Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025

CHAPTER 01

INTRODUCTION

In the aerospace industry, understanding how temperature fluctuations impact the performance
of vehicles is critical for optimizing designs and ensuring safe and efficient operation under
varying environmental conditions. Wind tunnel testing is a widely used method for evaluating
aerodynamic performance, but traditional wind tunnels often do not account for the thermal
effects that occur during flight or operation.

This project focuses on the design and development of a scale model wind tunnel that
incorporates thermal control mechanisms to simulate realistic thermal gradients and study their
impact on aerodynamic performance. By introducing a heating system capable of controlling
temperature within the test environment, this wind tunnel enables the analysis of how heat
affects airflow properties, surface temperature distribution, and aerodynamic forces such as
lift, drag, and stability.

The purpose of this wind tunnel is to provide a controlled platform for investigating the effects
of thermal variations on both subsonic and transonic aerodynamic regimes. Understanding the
interaction between heat and airflow is essential for improving the efficiency and reliability of
aerospace vehicles, including aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and other structures
subjected to dynamic thermal conditions.

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025

CHAPTER 02

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Wind Tunnel Tests of Wind Turbine Airfoils at High Reynolds Numbers:

Wind tunnel tests have been performed to measure the two-dimensional aerodynamic
characteristics of two different airfoil families at high Reynolds numbers (from 3 to 12
millions) in the DNW High Pressure Wind Tunnel in Gottingen (HDG), Germany. Also, tests
at a Reynolds number of 3 million have been performed in the Low-Speed Low Turbulence
Wind Tunnel of Delft University, The Netherlands. The airfoils tested belong to two wind
turbine dedicated families: the TU-Delft DU family and the ACCIONA Wind power AWA
family that was designed in collaboration with CENER. Reynolds number effects on airfoil
performance have been obtained in the range of 3 to 12 million. The availability of data from
two different wind tunnels has brought the opportunity to cross compare the results from the
two facilities.

2.2 Wind Tunnel Testing Airfoils at Low Reynolds Numbers:

This paper describes the wind tunnel testing methodology that has been applied to testing over
200 airfoils at low Reynolds numbers (40,000 to 500,000). The experiments were performed
in the 2.8×4.0 ft. (0.853×1.219 m) low-turbulence wind tunnel in the Subsonic Aerodynamics
Research Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC). The test
apparatus, methodology, and data reduction techniques are described in detail, and the
measurements are validated against benchmark data. New results on the AG455ct airfoil with
a large 30%-chord flap, deflected over a wide range, are presented. The results show a dramatic
increase in drag with higher flap deflections, and the flap efficiency reduces with large
deflections up to 40 deg. Also, tests on a flat-plate airfoil with leading edge serration
geometries were conducted to explore the effects on stall characteristics. The results support
the conclusions of other researchers that leading edge serrations (protuberances like those
found on the fins/flippers of some aquatic animals) lead to higher lift and softer stall. The
results suggest that these characteristics are accompanied by lower drag in the stall and post-
stall range.

2.3 CHARACTERIZATION AND LABORATORY SIMULATION OF TURBINE

AIRFOIL SURFACE ROUGHNESS AND ASSOCIATED HEAT TRANSFER.

The physical characteristics of surface roughness observed on 1st stage high pressure turbine
vanes which had been in service for a long period were investigated in this study. Profilometry
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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
measurements were utilized to provide details of the surface roughness formed by deposits of
foreign materials on different parts of the turbine vane. Typical measures of surface roughness
such as centreline average roughness values were shown to be inadequate for characterizing
roughness effects. Using a roughness shape parameter originally derived from regular
roughness arrays, the turbine airfoil roughness was characterized in terms of equivalent sand
grain roughness in order to develop an appropriate simulation of the surface for laboratory
experiments. Two rough surface test plates were designed and fabricated and these test plates
were evaluated experimentally to quantify the heat transfer rate for flow conditions similar to
that which occur on the turbine airfoil. Although the roughness levels on the two test plates
were different by a factor of two, both surfaces caused similar 50% increases in heat transfer
rates relative to a smooth ‘surface. The effects of high free-stream turbulence, with turbulence
levels from 10% to 17%, were also investigated. Combined free-stream turbulence and surface
roughness effects were found to be additive, resulting in as much as a 100% increase in heat
transfer rate.

2.4 Small-Scale Airfoil Aerodynamic Efficiency Improvement by Surface

Temperature and Heat Transfer

The improvement of aerodynamic efficiency of small-scale airfoils using surface temperature

and heat transfers investigated using numerical simulations, asymptotic analysis, and
experimental work. The basic idea is to take a direct advantage of heat transfer that dominates
microscale systems to enhance lift, reduce drag, and increase the envelope of operation of
airfoils. This is achieved by cooling the upper surface and heating the lower surface of the
airfoil. The numerical simulations show that, although varying surface temperature does not
produce sign cant impact at the full-scale (Reynolds numbers> 106), because the thickness of
the thermal boundary layer is very small compared to the airfoil chord, its effect is very
pronounced at the microscale, where the thermal and velocity boundary layers are larger. The
asymptotic theory demonstrates that most of the effect actually comes from the heat transfer
in the much smaller nose region of the small-scale airfoil. The experimental apparatus consists
of a micro rotor system that uses the Peltier effect to produce different temperatures on the
surfaces of the blades. The experimental measurements show good agreement with numerical
predictions.

2.5 Design and performance of a small-scale aeroacoustics wind tunnel

The D5 aeroacoustics wind tunnel at Beijing University is a newly built facility designed to
study both the aerodynamic and acoustic properties of aircraft parts or models. It’s a small-
scale, closed-circuit wind tunnel with very low turbulence and background noise, which is
crucial for testing in these fields.

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
There are two different types of test sections in the wind tunnel: a closed-type test section used
for studying aerodynamics (airflow behaviour) and an open-type test section used primarily
for studying aeroacoustics (noise generated by the airflow). Both sections are the same size—
1-meter-tall and 1-meter-wide—and they can handle wind speeds of up to 80 meters per
second.

Surrounding the test sections is an anechoic chamber, which is designed to eliminate sound
reflections and create an environment suitable for precise acoustic measurements.

The paper discusses the design process and the specific features included to improve both
aerodynamic and acoustic performance. The authors conducted tests to verify the wind
tunnel’s performance, and the results showed that the turbulence intensity inside the core of
the test section is under 0.08%, which is very low. The background noise level is also in line
with what’s expected in other wind tunnels built for aeroacoustics experiments.

As part of the testing, a simplified model of a nose landing gear was used as a benchmark. The
test results showed that the noise generated by the model was significantly higher than the
background noise across a wide range of frequencies, and the data closely matched previous
studies published in the literature.

2.6 Small-Scale Wind Turbine Testing in Wind Tunnels Under Low Reynolds
Number Conditions

When designing wind turbines, a lot of the aerodynamic work is done using computer
programs like XFOIL. However, these tools often struggle to predict the performance of small-
scale wind turbines because they aren't reliable enough at the low Reynolds numbers that these
turbines operate at.

To overcome this challenge, wind tunnels are used for experimental testing. In these wind
tunnels, researchers can measure the lift and drag forces on wind turbine airfoils (the blades
of the turbine) at the low Reynolds numbers that are typical for small-scale turbines. This gives
accurate, real-world data that can’t always be predicted by computational methods.

Additionally, wind tunnels can test entire small wind turbine systems to see how they perform
overall. For small-scale turbines, having high-quality experimental data on airfoil performance
at the right Reynolds numbers is essential for designing efficient turbines and accurately
predicting how much power they will generate.

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025

CHAPTER 03

METHADOLOGY

• The wind tunnel is at low speed, an open kind of test section. The test section frame is
made up of fiberglass.
EXISTING
CONDITION
• Entrance, contraction, test section and diffuser

•Materials
•Changing existing material.
NECESSARY
REFINEMENTS
•Introducing thermometer and hot air gun.

•Types of materials
•Properties.
SELECTION •Required dimensions.( Upper and lower surface : 100mm breadth , 210mm length) (side
OF surfaces : 200mm length, 150mm height)
MATERIALS

MODIFICATI • Modifying the test section with selected materials as per our requirements.
ON

•Testing the airfoil at different temperatures.

TESTING

•Visualizing the flow pattern with the smoke flow.

FLOW
ANALYSIS/ •Calculating the aerodynamic efficiency over different temperatures.
VISUALISATIO
N

Fig 01

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
3.1 EXISTING CONDITION

In a low-speed wind tunnel with an open-type test section, the design of the tunnel is structured
to ensure smooth airflow and accurate testing conditions.

 Entrance: This is the point where the air enters the wind tunnel. The air typically comes
from a fan or blower and needs to be directed smoothly into the system. The entrance
design ensures the air flows without turbulence or interruptions, which could affect test
results.
 Contraction: After the entrance, the tunnel has a contraction section. This part of the
wind tunnel narrows as it leads toward the test section. The purpose of the contraction
is to increase the wind speed while maintaining smooth airflow, as the air is forced
through a smaller opening. This helps achieve the desired speed and flow conditions for
testing.
 Test Section: The test section is the area where the actual experiments are conducted.
It's where models (like aircraft parts or wind turbine blades) are placed to measure
aerodynamic properties. In this case, the test section is open, meaning it isn’t fully
enclosed, and air flows through it directly. The test section needs to have steady,
uniform airflow for accurate data collection.
 Diffuser: After the test section, the diffuser is the part of the wind tunnel that widens
again. Its role is to slow down the air and reduce the pressure as the airflow exits the
test section. The diffuser helps to guide the air smoothly out of the tunnel without
creating turbulence or disturbing the test conditions.

The frame of the test section is made of fiberglass, which is a lightweight, durable material
that can handle the wind tunnel's airflow while keeping the structure stable and resistant to
vibrations or other disturbances.

3.2 NECESSARY REFINEMENTS

Changing Existing Material:

Changing materials in the wind tunnel, especially in the test section, refers to modifying or
upgrading the materials used to construct parts of the tunnel. For instance, if the current
material in the test section frame, walls, or floor is not performing well in terms of durability,
airflow smoothness, or resistance to wear, it may be replaced with a more suitable material.

For example:

 Fiberglass might be swapped for a stronger or more heat-resistant material if the wind
tunnel tests involve higher temperatures or if there is a need to reduce vibrations for
better data accuracy.
 Smooth surfaces are crucial for reducing drag and turbulence during tests, so materials
that create less friction might be preferred.

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering, AIT, Banglore
Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
Changing materials could also help in minimizing noise or ensuring that the test section
maintains its intended aerodynamic properties over time.

Introducing Thermometer:

A thermometer in the wind tunnel’s test section is essential for measuring the temperature of
the air flowing through it. Temperature can affect air density and, consequently, the results of
aerodynamic testing.

For instance:

 In low-speed wind tunnels, the air's temperature must be monitored because the density
of air changes with temperature, which influences lift, drag, and overall performance of
the tested models.
 In some wind tunnel setups, the temperature might be deliberately controlled or varied
to study how a model behaves under different thermal conditions (for example, testing
at cold or hot temperatures to simulate real-world conditions).

The thermometer ensures that accurate, consistent conditions are maintained throughout the
test, which is crucial for the reliability of the data.

Introducing Hot Air Gun:

A hot air gun in a wind tunnel test section might be used to heat the airflow deliberately. This
can serve several purposes:

 Simulating real-world conditions: Some wind tunnel tests might require simulating
higher temperatures, such as those encountered at higher altitudes or in specific
climates. The hot air gun can raise the temperature of the air in the test section to match
these conditions.
 Changing the air's properties: Heating the air changes its density and viscosity, which
can affect the aerodynamic performance of the model being tested. Using a hot air gun
allows for a more controlled way of altering the air's properties, helping to understand
how the model behaves under different conditions.
 Preventing condensation: In some cases, especially when moisture is present, a hot air
gun can help avoid condensation on the model, which could otherwise interfere with
measurements and the overall test.

By introducing both a thermometer and a hot air gun, the wind tunnel becomes more adaptable
and capable of testing models under various temperature conditions, giving a better
understanding of how the model will perform in different real-world environments.

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
3.3 SELECTION OF MATERIALS

When selecting materials for a wind tunnel test section, different types of materials are chosen
based on their properties and the specific needs of the wind tunnel's design and testing
requirements.

Types of Materials:

In wind tunnel test sections, materials are selected based on factors like durability, smoothness,
and resistance to heat or vibrations. Common materials used include:

3.3.1 Fiberglass: Often used in the frame and walls due to its lightweight, strong, and
durable nature. It’s resistant to environmental factors and helps maintain smooth airflow.

3.3.2 Aluminium: Sometimes used in the construction of parts of the test section because
of its lightweight and strength. Aluminium is also easy to work with and resists corrosion.

3.3.3 Acrylic or Polycarbonate: Transparent materials may be used for parts where
visual observation of the model is required. These materials are smooth and
help ensure that airflow is maintained without disruptions.

3.3.4 Steel or Stainless Steel: Used for parts requiring more strength or heat resistance,
particularly in areas where airflow speed and temperature may fluctuate.

Properties:

The materials selected for the wind tunnel test section need to have certain properties:

 Smoothness: The inner surfaces of the test section should be smooth to minimize air
turbulence, which can distort test results.
 Strength and Durability: The material must be strong enough to withstand the forces
of high-speed air and any mechanical stresses during testing.
 Heat Resistance: In some wind tunnel tests, the air might be heated using a hot air gun
or other methods, so materials need to resist thermal expansion or degradation at higher
temperatures.
 Low Vibration and Noise: The materials should reduce vibrations and noise, ensuring
that test results are accurate and unaffected by external disturbances.
 Lightweight: The test section frame and parts should be as lightweight as possible to
reduce the load on the overall system while maintaining structural integrity.

Required Dimensions:

For a typical wind tunnel test section, the following dimensions are specified for different
surfaces:

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
a. Upper and Lower Surfaces:
o Breadth: 100 mm
o Length: 210 mm These dimensions describe the size of the top and bottom parts
of the test section. The 100 mm breadth is the width of the test section, while the
210 mm length is how long the surface stretches.
b. Side Surfaces:
o Length: 200 mm
o Height: 150 mm These measurements apply to the side walls of the test section.
The length (200 mm) refers to the side surface’s stretch along the flow direction,
and the height (150 mm) is the vertical dimension of the test section.

These specific dimensions ensure that the test section is sized appropriately for the experiments
being conducted and the models being tested. They also help maintain consistent airflow and
provide enough space for models to be placed while still ensuring that the tunnel can operate
effectively.

3.4 MODIFICATION

Modifying the test section of the wind tunnel with selected materials, based on the previous
data (dimensions and properties), involves adjusting the construction and material choices to
meet the specific needs of the experiments you intend to conduct. Here’s how the modification
process can be explained:

To modify the test section effectively, we need to ensure that the materials chosen meet the
requirements for smooth airflow, durability, heat resistance, and minimal turbulence. Based
on the data, here are the steps to follow:

 Upper and Lower Surfaces (100 mm breadth, 210 mm length): These surfaces
directly interact with the airflow. Since these surfaces will see the most air movement,
selecting fiberglass or smooth acrylic could be ideal. These materials are smooth,
durable, and will help maintain low turbulence, ensuring that airflow remains consistent
during tests.
o Fiberglass: A popular choice for its strength, lightness, and ability to maintain
structural integrity while being smooth enough to avoid disrupting the airflow.
It’s also easy to shape for precision.
o Acrylic or Polycarbonate: If visibility into the test section is needed or if the
wind tunnel needs to be clear for monitoring the experiment, acrylic or
polycarbonate could be used, offering both transparency and smoothness.
 Side Surfaces (200 mm length, 150 mm height): The side walls need to be made of
materials that support the structural integrity of the test section while minimizing sound
and vibrations. Aluminium or fiberglass are good options for these surfaces.
o Aluminium: Light but strong, making it a good choice for the side surfaces. It
would maintain the strength required to withstand the pressures inside the test
section without adding excessive weight.

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
o Fiberglass: Also a great choice for side walls, as it provides durability, reduces
vibration, and maintains airflow stability.

3.4.1. Improving Aerodynamic Performance:

The test section must have smooth, consistent surfaces to minimize drag, turbulence, and
vibrations in the airflow. By using materials such as fiberglass for both the upper and lower
surfaces, and potentially acrylic or polycarbonate for visibility, the smoothness of the test
section can be enhanced. This ensures that the airflow remains steady and controlled during
testing.

3.4.2. Heat Resistance:

If the tests involve heating the air (using a hot air gun or other methods), the materials selected
need to handle changes in temperature. For instance, fiberglass and aluminium are both heat-
resistant and would perform well when subjected to temperature variations. This is particularly
important for ensuring the integrity of the test section and preventing deformation or
breakdown of the materials under higher temperatures.

3.4.3. Modifying for Low Turbulence and Noise:

Using fiberglass for the construction of the frame and other components can significantly
reduce unwanted vibrations and noise. This will result in a quieter test environment, which is
crucial for conducting precise aerodynamic and aeroacoustics tests. The smooth surfaces of
materials like acrylic will also help in reducing turbulence.

3.4.4. Adjusting the Test Section Layout:

Now that we know the specific dimensions of the test section (100 mm breadth, 210 mm length
for the top and bottom surfaces, and 200 mm length, 150 mm height for the sides), these
measurements can be factored into the design of the tunnel to ensure that the materials fit
correctly and support the desired airflow.

The materials used for these sections must be precisely cut and shaped to match the required
dimensions. This ensures that the test section maintains its intended geometry for accurate
testing. For example, fiberglass panels can be custom-formed to fit these dimensions, creating
smooth and uniform surfaces for the airflow.

Final Modifications:

 The upper and lower surfaces would be made from smooth fiberglass or acrylic to
enhance the airflow while maintaining the desired dimensions of 100 mm by 210 mm.
 The side walls would likely use aluminium or fiberglass, with dimensions of 200 mm
in length and 150 mm in height, providing the necessary strength and smoothness for
the test section.
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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
 Thermometers and hot air guns can be incorporated into the modified setup to
measure and control the air temperature during the tests.

By selecting and modifying the materials based on these requirements, the wind tunnel test
section will be better suited to accurately test aerodynamic properties and provide valuable
data while maintaining controlled conditions for low turbulence and minimal noise.

3.5 TESTING

Testing an airfoil at different temperatures in a wind tunnel is a valuable process for

understanding how temperature variations affect the aerodynamic performance of the airfoil.
Temperature plays a significant role in the properties of air, such as its density and viscosity,
which in turn influence the airfoil’s lift, drag, and overall performance.

3.5.1. Impact of Temperature on Air Properties:

Air density and viscosity are both temperature-dependent:

 Air Density: As the temperature increases, air density decreases. This is because
warmer air molecules move faster and are more spread out, which reduces the overall
mass of air in a given volume. Lower air density can reduce the lift generated by an
airfoil because there are fewer air molecules interacting with the airfoil.
 Air Viscosity: The viscosity of air also increases with temperature. Higher viscosity
means the air resists flow more, which could impact the airflow around the airfoil,
affecting drag forces.

By testing at different temperatures, we can see how the airfoil performs under conditions that
mimic various environments, such as high-altitude or high-temperature conditions.

3.5.2. How Temperature Affects Airfoil Performance:

Testing the airfoil at different temperatures helps simulate various real-world conditions:

 Cold Conditions: At lower temperatures (like those at higher altitudes), air is denser.
This increases the lift generated by the airfoil, as there are more air molecules for the
airfoil to interact with. However, the viscosity is lower, which may reduce drag slightly.
 Hot Conditions: At higher temperatures (like those in hot climates), air becomes less
dense, which can reduce the lift produced by the airfoil. The lower air density also
reduces the efficiency of the airfoil in generating power (in the case of wind turbines,
for example). Higher viscosity at hot temperatures might also increase drag and
resistance.

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
3.5.3. How Wind Tunnel Temperature Control Works:

In a wind tunnel, the temperature of the air can be controlled using tools like hot air guns,
heaters, or cooling systems:

 Hot Air Gun/Heaters: These are used to raise the temperature of the air flowing
through the test section. By adjusting the hot air flow, the temperature can be carefully
controlled to simulate hot environmental conditions.
 Cooling Systems: If cold conditions need to be tested, the wind tunnel may be equipped
with cooling systems that lower the temperature of the air, simulating colder conditions
like those found at high altitudes or in polar regions.

3.5.4. Experimental Setup for Temperature Variation:

To test an airfoil at different temperatures, the wind tunnel setup would follow these steps:

 Initial Setup: Set up the airfoil in the test section of the wind tunnel, ensuring that it is
properly mounted and aligned.
 Temperature Adjustment: Use the hot air gun or cooling system to adjust the air
temperature to the desired level for the first test (e.g., a higher temperature to simulate
hot conditions).
 Flow and Data Collection: Start the wind tunnel and monitor the airflow around the
airfoil. Measure key aerodynamic parameters like lift, drag, and pressure distribution.
 Repeat at Different Temperatures: Change the temperature to another value (e.g., a
cooler temperature) and repeat the tests to collect data at different thermal conditions.
The wind tunnel’s thermometer will help track and maintain consistent air temperatures
throughout the experiment.
 Data Analysis: Compare the results from the different temperature settings. This will
show how temperature affects the airfoil’s performance, providing insights into how it
will perform in various real-world environments.

3.5.5. Why It’s Important:

Testing an airfoil at different temperatures allows engineers to understand the temperature-

dependent behaviour of the airfoil. For example:

 In aviation, understanding how an airfoil behaves in both hot and cold conditions can
help design wings that perform optimally at various altitudes and climates.
 For wind turbines, it’s important to know how temperature impacts the efficiency of the
blades. Testing across different temperature conditions helps ensure the blades perform
well under different environmental scenarios.

Testing the airfoil at different temperatures in the wind tunnel gives engineers a detailed
understanding of how temperature influences airfoil performance. This helps improve design

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
accuracy, ensuring that airfoils work efficiently under the full range of possible environmental
conditions they might encounter in real-world applications.

3.6 FLOW ANALYSIS/ VISUALISATION

3.6.1. Visualizing the Flow Pattern with Smoke Flow:

In a wind tunnel, one effective way to visualize airflow around an airfoil or model is by using
smoke flow visualization. This method helps engineers and researchers observe how air
moves over and around the object being tested, providing insight into flow separation,
turbulence, and other aerodynamic phenomena.

How Smoke Flow Visualization Works:

 Smoke Injection: Smoke or a similar smoke-like substance is introduced into the

airflow through a controlled source, such as a smoke generator or a fog machine. The
smoke is injected into the airflow just before it reaches the model, ensuring it flows over
the surface of the object in a controlled manner.
 Observation: As the air flows over the model, the smoke moves along with it. This
allows you to see how the airflow interacts with the model, showing areas where the air
flows smoothly, where it separates, and where turbulence occurs. You can use high-
speed cameras or visual sensors to capture the movement of the smoke.
 Flow Patterns:
o Laminar Flow: In some regions, the smoke will flow smoothly, following the
surface of the model. This indicates laminar flow, which is desirable for
aerodynamic efficiency because it reduces drag.
o Turbulent Flow: In other regions, the smoke might show swirling or chaotic
patterns, indicating turbulence. Turbulence increases drag and can reduce the
efficiency of the object.
o Flow Separation: If the smoke starts to detach from the surface of the model,
this indicates flow separation. This typically leads to a significant increase in drag
and can affect the performance of the airfoil or model.

By observing these smoke patterns, engineers can adjust the design of the model, such as the
shape of the airfoil or the placement of surfaces, to optimize the airflow and reduce unwanted
turbulence.

3.6.2. Calculating Aerodynamic Efficiency Over Different Temperatures:

Aerodynamic efficiency measures how well an object produces lift while minimizing drag. In
the context of wind tunnel testing at different temperatures, the aerodynamic efficiency can be
affected by the changes in air density and viscosity with temperature. To calculate the

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
efficiency, we typically look at the lift-to-drag ratio (L/D), which is a common indicator of
aerodynamic performance.

How Aerodynamic Efficiency is Calculated:

The aerodynamic efficiency is commonly represented by the lift-to-drag ratio (L/D), which
is given by:

L/D ratio= Lift Force (L)

Drag Force (D)

Where:

 Lift Force (L) is the upward force generated by the airfoil due to the pressure difference
between the upper and lower surfaces.
 Drag Force (D) is the resistance faced by the airfoil due to friction and pressure
differences as the air moves over it.

Effect of Temperature on Aerodynamic Efficiency:

Temperature affects both air density and air viscosity, which in turn impact the lift and drag
forces acting on the model.

a. At Higher Temperatures:
o Air density decreases, which reduces the lift generated by the airfoil. Less dense
air provides fewer air molecules to interact with the airfoil, which results in
reduced lift.
o Air viscosity increases, which can cause more drag because the air resists
movement more at higher temperatures. This increases the drag force acting on
the model.
o Overall, the L/D ratio decreases, meaning the aerodynamic efficiency might
decrease at higher temperatures due to lower lift and higher drag.
b. At Lower Temperatures:
o Air density increases, which means there are more air molecules to interact with
the airfoil, increasing lift.
o Air viscosity decreases, leading to lower drag. Less viscous air creates less
resistance against the airfoil.
o As a result, the L/D ratio increases, meaning the aerodynamic efficiency
improves at lower temperatures because of higher lift and lower drag.

Experimental Calculation:

To calculate aerodynamic efficiency at different temperatures:

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Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
 Step 1: Conduct the wind tunnel tests at various temperatures, using either a hot air
gun to increase the temperature or cooling systems to reduce the temperature.
 Step 2: Measure the lift and drag forces at each temperature, using force sensors placed
on the model.
 Step 3: Use the formula for the L/D ratio to calculate the aerodynamic efficiency for
each temperature setting.
 Example:
o At a lower temperature (say 10°C), you might find that the lift is 50 N and the
drag is 5 N, so the L/D ratio is 50/5=10
o At a higher temperature (say 40°C), the lift might decrease to 45 N and the drag
might increase to 7 N, so the L/D ratio is 45/7=6.43

In this case, the aerodynamic efficiency at the lower temperature is higher, meaning the airfoil
performs better in cooler conditions.

3.7 Conclusion

Wind tunnel testing is a fundamental tool for understanding and optimizing the aerodynamic
and aeroacoustics performance of various components, such as airfoils, aircraft models, and
wind turbines. One of the most valuable techniques in these tests is smoke flow visualization,
which enables engineers to directly observe the airflow around a model. By introducing smoke
into the airflow, engineers can visually track how air moves over the surfaces of the model,
revealing crucial information about flow patterns, turbulence, and potential areas where
airflow separation might occur. Smooth flow indicates laminar conditions, while swirling,
chaotic smoke patterns suggest turbulence. These insights are critical in refining designs to
minimize drag and improve lift, both essential for enhancing the aerodynamic performance of
the tested model.

In addition to smoke flow visualization, testing at different temperatures provides another layer
of understanding. Temperature has a significant impact on the properties of air, such as density
and viscosity, which in turn affects the aerodynamic forces acting on the model. At higher
temperatures, air density decreases, reducing lift, while air viscosity increases, raising drag.
Lower temperatures, on the other hand, increase air density, resulting in higher lift, and
decrease viscosity, reducing drag. These changes in lift and drag directly influence the lift-to-
drag ratio (L/D), a key indicator of aerodynamic efficiency. Generally, lower temperatures
lead to improved efficiency, as the air is denser and offers less resistance.

The lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) is crucial for evaluating aerodynamic performance. By measuring
lift and drag forces at various temperatures, engineers can calculate the L/D ratio and
determine the overall efficiency of the airfoil or model under different environmental
conditions. For example, testing an airfoil at higher temperatures may show a decrease in lift
and an increase in drag, leading to a lower L/D ratio. Conversely, at lower temperatures, an
increase in lift and a decrease in drag may result in a higher L/D ratio, demonstrating better
aerodynamic efficiency.

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This ability to manipulate and measure aerodynamic forces at different temperatures is
invaluable for applications where environmental conditions vary. For instance, aircraft must
perform well at high altitudes, where temperatures are colder and air density is lower, while
wind turbines must operate efficiently in both hot and cold climates. By understanding how
temperature affects the airflow, engineers can design airfoils, wings, or turbine blades that
perform optimally in a variety of conditions.

Furthermore, the ability to visualize flow patterns with smoke and analyze aerodynamic
efficiency under different temperature conditions is essential for improving the overall design
process. It allows engineers to predict how a component will behave in real-world scenarios
and make informed design choices that enhance performance, reduce energy loss, and ensure
the reliability of the system. Whether for aviation, automotive design, or renewable energy,
this approach provides critical data to optimize performance and increase the efficiency of
engineered systems.

Wind tunnel testing using techniques like smoke flow visualization and temperature variation
offers a comprehensive method to study and improve aerodynamic performance. By
understanding how temperature influences the airflow around a model, engineers can optimize
the design for better efficiency and reliability across different environmental conditions. This
testing methodology not only aids in the development of more efficient airfoils and wings but
also contributes to broader advancements in aerodynamics, enhancing the performance of
systems such as aircraft, wind turbines, and other aerospace applications.

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CHAPTER 4

AIRFOIL

Fig 02

4.1 Introduction

The NACA 2424 airfoil is a part of the NACA 4-digit airfoil series developed by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the precursor to NASA. This family of airfoils
was designed for specific aerodynamic needs, offering a balanced blend of lift and drag
characteristics suited for various aircraft and systems. In this document, we will explore the
fundamental design, aerodynamic properties, performance data, applications, and testing
results of the NACA 2424 airfoil in detail.

4.1.1. NACA 2424 Airfoil Design Characteristics

The NACA 2424 is a 4-digit series airfoil, and its numeric code provides detailed information
about its design. The code "2424" breaks down as follows:

 2: The maximum camber (curvature of the airfoil's upper surface) is 2% of the chord
length.
 4: The maximum camber occurs at 40% of the chord length from the leading edge.
 24: The thickness of the airfoil is 24% of the chord length.

These values are essential because they directly influence the aerodynamic performance of the
airfoil, specifically its lift and drag characteristics, stall behavior, and suitability for different
applications.

Airfoil Geometry:

 Chord Length (C): The reference length of the airfoil from the leading edge to the
trailing edge.
 Camber: A smooth curve along the upper surface of the airfoil, contributing to lift
generation.
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 Thickness: The vertical distance between the upper and lower surfaces, which plays a
role in aerodynamic performance and structural strength.

The NACA 2424 has a relatively thick profile compared to many other airfoils in the NACA
4-digit series. This thickness helps it generate more lift, making it suitable for low-speed, high-
lift applications like takeoff and landing, while also providing structural stability.

4.1.2. Aerodynamic Characteristics of the NACA 2424 Airfoil

The aerodynamic performance of an airfoil is evaluated based on parameters such as lift

coefficient (Cl), drag coefficient (Cd), stability characteristics, and stall behaviour. These
properties are measured in wind tunnel tests or through computational methods like
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The NACA 2424 airfoil is primarily designed for low-
speed applications but performs reasonably well in a broader range of conditions.

a. Lift and Drag Characteristics:

 Lift Coefficient (Cl): The lift coefficient defines the lift force generated by the airfoil
relative to the dynamic pressure of the flow and the surface area of the airfoil.
o At low angles of attack (0–5°), the lift coefficient increases steadily. The NACA
2424 generates more lift than many thinner airfoils due to its thicker profile.
o At higher angles of attack, the lift coefficient continues to rise until the airfoil
reaches the stall angle (around 15–18°), at which point the airfoil experiences a
sharp loss in lift.
 Drag Coefficient (Cd): The drag coefficient quantifies the resistance that the airfoil
experiences as it moves through the air.
o At low angles of attack, drag is relatively low due to smooth airflow over the
airfoil’s surface.
o As the angle of attack increases, drag increases because the airflow starts to
separate from the surface, especially in the wake region, leading to higher
pressure drag and skin friction.

b. Stall Characteristics:

 The NACA 2424 airfoil exhibits a gradual stall behaviour. At low angles of attack, it
maintains smooth, laminar flow. As the angle of attack increases, the airfoil generates
lift efficiently, but once it exceeds the critical angle, the flow over the airfoil starts to
separate, causing a stall.
 The stall is gradual, which is generally advantageous because it provides a more
predictable loss of lift, unlike sharp, sudden stalls seen in other thinner airfoils.

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c. Maximum Lift and Drag:

 The maximum lift coefficient (Clmax) for the NACA 2424 is typically 1.4 to 1.6,
depending on the Reynolds number and flow conditions. This is relatively high
compared to thinner airfoils and demonstrates the airfoil's high-lift capability.
 The drag coefficient (Cd) is moderate but increases significantly near stall conditions.
For example, drag can reach 0.1 to 0.2 at angles approaching the stall angle.

4.1.3. Performance Data for the NACA 2424 Airfoil

The performance of an airfoil like the NACA 2424 is often summarized using various
aerodynamic parameters such as lift-to-drag ratio (L/D), Reynolds number dependence, and
angle of attack. These factors dictate how the airfoil will perform in real-world scenarios.

Lift-to-Drag Ratio (L/D):

 The L/D ratio is one of the most important indicators of an airfoil’s efficiency. It gives
a measure of the lift generated relative to the drag experienced.
o At moderate angles of attack (5° to 8°), the L/D ratio can be quite high, often in
the range of 15:1 to 20:1 for the NACA 2424.
o This ratio decreases significantly as the airfoil approaches stall due to the
increased drag from flow separation.

Reynolds Number Sensitivity:

 Reynolds number (Re) plays a crucial role in determining the behaviour of airflow over
the airfoil. At low Reynolds numbers (typically below 1 x 10^6), the NACA 2424
experiences higher drag due to flow separation and the inability to maintain smooth,
laminar flow. The thicker airfoil profile leads to a more significant impact at lower
Reynolds numbers.
 At higher Reynolds numbers, the airfoil performs better as the flow remains more
attached to the surface, reducing drag and increasing lift. This makes the NACA 2424 a
good choice for applications where airspeed is relatively high.

Angle of Attack (AOA) and Stall:

 At AOA between 0° to 5°, the lift increases as the angle increases, reaching its peak lift
coefficient at around 5° to 10°.
 At AOA beyond 10°, the airfoil still generates lift, but the rate of increase begins to
slow. Beyond 15°, flow separation becomes more prominent, and the airfoil reaches its
stall point, causing a sharp loss of lift and a rapid increase in drag.

Typical Performance Data (at Re = 5 x 10^5, and Mach < 0.3):

 Cl (Lift Coefficient) at 0° AOA: ~0.2

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 Cl (Lift Coefficient) at 5° AOA: ~1.2
 Cl (Lift Coefficient) at 10° AOA: ~1.4
 Cl (Lift Coefficient) at 15° AOA: ~1.6
 Cd (Drag Coefficient) at 5° AOA: ~0.04
 Cd (Drag Coefficient) at 10° AOA: ~0.08
 L/D ratio at 5° AOA: ~18:1
 L/D ratio at 10° AOA: ~12:1

4.1.4. Applications of the NACA 2424 Airfoil

The NACA 2424 airfoil is widely used in applications where high lift is necessary at low
speeds. Its relatively thick profile and moderate camber make it an ideal choice for aircraft that
require good low-speed handling and takeoff/landing performance. Some of the typical
applications include:

a. General Aviation Aircraft:

 The NACA 2424 is commonly found in trainer aircraft and light aircraft. It provides
good takeoff and landing performance with high lift at low speeds.
 Aircraft like the Cessna 172 (which uses similar airfoil profiles) benefit from the high
lift characteristics of thicker airfoils like the NACA 2424, particularly in short takeoff
and landing (STOL) operations.

b. Model Aircraft:

 In the realm of RC (remote-controlled) aircraft, the NACA 2424 is frequently chosen

for training or sport models because of its forgiving stall characteristics and high lift
capability at low speeds.

c. Wind Turbine Blades:

 The NACA 2424 is also suitable for small-scale wind turbines where high-lift conditions
and stable performance at lower wind speeds are essential. Its aerodynamic properties
allow for efficient energy conversion in low-speed wind environments.

d. UAVs and Slow-Speed Aircraft:

 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or slow-speed reconnaissance aircraft that need high
manoeuvrability and control at lower airspeeds often use thicker airfoils like the NACA
2424.

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4.1.5. Testing and Analysis of the NACA 2424 Airfoil

The performance of the NACA 2424 airfoil has been extensively studied through both
computational methods (such as CFD) and wind tunnel testing. Some key results from
experimental tests are:

 Wind Tunnel Testing: Empirical data from wind tunnel experiments confirm the high-
lift performance of the NACA 2424, especially at low angles of attack. The airfoil
demonstrates a gradual stall behaviour and maintains a good lift-to-drag ratio at
moderate angles.
 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations are often used to analyse the flow
characteristics around the NACA 2424, especially its boundary layer development,
separation points, and drag behaviour. These simulations help engineers optimize the
airfoil for specific applications.

The NACA 2424 airfoil remains one of the most widely used airfoils in general aviation, model
aircraft, and wind turbine applications due to its high-lift capabilities and gradual stall
characteristics. Despite its relatively thick profile, it performs efficiently in low-speed
environments where high lift is required. Its moderate drag and good lift-to-drag ratio make it
suitable for a variety of applications that require predictable stall behaviour and
manoeuvrability at low speeds. Understanding its performance at different Reynolds numbers
and angles of attack is essential for optimizing its use in engineering and design projects.

4.2 Airflow Over NACA 2424 Airfoil

Fig 03

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Understanding the airflow over the NACA 2424 airfoil is crucial for evaluating its
aerodynamic performance. The airflow around an airfoil is responsible for the lift and drag
characteristics that define the airfoil's behavior under different flight conditions. To understand
the aerodynamics of the NACA 2424, we will explore the flow patterns, pressure distribution,
boundary layer behavior, and how these factors influence its performance.

4.2.1. General Flow Characteristics

The NACA 2424 airfoil, like any other airfoil, experiences airflow that can be divided into
two main regions:

 Leading Edge Flow: As air flows towards the leading edge, it encounters the airfoil
surface and begins to accelerate over the curved upper surface due to the camber. The
camber of the NACA 2424 airfoil (2% of the chord length) means that the upper surface
is curved, which causes the air to speed up as it flows over it. This speed increase creates
a low-pressure zone above the airfoil, contributing to lift generation.
 Lower Surface Flow: The lower surface of the airfoil is typically flatter compared to the
upper surface. This surface experiences less curvature, so the air does not accelerate as
much as it does on the upper surface, creating a higher-pressure zone on the lower side
of the airfoil. The pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces results in
lift.
 Trailing Edge Flow: At the trailing edge, the air from both the upper and lower surfaces
recombine, which can lead to a wake region. The wake is an area of turbulent flow
where the air has separated from the surface and swirls behind the airfoil, contributing
to drag.

4.2.2. Pressure Distribution

The pressure distribution over the NACA 2424 airfoil varies with the angle of attack (AOA),
and it is crucial for determining the lift and drag characteristics.

 Upper Surface: At low angles of attack, the airflow over the upper surface is smooth,
and the air accelerates as it follows the curvature of the airfoil. This results in a low-
pressure region forming over the upper surface. The pressure decreases as the air speeds
up, contributing to lift generation. As the angle of attack increases, the pressure gradient
becomes more pronounced, leading to a stronger lift force until the airfoil reaches its
stall angle, where the flow over the upper surface begins to separate, causing a sharp
loss in lift.
 Lower Surface: The lower surface experiences a higher pressure compared to the upper
surface because the air does not accelerate as much. At low angles of attack, the
difference between the upper and lower surface pressures is not very large, but it
increases with higher angles of attack. At high angles of attack, the pressure on the lower
surface remains higher, but the separation of flow on the upper surface contributes to a
loss of lift.

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 Flow Separation and Stall: As the angle of attack increases, the boundary layer of air
near the surface of the airfoil begins to separate. This separation leads to turbulent,
chaotic flow patterns that reduce the effective aerodynamic surface area, resulting in
loss of lift (stall). The NACA 2424, being a relatively thick airfoil with moderate
camber, stalls gradually, making it more forgiving than thinner airfoils.

4.2.3. Boundary Layer Behavior

The boundary layer is the thin layer of air close to the surface of the airfoil, where the effects
of viscosity (friction between air and surface) are most significant.

 Laminar Flow: At low angles of attack and moderate speeds, the boundary layer remains
laminar (smooth) along most of the upper surface. In this case, the air flows smoothly
over the airfoil, generating lower drag and efficient lift.
 Turbulent Flow: As the angle of attack increases, the boundary layer transitions from
laminar to turbulent. This transition can cause a delayed flow separation near the trailing
edge, but once the separation occurs, the wake increases, contributing to higher drag
and loss of lift.

The NACA 2424 is relatively thick, which allows for greater tolerances to turbulent flow. The
thicker airfoil helps keep the flow attached for higher angles of attack compared to thinner
airfoils, making it more stable and less prone to sudden stall.

4.2.4. Flow Visualization Techniques

Flow visualization techniques are used to understand the nature of the airflow over the NACA
2424. Some common techniques include:

 Smoke Flow: Smoke visualization is often used in wind tunnel testing to study the flow
patterns around an airfoil. Smoke injected into the airflow will trace the streamlines of
the flow, revealing the boundary layer, separation points, and wake regions. For the
NACA 2424, the flow visualization typically shows the smooth acceleration of airflow
over the upper surface at low angles of attack and the onset of flow separation as the
angle increases.
 Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV): PIV is a more advanced technique that uses laser
sheets to capture the movement of particles in the air. This technique provides precise
data on the velocity and direction of airflow at different points over the airfoil, helping
researchers analyze the turbulent regions, boundary layer behavior, and wake formation
in more detail.

4.2.5. Flow Patterns at Different Angles of Attack

The airflow characteristics of the NACA 2424 vary significantly with changes in the angle of
attack (AOA). Here’s an overview of how the flow patterns change:

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At Low Angles of Attack (0° to 5°):

 At these low angles, the flow over the NACA 2424 is smooth and attached to the surface,
with laminar boundary layers over both the upper and lower surfaces.
 The lift is moderate, and the drag is relatively low. The pressure difference between the
upper and lower surfaces is small but still enough to generate lift.
 Separation does not occur at these angles, and the airfoil experiences efficient
aerodynamic performance.

At Moderate Angles of Attack (5° to 10°):

 The airfoil generates a significant amount of lift, and the pressure difference between
the upper and lower surfaces increases. The boundary layer may transition from laminar
to turbulent in some regions.
 The lift-to-drag ratio is still favorable, but the drag begins to increase as the flow starts
to experience some separation near the trailing edge.
 The stability is good, and the stall characteristics are still far from occurring.

At High Angles of Attack (10° to 18°):

 As the angle of attack increases, the airfoil generates maximum lift. However, the flow
over the upper surface begins to separate earlier.
 Separation zones grow, particularly near the leading edge at high angles. The boundary
layer is turbulent, and the flow in the wake becomes more disordered, leading to
increased drag.
 The stall begins to occur at these angles, and the airfoil may experience a significant
drop in lift due to large-scale flow separation.

At Stall (Beyond 18° AOA):

 At very high angles of attack, the flow separation is extensive. The wake becomes
turbulent, and the airfoil experiences a large loss of lift and a substantial increase in
drag.
 Complete flow separation can occur near the leading edge, reducing the effective
aerodynamic surface and causing the airfoil to stall.
 The airfoil will typically recover from stall if the angle of attack is reduced, and the flow
reattaches smoothly.

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CHAPTER 05

EXPERIMENTATION
5.1 Aim: To modify and test the performance of an airfoil in a small scale subsonic wind
tunnel at increase in temperature.

5.2 Apparatus: Small-scale subsonic wind tunnel: Used to generate airflow to simulate real-
world conditions.

Airfoil model: A scaled-down replica of an airfoil to analyze aerodynamic properties.

Hot air gun: Provides a source of heat to increase the temperature in the test section.

Thermometer: Measures the temperature within the test section.

Anemometer: Measures the velocity of airflow inside the wind tunnel.

Smoke flow: Used to visualize airflow patterns and turbulence around the airfoil.

5.3 Principle:

5.3.1. Principle of Thermal Similarity:

Strive to achieve thermal similarity between the wind tunnel test conditions and the actual
flight conditions. This involves matching key parameters like temperature, pressure, and flow
velocity to accurately replicate the aerodynamic and thermal stresses experienced by the
airfoil.

5.3.2. Principle of Minimal Interference:

The modification to the test section should minimally interfere with the airflow and the
aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoil. The heat-absorbent material should be carefully
selected and installed to avoid creating flow disturbances or altering the pressure distribution
around the airfoil.

5.3.3. Principle of Accurate Temperature Control:

Implement a precise temperature control system to maintain the desired temperature within
the test section. This will ensure consistent and repeatable test conditions, enabling accurate
data collection and analysis.

5.3.4.Principle of Data Validation:

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Validate the experimental results obtained in the modified wind tunnel against theoretical
predictions, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, or data from other experimental
facilities. This will help assess the accuracy and reliability of the modified test setup.

5.3.5. Principle of Safety:

Prioritize safety throughout the modification and testing process. Ensure that the heat-
absorbent material and heating system are properly insulated and protected to prevent
accidents and injuries.

By adhering to these principles, you can effectively modify the small-scale wind tunnel and
conduct accurate aerodynamic testing of airfoils at elevated temperatures.

5.4 Procedure:

Preparation:Ensure all connections of the wind tunnel are intact and secure.

Insert the airfoil:Place the airfoil model in the test section of the wind tunnel.

Set up the thermometer:Attach the thermometer above the test section for accurate temperature
monitoring.

Apply heat:Turn on the hot air gun to introduce heat into the test section and elevate the
temperature.

Activate the wind tunnel:Start the wind tunnel to initiate airflow across the airfoil.

Data collection:Record temperature and airflow readings at various levels of heat applied to
study the performance of the airfoil under different conditions.

The experiment is conducted to analyze how the aerodynamic performance (such as lift and
drag) of an airfoil changes with temperature variations, providing valuable insights into
thermal effects on aerodynamic efficiency.

5.5 Observations:

• Initial temperature at test section: 25℃

• Density of air: 1.184 kg/mꝪ
• Airfoil: NACA 2424

Span: 0.09m

Chord: 0.1m

 Test section material: Acrylic glass

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Outer frame : 230mm length, 150mm hight, 125mm breadth

Upper and lower surface : 100mm breadth , 210mm length

Side surfaces : 200mm length, 150mm height

5.6 Tabular column:

Sl no. Temperature Density (Ꝭ) Velocity (m/s)

(◦c)
At low speed At high speed

1. 25 1.184 1.2 4.9

2. 30 1.165 1.3 5.1

3. 35 1.1455 1.3 5.4

4. 40 1.1275 1.3 5.5

5. 45 1.1098 1.4 5.6

6. 50 1.060 1.4 5.6

Table 01

5.7 Brief experimental setup diagram:

Fig 04

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Fig 05

Fig 06

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Fig 07

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5.8 Calculation:

Fig 08

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fig 09

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5.9 Graph:

At low velocity

Fig 10

At high velocity

fig 11

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5.10 At test section of the airfoil.

Sl no. Temperature Velocity (m/s)

(◦c)
Lower Upper
surface surface
1. 25 1.9 2.9

2. 30 2.1 3.0

3. 35 2.2 3.0

4. 40 2.2 3.1

5. 45 2.3 3.2

Table 02

Fig 12

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5.11 OUTCOMES :

 Development of a Functional Wind Tunnel Model

 Data on Thermal Effects on Aerodynamic Performance

 Insights into Flow Behavior Under Thermal Influence

 Identification of Thermal Effects on Stability and Control

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CHAPTER 06

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

The analysis of the NACA 2424 airfoil, the wind tunnel testing process, and the associated
airflow visualization techniques has provided significant insights into the importance of
experimental testing and its application in real-world scenarios. Through a detailed
examination of aerodynamic properties, flow behaviours, and the use of state-of-the-art wind
tunnel facilities, this study has emphasized the critical role of wind tunnels in optimizing airfoil
design and performance in both aviation and renewable energy systems. The combination of
theoretical knowledge, numerical simulations, and practical experimental data underscores the
value of these approaches in ensuring optimal design and efficiency in complex aerodynamic
systems.

6.1 Wind Tunnel Testing: A Vital Tool for Aerodynamic Analysis

Wind tunnel testing serves as the foundation for aerodynamic research, providing empirical
data that supports or refines theoretical models and computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
simulations. In the case of the NACA 2424 airfoil, various testing methods, including
aeroacoustics analysis, flow separation observation, and lift-to-drag ratio measurements, offer
a detailed understanding of its performance under varying operational conditions. The D5
Aeroacoustics Wind Tunnel at Beijing University, with its low turbulence intensity and low
background noise, offers the ideal environment for conducting these tests. It provides reliable,
reproducible data, minimizing external influences such as turbulence, which is critical in
maintaining the integrity of aerodynamic experiments. This allows for an accurate
representation of the airfoil's aeroacoustics and aerodynamic performance, particularly for
scaled models and components used in aircraft and wind turbines.

Through these controlled tests, turbulence intensity in the test section can be minimized (below
0.08%), and pressure distribution across the airfoil can be carefully measured. These controlled
conditions allow engineers to accurately study boundary layer behaviour, flow separation, and
wake formation under various angles of attack. Testing in a closed-circuit wind tunnel ensures
that real-world performance is reflected, leading to improved design accuracy and efficiency,
and providing essential data that can be applied to full-scale applications in aviation and
renewable energy systems.

6.2 NACA 2424 Airfoil: Design, Performance, and Applications

The NACA 2424 airfoil, as part of the NACA 4-digit series, is an excellent example of a high-
lift airfoil that provides stable performance at low speeds. The airfoil features a 24% thickness
and 2% camber, making it well-suited for applications that require stable lift generation at
lower Reynolds numbers. Its cambered shape and thicker design contribute to its ability to
generate high lift, but this also results in increased drag at higher speeds, especially at larger
angles of attack. This characteristic makes it ideal for low-speed applications, such as small
aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and small-scale wind turbines.
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Wind tunnel testing of the NACA 2424 reveals key aspects of its aerodynamic performance:
flow separation, stall behaviour, and pressure distributions. At low angles of attack, the flow
remains attached to the airfoil, resulting in high lift and low drag. However, as the angle of
attack increases, boundary layer separation occurs, leading to a decrease in lift and a rise in
drag. The gradual stall behaviour of the NACA 2424 makes it a preferred airfoil for training
aircraft and low-speed flight operations where predictable and stable flight characteristics are
essential. Additionally, the airfoil's performance in small-scale wind turbines demonstrates its
ability to provide efficient power generation under low-wind conditions, making it a suitable
choice for renewable energy applications.

6.3 Flow Visualization: A Key to Understanding Airfoil Behaviour

Flow visualization techniques are essential tools for understanding how airflow behaves
around an airfoil, particularly under different operating conditions. In wind tunnel testing,
methods like smoke flow visualization and particle image velocimetry (PIV) help engineers
observe and analyze the flow patterns around the NACA 2424. Smoke flow is particularly
effective in illustrating streamlines and identifying regions of flow separation and turbulent
wake formation. These visualizations give insight into how air accelerates over the upper
surface and decelerates over the lower surface, which directly influences lift generation. The
visualization of the boundary layer and the transition from laminar to turbulent flow is crucial
in understanding the stability of the airfoil at various angles of attack.

Moreover, PIV provides high-resolution measurements of flow velocity and turbulent

structures, which allows for a more in-depth analysis of the boundary layer dynamics and the
wake structure behind the airfoil. Through these techniques, engineers can also detect early
signs of flow separation, allowing for early interventions in design improvements. The ability
to visualize flow dynamics and wake behaviour aids in optimizing the airfoil for better
aerodynamic efficiency, energy conversion, and manoeuvrability.

6.4 Testing Process: Precision and Adaptability

The testing process, particularly for aeroacoustics and aerodynamic measurements, requires a
high level of precision in the wind tunnel setup. The D5 Aeroacoustics Wind Tunnel offers
both closed and open test sections, with specific configurations tailored to aeroacoustics
testing and aerodynamic performance evaluation. The closed-loop configuration is ideal for
studying aerodynamic performance under controlled conditions, while the open-loop setup is
utilized for studying the aeroacoustics properties and sound emissions of the airfoil during
operation.

The control of turbulence, background noise, and Reynolds numbers within the wind tunnel
environment is key to obtaining accurate and reliable data. By ensuring that the turbulence
intensity remains below 0.08% and that the background noise is comparable to other
aeroacoustics facilities, the test section provides ideal conditions for studying the aeroacoustics
emissions from the airfoil. This level of control allows for precise experimentation and

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering, AIT, Banglore
Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025
contributes to a deeper understanding of how the NACA 2424 behaves in real-world scenarios,
whether in aircraft or wind turbine systems.

6.5 The Role of Wind Tunnel Testing in Validating Theoretical Models

Wind tunnel testing plays a critical role in verifying theoretical predictions and computational
simulations of aerodynamic and aeroacoustics behaviours. The NACA 2424 was tested under
different angles of attack, flow conditions, and Reynolds numbers to ensure that computational
models of its lift-to-drag ratio, stall behaviour, and pressure distributions align with real-world
performance. CFD simulations often provide valuable insights into aerodynamic behaviour,
but they cannot always replicate the dynamic complexities of real-world flow. Wind tunnel
experiments, therefore, serve as the benchmark for validating computational models and
optimizing designs.

Additionally, the visualization of airflow patterns during wind tunnel tests helps engineers
identify potential design flaws, such as early flow separation or wake turbulence, that can be
corrected through design modifications or adjustments in operating conditions. This iterative
process between simulation and experimental testing ensures that airfoils like the NACA 2424
perform optimally under a wide range of operating conditions.

6.6 Practical Applications: From Aviation to Renewable Energy

The NACA 2424 airfoil’s characteristics make it suitable for a variety of aerodynamic
applications. Its high-lift capacity and stable stall behavior make it ideal for light aircraft,
training planes, and small-scale UAVs, where low-speed flight and stable control are crucial.
The airfoil's thicker design and gradual stall also make it a favorable choice for small wind
turbines, where energy efficiency is key for low-wind conditions. The insights gained from
wind tunnel testing on the NACA 2424 are essential for optimizing designs in both aviation
and renewable energy sectors, ensuring reliable, efficient, and stable performance.

In conclusion, the NACA 2424 airfoil is a versatile and reliable design that offers significant
insights into aerodynamic behavior across various domains. Wind tunnel testing plays a crucial
role in validating airfoil performance, visualizing flow dynamics, and providing engineers
with valuable data for optimizing airfoils for specific applications. The combination of
theoretical understanding, CFD modeling, and empirical data from wind tunnel experiments
ensures that airfoils like the NACA 2424 continue to perform optimally in both aeronautical
engineering and renewable energy applications. By refining airfoil designs through a
combination of computational simulations and real-world testing, engineers can enhance the
aerodynamic efficiency, reliability, and sustainability of systems that rely on high-
performance airfoils.

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering, AIT, Banglore
Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025

6.7 Over view of the conclusion

 The design and development of a scale model wind tunnel for studying the thermal

effects on aerodynamic performance shall demonstrated the importance of temperature

in influencing aerodynamic properties such as lift, drag, and stability.

 The insights gained from these studies can guide future design considerations in the

aerospace industry, contributing to improved vehicle performance, safety, and efficiency

in thermally dynamic conditions.

 Enhancement of Thermal Control Systems

 Advanced Flow Visualization Techniques

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering, AIT, Banglore
Design & development of scale model Wind Tunnel 2024-2025

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering, AIT, Banglore