced by selecting appropriate resin and fiber types for
specific applications.

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1. Glass fibers: These fibers provide tensile strength and structural stability.
2. Resin matrix: Typically made from polyester, epoxy, or vinyl ester resins, the matrix binds
the fibers and allows the material to maintain its shape and integrity under mechanical loads.

4.3.2 Key Properties for High-Temperature Resistance

Fiberglass exhibits several key properties that make it suitable for high-temperature environments:
1. Thermal Resistance: Standard fiberglass can withstand temperatures up to 500°F (260°C)
without significant degradation. High-performance fiberglass composites, with modified resin
systems, can handle even higher temperatures, reaching up to 1000°F (537°C).
2. Low Thermal Conductivity: Fiberglass has low thermal conductivity, meaning it does not
easily transfer heat. This characteristic ensures that the test section does not heat up
significantly when exposed to hot airflow, preserving the integrity of the test.
3. Thermal Expansion: Fiberglass has a low coefficient of thermal expansion, meaning it
expands and contracts very little when exposed to temperature variations. This is especially
important in maintaining dimensional accuracy in the test section.
4. Resistance to Thermal Cycling: Fiberglass can endure repeated heating and cooling cycles
without significant deterioration, which is critical in wind tunnel operations where temperature
fluctuations are common.

4.3.3 Strength and Durability

In addition to thermal properties, fiberglass provides excellent strength-to-weight ratios and
resistance to mechanical stresses. The high tensile strength of fiberglass ensures that it can withstand
the forces created by high-speed airflow, making it ideal for wind tunnel environments.

4.4 Advantages of Using Fiberglass for High-Temperature Wind

Tunnel Test Sections
4.4.1 Lightweight and Cost-Effective
Fiberglass is significantly lighter than metals like steel or aluminium. This weight advantage makes
the construction of large-scale wind tunnels easier and less expensive. The reduced weight also
reduces the need for heavy-duty structural reinforcements, lowering overall construction and
operational costs.

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4.4.2 Resistance to Corrosion and Degradation

Fiberglass’s inherent resistance to corrosion is another important advantage, particularly when
exposed to moisture, chemicals, or other harsh environmental factors. Unlike metals, which can
corrode over time, fiberglass maintains its structural integrity and smooth finish, reducing
maintenance requirements.

4.4.3 High Performance at Elevated Temperatures

Fiberglass can withstand high temperatures without warping, softening, or losing its structural
integrity. When exposed to the elevated temperatures typically found in wind tunnel operations,
fiberglass test sections will not distort, ensuring the airflow is not disturbed by structural changes.
Moreover, fiberglass does not suffer from oxidation at high temperatures, which can be a concern
with metals.

4.4.4 Flexibility in Design and Manufacturing

Fiberglass is highly versatile in design, allowing engineers to easily mold it into complex shapes and
sizes. This capability makes fiberglass an excellent material for creating aerodynamically smooth
surfaces in the wind tunnel test section. The molding process is also more cost-effective compared
to machining or welding metal components.

4.5 Disadvantages of Using Fiberglass in High-Temperature

Environments
4.5.1 Brittleness at Extreme Temperatures
While fiberglass is generally strong, it can become brittle at very high temperatures or when exposed
to mechanical stress. This is particularly true when the resin matrix is not carefully selected to handle
extreme conditions. If the resin breaks down due to prolonged high heat exposure, the integrity of
the fiberglass structure could be compromised.

4.5.2 Limited High-Temperature Capability Without Resin Modification

Although fiberglass itself is capable of withstanding moderate to high temperatures, the resin used
to bind the fibers plays a significant role in determining its maximum temperature tolerance. Standard

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resins may degrade at temperatures over 500°F (260°C). To address this issue, special high-
temperature resins, such as epoxy-based resins, are required. However, these resins are often more
expensive than standard alternatives.

4.5.3 Vulnerability to UV Radiation

Fiberglass exposed to direct sunlight or UV radiation can degrade over time. While this is less of an
issue for wind tunnel test sections (since they are typically housed indoors), prolonged exposure to
UV radiation can weaken the material. Proper protective coatings can mitigate this risk.

4.6 Comparison with Other Materials

While fiberglass is a popular choice for constructing wind tunnel test sections, several other materials
can also be considered. Each material has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice depends
on specific operational requirements.

4.6.1 Aluminum
Advantages:
1. Lightweight and strong.
2. Highly resistant to corrosion when treated.
3. Excellent thermal conductivity for some applications.
Disadvantages:
1. Prone to oxidation at high temperatures.
2. Requires additional treatments or coatings to withstand higher temperatures.
Conclusion: Aluminum is a good choice for certain wind tunnel test sections, but its high thermal
conductivity and susceptibility to oxidation at extreme temperatures make it less ideal for
environments requiring high-temperature resistance.

4.6.2 Stainless Steel

Advantages:
1. Very strong and durable.
2. Corrosion-resistant, especially in high-humidity environments.
3. High-temperature tolerance (up to 1500°F or 815°C).

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Disadvantages:
1. Heavier than fiberglass, increasing construction and operational costs.
2. More expensive than fiberglass.
Conclusion: Stainless steel offers excellent temperature resistance but at the cost of increased weight
and higher costs. It is suitable for extreme environments but is less efficient than fiberglass for most
wind tunnel applications
.

4.6.3 Ceramic Composites

Advantages:
1. Extremely high-temperature resistance (up to 3000°F or 1650°C).
2. Strong and durable under heat.
Disadvantages:
1. Fragile and prone to cracking under mechanical stress.
2. Expensive and difficult to manufacture.
Conclusion: Ceramic composites offer unparalleled high-temperature performance but are not ideal
for wind tunnel test sections due to their fragility and cost.

4.7 Case Studies and Applications of Fiberglass in Wind Tunnel Test

Sections
4.7.1 Aerospace Industry
In the aerospace sector, fiberglass has been successfully used in wind tunnel test sections for aircraft
and spacecraft models. For example, NASA has utilized fiberglass-modified test sections in various
wind tunnels to simulate supersonic and hypersonic flows, where thermal effects are critical.

4.7.2 Automotive Industry

The automotive industry uses fiberglass-modified wind tunnel test sections to assess vehicle
aerodynamics. The ability to handle elevated temperatures, particularly during high-speed tests,
makes fiberglass an ideal material for testing both traditional internal combustion engine vehicles
and electric vehicles, where heat management is a major concern.

4.7.3 Renewable Energy

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Wind tunnel testing for wind turbine blades often requires testing in high-temperature environments
to simulate operational conditions. Fiberglass-modified test sections provide an ideal solution due to
their lightweight and heat-resistant properties, which allow for accurate airflow simulation without
interfering with test accuracy.

4.8 Conclusion
The modification of wind tunnel test sections with fiberglass to withstand high temperatures presents
several distinct advantages over other materials. Fiberglass’s combination of high-temperature
resistance, strength-to-weight ratio, cost-effectiveness, and ease of manufacturing makes it an
excellent choice for high-performance aerodynamic testing. While it is not without its challenges—
such as brittleness at extreme temperatures and the need for specialized resins—the overall benefits
far outweigh these concerns for most wind tunnel applications. Furthermore, compared to metals like
aluminum and stainless steel, fiberglass provides a more cost-efficient and durable solution that
maintains test accuracy and reduces long-term maintenance costs.
As the aerospace, automotive, and renewable energy industries continue to evolve, the use of
fiberglass-modified wind tunnel test sections will remain a critical factor in advancing research and
improving the design of high-performance systems.

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CHAPTER 5

AIRFOIL

Fig 02 NACA 2424 airfoil diagram

5.1 Introduction
The NACA 2424 airfoil is a part of the NACA 4-digit airfoil series developed by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the precursor to NASA. This family of airfoils was
designed for specific aerodynamic needs, offering a balanced blend of lift and drag characteristics
suited for various aircraft and systems. In this document, we will explore the fundamental design,
aerodynamic properties, performance data, applications, and testing results of the NACA 2424
airfoil in detail.

5.1.1. NACA 2424 Airfoil Design Characteristics

The NACA 2424 is a 4-digit series airfoil, and its numeric code provides detailed information about
its design. The code "2424" breaks down as follows:
1. 2: The maximum camber (curvature of the airfoil's upper surface) is 2% of the chord length.
2. 4: The maximum camber occurs at 40% of the chord length from the leading edge.
3. 24: The thickness of the airfoil is 24% of the chord length.
These values are essential because they directly influence the aerodynamic performance of the
airfoil, specifically its lift and drag characteristics, stall behavior, and suitability for different
applications.

Airfoil Geometry:
1. Chord Length (C): The reference length of the airfoil from the leading edge to the trailing
edge.

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2. Camber: A smooth curve along the upper surface of the airfoil, contributing to lift generation.
3. Thickness: The vertical distance between the upper and lower surfaces, which plays a role in
aerodynamic performance and structural strength.
The NACA 2424 has a relatively thick profile compared to many other airfoils in the NACA 4-digit
series. This thickness helps it generate more lift, making it suitable for low-speed, high-lift
applications like takeoff and landing, while also providing structural stability.

5.1.2. Aerodynamic Characteristics of the NACA 2424 Airfoil

The aerodynamic performance of an airfoil is evaluated based on parameters such as lift coefficient
(Cl), drag coefficient (Cd), stability characteristics, and stall behaviour. These properties are
measured in wind tunnel tests or through computational methods like Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD). The NACA 2424 airfoil is primarily designed for low-speed applications but performs
reasonably well in a broader range of conditions.

Lift and Drag Characteristics:

1. Lift Coefficient (Cl): The lift coefficient defines the lift force generated by the airfoil relative
to the dynamic pressure of the flow and the surface area of the airfoil.
a. At low angles of attack (0–5°), the lift coefficient increases steadily. The NACA 2424
generates more lift than many thinner airfoils due to its thicker profile.
b. At higher angles of attack, the lift coefficient continues to rise until the airfoil reaches the stall
angle (around 15–18°), at which point the airfoil experiences a sharp loss in lift.
2. Drag Coefficient (Cd): The drag coefficient quantifies the resistance that the airfoil
experiences as it moves through the air.
a. At low angles of attack, drag is relatively low due to smooth airflow over the airfoil’s surface.
b. As the angle of attack increases, drag increases because the airflow starts to separate from the
surface, especially in the wake region, leading to higher pressure drag and skin friction.

Stall Characteristics:
1. The NACA 2424 airfoil exhibits a gradual stall behaviour. At low angles of attack, it maintains
smooth, laminar flow. As the angle of attack increases, the airfoil generates lift efficiently, but
once it exceeds the critical angle, the flow over the airfoil starts to separate, causing a stall.
2. The stall is gradual, which is generally advantageous because it provides a more predictable
loss of lift, unlike sharp, sudden stalls seen in other thinner airfoils.

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Maximum Lift and Drag:

1. The maximum lift coefficient (Clmax) for the NACA 2424 is typically 1.4 to 1.6, depending
on the Reynolds number and flow conditions. This is relatively high compared to thinner
airfoils and demonstrates the airfoil's high-lift capability.
2. The drag coefficient (Cd) is moderate but increases significantly near stall conditions. For
example, drag can reach 0.1 to 0.2 at angles approaching the stall angle.

5.1.3. Performance Data for the NACA 2424 Airfoil

The performance of an airfoil like the NACA 2424 is often summarized using various aerodynamic
parameters such as lift-to-drag ratio (L/D), Reynolds number dependence, and angle of attack.
These factors dictate how the airfoil will perform in real-world scenarios.

Lift-to-Drag Ratio (L/D):

1. The L/D ratio is one of the most important indicators of an airfoil’s efficiency. It gives a
measure of the lift generated relative to the drag experienced.
a. At moderate angles of attack (5° to 8°), the L/D ratio can be quite high, often in the range of
15:1 to 20:1 for the NACA 2424.
b. This ratio decreases significantly as the airfoil approaches stall due to the increased drag from
flow separation.

Reynolds Number Sensitivity:

a. Reynolds number (Re) plays a crucial role in determining the behaviour of airflow over the
airfoil. At low Reynolds numbers (typically below 1 x 10^6), the NACA 2424 experiences
higher drag due to flow separation and the inability to maintain smooth, laminar flow. The
thicker airfoil profile leads to a more significant impact at lower Reynolds numbers.
b. At higher Reynolds numbers, the airfoil performs better as the flow remains more attached to
the surface, reducing drag and increasing lift. This makes the NACA 2424 a good choice for
applications where airspeed is relatively high.

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Angle of Attack (AOA) and Stall:

1. At AOA between 0° to 5°, the lift increases as the angle increases, reaching its peak lift
coefficient at around 5° to 10°.
2. At AOA beyond 10°, the airfoil still generates lift, but the rate of increase begins to slow.
Beyond 15°, flow separation becomes more prominent, and the airfoil reaches its stall point,
causing a sharp loss of lift and a rapid increase in drag.

Typical Performance Data (at Re = 5 x 10^5, and Mach < 0.3):

1. Cl (Lift Coefficient) at 0° AOA: ~0.2
2. Cl (Lift Coefficient) at 5° AOA: ~1.2
3. Cl (Lift Coefficient) at 10° AOA: ~1.4
4. Cl (Lift Coefficient) at 15° AOA: ~1.6
5. Cd (Drag Coefficient) at 5° AOA: ~0.04
6. Cd (Drag Coefficient) at 10° AOA: ~0.08
7. L/D ratio at 5° AOA: ~18:1
8. L/D ratio at 10° AOA: ~12:1

5.1.4. Applications of the NACA 2424 Airfoil

The NACA 2424 airfoil is widely used in applications where high lift is necessary at low speeds. Its
relatively thick profile and moderate camber make it an ideal choice for aircraft that require good
low-speed handling and takeoff/landing performance. Some of the typical applications include:

a. General Aviation Aircraft:

1. The NACA 2424 is commonly found in trainer aircraft and light aircraft. It provides good
takeoff and landing performance with high lift at low speeds.
2. Aircraft like the Cessna 172 (which uses similar airfoil profiles) benefit from the high lift
characteristics of thicker airfoils like the NACA 2424, particularly in short takeoff and landing
(STOL) operations.

b. Model Aircraft:
1. In the realm of RC (remote-controlled) aircraft, the NACA 2424 is frequently chosen for
training or sport models because of its forgiving stall characteristics and high lift capability at
low speeds.

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c. Wind Turbine Blades:

1. The NACA 2424 is also suitable for small-scale wind turbines where high-lift conditions and
stable performance at lower wind speeds are essential. Its aerodynamic properties allow for
efficient energy conversion in low-speed wind environments.

d. UAVs and Slow-Speed Aircraft:

1. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or slow-speed reconnaissance aircraft that need high
manoeuvrability and control at lower airspeeds often use thicker airfoils like the NACA 2424.

5.1.5. Testing and Analysis of the NACA 2424 Airfoil

The performance of the NACA 2424 airfoil has been extensively studied through both computational
methods (such as CFD) and wind tunnel testing. Some key results from experimental tests are:
1. Wind Tunnel Testing: Empirical data from wind tunnel experiments confirm the high-lift
performance of the NACA 2424, especially at low angles of attack. The airfoil demonstrates a
gradual stall behaviour and maintains a good lift-to-drag ratio at moderate angles.
2. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations are often used to analyse the flow
characteristics around the NACA 2424, especially its boundary layer development, separation
points, and drag behaviour. These simulations help engineers optimize the airfoil for specific
applications.
The NACA 2424 airfoil remains one of the most widely used airfoils in general aviation, model
aircraft, and wind turbine applications due to its high-lift capabilities and gradual stall characteristics.
Despite its relatively thick profile, it performs efficiently in low-speed environments where high lift
is required. Its moderate drag and good lift-to-drag ratio make it suitable for a variety of applications
that require predictable stall behaviour and manoeuvrability at low speeds. Understanding its
performance at different Reynolds numbers and angles of attack is essential for optimizing its use in
engineering and design projects.

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5.2 Airflow Over NACA 2424 Airfoil

Fig 03 Air flow over NACA airfoil

Understanding the airflow over the NACA 2424 airfoil is crucial for evaluating its aerodynamic
performance. The airflow around an airfoil is responsible for the lift and drag characteristics that
define the airfoil's behavior under different flight conditions. To understand the aerodynamics of the
NACA 2424, we will explore the flow patterns, pressure distribution, boundary layer behavior, and
how these factors influence its performance.

5.2.1. General Flow Characteristics

The NACA 2424 airfoil, like any other airfoil, experiences airflow that can be divided into two main
regions:
1. Leading Edge Flow: As air flows towards the leading edge, it encounters the airfoil surface
and begins to accelerate over the curved upper surface due to the camber. The camber of the
NACA 2424 airfoil (2% of the chord length) means that the upper surface is curved, which
causes the air to speed up as it flows over it. This speed increase creates a low-pressure zone
above the airfoil, contributing to lift generation.
2. Lower Surface Flow: The lower surface of the airfoil is typically flatter compared to the upper
surface. This surface experiences less curvature, so the air does not accelerate as much as it
does on the upper surface, creating a higher-pressure zone on the lower side of the airfoil. The
pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces results in lift.

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3. Trailing Edge Flow: At the trailing edge, the air from both the upper and lower surfaces
recombine, which can lead to a wake region. The wake is an area of turbulent flow where the
air has separated from the surface and swirls behind the airfoil, contributing to drag.

5.2.2. Pressure Distribution

The pressure distribution over the NACA 2424 airfoil varies with the angle of attack (AOA), and it
is crucial for determining the lift and drag characteristics.
1. Upper Surface: At low angles of attack, the airflow over the upper surface is smooth, and the
air accelerates as it follows the curvature of the airfoil. This results in a low-pressure region
forming over the upper surface. The pressure decreases as the air speeds up, contributing to lift
generation. As the angle of attack increases, the pressure gradient becomes more pronounced,
leading to a stronger lift force until the airfoil reaches its stall angle, where the flow over the
upper surface begins to separate, causing a sharp loss in lift.
2. Lower Surface: The lower surface experiences a higher pressure compared to the upper
surface because the air does not accelerate as much. At low angles of attack, the difference
between the upper and lower surface pressures is not very large, but it increases with higher
angles of attack. At high angles of attack, the pressure on the lower surface remains higher, but
the separation of flow on the upper surface contributes to a loss of lift.
3. Flow Separation and Stall: As the angle of attack increases, the boundary layer of air near
the surface of the airfoil begins to separate. This separation leads to turbulent, chaotic flow
patterns that reduce the effective aerodynamic surface area, resulting in loss of lift (stall). The
NACA 2424, being a relatively thick airfoil with moderate camber, stalls gradually, making it
more forgiving than thinner airfoils.

5.2.3. Boundary Layer Behavior

The boundary layer is the thin layer of air close to the surface of the airfoil, where the effects of
viscosity (friction between air and surface) are most significant.
1. Laminar Flow: At low angles of attack and moderate speeds, the boundary layer remains
laminar (smooth) along most of the upper surface. In this case, the air flows smoothly over
the airfoil, generating lower drag and efficient lift.
2. Turbulent Flow: As the angle of attack increases, the boundary layer transitions from laminar
to turbulent. This transition can cause a delayed flow separation near the trailing edge, but
once the separation occurs, the wake increases, contributing to higher drag and loss of lift.

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The NACA 2424 is relatively thick, which allows for greater tolerances to turbulent flow. The thicker
airfoil helps keep the flow attached for higher angles of attack compared to thinner airfoils, making
it more stable and less prone to sudden stall.

5.2.4. Flow Visualization Techniques

Flow visualization techniques are used to understand the nature of the airflow over the NACA 2424.
Some common techniques include:
1. Smoke Flow: Smoke visualization is often used in wind tunnel testing to study the flow
patterns around an airfoil. Smoke injected into the airflow will trace the streamlines of the flow,
revealing the boundary layer, separation points, and wake regions. For the NACA 2424, the
flow visualization typically shows the smooth acceleration of airflow over the upper surface at
low angles of attack and the onset of flow separation as the angle increases.
2. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV): PIV is a more advanced technique that uses laser sheets
to capture the movement of particles in the air. This technique provides precise data on the
velocity and direction of airflow at different points over the airfoil, helping researchers analyze
the turbulent regions, boundary layer behavior, and wake formation in more detail.

5.2.5. Flow Patterns at Different Angles of Attack

The airflow characteristics of the NACA 2424 vary significantly with changes in the angle of attack
(AOA). Here’s an overview of how the flow patterns change:

At Low Angles of Attack (0° to 5°):

1. At these low angles, the flow over the NACA 2424 is smooth and attached to the surface, with
laminar boundary layers over both the upper and lower surfaces.
2. The lift is moderate, and the drag is relatively low. The pressure difference between the upper
and lower surfaces is small but still enough to generate lift.
3. Separation does not occur at these angles, and the airfoil experiences efficient aerodynamic
performance.

At Moderate Angles of Attack (5° to 10°):

1. The airfoil generates a significant amount of lift, and the pressure difference between the upper
and lower surfaces increases. The boundary layer may transition from laminar to turbulent in
some regions.
2. The lift-to-drag ratio is still favorable, but the drag begins to increase as the flow starts to
experience some separation near the trailing edge.

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3. The stability is good, and the stall characteristics are still far from occurring.

At High Angles of Attack (10° to 18°):

1. As the angle of attack increases, the airfoil generates maximum lift. However, the flow over
the upper surface begins to separate earlier.
2. Separation zones grow, particularly near the leading edge at high angles. The boundary layer
is turbulent, and the flow in the wake becomes more disordered, leading to increased drag.
3. The stall begins to occur at these angles, and the airfoil may experience a significant drop in
lift due to large-scale flow separation.

At Stall (Beyond 18° AOA):

1. At very high angles of attack, the flow separation is extensive. The wake becomes turbulent,
and the airfoil experiences a large loss of lift and a substantial increase in drag.
2. Complete flow separation can occur near the leading edge, reducing the effective aerodynamic
surface and causing the airfoil to stall.
3. The airfoil will typically recover from stall if the angle of attack is reduced, and the flow
reattaches smoothly.

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CHAPTER 06

EXPERIMENTATION

6.1 Aim: To modify and test the performance of an airfoil in a small scale subsonic wind tunnel at
increase in temperature.

6.2 Apparatus: Small-scale subsonic wind tunnel: Used to generate airflow to simulate real-world
conditions.
1. Airfoil model: A scaled-down replica of an airfoil to analyze aerodynamic properties.
2. Hot air gun: Provides a source of heat to increase the temperature in the test section.
3. Thermometer: Measures the temperature within the test section.
4. Anemometer: Measures the velocity of airflow inside the wind tunnel.
5. Smoke flow: Used to visualize airflow patterns and turbulence around the airfoil.

6.3 Principle:
6.3.1. Principle of Thermal Similarity:
Strive to achieve thermal similarity between the wind tunnel test conditions and the actual flight
conditions. This involves matching key parameters like temperature, pressure, and flow velocity to
accurately replicate the aerodynamic and thermal stresses experienced by the airfoil.

6.3.2. Principle of Minimal Interference:

The modification to the test section should minimally interfere with the airflow and the aerodynamic
characteristics of the airfoil. The heat-absorbent material should be carefully selected and installed
to avoid creating flow disturbances or altering the pressure distribution around the airfoil.

6.3.3. Principle of Accurate Temperature Control:

Implement a precise temperature control system to maintain the desired temperature within the test
section. This will ensure consistent and repeatable test conditions, enabling accurate data collection
and analysis.

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6.3.4.Principle of Data Validation:

Validate the experimental results obtained in the modified wind tunnel against theoretical
predictions, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, or data from other experimental
facilities. This will help assess the accuracy and reliability of the modified test setup.
6.3.5. Principle of Safety:
Prioritize safety throughout the modification and testing process. Ensure that the heat-absorbent
material and heating system are properly insulated and protected to prevent accidents and injuries.
By adhering to these principles, you can effectively modify the small-scale wind tunnel and conduct
accurate aerodynamic testing of airfoils at elevated temperatures.

6.4 Procedure:
1. Preparation:Ensure all connections of the wind tunnel are intact and secure.
2. Insert the airfoil:Place the airfoil model in the test section of the wind tunnel.
3. Set up the thermometer:Attach the thermometer above the test section for accurate temperature
monitoring.
4. Apply heat:Turn on the hot air gun to introduce heat into the test section and elevate the
temperature.
5. Activate the wind tunnel:Start the wind tunnel to initiate airflow across the airfoil.
6. Data collection:Record temperature and airflow readings at various levels of heat applied to
study the performance of the airfoil under different conditions.
7. The experiment is conducted to analyze how the aerodynamic performance (such as lift and
drag) of an airfoil changes with temperature variations, providing valuable insights into thermal
effects on aerodynamic efficiency.
6.5 Observations:
1. Initial temperature at test section: 25℃
2. Density of air: 1.184 kg/mꝪ
3. Airfoil: NACA 2424
a. Span: 0.09m
b. Chord: 0.1m
4. Test section material: Acrylic glass
a. Outer frame : 230mm length, 150mm hight, 125mm breadth
b. Upper and lower surface : 100mm breadth , 210mm length
c. Side surfaces : 200mm length, 150mm height

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6.6 Tabular column:

Sl no. Temperature Density Velocity (m/s)

(◦c) (Ꝭ)
At low At high
speed speed

1. 25 1.184 1.2 4.9

2. 30 1.165 1.3 5.1

3. 35 1.1455 1.3 5.4

4. 40 1.1275 1.3 5.5

5. 45 1.1098 1.4 5.6

6. 50 1.060 1.4 5.6

Table 01 tabular column of temperature, density and volume for the wind tunnel

6.7 Brief experimental setup diagram:

Fig 04 Brief experimental setup diagram of wind tunnel.

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Fig 05 Real time image of small scale wind tunnel

Fig 06 Real time image of small scaled test section with airfoil

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Fig 07 Real time image of smoke flow over the airfoil.

6.8 Calculation:

For low velocity:

At 25°C,
RPM = 1200
V = 1.2 m/s,
Cd0 = 0.026
ρ = 1.184 kg/m³,
e = 0.5
W = 0.1 kg
Cl = W / ( (1/2) * ρ * V² * S )
= 0.1 / ( (1/2) * 1.184 * (1.2)² * 0.9 )
= 0.13

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Design and Development of a Scale Model Wind Tunnel

Cd = Cd0 + ( Cl² / (π * e * AR) )

= 0.026 + ( 0.13² / (π * 0.5 * 0.009) )
= 1.221

Cl / Cd= 0.13 / 1.221

= 0.106

(i) At 30°C
Cl = 0.112
Cd = 0.913
Cl / Cd = 0.112 / 0.913 = 0.122

(ii) At 35°C
Cl = 0.114
Cd= 0.945
Cl/ Cd = 0.120

(iii)At 40°C
Cl = 0.116
Cd = 0.9778
Cl / Cd = 0.118

(iv) At 45°C
Cl = 0.102
Cd = 0.7618
Cl / Cd = 0.133

(v) At 50°C
Cl = 0.106
Cd = 0.8207
Cl / Cd = 0.129

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For high velocity:

At 25°C,
RPM = 2400
V = 4.9 m/s,
CD0 = 0.026
ρ = 1.184 kg/m³,
e = 0.5
W = 0.1 kg
Cl = W / ( (1/2) * ρ * V² * S )
= 0.1 / ( (1/2) * 1.184 * (4.9)² * 0.9 )
= 0.0078

Cd = Cd0 + ( Cl² / (π * e * AR) )

= ( 0.0078² / (π * 0.5 * 0.009) ) + 0.026 = 0.0803
Cl / Cd = 0.0078 / 0.0803
= 0.2574

(i) At 30°C
Cl = 0.0073
Cd = 0.0297
Cl / Cd = 0.2457

(ii) At 35°C
Cl = 0.0066
Cd = 0.0285
Cl/ Cd = 0.2315

(iii) 40°C
Cl = 0.0065
Cd = 0.0289
Cl / Cd = 0.2249

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(iv) At 45°C
Cl = 0.0063
Cd = 0.0288
Cl / Cd = 0.2184

(v) At 50°C
Cl = 0.0066
Cd = 0.0290
Cl / Cd = 0.2275

6.9 Graph

At low velocity

Fig 08 Graph of Cl/Cd vs temperature at low velocity

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At high velocity

Fig 09 Graph of Cl/Cd vs temperature at high velocity

6.10 At test section of the airfoil.

Sl no. Temperature Velocity (m/s)
(◦c)
Lower Upper
surface surface

1. 25 1.9 2.9

2. 30 2.1 3.0

3. 35 2.2 3.0

4. 40 2.2 3.1

5. 45 2.3 3.2

Table 02 Tabular column of temperature and velocity for the test section

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Fig 10 Graph of temperature vs velocity

6.11 OUTCOMES :
1. Development of a Functional Wind Tunnel Model
2. Data on Thermal Effects on Aerodynamic Performance
3. Insights into Flow Behavior Under Thermal Influence
4. Identification of Thermal Effects on Stability and Control

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CHAPTER 07

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

The analysis of the NACA 2424 airfoil, the wind tunnel testing process, and the associated airflow
visualization techniques has provided significant insights into the importance of experimental testing
and its application in real-world scenarios. Through a detailed examination of aerodynamic
properties, flow behaviours, and the use of state-of-the-art wind tunnel facilities, this study has
emphasized the critical role of wind tunnels in optimizing airfoil design and performance in both
aviation and renewable energy systems. The combination of theoretical knowledge, numerical
simulations, and practical experimental data underscores the value of these approaches in ensuring
optimal design and efficiency in complex aerodynamic systems.

7.1 Wind Tunnel Testing: A Vital Tool for Aerodynamic Analysis

Wind tunnel testing serves as the foundation for aerodynamic research, providing empirical data that
supports or refines theoretical models and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. In the
case of the NACA 2424 airfoil, various testing methods, including aeroacoustics analysis, flow
separation observation, and lift-to-drag ratio measurements, offer a detailed understanding of its
performance under varying operational conditions. The D5 Aeroacoustics Wind Tunnel at Beijing
University, with its low turbulence intensity and low background noise, offers the ideal environment
for conducting these tests. It provides reliable, reproducible data, minimizing external influences
such as turbulence, which is critical in maintaining the integrity of aerodynamic experiments. This
allows for an accurate representation of the airfoil's aeroacoustics and aerodynamic performance,
particularly for scaled models and components used in aircraft and wind turbines.Through these
controlled tests, turbulence intensity in the test section can be minimized (below 0.08%), and pressure
distribution across the airfoil can be carefully measured. These controlled conditions allow engineers
to accurately study boundary layer behaviour, flow separation, and wake formation under various
angles of attack. Testing in a closed-circuit wind tunnel ensures that real-world performance is
reflected, leading to improved design accuracy and efficiency, and providing essential data that can
be applied to full-scale applications in aviation and renewable energy systems.

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7.2 NACA 2424 Airfoil: Design, Performance, and Applications

The NACA 2424 airfoil, as part of the NACA 4-digit series, is an excellent example of a high-lift
airfoil that provides stable performance at low speeds. The airfoil features a 24% thickness and 2%
camber, making it well-suited for applications that require stable lift generation at lower Reynolds
numbers. Its cambered shape and thicker design contribute to its ability to generate high lift, but this
also results in increased drag at higher speeds, especially at larger angles of attack. This characteristic
makes it ideal for low-speed applications, such as small aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs),
and small-scale wind turbines.Wind tunnel testing of the NACA 2424 reveals key aspects of its
aerodynamic performance: flow separation, stall behaviour, and pressure distributions. At low angles
of attack, the flow remains attached to the airfoil, resulting in high lift and low drag. However, as the
angle of attack increases, boundary layer separation occurs, leading to a decrease in lift and a rise in
drag. The gradual stall behaviour of the NACA 2424 makes it a preferred airfoil for training aircraft
and low-speed flight operations where predictable and stable flight characteristics are essential.
Additionally, the airfoil's performance in small-scale wind turbines demonstrates its ability to
provide efficient power generation under low-wind conditions, making it a suitable choice for
renewable energy applications.

7.3 Flow Visualization: A Key to Understanding Airfoil Behaviour

Flow visualization techniques are essential tools for understanding how airflow behaves around an
airfoil, particularly under different operating conditions. In wind tunnel testing, methods like smoke
flow visualization and particle image velocimetry (PIV) help engineers observe and analyze the flow
patterns around the NACA 2424. Smoke flow is particularly effective in illustrating streamlines and
identifying regions of flow separation and turbulent wake formation. These visualizations give
insight into how air accelerates over the upper surface and decelerates over the lower surface, which
directly influences lift generation. The visualization of the boundary layer and the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow is crucial in understanding the stability of the airfoil at various angles of
attack.Moreover, PIV provides high-resolution measurements of flow velocity and turbulent
structures, which allows for a more in-depth analysis of the boundary layer dynamics and the wake
structure behind the airfoil. Through these techniques, engineers can also detect early signs of flow
separation, allowing for early interventions in design improvements. The ability to visualize flow
dynamics and wake behaviour aids in optimizing the airfoil for better aerodynamic efficiency, energy
conversion, and manoeuvrability.

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7.4 Testing Process: Precision and Adaptability

The testing process, particularly for aeroacoustics and aerodynamic measurements, requires a high
level of precision in the wind tunnel setup. The D5 Aeroacoustics Wind Tunnel offers both closed
and open test sections, with specific configurations tailored to aeroacoustics testing and aerodynamic
performance evaluation. The closed-loop configuration is ideal for studying aerodynamic
performance under controlled conditions, while the open-loop setup is utilized for studying the
aeroacoustics properties and sound emissions of the airfoil during operation.
The control of turbulence, background noise, and Reynolds numbers within the wind tunnel
environment is key to obtaining accurate and reliable data. By ensuring that the turbulence intensity
remains below 0.08% and that the background noise is comparable to other aeroacoustics facilities,
the test section provides ideal conditions for studying the aeroacoustics emissions from the airfoil.
This level of control allows for precise experimentation and contributes to a deeper understanding of
how the NACA 2424 behaves in real-world scenarios, whether in aircraft or wind turbine systems.

7.5 The Role of Wind Tunnel Testing in Validating Theoretical Models

Wind tunnel testing plays a critical role in verifying theoretical predictions and computational
simulations of aerodynamic and aeroacoustics behaviours. The NACA 2424 was tested under
different angles of attack, flow conditions, and Reynolds numbers to ensure that computational
models of its lift-to-drag ratio, stall behaviour, and pressure distributions align with real-world
performance. CFD simulations often provide valuable insights into aerodynamic behaviour, but they
cannot always replicate the dynamic complexities of real-world flow. Wind tunnel experiments,
therefore, serve as the benchmark for validating computational models and optimizing
designs.Additionally, the visualization of airflow patterns during wind tunnel tests helps engineers
identify potential design flaws, such as early flow separation or wake turbulence, that can be
corrected through design modifications or adjustments in operating conditions. This iterative process
between simulation and experimental testing ensures that airfoils like the NACA 2424 perform
optimally under a wide range of operating conditions.

7.6 Practical Applications: From Aviation to Renewable Energy

The NACA 2424 airfoil’s characteristics make it suitable for a variety of aerodynamic applications.
Its high-lift capacity and stable stall behavior make it ideal for light aircraft, training planes, and
small-scale UAVs, where low-speed flight and stable control are crucial. The airfoil's thicker design

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and gradual stall also make it a favorable choice for small wind turbines, where energy efficiency is
key for low-wind conditions. The insights gained from wind tunnel testing on the NACA 2424 are
essential for optimizing designs in both aviation and renewable energy sectors, ensuring reliable,
efficient, and stable performance.In conclusion, the NACA 2424 airfoil is a versatile and reliable
design that offers significant insights into aerodynamic behavior across various domains. Wind
tunnel testing plays a crucial role in validating airfoil performance, visualizing flow dynamics, and
providing engineers with valuable data for optimizing airfoils for specific applications. The
combination of theoretical understanding, CFD modeling, and empirical data from wind tunnel
experiments ensures that airfoils like the NACA 2424 continue to perform optimally in both
aeronautical engineering and renewable energy applications. By refining airfoil designs through a
combination of computational simulations and real-world testing, engineers can enhance the
aerodynamic efficiency, reliability, and sustainability of systems that rely on high-performance
airfoils.

7.7 Over view of the conclusion

1. The design and development of a scale model wind tunnel for studying the thermal effects on
aerodynamic performance shall demonstrated the importance of temperature in influencing
aerodynamic properties such as lift, drag, and stability.
2. The insights gained from these studies can guide future design considerations in the aerospace
industry, contributing to improved vehicle performance, safety, and efficiency in thermally
dynamic conditions.
3. Enhancement of Thermal Control Systems
4. Advanced Flow Visualization Techniques

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